Category: Free Essays

What is identity?

Our identity is what differentiates us from each other. How we look, talk; think all contribute to our various identities. It is what sets us apart from each other. Similarly leisure and recreation has its own identity that sets it apart from all other modalities. I shall speak on how leisure form and change identities.

Roots of identities

Numerous philosophers have dealt with concepts of a person’s “self”. But not until the late 19th century did people try to dismantle identity and see what identity really is. Researchers and theorists like Freud and Jung are the greatest influences on recent interpretations of identity. There are also developmental theorists who believe that there is a process in forming an identity.

BIRTH a INFANCY a CHILDHOOD a ADOLESCENCE a ADULTHOOD a DEATH

This has become the norm. People think that our identities are derived from social status and our roles in society. Due to this, emphasis is placed on the exterior and aesthetic gimmicks to improve our identities. This is known as a social construct. Everything is constructed by society and people. Not by pure hard facts.

Personal and social identities

These are the two parts that are brought together and eventually makes up our identity. Personal refers to how the person perceives themselves. Whether they think they are funny, happy or confident. The social part refers to the roles we take on. We become recognizable by these roles. E.g. daughter, student, teacher sister etc….

Identity is greatly formed during adolescence (ages 13-23). Although we keep growing, our core characteristics are created and carved into us during these years. Erikson (1968) says that the more successful kids are at resolving problems during younger ages the better psychologically equipped they will be to adjust and consequently, happier.

Developmental theorists focus on how people accept and embrace their roles. They have come up with a checklist that describes what a psychologically healthy person should be. In America, a healthy person contributes to the community by means of employment, civic involvement and general community participation.

As I said earlier, the bulk of our identity is formed in adolescence. From ages 23-60, people’s identities are completed with their jobs and the work they do. However this can cause devaluation of people who are unable to work due to disability or other circumstances. Leisure can change this and these people formulate identities.

Leisure and identity formation

There are numerous factors that contribute to development such as biological, social, family, school etc. But during adolescence we experiment and we stick to what we think is best for us. In America adolescents are allowed to step out of line with regards to appearance and behaviour. This is known as social non conformity. During adolescence people can take part in numerous leisure time activities, be it structured or unstructured. People believe that these activities can help identity formation or conversely believe that their identity has already been formed and that is why they commit themselves to the activity. Both show that leisure has direct impact on people’s lives and identities. Leisure can be instrumental or expressive.

Instrumental leisure is when a person uses a leisure activity to help in other areas of life. Art is a good example as a person may paint for their pleasure but may have high levels of talent and hope to get into an art school. Because instrumental leisure is usually based on an outcome of leisure, it is said to be externally motivated.

Expressive leisure is done just for the pure enjoyment of the activity. Continuing from the above example if you take graffiti art, although it is often called vandalism, those artists do it for the pure enjoyment and they also produce some amazing pieces of art.

Leisure contexts are transitional

Adolescence is the transition phase of development. Leisure and other factors contribute to this transition. The stimulus (activity) can have benefits for development. But when partnered with the participant’s enthusiasm and commitment it has the power to increase benefits for development. Some skills that can be learned through leisure are communication, negotiation, flexibility and teamwork etc. All these skills develop during adolescence which as I mentioned earlier is the transition phase.

Leisure contexts provide opportunities to explore and try different leisure identities

In America, they are exposed to a whole host of recreation and leisure programs (structured and unstructured) and this contributes to their and the peoples identity. They have their summer camps, boy and girl scouts for kids, which are done in holidays and after school. Haggard and Williams (1991 & 1992) believe that there is a correlation between these activities and the person’s future identity. E.g. people that play musical instruments when kids are more likely to become musicians.

But what happens to non-participation? Does it mean that if we don’t participate we are identity-less? I believe that we are not identity-less but rather direction-less because recreational activities are activities that we do in our free time. We aren’t going to engage in activities that don’t give us pleasure. So from our recreational activities we get direction to who we are going to become.

Flow producing activities contribute to intrinsic motivation

If a person pursues an activity and they achieve some form of enjoyment from it, more often than not, they will continue to pursue it. And do avoid stagnation they will keep on challenging themselves in that activity. When we take it to a high level, we have to take charge of our behaviours and we can feel responsible and confident about our lives.

Leisure activities across the life span assist with continuity

Leisure can give a person stability if practiced over long periods of time i.e. childhood to adulthood. People can learn how to react and cope in different situations. For example a person that initially takes up running to lose weight soon finds themselves enjoying the running. Their primary aim which was weight loss now shifts to enjoyment and the weight loss is a positive by product of the running. Other positive outcomes of the running are more active lifestyle, stress reduction etc. The running has been infused into the person’s identity.

Conclusion

Whether we believe it or not, our leisure and recreational activities contribute largely to our identities and who we are. It has been highlighted that leisure gives us direction and more often than not leads us to our destination of discovering ourselves. Best part is that we have fun on the way there…. it is recreation after all.

Social values of recreation and leisure
What is important to you?

Everyone is different and have different ideas and opinions as to what the perfect or good life is. What we perceive are the products of values instilled into us, as well as past experiences. An individual’s recreation behaviour is controlled by personal, social and cultural beliefs e.g. drinking.

Social values

These are important in shaping behaviours associated with leisure and subsequently delivering the right programs. Social values relate to action, vitality, individualism, materialism and group identity. Western society lean towards goal orientated action. They value time and keeping busy. Their values are demonstrated in their work i.e. the job they do and how they do it. And this is further reflected in their activities. In America, the more active you are the more of an asset you are because it implies that you can produce and consume more goods and services. This is known as vitality. It is, however, important to keep intact the principle if individualism. Recreation shouldn’t force people to suppress their individualism but rather allow them to explore and express it fully.

Materialism is being judged on your possessions. What you have, where you got it from and how much you paid for it is all that matters. Peoples ring up the credit cards in order to attain immediate pleasures as they simply have to have that item at that exact time. There has been a huge boom in the equipment and apparel market due to materialism and people’s extra large consumptive behaviour.

Group identity is very important. Nobody wants to be left out and therefore everybody wants to fit in. People then create these groups, private clubs and associations so that people with similar thoughts and interests can join these groups and have their own identities. There are very many groups and because of this there are many service providers in leisure program delivery i.e. public, non-profit and private sectors.

There has been a huge shift of recent and values that were important before have lost their importance and other patterns have now emerged. There has and always will be different values and thoughts between urban and rural people. This is so because their priorities are very often different. Social and moral values are an eternal concept. How they are expressed is a different issue.

Values or recreation and leisure experiences

Some theorists analyze the value of recreation ion terms of its meanings and motives. Why a person did a specific activity and what they would have got out from that activity. Other theorists aren’t so intense and believe it to be a pleasurable activity. Leisure and recreational activities can be either planned or spur of the moment. It can be done in groups, alone physical or non physical in nature. Because recreation is so diverse, everybody can extract individual meanings from their recreational activities.

Clawson and Knetsch’s (1966) explanations fit outdoor recreation almost perfectly. They proposed that there are five steps involved in recreational activity. These five are planning, travelling, doing, returning and reminiscing. All of these stages add to the enjoyment of the activity as a whole and add to the excitement of the activity.

Another concept is serious leisure which is the pursuit of a role, hobby, or activity that the participants find so fulfilling that they centre their lives on that activity e.g. musicians who use their talents for charity or causes only. Angelina Jolie and Madonna charity work in Africa.

The opposite also applies and it’s aptly called casual leisure. This is when people do stuff just for the fun of it like relaxing, watching television etc. Both types have value for the individual. Kleiber (2000) said that people don’t appreciate the simple things like casual leisure.

Benefits and motivations for recreation and leisure

People do leisure because of the benefits that accompany it. People take part to achieve benefits and these benefits are closely linked to the motivation that initially encourages the participation. Some benefits affect the individual, the community, the environment and the economy.

There are 6 benefits associated with leisure. They are:

Physiological- benefits that affect health and fitness of the individual

Psycho-physiological- benefits that span physiological and psychological health (stress management)

Psychological- benefits that can lead to enhanced self competence and self worth.

Economic- tourism is in face leisure and it spurs on the economy.

Environmental- protection of the environment has been an avenue ventured to save and promote outdoor recreation.

Socio-cultural- benefits that arise when you feel proud of you community

A new program has emerged- the benefits based movement. This movement can be split down into three components namely benefits based awareness, programming and management. The programs main aim is to increase awareness of leisure and recreation through effective programming and campaigning to create a large support base for parks and recreation.

Constraints to recreation and leisure

There are many benefits to be gained from leisure and recreation, but we must also look at the limiting and inhibiting factors. Leisure constraints include things that affect participation, frequency, intensity, duration and quality of the experience. Constraints affect the person and how they feel. Various models were made to try to conceptualize and understand leisure. A successful model categorized it in four categories.

Intrapersonal constraints- this deals with the person and may lead to lack of interest.

Interpersonal constraints- associated with relationships and how people work togethera cooperation.

Intervening structural constraints- outside elements that affect participation. Lack of money, transport or facilities.

Antecedent structural constraints- external factors that stop a person from participating or enjoying the activity to the fullest. These constraints need to be overcome by the community. E.g. people want to walk, but there are no sidewalks.

Economic values of recreation and leisure

Basic economics say that the success of a product is measured by its demand and subsequently its supply. With recreation the demand is always there as people want to have fun and want to have safe places to do it in. The three sectors have reacted to this demand and have supplied the facilities and programs. Citizens can benefit hugely as jobs, personal growth and revenues increase.

Usually we look at the income statement of companies and sectors to ascertain its success. But with leisure and recreation it is better to look at the expenditure statement rather than income. Over the years recreation expenses have increased from 2% of a family’s expenses to 10%. This is a positive sign and step in the right direction as people are starting to recreate more. Recreation is also described as inflation and recession resistant. Recreation is big money but expenditures aren’t only what the public spends on recreation, but also what government spends on recreation. So with government have three levels, there should be large amounts of money being spent on recreation. But that is not the trend.

Participation rates

By checking and keeping proper records of how many people engage in leisure and recreation we can also measure the effect leisure and recreation has on the economy. If more people participate, then more money needs to be allocated for facility upgrading, or new facilities and new programs.

Intangible benefits

Leisure and recreation also include economic benefits such as increase in area and property values.

Location and property values

Most places in America are dependent on tourism to sustain the community e.g. Orlando Florida Disneyland or the Atlantic Coast. Majority of the community would be without jobs and the hospitality and tourism industry would be without clients. If this had to happen property values would decrease and employment issues would crop up. When recreation facilities are correctly constructed and maintained they appreciate the land that they are on. Lake properties generally have higher values.

Economic impact

All communities have common places for recreation e.g. Bowling alleys, gaming arcades, pool halls, restaurants etc. These places generate money from tourists and the community. But more often citizens recreate at home and tourists use these tourist attractions where they spend foreign money and boost the economy.

Goods and services

People want to work in a happy environment and a place where they are comfortable. They want family time and satisfaction. Recreation can give this. Recreation keeps people happy which makes them more productive and therefore increases the economic value of that area.

Employment

Job opportunities are numerous in recreation such as managers, supervisors, programmers, admin clerks etc. These are positions often seen in the public sector. The non profit sector is just as huge. If you take a camp for example, these are the possible jobs that are available: camp counsellors, admin staff, coaches, instructors etc.

Conclusion

Leisure has a clear cut place in the economy. A lot of people earn their keep by producing items of recreation. All these leisure programs and parks would not be needed if there was no interest in leisure. As time goes by leisure is getting bigger and bigger and these are great steps in the right direction.

Through past experience and research, hypermasculinity has led African American culture to be defined as a culture that strongly fights for their sign of status, and sexual aggressivity and dominance appear to be highly regarded. Research has concluded that media and false misinterpretations of hypermasculinity are the main causes, and the strong influences they have are causing these dominant, aggressive and demanding behaviours. Research has been done through personal interviews, field work and observation. Perhaps present and previous research is showing a better understanding for many cultures as to why African American men display certain characteristics, in which demonstrate power and control. Furthermore studies are creating awareness for society, although they are not justifying these behaviours as being acceptable.

Introduction:

Life threatening situations are brought upon us every day as we walk out the front door, into the bus or into the front doors of school. Growing up in today’s society and conforming to various norms, values and behaviours in which one witnesses, is traumatic and time consuming amongst young men and women, especially young African American men. Gender roles and societies’ expectation are presented at such a young age, this leading to pressure and unjustified behaviours, such as drug trafficking, prostitution and pimping. Within African American society, gender roles are depicted precisely and followed. Various different ethnic groups live in different parts of the world, but the “status of black males in American society has been in flux for the last several decades (Lips 2001, p.5)”. The reasons why all these groups must show status is to prove their images of what it means to be masculine. “Sentimental, submissive and superstitious (Lips, 2001, p.5)” are qualities associated with females in every country. On the other hand males are more likely to be connected to characteristics resembling “dominance, forcefulness and strength (Lips, 2001, p.5)”. In a variety of Hip Hop, Rap music video clips, the images being portrayed of how young men must behave always consists of the same factors; dominance, power, aggressivity and the ‘tough guy’. The question of how hypermasculinity is defined in African American culture and why sexual aggressivity and dominance appear to be highly regarded within this culture, has been an ideology for many. Despite false interpretation that the media portrays, and the pressure of “role models” and “real men”, the following paper will examine the main points and answers to these questions. Furthermore it will observe the use of the term “nigga” and “gansta” from an open minded point of view.

Hypermasculinity defined and expressed

Hypermasculinity is an extremely important sign of status for black males. Hypermasculinity is defined in the (Oxford Dictionary) as an “exaggerated masculine qualities”, although this term can be negative, it is also personalized when examining these behaviours as adaptive or maladaptive impassively. The term ‘gansta’ for example comes from the word gangster, which means a criminal who is a part of a gang; who would want to be viewed as a criminal. The other term often miss used, is the word ‘pimp’. A ‘pimp’, is an agent for prostitutes who lives off their earnings (Oxford Dictionary)”. Today pimp is being used to refer to guys who sleep with many girls, or the ones who can pick up any girl they want. Where will society draw the line, and who comes to decide whether one corresponds to the definition of a man “an adult human male, sometimes also used to identify a male human regardless of age, as in phrases such as men’s rights (Oxford Dictionary)”.

DeReef examines African American behaviour and defines masculinity to “the degree where a male is able to successfully manifest their attributes (DeReef, F. J. 2006, p.46)”. These behaviours are being shown in different ways where males are modifying or distorting their real behaviours in order to conform into society, as to what seems to be “correctly” acceptable. Over a long period of time until today black compulsive masculinity has been a dysfunctional response to solving racial domination and has been causing more problems within the environment. In other words black compulsive behaviours is an ideology composed of African consciousness, in which has created a reactionary masculinity in many African American males who “seek to imitate their white male counterparts (DeReef, F.J. 2006, p. 47)”. According to Wolfe African American males strongly believe it is hard to achieve masculine identity through usual work or responsibilities. They are justifying their behaviours through assumptions in which they believe that they are the only ones who must work hard and have responsibilities in order to achieve masculine identity. Maladaptive hypermasculine behaviours such as drug trafficking, or being a pimp are the ones being justified because there is not enough employment opportunities given to black men. There has been a correlation between joblessness and higher incidence of various maladaptive behaviours.

Hypersexuality and homophobia

Black males, especially young men are so afraid to be referred to as “wimps”, or “homos”, that they have even created the term “no homo (Masculinity, homophobia and Hip Hop, n.d )”,. The term ‘No homo’ must be said at the end of each sentence, in order for people not to think they sound gay, or they said something gay. During an interview regarding the term “no homo“, males claimed not to be reinforcing that their not gay because they know they’re not, but they are just making sure that when they speak others don’t assume they’re gay. Homophobia is a big issue that has aroused and has become serious within the generation today. Elijah G.Ward, discusses how the black churches are also encouraging homophobia amongst black males and most of the time those who are against homosexuality are uncertain of their own sexuality and fear that they will be categorised as a community. This strongly emphasizes their powerful beliefs that heterosexuality is the right way. Many cultures do not support homosexuality, a significant amount of black people according to Elijah G. Ward, see “homosexual relationships as unacceptable and morality wrong p.494”. In the black community a famous gansta-rapper Ice Cube has implanted in one of his famous songs “true niggers ain’t gay (Ward, G.E .2005, p. 497)”. Homosexuality is seen to be a sign of weakness and is associated with feminine characteristics, these also encouraging labels towards men such as ‘fags’ or ‘queers’. The black church strongly enforces that homosexuality is not what a ‘man’ is and a man should be violent, demanding and have control. Their main priorities are their labels and they pay close attention, not to be called ‘sissies’ which is the opposite of being cool. They want to portray that hard core ‘gansta’ rapper role model who is an “intensified, black male cultural reflection of patriarchy, sexism, hetorosexism and gansta-style (Ward, G. E. 2005, p. 497)”.

Violent behaviours and “gansta”

Throughout history, the black population have undergone several changes some harder to adapt to then others. The main issue with behaviours constantly changing and deviance sometimes being accepted, is when you adapt to an aggressive dominant behaviour you don’t want to let go of that control you have obtained. A problem which has occurred and is important to understand is to know the difference between, understanding what you have been told and believing and making your own judgements accordingly; if it is right. For example in the black society it is a “sign of status”, to sleep with as many women as possible. William, A. & Wolfe, summarize in their article that “it is right to deceive a girl in order to have sex with her (Wiliam, A. & Wolfe 2003, p 848)” and that they don’t believe in the use of the condom for a simple reason that they would be “undermining their masculinity (Wiliam, A. & Wolfe 2003, p. 848)”.Black males have been socialized into using their penis as a way to achieve manhood. Different expectations within a culture or society and how values have changed over time. This has also caused many African American women to fear their partners, and studies say that a woman has been in an abusive relationship is more likely not to speak up and fight her partner. In regards to sexuality and power the black African American society believes that when “sexual aggression exists in a relationship (Wiliam, A. & Wolfe 2003, p. 848 )”, this shows violence is involved therefore he is a man; concluding violence is manly. Adolescent black males are also accounted for having a “higher victimization rate than any other racial or age group (Gregory,S. 2007, p 371)”. African American women compare to their counter parts are the ones to usually get involved in abusive relationships and stay quiet due to their surroundings and or an abusive father. African American women are more vulnerable and listen to their partners when they use aggressive behaviours. This also brings out statistics which show that over “fifty percent of babies are born to minor females, fathered by African American men. They also show that the father is usually on average 26.1 years older (Wiliam, A. & Wolfe 2003, p. 849”.From this one can clearly conclude that a young African American female is no way has interpersonal skills and dominance over her partner to demand the use of a condom.

Furthermore, black males are often taught or trained to control their emotions internally towards exercises that stimulate minor frustration, although this does not emphasise the power that long term “maladaptive, self destructive and life threatening (Gregory, S. 2007,p.386) ” consequences have above it all. An infant who is brought up in a dangerous neighbourhood, attended an unsafe school and dealt with racism is more prone to recognize feelings towards aggression and violence. Black men who have experienced a tragic event of a life threatening situation will want to be prepared if it ever happens again, this is why Gregory, S. discusses the use of carrying of a weapon. In most neighbourhoods today and schools, young teens will not walk around with knifes and use it as an excuse of security purposes, although in neighbourhoods where there are at least three people getting stabbed every day, these young kids want to feel safe. The college of New Jersey evaluated that males are more likely to carry a weapon than females, and a survey in 2007 showed that 27% of boys did carry a weapon (Gregory, S. 2007, p.369). Carrying a knife or a gun is a sign of security, despite its encouragement towards violent behaviours. A weapon stimulates the “fight or flight” response which is a decision you make when experiencing a dangerous situation. Is the individual going to walk away, or will he make a decision and fight. In a situation where someone is carrying a weapon, almost one hundred percent of the time if they feel secure enough to fight and win, the weapon is their support and will cause them to partake in this dangerous behaviour. Statistics show that” in 1994, gun control accounted for approximately 1,700 Black youths aged ten to nineteen (Gregory, S. 2007, p 368)”. The following statistics tell us that most of crime is being committed at a young age by youth. Young children are the ones who are victimised, especially in schools in poor neighbourhoods and the fear they experience is unpleasant and it creates an awareness of danger.

Hip Hop; a justifiable reason leading to hypermasculinity

The third point, if not one of the most influential one in society influencing power, dominance and control is Hip Hop. As a whole Hip Hop has become a culture for most black African American men and this has brought up a new image of acceptable behaviours and hypermasculinity. Many video clips you watch or lyrics you read are not only full of vulgar language, but it’s always a battle over a girl, power or insulting someone’s mother. Rap has created a new lifestyle for young men, and also many role models like Eminem, 50 cent and Tupac. Luxury has also become a big part of status. Many African American men today believe that rap is a way to express their true black life. There are different kinds of rap music, this having an influence on different kind of behaviours that are being acted out in society. Rap is categorised using five different forms. “Teacher-rap, nation conscious rap, gansta rap, player/lover rap, porno rap and last religious rap (DeReef,F.J. 2006)”. These different kinds of rap all influence different ideas from social commitment to struggle, romance, sexual aggressive behaviours and spirituality of Christianity and Islam. It is amazing to listen to a rap song and interpret all these different ideas, and thinks to yourself, how can a young fifteen or sixteen year old kid understand this. What is being said is sometimes due to a personal experience or the rap artist is expressing his feelings and or emotions. Media has shown violence to be a part of masculinity, that it has become a norm and is no longer deviance within society. Statistics show that one in four men will use violence against their partner, and eighty-five percent of murders are being committed by men. As one can witness sexuality, criminality and violence play a strong role as being partners. Hip Hop role models like Lil Wayne display high rates of criminality for young African American men, and also use violence and strength towards sexuality. Young males are being brain washed and influenced in regards to these being the real characteristics of men and it’s a direct justification for hypermasculine behaviours.

Roots of slavery

The 17th century African American slavery was devastating and today has become a part of history. Slaves were not entitles any equal rights compare to what other had. They were demanded to do hard labour work and were treated with cruelty. Slaves were working ridiculous amount of hours a day and weren’t even treated as human beings.These slaves were being sold as if they were commodities from city to city. Slaves were seen by many as a different class of people in society. Many slaves tried to fights their master although there was not much success as they would be arrested or sent somewhere else. Slavery today plays a role on how society view black males and how they view themselves compare to society.

The word “nigga”

The word “nigga” is a good example or a word that has different meanings and that has been re-appropriated in society depending on who uses it. The word “nigga” comes from the word nigger which was originally used to refer to black people. The word was also used in the time of slavery for the black who were trying to escape. Today many African American men use the word amongst each other like white people would use the word “brother”. Although if a white person were to use the word nigger it is seen as insulting and some African American men take it to the extreme of being offended they might even beat someone up. Nigger for the African American culture is a sign of self identity amongst one another and pride. It is a moment in time of history and they want to hold onto this. In the 1970 the word nigger was seen as racists, offensive and as early as today it is a word that many will refrain from using.

Slavery and hypermasculinity

Men have enslaved other men to show their mastery over them, and think it is a weakness to show or express their feelings towards other human beings. Patriarchal masculinity has caused problems that are so complex. Long after “legal racial segregation ended ( Lips, 2001, p.2 )”, it is still clear how the white society treats Black men. Unless close attention is being payed to little factors which make a difference; often Black men are “referred to not as men but as boys (Lips, 2001, p.20)”. Black men lived through times where they were never given the same privileges as white men, and they always had to earn their masculinity, most of the time not feeling good about being a man. Black males were always viewed as inferior to other cultures and always had to prove themselves one way or another. They were always stereotypically related to drugs, poverty and violence. Black American youth during the period of black power to Hip Hop, were denied opportunities to exercise their citizenship; this having an effect today, they don’t want to fall back down beneath everyone. Being denied opportunities, rights and not able to achieve personal goals has stuck with the black society until today. Not only is being labelled “black” a mental damage, but creates physical aggression as well.

It seems that an individual who has been constantly emasculated over the years would at least try to conform to the dominant culture in hope of their being some acknowledgment of acceptance. It has been proven throughout society especially in the United States, that growing up as a black male has been a tough process. “Being a black male is a burden at times because some people see and think of me, and men like me, as “menaces to society.” The masculinity that has been a part of my life has been one that has been used to oppress others and oppress me (Clifford, A. 2006, and p.4)”.

The status of poverty for African American youth is the one that is the most revealing. ” In 2001 among all American children under the age of eighteen, the poverty rate was sixteen percent, but it was three times as high for black children; 30 percent (Collins, H, P. 2006, p.3)”. Black youth are the ones who are affected the most by social problems. Increasing employment opportunities for African American males would be ideal, this would give them a better environment, better surroundings and influence them that they are like the rest of the society. This is also why many black males rape, because that act of aggression towards a women is a form of status in which they would use in a workplace which is often not available for them. In other words, having the right to work and live a “normal life style”, will affect them positively. Several African American men have shaped their understandings and realities based on the past and keep exercising those actions. Having a normal life style remains a dream for many black youths living under the age of eighteen. The main problem that touches upon poverty is the “ineffectiveness of political strategies that strive to resist it (Collins, H, P. 2006, p.9)”. The civil rights movement was the primary strategy to solve racial integration, although African American politics are trying new social challenges to meet old responses. Despite some accomplishment, African Americans are frustrated because they don’t see anything opening up ahead of them and they are still dealing with high unemployment rates. Beyond social problems resulting to poverty, unemployment and lack of civil rights, masculinity today is a big part relating to the past. African American societies have developed strong personalities to prove who they are and what they are capable of. For instance when you look around today, you will see more black males working, neighbourhoods are less poor and opportunities and chances have been and are being given to black communities. Considering that young African American males occupy such a visible position within society, they have demonstrated a zero tolerance for “race, nation, gender, age and sexuality (Collins, H, P. 2006)”. All these different aspects that influenced black men have created the drives towards manhood today. When black men were in slavery they were being ordered around and always given commands; comparing that to this new generations they are the ones who are in control, and for the most are the ones giving commands.

Conclusion:

The issue of hypermasculinity is one that is quite complex and a total solution cannot be found. Research has shown that African American men believe in proving themselves as “real men”; this leading to behaviours in which can no longer be controlled. These actions are being ‘tolerated’ by society today especially for young black males. Sexual aggressivity, dominance and hypermasculinity are highly responded within the culture for a countless amount of reasons. Media is portraying false misinterpretations as to what it means to be masculine, there is always a constant pressure being brought upon black males which enforces violent and controlling behaviours and they are being accepted as ‘normal’. Thirdly, African American culture has such a strong influential past of slavery that their culture is looking at society through a different lens.

Black male needs to accomplish giving themselves an identity that will cause them to be comfortable with themselves. Ideally black males should critically assess the dominant culture’s norm of masculinity instead of reworking the norms to satisfy their social situation. Many black males have failed to see the problem of the dominant culture’s norms of masculinity in their lives. Society in general has labelled black men as being dangerous, and regardless if you know the person or not before even speaking to many black men they fall into that category that they are violent, dangerous or a sex maniac. Society has enforced black males to feel this way and cause them to do things in which they shouldn’t do. It has caused a psychological problem which is hard to erase. In no way do African American men believe they can show weakness, this would mean they are not men. Violence in the media is glorified, and is exposed to children of all ages. Police will not hesitate to use violence against suspects, and these young black males are often the targets of violent behaviours in their neighbourhoods; drugs, rape, gang related fights or domestic violence.

Nowadays, as we know that dress code is very important to man or women that mentioned by the community now because dress code is represent a person respect to another person. Dress modestly is an issue that happening in our daily life or working life. Modestly is all about showing a person’s behaviour, social status, dress and values.

Yet for women, they do not care any things about safety that they wearing clothes where very expose their body or rock and they think this kind of wearing styles will bring them to pretty and feel that they are in the centre of the world nowadays. But all these stuff also determine level of social problem of a country and whole world countries also faced same problem that changing the style of girls dressing.

The way of girls dressing like expose their body is a dangerous action that can caused criminal happened and the girl will be hurt at the end. Sometimes, the girl not only hurt yet she may be killed by criminals. For an example, there is a famous rape case in the Indonesia where an India lady raped by few criminals in the bus until dies and she is not wearing so expose.

So that, government was set few rules or laws that required women dress modestly based on these few rape cases. From that laws set, it may decrease the rate of criminal happened.

RESEARCH ON DRESS MODESTLY OF WOMEN
Rules and regulations in Malaysia

In Malaysia, the school uniform rules are for all students whatever boys or girls, they must wear their shirts or pants over kneel of the leg. Not only for school students, but for every parent that think want visits their child in the school, are they needed to follow these rules.

Types of clothing to dress decently

There are four types of clothing that mentioned dress decently, such as formal or informal, party attire and house coat. All these four types of clothing is a good guideline for every women in their daily life even though they have to work at outside or inside house or have to attend certain wedding dinner or party.

These are some example of formal clothing for women in their workplace.http://businescasualforwomen.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/ACFDF9.jpg

This is an example of party attire of women dressed in modestly.http://i00.i.aliimg.com/wsphoto/v0/530454962_1/European-American-style-font-b-women-b-font-font-b-Attire-b-font-rivets-shoulder-evening.jpg

Why the rules must require women dress decently?

There are many harmful matter that faced by woman who did not dress decently.

For safety

Girls or women should dress decently before step out from the house even in the house because if you are like to dress that just want to expose your body then you just bring benefits to the man that always looking to you and attract them to do criminal on you because of you want to be more sharp in the other eye.

Majority of girls or women did not realise this fact. There are many cases that published in the newspaper to show that many criminal cases such as murder or rape the women or girl whose didn’t dress decently. Clothing can also be used as sexual signal.

Looks more professional

The looks of the way women dressing will be professionalism. In the other word, clothing can give stating or claiming personal or cultural identity. When you are dressing decently, you are giving good impression to other and let other treat you better. So that, in many societies, women have to dressed decently to meeting with customer if not the customer will think the women who meeting with him or her is not serious in the business.

In this case, women wearing properly will bring her leadership character when she is leading a team to the more professional culture in the office.

Keep body warm

In the mentality and physically of women, they could not face any harm form outside such as cold weather. From the biological aspect, body structure of women is weaker than man’s body structure so that they have to cover their body with clothes to avoid getting sneeze and cough.

If they are getting cough or sneezing, they may different with usual in emotional and get them to depress in their life, such as student or employee and this is reason for self-murder case happened.

The way to increase knowledge of dress decently in women

As one friend for whose dressing that exposes their body, we should advise them to wear properly to avoid dangerous or criminal no wonder that you are. Besides that, we as family member should advise them do not dress too expose their body. Yet we as family member done this, we should having family meeting or family day to remind them back also.

As the government, we should enforce or make the laws and rules more strengthen to avoid the rate of criminal case increase. Furthermore, to decrease the rate of criminal, the government should organise campaign or talk to increase alertness of women. The government should organise training for women learn self-defence art as a way to protect themselves from criminals even though they are wearing modest dressing.

Besides that, the police should make more portals in certain dangerous place to avoid criminal case of women increase. The places where there is higher risk of women’s safety are playground, recreational park, shopping complex and car park.

Conclusion and recommendations

From the education aspect, we should increase this kind of knowledge for women into girls who are growing up into women and in another side, as a parent, we should implant some religious knowledge such as Islam, Buddha, Christian and India religious teaching to our children to stop this sad matter that is happening around them. By learning this knowledge, women not only understand other religious knowledge but also understanding the facts which will eventually help them someday.

As my opinion, all parties should work together and solve this issue especially the women. Women should change their clothing style to ensure that they are in safety and do not try wear some clothes that expose their body and then make their life in risk. Sometimes, we as friend should accompany them and help them to choose suitable dress and clothes to avoid they don’t know how to choose and then choose wrong dress and clothes and make their life in risk.

Dress indecently may be make you feel beautiful and get attention when people is surrounding you but please do not make yourself look like yourself wanted to do it because your life is given by GOD and is precious to your parents. So do not make them sad for the sake of your happiness because this happiness would not last long.

INTRODUCTION TO DIVORCE

Divorce is the legal separation of husband and wife, affected by any reasons that make them lost confidence on their marriage and also the divorce must have the judgement of a court by accepted custom. (thelawfictionary.org)

A big change that has occurred in the Western families are an increased with high rate in divorce. In the last 20 years, the rate of divorce was increased with high rate in Western countries. For example, 20 years ago in Australia, only one marriage in ten ended in divorce but the figure is more than three multiples nowadays. (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1996)

http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/images/c/c0/Crude_divorce_rate%2C_selected_years%2C_1960-2011_%281%29_%28per_1_000_inhabitants%29.png

Based on statistic from Eurostat, Latviais reached highest rate of divorce on the Western countries that is 4.0 billion. For the coming Western country, Luxembourg is the next of the Latviais that reached 3.4 billion at the 2011.

RESEARCH ON DIVORCE
Causes that lead the marriage into divorce

There are many causes that will affect the husband and the wife’s marriage and lead them into divorce. Divorced can be caused by simple mistake done by any party of the family and there is no point if the people did wrong and did not realise and correct it to save the marriage based on what they have swear in the wedding.

Cheating and dishonest when having extra illegal relationship

Many respondents said that if their life partner cheated or lie to them, they could end the relationship. They could not live with another life partner that lied to them before because they think this is ashamed. By cheating, the other spouse would lose their trust towards their partner. When there is lack of trust, misunderstanding occurred easily because none of them actually wanted a proper solution for their conflict. They have extra illegal relationship based on the situation that another life partner dishonest to their spouse in return for another life partner. This situation is frequently happened to the majority of marriage.

Higher income

Usually, husband is the sole bread winner but nowadays women play the roles of wife is now earning more income than the husband. Eventually the wife decided to take control of whole family disregarding to the feeling of the husband. This is known as the ‘queen control’ where the wife has more authority than the husband. So the wife’s ego attitude has brought up into family conflict and the husband’s ego underestimate. This will bring the misunderstanding to both parties where both parties could not tolerance with each other and this bring their marriage to broken and afterwards, there are very hard to them recover back their relationship and marriage.

Effects after husband and wife divorced

There are many effects after husband and wife divorced and this will bring many harmful effects to their child. Not only they will bring effect to their child but to their own family members, community or worldwide. These are some effects as stated as below:

To family members or own self

The effect of divorced will bring more suffer and pain or sadness to their own family member first because they are the one closed with divorced people. Furthermore, the people who divorced may thinking lifeless or something related to negative could do some stupid actions like revenge to their life betrayer who betray and dishonest on their marriage before. They will lost confidence on any relationship and marriage to avoid them get hurt again.

In addition to divorce, there are many divorced people hide their feeling and afraid to seek assistance from outside and this will affect their daily life become more tough and stressful than other normal people. This means their mentality is already affected by “divorce” this word. Besides that, they afraid to know new friend even try to enlarge their social network because they keep that outsider is the one who will bring dangerous to them and they could not face any pain or sadness any more.

Many parents no matter is father or mother, they will face mentality problem after they are divorced and this problem will cause divorced parents’ child will get suffer and pain because of abuse from their parents. Child abuse can be sexual abuse from their own parent whose are divorced to fulfil their requirement. The child could not get a good and memorable childhood because they are live in incomplete family. The child will be growth in an incomplete family and their mentality will be affected and do stupidest action to make them happy and enjoy by doing some actions related to social problem, such as taking drug, alcohol and so forth.

Neighbourhood

Generally, a family is not complete by having divorced in that particular family. The divorced story will become a gossip that discussed by neighbours although this is a common matter that will happened if something happened to your family but it is too hurt a people when you are talking and chatting his or her gossip behind when he or she know it. Sometimes, a couple had divorced and then it can be form a bad reputation to other family members. It is because people will not sympathise to what happened to you but they will make joke or keep laughing on you and this is caused divorced couples cannot face any stress because this is most stressful thing they have to face. This is what we call it as human being.

Besides that, the other family will feel ashamed on your divorced marriage because they think the people who dishonest in the marriage are their own relatives but not for the other side or they will put the fault into the people who divorced with their relatives and they will start the gossip and spread it out.

Community

For the divorced family or couples, they will hard to face community ashamed because they think they are isolated from outside party and they only focus his or her own social network and they try do not enlarge it but sometimes they are tried to know more new friends yet the community will think divorced couples or family is unlucky for them and think they make mistakes in their marriage.

The child from divorced families will be isolated from their friends in the school or college because they tend to stay out from the trouble by avoid who from the divorced family. The child from divorced family also will underestimate by other friends in the school because they may don’t have father or mother to accompany them growth together.

Eventually, the child from divorced family will get influence by their bad or evil friends because there is no good friends want be friend with them so they try to be friend with those are the gangster in school to get protection or involved on their gangster activities, such as bully other students or take illegal items to enjoy himself or herself. For an example of illegal items, drug, alcohol and so forth. Afterwards, they are made mistake in the school need their parents to meet with principal rather than their parents need work at outside so that their parents hard to work or find job and they will face jobless. The parents already divorced and adopt the child with single part but they need to take care the whole family with one salary.

Nation

If the rate of divorce for a country is high, that means the country do not make any policies to stop this situation continue happened. In addition, the image of the country will be spoiled at the same time. In spite of the rate of divorce increasing tremendously yet the separation of family still continue increasing equally. Child from divorced family will be friend with gangster because the divorced parents spend time in their working time rather than spending time with their children. So that, they are making trouble in everywhere and caused the rate of social problem increased. In spite of the rate of social problem increased yet the security of the country will be challenged by all these issues and problems of the child and gangster made.

Conclusion and recommendation to reduce the rate of divorce

Divorce is a hot topic that has been discussed by community. Divorce also bring many painful and sad memory to whoever affected by the divorce process or separation. Divorce has been classified as a social problem and this will affect the process of develop for a country. Without any understanding and honest between each other in couple, there is will be separation for them. In the conflict between couple, the most suffer is their children and they never think about it. They only care about their own benefit and make it to the court to judge their children pass to who to take care.

Compare and contrast how your views of a traditional nuclear family, cohabitation and sexuality might differ from those of your parents.

The ever changing world as we know it has led to differences in lifestyles and contemporary views towards how families should be run in modern society but the core values of family life still remain the same. Families are still mediums whereby people can enjoy security, companionship and a refuge from an often harsh and uncaring world. Structures of families have changed along with society in general but the traditional nuclear family of mother, father and children still remains an ideal. Many variations of the traditional nuclear family have arisen in the years since world war 2 that have changed the current generations views to that of our parents and grandparents generations.

In previous generations the mother was expected to look after the household and not partake in paid employment while the father was considered the bread winner and sole source of income for the family. This perception of the nuclear family has changed vastly due to major changes in social structure, education, the feminist movement etc. These forces have changed how we view the modern family along with the increase in cohabitation, decline in marriage, rise in divorce rates and the prolonged postponement of union formation. Single-sex marriages, single-parent families, cohabitation and single living have increased in regularity.

Increases in the rate of divorce has lead to a growth in the popularity of cohabitation whereby more couples live with each other before marriage, somewhat as a testing period, and couples are marrying later in life. Marriage has become less relevant in our generation compared to the ‘golden age of marriage’ during the 50s and 60s where marriage was an important institution in society. Changes in laws such as those concerning same-sex marriage have led to this attitude. In the last two decades there has been a dramatic increase in cohabitation in the US. Between 1970 and 1994, the number of unmarried couples living together rose from about 500,000 to almost 3.7 million. Between 1965-74 just 11% of marriages were preceded by cohabitation whereas between 1980-84 44% of all marriages involved at least one spouse who had cohabited (1). Cohabitation has been prevalent in previous generations where couples were unable to marry due to the fact that they weren’t able to afford marriage or were not lawfully able to marry. Couples also believe that it is easier to end a cohabiting relationship than it is to end a marriage. For one tenth of cohabiters, cohabitation is a long term relationship which does not lead to marriage (1).

In the space of a couple of decades cohabitation has nearly replaced marriage as the regular choice of a first union. In France, a massive rise in cohabitation occurred between 1965 and 1995 when the proportion of couples starting their union by cohabitation increased from 10% to 90% (2). During the 1990s marriage was still the superior marker for first union entry in the south of Europe whereas in juxtaposition most western and northern European countries and the United States cohabitation had surpassed marriage as the preamble for first partnership.

The mean age for which people enter marriage has increased for many reasons. The prolonging of many transitions to adult life(finishing education, leaving the parental household, starting a first job) along with the rise in young adults entering unions without marriage has added to the mean age. Nowadays marriage is no longer seen as the singularly appropriate avenue for childbearing. People who decide to have a child do not feel rushed into marriage and being pregnant is not seen as a determinant for marriage. This attitude can be compared to those of prior generations where pregnancy before marriage was frowned upon and unmarried cohabitation did not last very long due to social pressure.

In our parents generations the normal route of marriage followed by childbearing has been steadily replaced by a number of different pathways: in some countries, the sequence of cohabitation followed by marriage and then childbearing has become the most common path, while in other societies, cohabitation first followed by first or second birth and then marriage has become the most popular pattern and an increasing number of couples with children opt to not marry at all (3). In the United States the number of children born to parents who cohabitate nearly doubled between 1984 and 1994, growing from 6% to 11% (4).

In recent times marriage instability has increased, this along with less-stable living arrangements have led to an increase in the numbers of single parent families and a high frequency of single motherhood across Europe. In Europe a substantial percentage of children are exposed to living with a single parent before reaching the age of 15. The total exposure ranged from 11-18 percent in Southern Europe (Italy and Spain), Belgium, Poland, and Slovenia; to 39-41 percent in Austria, Germany, and Latvia; and, outside of Europe, to a very high level of 52 percent in the United States (these figures are period life table estimates based on the FFS data). In agreement with the evidence provided by the census data in Table 6 above, the authors argue that, while the pace of family change has varied across countries, the shift of childrearing from married parents to single mothers is universal in Western societies, and has been proceeding faster than the shift to cohabiting parents and stepfamilies (5).

In our parents and grandparents generations there was a fundamental belief that marital union should be between a man and a woman. Same sex couples were shunned and granted none of the rights that were enjoyed my heterosexual couples. Throughout the world same sex couples and those in support of equal rights for same sex couples have campaigned for what they feel are basic human rights that should apply to everyone; the right to have their relationship recognised lawfully and the right to marry. Homosexuality has gradually become decriminalised since the 60s in most countries but is still criminal in some countries run by religious laws. Pressure from these groups seeking equality for same sex couples and recognition of their union along with the increase in cohabitation has led to law reforms that allow these couples to achieve a specific legal status when the register their partnerships.

Although same sex couples are gaining momentum in their continuous battles to secure recognition there are still pockets of resistance and intolerance. The introduction of civil partnership to the United Kingdom has granted same sex couples more rights including employment, pension and inheritance related rights. This increase in rights is a stark contrast compared to the limited rights allocated to same sex couples in our parents and grandparents times.

References
Cohabitation: A Snapshot by Hilda Rodriguez, 1998
Cohabitation is here to stay by Touleman, 1997
Children born outside marriage in France and their parents: recognitions and legitimations since 1965 by Munoz-PA©rez, F., and F. Prioux, 2000
Larry Bumpass, 2002
Shifting childrearing to single mothers. Results from 17 Western countries by Heuveline, P., J. M. Timberlake, and F. F. Furstenberg, Jr., 2003

Sociology studies the social structures and influences society has on people, their experiences and interpretations of the world around them. Sociology provides information on how human societies are constructed, where our belief system may stem from, our daily routines and how social identities are formed. This essay will cover a small fraction of sociology; Quantitative and Qualitative methodology, its advantages and limitations. What will also be covered is quantitative approach to suicide by Emile Durkheim (1897) and his critic, J.D Douglas’ qualitative approach to suicide. (Tutor2U 2010)

Emile Durkheim (1938) advocated Comte’s methodology and agreed that social factors should be studied rather than what goes on internally; his rule was to ‘consider social facts as things’, he believed social facts make individuals behave in a certain ways (Haralambous).

Sociologists use different methodologies to reach their conclusion; ways of producing and analyzing data so the theories can be tested which are then accepted or rejected. Durkheim adopted the methods of natural science by applying the use of quantitative methods in his suicide study.

There are two ways in conducting a research, primary and secondary research. Primary research is where sociologist has to start from scratch as there is no data available, for it to be taken from. In order to do this the researcher needs to design they method of collecting data and analyze the results. Primary research is only validated if the research gives true measurement, descriptions or explanation of what was being studied. Unfortunately there is a likely hood that these finding may not be actually explain peoples everyday settings or actions. (Haralambous p815-16)

Secondary research is data that has already been produced by a previous researcher(s); Organizations such as companies, charities, trade unions are useful sources of data as well as documents such as letters, autobiographies and dairies. Secondary research may not be specific enough for researchers needs which in that case means they may have to look at more than one source to come to a conclusion and not only that but more than necessary time is taken up, also information given by the secondary data are sometimes questionable which is why the research has to be aware of this disadvantage (Haralambous 838-9)

Quantitative research, in sociology, contains measurements of variables within society; people and groups. In order to get people’s opinions, a survey may be carried out; fieldwork, experiments or documentary research. When these methods are carried out, the researchers are usually avoiding being biased. In order to be unbiased as possible questions that are asked in a closed question form, so the participant’s replies are very limited or generalised observations are then conducted. Researchers who carrying out quantitative research do not want to get distracted from the intent of the research; they know exactly what they are looking for so their researches are controlled, with closed questions or only statistical information (McGuigan 2010).

Alternatively, qualitative research, in sociology, attempts to gather more in depth understanding of individuals or groups actions in the context of social life (Giddens 2009). There usually is no scientific evidence and if there is, it’s very little evidence. When using qualitative methods of research the investigator is more interested in deeper truths; they prefer to observe things in their natural settings, make sense of things and interpret the information gained; in order to gain information they may interview people or observe them in non artificial settings. Qualitative is more theoretical rather than statistical. Information gained explores deeper into their interest and then data is collected by either observing or interviewing and from the data gain helps generate a hypothesis. Qualitative research digs deeper into reasons of why people may act the way they do.

A survey is a method used by researchers to gather information from a sample of individuals whether it’s from a certain gender, age, race etc where the researcher’s interest is at and changes depending on the purpose of the study. These samples of individuals are questioned on their information that will help the sociologist conclude, questions can be very much closed questions or open, they are sent out to participants or administered directly; surveys can have a variety of purposes and questions are asked in standardized procedures so the same questions are asked; Surveys help obtain a composite profile of the population. In all reputable survey organizations, organisers should present their results anonymously (Scheuren). Surveys are an advantage for generalizing a big group by getting smaller groups to answer the questions once there is an efficient amount of results. Unfortunately there is a risk of answers to the questions being answered falsely, may not actually reflect their true feelings or may even seem superficial. Surveys can be used to either get quantitative or qualitative data, solely relies on the wording of the question, whether it’s a open question or a closed question.

Field work is when the investigator hangs out, works or lives with a group, organization or community and lives the realism of the environment by taking direct part in their activities; in other words ‘real world’ experience. Investigators who take part in this are likely to have a better understanding of those who actually are a part of what they are investigating. This method is more likely to be used to have a qualitative outcome.

There are two types of experiments, one being laboratory and the other being field experiment. Experiments are used to test the hypothesis and the relationships between the two variables are tested. It is conducted in a controlled environment where the variables are isolated and the correlation between things can be discovered. In sociology laboratory experiments are barely used as they believed variables cannot be controlled, the environment people are put in are artificial which will lead to the actions of people being artificial too and they do not believe its right to put laboratories just to measure the effect of variables. Field experiments have been proved to be more used and affective in sociology as they are conducted in normal everyday situations and environments; variables cannot be controlled. Although field experiments aren’t conducted in laboratory they are still not exact but are more valid than lab experiments as the actions from the people are real; less artificial. But if people are aware that they are taking part in a experiment their actions can become artificial, for an example workers may work harder in normal conditions because they know they are being observed.

Emile Durkheim (1897) did a socially confusing study on suicide based on the hypothesis; as the individual’s social unity decreased it was found there was an increase of suicide rates. Durkheim (1897) did not believe that reasoning for suicide was an individual act, he believed suicide was a social fact that can be proved by other social facts; the larger social forces can account for social facts. Durkheim (1897) employed quantitative research to his study of suicide, to make it have a scientific backbone as he believed it to be more rich and valid, by examining the official suicide statistics in France; these official statistics were secondary sources produced by the government. He believed that patterns of suicide were linked to the way which individuals were integrated and regulated by society and how they controlled them, he identified there were four types of suicide, and he generalized these four types of suicide to everyone; the four were Egoistic, Anomic, Altruistic and Fatalistic suicide. Egoistic suicide is when an individual is isolated or their ties to a group is broken or weakened; Catholics and Protestants. Anomic suicide is when an individual feels his life has a lack of meaning and feels as they are worthless, this can be a result of a divorce. Altruistic suicide is when an individual values others more for an example a mother who pushes their child out the way of a oncoming car and hurts herself or a suicide bomber. Fatalistic suicide is when an individual feels hopeless about their fate or feels excessively restraint for an example an individual may take their own life before the police arrest them to avoid being in a cell for the rest of their life or many years. Egotistic and Anomic are the two most common occurred, of the four.

In contrast to Durkheim’s study of suicide Douglas (1967) is one of the many interpretive sociologists; interpretive approach strongly advocate qualitative data as they believe sociologists should be able to understand and interpret the meanings and motives of actions and quantitative data does not help discover meanings and motives. Interpretative sociologists reject studying social facts as things, they say natural sciences deal with matter and matter does not have a mind which in that case has no consciousness which in that case there is no meaning in behaviour. Interpretive approach acknowledges that people have consciousness, it is believed that people will interpret the meaning of a stimulus and then react to it; meaning is attached to the stimulus.

J.D Douglas (1967) conducted his study ‘Social meanings of Suicide’, he believed that the official statistics were systematically biased and could have been made up by friends, families, and coroners. He disputed that Durkheim (YEAR) neglected other meanings attached to why an individual may commit suicide, he believed it to be wrong that Durkheim (YEAR) would treat all suicides the same without investigating other reasoning’s. Douglas was concerned with meanings of suicide and believed there to be different reasons behind a suicide than the four generalisations Durkheim (YEAR) had made. In Douglas’s (1967) study of social meanings for suicide he believed there to be four different meanings of suicide. Douglas (1967) believed in qualitative research methods to find his answers to why an individual would commit suicide; his methods were conducting case studies, unstructured interviews and diaries, from his investigations he found four types of suicide, the four are Transformation of the soul, this is where it is used as a way of getting into heaven, transformation of self, this is where the individual would want others to think differently of them, suicide where an individual wants sympathy and suicide where the individual tries to get revenge by leaving the other person feeling guilty.

The UK family has undergone considerable changes since 1945. Britain nowadays is a society mixed with different household types including cohabiting families with or without children; divorced or never-married lone parents; gay and lesbian couples (McRAE, 1999, p.1). This essay will demonstrate that family as an example of continuity change, an explanation on the changes of household types. I will also discuss marriage and divorce rates, the rising in cohabitation and lone parents, and the sexuality of society and value changes. At the expense of traditions, this diversity has gained and there has been a downward trend particularly in the traditional nuclear family. This will compare the value changes of different family types using three social sciences disciplines of history, politics and sociology.

First of all, Patriarchy and Second World War are the main factors to family of the ‘Golden Age’. According to German (1981), in early days, women must struggle for their rights as that is the time when both the households and society are men-dominated. The ‘Golden Age’ portrayed husband as ‘breadwinner’ of household and wife as ‘home maker’. A social norm is marriage is for ‘life’ and a family was built up by a pair of heterosexual couple with dependent children. To explain further, conservative thinkers stated “family is a place of offspring reproduction, protection of children’s safety, inculcation of proper values on children” (Hughes and Fergusson, 2004, p.60). Also, “hierarchy and stability” are the two important elements to maintain a healthy family and society (ibid.). On the other hand, changes in family structure were related to rising needs for stability and people’s thought of family as a unit after the World War II (WWII) and probably can help reordering of a ‘healthy’ society after a war. Later, the situation of only men working out to earn money did not last long after WWII as the UK’s economy was depraving and thus women need to work to keep it running (“Gender Role”, 1980). Thus, conservatives argued “changes in the labour market,

rise in women’s employment rate and the interventions of the welfare state” give threats to male’s status and power in the society (Hughes and Fergusson, 2004, p.61). It follows that as age at marriage, teenage motherhood and childless has risen and smaller families size. Cohabitation before and between marriages has become common (Rimmer, 1981). Consequently, there is a sharp jump in births outside marriages, such as in the 1990s the birth rate is over 30%, rating above European mean (Irwin, 2000) and rising divorce rates accompanied by numerous lone-parent families (Rimmer, 1981). As a result, the nuclear family is on the decline.

One argument is that marriage is still popular but there is steady two thirds fall in marriage rates since 1970s (The Centre For Social Justice, 2006). The number of marriages has dropped by 35% in England & Wales, following by a rapid fall of 3 to 4 % per annum later (The British Academy, 2010). Previous generations growing up in an environment with strict sexual morality, view marriage as a “life-long promise” and cohabitation outside marriage are prohibited; however, the youngsters are changing their attitude and accepted to them. Moreover, there is evidence showing that the close relationship between cohabitation and divorce. Surprisingly, UK is particularly having higher divorce rate when comparing to the other countries. Before 1867, divorce was unpopular because it costs a lot and heavily stigmatized. Alternatively, the establishment of “Divorce Reform Act (1969)” which introduced an irretrievable breakdown of relationship has contributed to rapidly rising divorce rates (The Social Issues Research Centre, 2008). Apart from women’s higher income and ability to take care of themselves, changes in people’s material livelihoods and unreasonable behaviour of partners are also the causes for divorce. Feminists John Stuart Mill protested that the penalty of self-defense by women due to domestic violence should not be that heavy than

a violent man (The British Academy, 2010). What is more, feminism focuses on the rights and freedom of women and rejects the idea of patriarchy which women are oppressed by men. In 1968, there was a women’s movement which has raised the public awareness about domestic violence and sexual violence (ibid.). This has greatly provided refuges and support for women under oppressions.

On the other hand, cohabitation has become a common form of partnership in today society. People cohabitated as an alternative to marriage. The cohabitation rate wasn’t high in the 1960, about 5 %, yet by the 1990s, it has risen to 70% (Haskey, 1995). Social scientists do not view cohabitation can be long lasting as it is fragile. On average, cohabitations usually last for less than two years before breaking up (Ermisch and Francesconi, 1998). Since the proportion of cohabitating unions’ proportions are getting larger than the marriage rate, this composition will lead to breakdown of the traditional families. From the mid-1980s, the growth of this kind of families was possibly regarding to changing attitudes toward pre-marital sex of the young generations, shotgun weddings, and cohabitating is simpler than marriage (McRae, 1999). Lone parent families are more likely to suffer from poverty and imbalance between work and family as the only parent needs to bear the responsibility of child rearing and earn money by themselves at the same time. Also, UK has had the highest percentage of children living in these families in the European Union (15%) and doubled the EU average and just only followed by Denmark (Murphy and Wang, 1999). Nevertheless, “Teenage Mothers” is another “new family” form arise in the society, which has the fastest increase rate than the others from 1969 (Murphy and Wang, 1999). On the face of it, it seems the age of lone parent and family sizes in UK are tend to be smaller than the cases in the past which is definitely connected to the ideological and pragmatic separation of parenthood from marriage

(The Social Issues Research Centre, 2008).

After that, people’s changing attitudes towards sexuality have created diverse family arrangements and one of the most argumentative issue is gay and lesbian families. The term “gay” is often refers to “homosexual individuals, particularly men” while “lesbian” is described as “homosexual women” (Morrisey, 2010). The “Sexual Offences Act 1967” stated legal sex between consenting males aged above 21(The Law Commission, 2000). An ESRC report showed that there are approximately 1,700 same sex couples in Brighton, the highest in the UK at 2.67% of all couples (Duncan & Smith, 2004). What is more, a civil partnership is a legally binding agreement as in 2004, the parliament has passed the “Civil Partnership Act” which gives legal rights and responsibilities to same-sex couples as married heterosexual couples (The Social Issues Research Centre, 2008). Legal process is also set by the act on the dissolution of partnership (ibid.). Thus, these changes are evidence illustrating that the society is becoming more liberalised and the move from conservatism to feminism. Both genders are having equal rights and social status. The situation of same sex couples being discriminated by others have altered since the society is more accepted to it and there are policies to protect them now.

Last but not least, changing attitudes of people is of paramount importance towards the increasingly diverse family life and structures in UK. Accounting for continuity in these changes, Scott and Brook suggested that, most individuals’ held the same values with commitment to their family even in the post-war period, and results in complex attitudinal and behavioural choices. Besides, shifts within the social and economic trends did also contribute to the road of a more liberalized society of UK. In addition, another main factor is the

changing role of women in the family and society. Higher educational qualifications have

increased the participation of women in workforce which also gives them a higher social status.

To conclude, families have fluctuated over time from the traditional nuclear family to lone parent families, cohabitation, same sex couples and teenage motherhood. The tendency to blame for family break-up relates to social, economic and personal attitude and behaviour regarding the issues. There is no doubt that the traditional nuclear family is getting weaker but not the case what people have said about the fading out of the family as most of the people still have a strong family ties in their heart and they have proved family as a demonstration of continuity change.

In this essay, I will be discussing the analysis of the data collected in finding out the possibility of reality television programmes influencing the perception of the youth on matters surrounding them socially, looking at the series, “keeping up with the Kadashians” and using Ugandan youths as a case study. As a method of collecting data, I chose interviews both as a one on one and as a large group interview. I will be discussing the procedure of data collection and data analysis methods of the data collected.

During data analysis, I used the discourse analysis method mainly because I used interviews and focus groups as the data collection methods as it was informative to analyze the discourse of the interaction between the respondents and researcher.

Interviews as a method of collecting data

I chose interviews as the data collection method because they are widely used in the qualitative methodology for gaining an understanding of peoples experience (Evans, 2012). They also provide a means for exploring the points of view of the research subject, thus, granting the culturally honored status of reality (Miller and Glassner, 2011:133).

However, qualitative interviews require a great deal of planning as the absence of a predesigned set and sequence of questions, the interviewer has to prepare to think beyond their feet during the interview. (Mason, 2002:67). In addition, qualitative interviewing operates on the notion that knowledge is constructed rather than straight forwardly excavated (Mason, 2002:63).

There are two forms of interviewing I used, i.e. structured interviews and unstructured interviews. Structured interviews with open-ended questions elicit “authentic accounts of subjective experience” (Miller and Glassner, 2011:131), showing that interviews are very good for collecting data because they offer a researcher true accounts for data analysis. However, radical social constructionists have argued that there is no knowledge of a reality “out there” in the social world, but rather that it can be obtained from an interview. This is because the interview is obviously and exclusively an interaction between the interviewer and interview subject where both participants create and construct narrative versions of the social world (Miler& Glassner, 1997:99 cited in Silverman, 1997).

Interviews construct not just narratives about social world, but the primary issue is to generate data that gives an authentic insight into people’s experience, (Miller &Glassner, 1997; 100 cited in Silverman, 1997).

My previous assignment in which I described the methods of collecting data in researching and rationale of the research topic, was interested in finding out the chances of imported programming content and how it can be used to develop new characters or ways of thinking from the youth in Uganda. Such examples of imported programming are reality television programs, which are aimed at filming people in ‘real time’ as they live out events in their lives, contrived or otherwise as they occur (Nabi et al, 2003:304 cited in Beck, Hellmueller and Aeschbacher, 2012:2-5).

During data collection, I set up three areas of topics to explore. Firstly, how these people made sense of reality programmes and “Keeping up with the Kardashians” in particular. Secondly, how the respondents understood the themes played out in the series and the thirdly, how they related it to their own experiences. I set up several questions to be answered, in some situations however, the respondents did not particularly like being asked many questions individually but could answer them in a group.

In this, several questions were asked during the interview ranging from how they understood reality television down to their perception of the program, ‘Keeping up with the Kardashians’. I found that to prove my hypothesis, I had to ask questions that were more likely to explore the themes and ideas I already had about the programme. Not to impose my ideas on them, but to have something of a debate where the respondents gave me their own views.

As such, I started with the big questions, breaking them down into smaller questions where the smaller questions were supposed to get the relevant issues. I carried out three interviews with different girls and two boys from Uganda. Even though the interview is primarily about female perception on this content, the urge to get a male point of view kicked in because of the male characters in the series where I became interested in hearing their views on their portrayal. My main criterion therefore was any youth from Uganda. Luckily, I did get two Ugandan respondents living in the UK, which made it interesting because they could compare and contrast what they had seen from their experience living both in Uganda and in the UK.

Mason, (2002; 77) suggests that recordings be made as fully and explicitly as one possibly can, the route by which the researcher came to the interpretations they are making. In order to ensure that I was not imposing my own interpretations therefore, I had to obtain ethical approval and maintain a code of ethics before we could conduct the interviews. I mentioned it to the respondents that I would have the interview recorded but that they would remain anonymous which they agreed to. However, some of the respondents had problems with the interview asking what was in it for them to gain and after I told them nothing monetary was to be given, they opted out leaving me with just four respondents. I thus gave them a form to sign and recorded the interview (on the audio device in my phone, Samsung ace).

Method of analysis

The method used in analyzing the data collected is discourse analysis mainly because I used interviews and focus groups as my data collection methods, thus analyzing the discourse of the interaction between the respondents and myself.

Discourse can mean many things depending on different disciplines. In cognitive psychology, it focuses on the use of mental scripts and schemata to make sense of narratives (Potter, 1997; 145). Discourse is a set of meanings, metaphors, representations, Images and statements (Evans, 2012). Discourse Analysis emphasizes the production of the different versions of the world, society, events and inner psychological worlds in discourse (Potter, 1997; 146). During research, I needed to find out how the youth in Uganda perceived programmes such as “Keeping up with the Kardashians”. This kind of data analysis can only be done in the field and not in a laboratory (Evans 2012). Talking to these people and finding out from them what and how they truly feel.

According to a lecture conducted by Doctor Evans, discourse analysis has three approaches namely conversation analysis, interpretive repertories and the Foucaldian discourse,

An interpretive approach, not only sees people as primary data sources, but also seeks their perception rather than impose an “outsider view” (Mason, 2002; 56). Mason (2002; 56) adds that it also supports a study, which uses interview methods where the aim is to explore individual and collective understandings, reasoning processes, and social norms.

Conversation analysis on the other hand aims at studying methods for producing orderly and social interaction (Silverman, 2001:167, cited in Mason, 2002; 57) especially through naturally occurring talk. Foucaldian discourse.

Discourse analysis emphasizes the role of language in the construction of social reality (Talja, 1999) where Michele Foucault says language produces knowledge through doing things such as creating meaning. Language is also produced socially and as well leads to action (Travers, 2001; 84). I would have to understand in analyzing my data how these people make sense of the information they receive from these programmes and what worlds they thus construct. How they understand themselves in this world and how it all makes sense.

According to Harvey Sacks (Travers, 2001; 84), language is a central part in the methods used for understanding things around us and displaying their meaning. He believed that one can develop a truly scientific approach to studying society through studying tape recordings of conversations.

Data Analysis

During data analysis, I described generalized views of the respondents regarding the questions given to them. This is because they were a group of people and I could not give all transcripts of the interviews. The discursive object is the family life portrayal in the programme where the respondents generally agreed that the family members are cooperative, supporting and caring of each other. Family is a priority where they always try to spend time with each other through organizing trips and events.

Regarding how they made interpretations of reality television, the respondents said they knew it was staged but still allowed them see the characters’ daily lives. How I would interpret this that the respondents like the programme because it is appealing, and however much it is staged, they still watch it. For them, it is just another entertainment programme on television.

However, the belief that what the respondents were watching goes on in the characters’ lives meant they did not know much about reality television, which relates to the hypothesis that reality television programmes can be perceived in ways that could have certain attitude changing effects on the youth.

My next questions were on how they made sense of the themes portrayed in this program. When asked about the characters individual roles ,the respondents agreed that the females were the more dominant parties in the family with one respondent going further to say that culturally,’ women are meant to be followers of the men, not the other way round’.

Majority of the respondents said that the mother/wife tries so hard to be there for everybody, which for the respondents is what a good mother should do but that however, she often exceeded her limits. Two respondents said that she was dominating and materialistic as she at times seems to put money making before her children’s needs such as when she urged Kimberley Kardashian to pose for playboy.

The respondents therefore seem to relate what they view on programmes such as ‘Keeping up with the Kardashians’ with their knowledge of what family should be from a cultural context. They are also able to relate to their experiences. Some expressed strong views on the portrayal of family life in the series, stating that the females were the dominant characters giving the impression that women had to have control over not only housekeeping affairs, but also their personal relationships. In line with the state of affairs in characters’ home country, the respondents saw this as a means of spreading female empowerment. However, with the male characters seen as “easy”, as generally agreed by the respondents, it distorted the cultural values they held.

Lastly, on whether such imported programming could be responsible for a change in the attitudes of the youth’s concerning how they view their society, the respondents agreed it would be a long time before it happened. This is because, “it didn’t make sense in real life” and that “it existed on a different level to that back home”. However, that was true for how family life is portrayed and that on an individual level, the programming held some power in “making ‘society’ want to be like them through the clothes they wore” which was fine because it “encouraged females to work harder.”

Strengths and weaknesses of the discourse method

Discourse Analysis emphasizes they way versions of the world, society, events and inner psychological worlds are produced in discourse (Potter, 1997; 147 cited in Silverman, 1997) through systematizing the different ways of talking, making the perspectives and starting points on the basis of which knowledge and meanings are produced, visible in a particular historical moment (Talja, 1999).

Discourse Analysis pays attention to the way in which discourses produce and transform social reality, making it possible to evaluate the practical consequences of different ways of approaching a particular phenomenon (Talja, 1999).

On the other hand, Discourse analysis is much a craft skill because it generates interpretive claims with regard to the power effects of a discourse on groups of people, without claims of generalizability to other contexts (Cheek, 1997 cited in Powers).

Wetherell & Potter (1988), argue that discourse analysts are more interested in the regularities of language use such as the possible kinds of descriptions and accounts of a topic. What kinds of evaluations these descriptions are based on as well as how different modes of accounting construct different versions of the topic or produce different kinds of truths, and what these versions accomplish rather than the processes taking place either in individuals’ minds or in reality.

References:

Evans, A. (2012). Discourse Analysis [online lecture] module M96MC, Coventry, Coventry University available from < http://adrienneevans.com/teaching/m96-research-methodologies/>

Potter. J, (1997) Discourse analysis as a way of seeing naturally occurring talk in Silverman, D. (1997) Qualitative research; Theory, Method and Practice. London, Sage Publications.

Silverman, D. (1997) Qualitative research; Theory, Method and Practice. London, Sage Publications.

Mason, J. ed (2002). Qualitative Researching. 2ed. London, Sage Publications.

Talja, S (1999). Analyzing Qualitative Interview Data: The Discourse Analytic Method Volume 21, Issue 4, November1999, Pages 459-477 [online]

Available from< http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0740818899000249>[07.01.13]

Travers, M (2001). Qualitative Research through Case Studies. London. Sage Publications.

Powers P ( ) The Philosophical Foundations of Foucaultian Discourse Analysis, Critical Approaches to Discourse Analysis across Disciplines 1 (2): 18-34 [online] availablefromhttp://cadaad.net/files/journal/Powers%20%20Philosophical%20foundations%20of%20Foucaultian%20Discourse.>[7.01.13]

Appendix 1

M96 Research in CCM Rehema Nakalema

Informed Consent

INFORMED CONSENT

I confirm that I have read and understand the information sheet for the above study and have had the opportunity to ask questions.

Please initial box

I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw at any time, without giving reason.

I agree that my data gathered in this study may be stored (after it has been anonymised) in a specialist data centre and may be used for future research

Please tick box

Yes No

I agree to the interview / focus group / consultation being audio recorded

I agree to the interview / focus group /consultation being recorded

I agree to the use of anonymised quotes in publications

Name of Participant Date

Name of Researcher Date Signature

Intersectionality is defined as the relationships among multiple dimensions of identities and modalities of social relations and experiences of exclusion and subordination, including gender, class, race, ethnicity, nationality and sexuality (Collins 2000; McCall 2005; Davis 2008). It starts on the premise that everyone live multiple, layered identities. The theory attempts to expose the different types of discrimination and disadvantages that occur as a consequence of the combination of biological, social and cultural identities (AWID 2004).

Intersectionality, as coined by Crenshaw (1989) attempts to address the fact that the experiences and struggles of women of colour fell between the cracks of both feminist and anti-racist discourse (AWID 2004; Davis 2008). Subsequently, this concept had extended to the understanding of women holding different disadvantaged social identities. Such intersections indicate that oppression cannot be reduced to one fundamental type, and that oppressions intersect together in producing injustice and inequality, instead of multiplying around the different social identities (Collins 2000; Conanhan 2009; Yuval-Davis 2007). An understanding of intersectionality suggested the attainment of political and social equality of disadvantaged women and improving the global democratic system (Harjunen 2008).

This paper attempts to understand the intersection of social identities of Foreign Domestic Workers (FDWs) in Singapore. The number of women coming into Singapore to work as a FDW had increased over the years, and the increment of these ‘outsiders’ had created many negative stigmas towards them, discursively created by the State and the society. By understanding the intersectionality these women face, it will establish an understanding of what shapes their experiences and opportunities as an FDW in a foreign land.

Domain of study: Foreign Domestic Worker (FDW) in Singapore

As the temporary home to 196,000 Foreign Domestic Workers (FDWs) and an estimate of employment of one live-in domestic worker in every five households (Daipi 2010), Singapore was and is an immigrant society. The FDW performs various household and maintenance chores for the families, including cooking, cleaning and care-giving to the young and elderly. Evidently, many FDWs now are the caregiver for babies and toddlers while their mothers were obliged to put in long working hours in the ‘old male model’ and subordinate their family time for work demands. This may constitute more than mere care-giving, where many FDWs devote their love and emotional attachment to their ‘young employers’ as a response to what the FDWs cannot provide for her own child (Hochschild 2004). With the introduction of the Foreign Maid Scheme in 1978 [1] , labour mobilization of women was promoted by the government which prioritises economic development that brought about the significance of the Singapore female labour. FDWs have since been a visible feature of households in Singapore. This gradually led to the outlook of an ‘ideal’ family in the Singapore context that comprises not only the kin but also the fictive kin.

The ‘ideal’ family in Singapore is one that consists of two working parents, a foreign maid who looks after their child(ren) and an older relative – usually a grandmother – to supervise the domestic worker (Teo 2011).

According to Ochiai (2010), the model of Care Diamonds as proposed depicts patterns of care provision in each society in four different sectors, namely the State, the Market, the Family (and Relatives) and the Community.

C:UsersshiminDesktopPicture1.png

Figure . Care Diamonds in Singapore

In the Singapore context, we see that there is a good proportion of care responsibility of familialism falling onto the Market, which reflects “the bulk of welfare responsibility towards its members, in terms of both income distribution and care provision” (Ochiai 2010) falling from the Family into the hands of the foreign domestic and care workers from the Market. This signifies the importance and prevalence of FDW in Singapore families, in both child care and elder care. It also shows the trend where families are now more prone in outsourcing their filial piety, which is also known as ‘liberal familialism’ as the cost of purchasing care services is still borne by the family (Ochiai 2010). This is constituted as discussed from the increase participation of female labour into the workforce that displaces the natural caregiver role from the woman in the family to the woman from the market.

Outsourcing the domestic chores in the house to the FDWs living in, they may become not merely an employee but close to a ‘fictive kin’ through the constant interactions. This propels the assignment of kin relationships to non-family who embody the “special characteristics of family, and are those who provide caregiving and emotional attachment like family and are given the labour of kin with its attendant affection, rights, and obligations” (Gubruim and Buckholdt 1982; Tronto 1993; Karner 1998).

FDW and Singaporeans [2]

FDWs in Singapore are live-in domestic helpers (Ministry of Manpower 2013), and this establishes a close fictive kinship living under one roof. As a Singaporean who was raised by a kin (instead of a fictive kin) all my life, I decided to interview some employers of FDWs and learn about how they perceive these supposedly ‘fictive kin’.

In my understanding, the acknowledgement of the status of a fictive kin has to be conscious between the FDW and the employer like a two-way traffic. This contradicted with the literature definition (Tronto 1993) which only addresses fictive kin as a person who provides kin-like care. Though most of these employers deem the help of FDWs to ease their load in housework, some of them do not recognise the FDWs as a fictive kin, but as a mere ’employee who I hire with money’. For the employers who do not deem the FDWs as helpful, they made frequent complaints about the FDWs’ work including criticism such as ‘stupid’ and ‘clumsy’ towards the FDWs’ productivity in front of others in the presence of the FDW, lack of appreciation by saying ‘please’ or ‘thank you’ or blamed for mistakes that were not committed by the FDWs. This can adversely affect the psychological well-being of the FDW who are labelled as ‘quiet indignities’. Moreover, research shows that though there is a decrease in ‘maid abuse’ cases in Singapore for the past 10 years, there still possesses a great number of cases where FDWs were stripped of basic human rights, including not being allowed to go out of the house, not having enough time to rest and having a heavy workload (Transient Workers Count Too 2011). This affects the physical well-being of the FDWs. The psychologically and physical well-being of the FDWs tend to be jeopardised in Singapore because of the inferior-superior mentality held by the employers towards their FDWs.

A minute fraction of the employers acknowledged the FDWs as a great help in the house and a fictive kin, where these employers will buy new clothes for the FDWs, invites her to join in for dinners, and bring her along during family vacations.

FDW and Intersectionality

Figure . Intersectionality in FDWs in Singapore

As a FDW, some of the axes of social identities that she holds include the intersection of her gender, nationality and social class. Each of these axes contributes to inequality on its own facet, and a complete picture will be portrayed when these facets intersect. As a social construct, gender emphasises the biological and psychological differences between man and women, which had constituted to the inherent power relationships. Nationality is also a social construct that emphasises on the basis of the arbitrary division and belongingness towards geographical spaces. Social class as a social identity determines the access to resources, which then shapes the power and position of the individual and the family in the society.

Notably, these FDWs braved through obstacles to come to a foreign land alone to work in. The inherent power relations from different social identities differentiated the FDW and the employer, in an in-group-out-group context. This empowers employers to discriminate and oppress these FDWs which affect their opportunities and experiences as a FDW in Singapore, and it is tougher when she is helpless without the support of her community.

Gender and Social Class

In Singapore, FDWs had been portrayed as the lowest strata in the society. The society, constituted by the local policies [3] , associated an FDW to only the female gender. The legalization of the legislation that FDWs are strictly females also constitute to the internalization and naturalization of women occupying jobs in this sector. Comparatively, their female counterparts in Singapore were able to enjoy an overall increase in access to education, higher education, healthcare from the industrialization of the nation in the late 1960s, allowing Singapore to attain one of the highest standards of living amongst its neighbours in Southeast Asia. This improvement of status was not universal and not extended to the FDWs, who were mainly from Indonesia and Philippines (Humans Right Watch 2005; Arifin 2012). Despite both females being conformed in a patriarchal society in Singapore, the FDWs and the Singapore females were clearly distinct in their class status which is evident from the developments of the two groups of countries. This is despite that many FDWs were college graduates (International Labour Organisation 2007) but still segregated into the low-wage, low-prestige domestic work in Singapore. This instils a superior-inferior relationship between Singaporeans and FDWs. This hence led to negative stigmas from the Singapore women who were the employers, who acknowledged the FDWs as their assistance and also their inferior (Arifin 2012).

Gender and Nationality

As the policies [4] in Singapore discourage Singaporean women to participate in the domestic service sector, there is a synonym of women from the sending countries (predominantly Indonesia and Philippines) as ‘maids’ in Singapore (Human Rights Watch 2005; Law and Nadeau 2009). As the provision of domestic service is seen as ‘difficult, dirty and demeaning’, these FDWs are portrayed as unskilled labour. In the patriarchal society, these women are not duly respected for their contributions, yet perceived as inferior as of their gender as a female and their nationality recognised as sending countries for FDWs – both identities equating to the identity of maid. This created a discursive idea of FDWs as ‘Other’ in the society. They are held with sharp contrast with other foreigners who come to Singapore with better skills, commonly addressed as ‘foreign talent’ or expatriates. The call for ‘talent’ capital from places such as United Kingdom, Australia and North America had allowed Singapore to be ranked as the top expat destination in the world (HSBC 2012). Evidently, the economic and social development between the two groups of origin countries differs greatly. Though there are more FDWs than foreign expatriates in the country (National Population and Talent Division 2013), there is a huge disparity between, in their income, respect received, and inherent stigma since these foreign expatriates are the people with the ability to hire these FDWs despite both being foreigners in the country. Discourses by the State portray FDWs as a sexual and social threat that breaks up Singaporean families and portrays expatriates as ‘saviours’ of National Survival (Koh 2003; Human Rights Watch 2005). The demonization by the State further deepens the existing stereotypes towards FDWs.

Intersection of social identities

The intersection of gender, social class and nationality constructed the negative stigma of these FDWs in Singapore. It created a social hierarchy where FDWs were strained to the lowest strata without any mobility. Mobility is prohibited by the government through their policies that forbid FDWs to be covered under the Employment Act, or to be able to obtain citizenship from her length of stay and contribution to the economy (Human Rights Watch 2012; Ministry of Manpower 2013). In contrast, mobility is made available in countries like Canada where their live-in caregivers are permitted for permanent residence in Canada after two years of authorized live-in employment in Canadian households (Citizenship and Immigration Canada 2013).

Reduced as a commodity in the global labour market, the FDWs brought about seemly traces of slavery in the modern world. Without adequate social and legal recognition for paid domestic service, the commercialised employment relationship with these fictive-kin FDWs can only be confined in an oppressive, ‘family’-like hierarchy. FDWs often engages in a power struggle (and often lose out) as they are not in any position, financially or psychologically, to negotiate their working conditions even if they deem it over exhaustive (Ueno 2008).

With the improvement in social aspects in life including educational profile and healthcare for women, we see an increase of 10.3% in the women participating in the labour force in Singapore for the past 10 years (Ministry of Manpower 2011). With more women expected to participate in the economy in the future, there will be an increase in the care gap in families – which signifies the greater need for FDWs. However, this may also means there will be more opportunities for oppressions to take place that will further undermine the physical and psychological well-being of FDWs.

The next step: Recognition

The struggle of FDWs in Singapore exceeds more than what the intersectionality of social identities as discussed – they also have to struggle with their employers’ lack of appreciation of FDWs as a fictive kin. This can be problematic because a fictive kin relationship “improves the quality of care and retrieves personal meanings for both the provider and the recipient” (Lan 2003) and the oppression will be a hinder to the delivery of a kin-like care service. However, their social identities which are ascribed rather than achieved, confines them into a superior-inferior relationship with their female counterparts in Singapore.

It reciprocates if an employer is more understanding to the FDW – and evidently the appreciation will be mutual. Institutions such as the employer and the State can step in to improve the situation – where both the sending and receiving countries can include FDWs into Employment Acts to protect them from physical and psychological harm, and to provide them with basic rights extended to every employee. As employers, one has to be reflexive and mindful that the FDW is also another human being – with her own thoughts, feelings and behaviours, and hence behaving as a ‘proper’ employer who treats her FDW well, even to the extent of a fictive kin, will be a good capital for the family members. By being aware of how they understanding their own experience and how their social identities intersect, it is empathetic to relate to how these women struggle through oppressions, all by herself.

Appendix
Foreign Maid Scheme in Singapore

In 1978, Singapore introduced the Foreign Maid Scheme which permits the employment of women from selected Asian countries as live-in domestic workers (UNIFEM Singapore 2011). The scheme is introduced to encourage the participation of local women in the formal economy by introducing an extra helper to maintain the family. The high and steady rate of economic growth demanded massive number of labour in all sectors. The low population and low fertility rate of Singaporeans thus was not able to fulfil the demands of the labour market. Moreover, Singaporeans were not keen to work in the unskilled sectors including domestic work, as influenced by the rising socioeconomic conditions and educational level of Singaporeans.

According to the Ministry of Manpower, FDWs will be employed under strict regulations, including their source country, age and educational attainment, and subsequent regulations inbound which assures their transience. These regulations were set forth as the political leaders assume that the presence of unskilled migrant workers and domestic workers will disrupt the Singapore society if left unregulated (Yeoh and Annadhurai 2008).

Requirements for a Foreign Domestic Worker

The following summarises the FDWs requirements in Singapore (Ministry of Manpower 2013. The list of requirements can be found in: http://www.mom.gov.sg/foreign-manpower/passes-visas/work-permit-fdw/before-you-apply/Pages/basic-requirements-of-a-foreign-domestic-worker.aspx: C:UsersshiminDesktopPicture2.png

Intersectionality as a critique to Multiple Discrimination

Mentioned in the EU Report on the ‘Multiple Discrimination in EU Law’, EU initially had a sole definition of ‘multiple discrimination’ as an overarching notion, neutral notion for all instances of discrimination between multiple domains including ‘race, age, language, ethnicity, culture, religion or disability or because they are indigenous people’ (UN 1995).

The definition of ‘intersectionality’ debated the EU legal discourse and reinforces the importance of encompassing the notion of gender as an important domain when it discusses the discrimination suffered primarily by the intersection of domains in many instances of discrimination suffered especially by women. It criticises that the mathematical notion that may be conjured by multiplying around the separate strands of discrimination which in reality intersect (Conanhan 2009; Yuval-Davis 2007).

In many countries throughout the world, marriage is primarily an agreement between two families. An alliance through marriage between two successful families can enhance the power, prestige and well being of all the members in that family. Interracial marriage is a potential venue where both partners can enrich their world-view depending on one’s value and ability to accommodate cultural difference. The extent to which interracial marriages are accepted in our global society is a function of the cultural parameters within which these dynamics occur. It is apparent that the figurative shrinking of our globe seems to represent conditions that allow opportunity for the number of intercultural marriages to expand.

This paper seeks to provide an overview of interracial marriages, taking into consideration, its reasons, evolutionary historic nature and its importance to African immigrants.

History of Interracial Marriages

Before discussing how historical changes have influenced interracial relationships, it is imperative to examine how relationships have evolved throughout history. During Medieval times, the families of would be couple arranged their marriage. Much of society placed emphasis on wealth and land ownership. People did not often marry outside of their class. Therefore, it was the role of family to find a suitable partner to make the transition into matrimony (Amt, 1993:77). Also, love was not a factor in the decision making process (Stritof, 2001). In the middle Ages, marriage was seen as a sacrament. Therefore, the transition into marriage was made in order to prevent sin and to procreate as the Bible dictates (Shahar, 1983:15). However, during colonial times, the role of the family was altered. The transition into marriage shifted from the parent’s control to the individual’s control. In spite of this shift, though, the family did still largely influence whom the individual chose to marry. Children were guided and taught on how to choose the most suitable partner. During this time, romance became part of the marriage interest; it was an opportunity to love (Wilkins, 1998:502).

Interracial relationships are historically determined. Interracial marriage started in the United State of America. Laws against interracial marriages date back to 1661. These laws were enacted to prevent whites from marrying outside their race. Individuals who married cross-culturally could be arrested (Schwalbe, 2001:23). These laws were not limited to African Americans, for example in Arizona whites and Native Americans were prohibited from marrying each other, on the other hand, in Montana whites could not marry Asian Americans (Schwartz, 2000:114).Similarly, in colonial Mexico, sexuality, marriage, and “superstitious” love and fertility rituals were subject to control by the Spanish inquisition (Stoler, 1989:134). Moran (2001:29), argued that anti-miscegenation laws established racial boundaries, racial purity, contained ambiguity, and preserved public recognition of sexual decency. Bardaglio (1999) holds that the anti-miscegenation law sought not so much to eliminate interracial sexual contact as to channel them. The main purpose of this law was to keep the black and white race apart. And it is for this reason that Stoler (1994:199) argued that the metissage (mixed blood) was conceived as a dangerous source of subversion, it was seen as a threat to white prestige, an embodiment of European degeneration and moral decay and represented, not only the dangers of foreign enemies at national borders, but the more pressing affront for European nation-states. This is what the German philosopher Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1962:149) so aptly defined as undermining the essence of the nation, and its “interior frontiers”. Therefore, sexual meanings and intimacy are social and cultural constructs which are the main forces conditioning human relationships. It is in this light that, Zelizer in Purchase of Intimacy (2005:1) holds that taboo against romantic affaire in workplace and sex for hire both rests on the twinned belief that intimacy corrupts the economy and economy corrupt intimacy, intermarriage should be forbidden.

In addition to the above, Roger (1990:315), holds that the “United States is the only country in the New world which has carried its law against interracial marriage from its colonial period into its national one”. In this light, Garrison questioned the state’s right to interfere with the private realm of marriage and he argued that “marriage is not a province, and does not belong to the power of legislative assembly, therefore it is a wrong approach for the republican government to decide on the complexional affinity of those who choose to be united together in wedlock, and it may as rationally decree that corpulent and lean, tall and short, strong and weak persons shall not be married to each other as that there must be an agreement in the complexion of the parties” ( cf Washington 1986:84). The right to select one’s mate is one of the most ancient, most sacred of individual rights, and when the state interferes in this, except in the case of the mentally unfit, it but adds humour to the witticism (Roger, 1988:80)

However, in 1967, the Supreme Court Case Loving v. Virginia declared laws against interracial marriages as unconstitutional (Schwalbe, 2001). This allowed individuals to explore other relationship opportunities and thus the rise of interracial marriages. These laws limited the pool of eligible mates and the transition into marriage was directly affected. These laws displayed the views of society; therefore, individuals wishing to make transition into marriage often followed these laws in order to gain society’s approval and to avoid adversity.

Reason for interracial Marriages

As seen above, interracial relationship during the colonial era was considered a taboo or an abominable practice. Association with a European, talk less of marriage or dating a European woman was perceived as a challenge to European supremacy. Europeans regulated social conduct between races, so as to maintain racial purity. In spite of these regulatory mechanisms that were put in place, African immigrants still engaged in interracial marriages. The reasons for interracial marriages among immigrants vary from one person to another.

For example, in some cases, the criteria for citizenship acquisition vary considerably between European states. Within the E U., the minimum residency; before aliens are eligible to apply for citizenship varies from three (Belgium), eight (Hungary) and ten (Austria and Hungary) years (Babcock, 2006:12-23).Some states requires shorter periods for applicants from states with whom they have cultural or historic ties. There are also variations in the requirements that states impose on those wishing to become their citizens. This is both natural and permissible. But, those requirements are nonetheless framed by moral considerations, which define their scope and limit (Caren, 1989:13-49).Many states exclude third country nationals from significant social and economic benefits such as employment benefits and health insurance, even if they have lived in their new state for several years. Citizenship, therefore, if only for instrumental reasons, is clearly a status worth having. But it is also an intrinsically valuable status position, important as it signifies a person’s equality under the law, full civic inclusion and ultimately immunity from deportation. As result, third country nationals have adopted various mechanisms to remain within EU member states. Examples of these mechanisms include commodification of sexuality, finding a shelter, or a job (in the formal or informal economy or as family labour), achieve legal status based on marriage terms (e.g. arranged or contract marriages).

For instance, irregular immigrants attempt to legalise their residence with the help of various strategies. For most, illegal migrants apprehended by the authorities, entering the asylum process is the major form of legalising their stay in Hungary. In 1999, there were 11,500 asylum applications, with 5,100 submitted by citizens of former Yugoslavia and 6,000 by non Europeans. Thus, Hungary is primarily a transit country for asylum. Economic condition prevailing in Hungary can offer only a partial explanation to this phenomenon. Another equally important factor is the lengthy asylum procedures, and scarce opportunities for integration. For these reason, asylum seekers generally seeks protection elsewhere, many in other member countries of the E.U. Therefore, the most common reason for terminating an asylum procedure is that the applicant “disappears” (Ejalu, 2008).

Similarly, Bledsoe and Sow (2008), carried out a study in Germany, and they argued that, Cameroonians in Germany, engaged in interracial relationship in order to maintain family reunification. Cameroonian women, who stay in Germany, are often those who gain residence rights by bearing a child for a German man, who is willing to recognise the child officially, irrespective of any long term paternal obligations. Using the German Federal Statistical office figures on the children of unmarried parents, Fleisher found that, in 2004, although there were about twice as many Cameroonian men than women in Germany, many more were born to Cameroonian women, than to Cameroonian men, that is, an equivalent of 240: 92, respectively. Among married partners, 49 children born to parents who were both Cameroonians but 169 were born to a Cameroonian and German conjugal pair. Again, there were considerably more, proportionately, children born to a Cameroonian German marriages who were born to Cameroonian women and their German husbands, than Cameroonian men and their German wives.

In addition to the above, for Cameroonian men, the pathway to legal residence in Germany is entirely different. Most German women who strike up relationships with Cameroonian men are substantially older than their partners, and are unwilling or unable to have a child. As well, the likelihood of becoming a parent of a German child, independently of its mother, is almost out of question, for a Cameroonian man. Claiming residence by producing a German child is thus much rarer for a Cameroonian man, than a woman from Cameroon. For a Cameroon man, without a job, the best route to acquire residence, is contracting and sustaining marriage with a German woman for at least three year, after which he can obtain residence, although authorities continue to exert surveillance, and may investigates cases of divorces after years. Fleisher found that, in 2004, there were 163 bi-national marriages between a Cameroonian and a German in Germany, most of them Cameroonian men marrying German women-but just six marriages between Cameroonian men and women. The further complexity is that, many Cameroonian men desire children and want to return home eventually. Confronted with the logic of singularity on which family reunification rules of marriage rest, some men quietly retain marriage with a woman back home by which they have borne children, or ask their families members to find a wife, whom they visit periodically before their final return. This is because, a Cameroonian man may come to see marriage to a German woman as a temporary necessity and look to Cameroon for his main “family future”, he may come to see “traditional” or at least Cameroonian marriages as the base, and “formal” marriage in the west as the temporary distortion. (Fleischer,2003).

African immigrants may feel inferior due to a mental, physical, social handicap and enter an interracial relationship after determing that acceptance will be found only outside of a culture of birth. A marriage based on this motive may be consciously considered to be a second best or stand-in marriage interracial may be an act of aggression toward another race. Deviance and revenge by one partner can humiliate the in-law. They will either complement this need by feeling personally inferior or angry and rebellious against parents, culture and society (Blau, 1977:31). Leon (1984), suggests that idealism may be a motive of”liberal” marrying inter-culturally. Identification with the underdog, an inferiority complex, rebellion, and rescue could be an outgrowth of this idealism.

Importance of Interracial Marriages.

Throughout history, the structure of interracial relationships has seen a drastic evolution. What once was seen as non-normative and forbidden practice is now seen as common. Specifically speaking, there has been an increase in heterogamous, cross-cultural, relationships. This rise in interracial relationships can be attributed to the reversal of anti-miscegenation laws, the lack of potential mates, the breakdown of segregation, immigration and advancements in technology. These changes in romantic relationships and the transition to marriage have allowed people to explore alternative lifestyles and relationships. Noticeably, interracial romantic relationships and marriages have become commonplace.

According to Schwartz (2000:17) an increase in interracial marriages is as a result of immigration, increases the chances of meeting people from different racial backgrounds. For instance, the United States of America is considered a melting pot. The U.S.A. has many different races enmeshed into one society (Schwartz, 2007:23). This has allowed African immigrants to have many different types of romantic relationships/interracial marriages. Immigration has effected the transition into marriage by providing mates from many different backgrounds. Also, immigration has affected many people’s views on marriage by introducing people to new cultures. Interracial marriages among African immigrant is advantageous because it is seem as a gate way to integration and assimilation especially on the part on those immigrants who are being excluded from their societies

The degree of social control and the institutionalised discrimination is a function of existing relationships between the majority(host country and minority. An increase in the number of primarily relationship (indicated by interracial marriage) between these groups signals a dissolutions of discriminatory and subordinating practices and less incumbered entrance of minority into social institution of the majority group (Gordon, 1964:35). On the other hand, interracial marriages may indicate a weakening of ethnic cohesion and a loss of highly value ethnic culture (Murguia, 1982). Beaumont (1958[1835]:245), suggests that intermarriages are certainly the best, if not the unique, means of fusing the white and the black races. They are also the most obvious index of equality. While the U.S court of 1873 considered interracial marriages as “immoral”, others saw it as a cultural betrayal .Opponents of interracial dating contend that those who date or marry outside of their race are betraying their families and abandoning their cultural heritage. Many African immigrants believe interracial marriage erodes the solidarity of the African community. Lawrence Otis Graham feels that “interracial marriage undermines [African] ability to introduce our children to black role models who accept their racial identity with pride.” Graham also fears that biracial children will turn their backs on their black heritage when they discover that it is easier to live as a white person (cf Sollors, 2000:23-58).

On the other hand, proponents of interracial relationships contend that interracial romance is a step towards eliminating racial hatred. According to Mitali Perkins (2007:50), “Where exploitation and anger have separated the races in society, an interracial family called by God is a compelling example of the gospel of reconciliation.” Yvette Walker believes that

“Racism . . . will have to be bred out. We can’t make policies to change it. And certainly, in an interracial relationship the children are raised in a climate of tolerance.” She and others contend that the rising incidence of interracial children will eventually lead to a society where race will no longer matter because everyone will blend into one race, the human race. More importantly, assert many supporters of interracial relationships, colour should not matter when it comes to love. They echo Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous sentiment that people should be judged not “by the colour of their skin but by the content of their characteraˆ¦” (cf Perkins 2007:206)

African immigrants believe that interracial marriages offer the best opportunities for couples and professionals to experience, learn, develop, and educate themselves. Empowerment traits for interracial marriage and intimacy are core ingredients in promoting positive relationships in order that each of the couples’ families might work towards achieving optimal interracial satisfaction and simultaneously cope with external forces such as nationality, community, family, and individual. (McFadden, 2002:220).

In the past, African immigrants were considered as inferior, Buirj (1993:176-179) argued that immigrants are lazy, incompetent, and inefficient because they lack both the cultural and symbolic capital. Michele Lamont (2000) recapitulates the negative feeling toward immigrants and reflects the continuing availability of cultural repertoires stressing the moral failure of immigrants. In the view of historian David Kennedy, in United States “on the one hand

“aˆ¦immigrants were judged to be noble soulsaˆ¦whose talents and genius and love of liberty account for the magnificent American character. On the other handaˆ¦ [they] were thought to be degraded, freeloading louts, a blight on the national character and a drain on the economyaˆ¦”(cf Lamont, 2000:105).

Scientific opinion at present tends to admit that an African immigrant is not inferior in any essential character of mind; and is approximately equal to other races in his ability to acquire culture (Du Bois, 1899). Despite the long-entrenched, labels to racially categorise African population in history, a trend has emerged towards a more fluid view of racial identification. Schacht and Knox (2000:279) argued that due to an interracial marriage/dating relationship amongst immigrants, there has been a gradual, if not, socially recognised shift in how immigrants are perceived. They have gained recognition.

Moreover, interracial relationships are a step toward a more integrated and egalitarian society. For example, the future of Africans belongs to the person who is the product of many different cultures. Through interracial marriage, different cultures will develop their unique identities and come together in harmony. Benefits of interracial marriages would be that an African [immigrant] child would learn more tolerance and respect towards all races. Such children may be open to new ideas, and less hostile regarding one’s religious creed or nationality. Many wars are fought over both religion and patriotic fanaticism, and a child of mixed background is not going to really purely identify with either one of the other racial background, thus, the child is less susceptible to being nationalistic to a fanatical degree. (Innocent, Sirefman, 1992).

However, interracial marriages enable Africans immigrants to acquire citizenship and to engage in the political affairs of the host country. It is therefore a gateway for immigrants with citizenship status to shape and influence decisions at the national level. Thus, immigrants often view citizenship as crucial for the future prosperity of their children and their immediate relatives. The possibility of reuniting with family members is the major reason for acquiring citizenship. Citizenship also carries with it status and prestige among extended family members in the country of origin. Immigrants who have naturalised tell stories about how parents and relatives at home in Africa boast about their accomplishments. Praise and accolades are given to those who have become citizens’ (Arthur, 2000:24) Citizenship in other word, affects the shift in the cultural identities of immigrants (Afolabi, Falola, 2008: 49).

Furthermore, interracial marriage is seen as strategic for integration and a form of assimilation.

Park and Burgess (1969:735) define assimilation as a process of interpenetration and fusion in which person and groups acquire the memories, sentiments and aptitude of other groups and by sharing their experience and history, are incorporated with them in a common life ”the process of interpenetration” is arguably best examplied in intermarriage which is often seen as the final step in the assimilation process. For African immigrants, it is a gate way to better life. Intermarriage is a clear signal that minority groups have adopted the cultural patterns of the host or majority population, such as its language and customs. On the other hand, during the assimilation process, African immigrants tend to lose their distinctive characteristics as they pass through the stages of assimilation, eventually intermarrying with the majority population (Alba 2003; Gordon 1964: 89)

Theoretical Framework

Using the status exchange theory (Merton, 1941, Davis, 1941), I have argued that interracial marriages would frequently involve an exchange of status characteristics. Highly educated Africa immigrants would trade their educational status in order to reap the benefits associated with the racial status of a potential white spouse.’ Similarly, whites with low levels of education would trade their racial status for the educational status of a potential black spouse. Consequently, a black-white marriage is likely to involve a black spouse with greater education than the white spouse because these types of individuals would each have something to gain from the union. Interracial marriages involving white spouses with greater education than their black spouses would be much less likely because blacks would have nothing to offer their potential white spouse in return for the white spouse “marrying down” in terms of race. Both Merton and Davis believed that this process of status exchange was applicable only to black male-white female unions because a black man’s educational background would be more closely tied to future potential earnings and prestige than would a black woman’s education. Lacking empirical data to confirm this hypothesis, Merton provided the framework for a future test of the theory.

According to Merton, the correct procedure would be to compare the relative frequency of three types of interracial marriage: educationally homogamous unions (Group A), unions in which the white member marries “upward” (white hyper- gamy) in terms of education (Group B), and unions in which the white member marries “downward” (white hypogamy) in terms of education (Group C).2 Group B should be the most common type because it involves the expected exchange of status characteristics, and Group C should be the least common type. Numerous scholars have since shown that this test fails because most interracial marriages are educationally homogamous. Individuals have a strong tendency to marry partners of a similar educational background, and this tendency has been increasing over the last half-century (Schwartz and Mare 2005). Thus, to some extend educational status is not the only means used by African immigrants to engaged in interracial relationship but the desire to acquired integration through various means such as citizenship and resident permit is another reason for interracial marriages as already highlighted above.

To conclude, in spite some of the miscegenation laws put in placed in the past, the desire to acquired citizenship, resident permits are reason of the that have pushed Africans immigrants to engaged interracial marriages, in order to reap the benefits of the host country in which they find themselves.

Science and medicine are not immune from social influence, and as a result are not necessarily culturally universal. In regards to sex and gender, social construction plays a meaningful but often hidden role in medicine, producing significant biases (Hubbard 1996). For many clinicians and laypersons functioning within the traditions of biomedicine, gender is understood through sexual dimorphism: that only two sexes, male and female, possess distinct biological characteristics which form gender identity (Herdt 1990). According to the pervasive Western ideology, these sexes come with specific traits, such as genetic markers and physical attributes, and are consequently assigned behavioral gender roles. The notions of distinctive gender and sex are deeply ingrained in the medical community and reinforced in everyday social interactions, to the extent that the idea of ambiguity is not only foreign, but distressing. Perceptions of the qualities that differentiate sex, influence and are influenced by, the social constructs of gender through many avenues, for instance, science, religion, popular culture, and so on. Thus, an examination of the cultural influences on sex and gender, including those present in biomedicine, is necessary to conceptualize ??real?? differences. In exploring how village cultures in Papua New Guinea and the Dominican Republic respond to intersexuality, the constructs of the dimorphic approach on the intersex individual and society can be better understood.

Intersexuality, when used to categorize the physiological conditions which cause ??gender ambiguity?? of various kinds, may present in as many as 4 percent of live births (Fausto-Sterling 1993). These ambiguities include inappropriate virilization and variation in the presence and construction of inner and outer genitalia, varying in severity between and within the conditions that cause them (Kuhnle and Krahl 2002). In a biomedical system, the presence of sex-typed genitalia is used as the primary means to assign sex at birth, so infants with more visually apparent differences from the binary norm are recognized immediately and the assignment must wait for clinical intervention (Kuhnle and Krahl 2002). Individuals whose symptoms are less visually apparent at birth, for instance, an enlarged clitoris mistaken for a penis, atypical internal genitalia, or inappropriate virilization later in life, are subsequently not diagnosed at birth. Recognition of an abnormal condition comes much later for these patients, usually to the surprise of parents and practitioners.

It??s important to consider how biological reductionism as a social construct affects the understanding of sex and gender, because biological sex is not always cut and dry and is not necessarily clearly allocated to male or female by the presence, or lack, of certain hormones or the morphology of genitalia. How does a sexually dimorphic, biologically reductionist approach affect the treatment of intersex individuals? The reaction of the modern West has been to medicalize gender: to determine those attributes that seem to most clearly define one as male or female and, where nonnormative, to address the ambiguity through clinical means. Intersex becomes pathological, requiring diagnostic parameters and medical intervention. This medicalization suggests that there is a threshold for acceptable sex differentiation, but that an individual ought always to fit, as much as possible, into one category or the other. To this aim, research on intersexuality has produced a range of syndromes and attempts to accurately name them, a process which reinforces a medicalized view of gender and sex (Conrad 2007). When faced with anomalies in the biological determinants of sex, the clinician??s goal is to realize an ??optimal gender?? (Zucker 2002), which may or may not reflect an individual??s genetics or hormones. Assignment and treatment towards this ??optimal gender?? is determined using the following parameter: ??reproductive potential, good (i.e. heteronormative) sexual function, minimal medical procedures, an overall gender-appropriate appearance, a stable gender identity, and psychosocial well-being?? (Zucker 2002). It should be noted that popular science ideology stresses the ability of the patient to ??fit?? into either the male or female gender in regards to physical appearance as critical in achieving a ??stable gender identity?? and ??psychosocial wellbeing??, which negates the possibility that attempts to do so might in fact cause dysphoric gender identity. Using these considerations, invasive surgeries are performed in order to ??normalize?? external genitalia, typically accompanied by courses of hormone therapy in order to guide the physical development into the assigned gender (Berenbaum 2006). Since absence or underdevelopment of the phallic structure is typical of intersex genetic males, and it is more difficult to surgically create a functioning penis than a vagina, ??the majority of children born with ambiguous genitals are turned into girls?? (Hubbard 1996). Binary models of sex are reinforced, insisting on a definitive and unchanging view of sex and gender. Limiting notions of success in ??good sexual function??, a ??stable gender identity??, ??psychosocial well-being??, and insistence on genitalia that appears neatly masculine or feminine, serve to impose the Western cultural construct of sexual dimorphism upon the individual (Worthman 1995).

Not only are there variations in realization of the biological attributes assigned to sex differentiation, but also in the societal response to these sex differences, which serve to change and transform both gender and the concepts of it. It is here that the studies of intersex individuals in the Dominican Republic and New Guinea play an important part in understanding gender and sex conceptually and practically, by contrasting the lives of these individuals, who did not receive clinical diagnosis and care, with the binary Western convention of sex. Sexual dimorphism is called into question by the seeming presence of a third gender category (Herdt 1990). While first assumed to support popular applications of biological reductionism, the studies in fact offer documented flexibility between biological conditions and social environments in construction of gender identity (Herdt 1990). These studies are particularly appropriate to the discussion of medicalization because the affected individuals did not undergo permanent surgical alteration or hormone therapy, the two prevalent forms of treatment for the intersex in the West. Their life experiences reflect an opportunity to shift in and out of gender roles without contending with the irreversibility of these clinical methods.

The study conducted in the southwest Dominican Republic draws on narratives to form the sexual histories of 38 genetic males found to have steroid 5-alpha reductase hermaphroditism, a condition characterized by ??severe ambiguity?? (Imperato-McGinley, et. al. 1979). In cases of steroid 5-alpha reductase hermaphroditism, the development of the sex organs in utero is affected, resulting in underdeveloped external genitalia (Imperato-McGinley, et. al. 1979). However, increased presence of testosterone at puberty stimulates phallus growth, the presence of ejaculate, and, in many cases, descending of the testes (Imperato-McGinley, et. al. 1979). According to Imperato-McGinley, et. al., out of 18 cases of genetic males with steroid 5-alpha reductase hermaphroditism who were raised ??unambiguously?? as girls, 16 transitioned into ??a male-gender role?? after puberty (1979), although subsequent research has determined that in fact only 13 were ??observed to make a clear-cut sex role change?? (Herdt 1990).There was no medical intervention in early life, so the 16 males were able to physically and socially transform their gender role upon biological masculinization, more easily than if they had experienced feminizing surgeries and hormone therapy to supplement female-gendered rearing.

Surprisingly, there is little ethnographic data regarding the two subjects raised as girls who did not transition into a male gender role, or the 20 individuals who were raised as men (Herdt 1990). Subject 25 maintained her heterosexual female identity, denied sexual attraction to women, and expresses a strong desire for female assignment surgery (Imperato-McGinley, et. al. 1979). Likewise, Subject 4 continued to dress as a female, although researchers ultimately designate a male gender identity because the individual has the ??mannerisms of a man?? and engages in sexual relationships with women (Imperato-McGinley 1979). The social lives of the subjects reared male is largely underrepresented, although the assumption is relatively normative male development, which may not be accurate. The range of variety in the life experiences of these neglected subjects contradicts a strict interpretation of biological reductionism. While a majority of the genetic males did appear to assume a male-gender identity (regardless of rearing) there still persisted a strong female identity or conventional female behavioral roles in two out of thirty eight subjects, despite experiencing similar pubescent hormonal changes.

The village societies in which these individuals lived also provided an environment that allowed for transition. There is evidence that the condition, documented to span generations (Imperato-McGinley 1979), was not unfamiliar. Local vernacular contains a term for these males, guevedoche, or ??penis at twelve?? (Herdt 1990). This term suggests that the villagers were aware of not only the condition, but also the physical changes that seemed to blur gender confirmation. Although not noted by the authors of the study, this awareness and terminology seems to reflect an ideology that does not adhere to sexual dimorphism, using instead three categories to reference gender (Herdt 1990). There is not only male and female, but also guevedoche. Herdt??s examination of the narratives also indicates evidence that despite the claim that 18 subjects were raised ??unambiguously?? as girls, the villagers would have had sufficient knowledge of the condition to recognize the possibility for these individuals to undergo pubescent changes, for instance, several of the subjects were closely related to one another and functioned within the same family group (Herdt 1990). Therefore, they were assigned conceptually as guevedoche, not female. This is reinforced by another term adopted by the villagers to describe the males, machihembre, or ??first woman, then man??. (Herdt 1990) The dialect suggests a social construction of biological sex which allows for transition, sex classifications outside the binary, and an adaptation to the intersex individual without medicalizing gender.

Studies among the Sambia of Papua New Guinea also reveal an additional category in gender assignment for intersexuals with steroid 5-alpha reductase deficiency (Herdt 1990). The Sambia possessed an awareness and detailed knowledge of this syndrome, although this was more clearly documented than in the Dominican Republic. The most common term used for the intersex individual is kwolu-aatmwol, meaning ??female thing-transforming-into-male thing?? (Herdt 1990). As in the Dominican Republic, this terminology reflects a more fluid conception of gender and sex that is not static or binary. Even though the term draws an inherent comparison between male and female gender to define the intersex individual, the kwolu-aatmwol are not considered singularly male or female (Herdt 1990). According to Herdt, infants are ??carefully?? examined to determine sex assignment, only kwolu-aatmwol who are mistaken for normative females are assigned and reared as girls; when the condition is recognized the infant is assigned kwolu-aatmwol and ??reared in the direction of masculinity, but not ambiguously?? (1990). This observation communicates a cultural adaptation to intersexuality by the Sambia. The individuals were not raised exclusively masculine or feminine when ambiguity was determined, developing instead within a unique gender category.

The magnified ethnographic scope used in Papua New Guinea provides a closer insight into some of the particulars of the social response of the Sambia to intersexuality, as well as an interpretation of gender transition motives that focuses on social and cultural forces as opposed to the role of biology in identity development. Of the fourteen intersex subjects identified by Herdt, five were mistakenly assigned female and reared, sometimes ??ambiguously??, as girls (1990). One of the subjects lives as a female, although is considered a kwolu-aatmwol and is unmarried, the remaining four transitioned in varying degree toward a masculine gender role (Herdt 1990). However, in contrast to the guevedoche, the transitions came only after social forces exposed their biological differences. For example, one of the subjects was forced to move to a faraway town after she entered a marriage and was discovered to have a small penis. Relative prevented the furious husband from killing her, and she fled. It was then that he began using a masculine name, dressing in men??s clothes, and dating women, although Herdt notes that ??he seems uninterested in them?? (1990). It would seem that in the case of the Sambia, it was rather society??s dissatisfaction with the ??female-assigned hermaphrodite??s body?? and her ability ??to sexually and reproductively deliver what was necessary for her to fulfill her social destiny?? that brought on gender role change, not biological masculinization (Herdt 1990).

The incongruity between gender role and social expectation may be considered more problematic than intersexuality for the Sambia, whose culture provides a category other than male or female in language and social expectation. Within the Sambia, kwolu-aatmwol are typically regarded with pity, but included in ??normative?? society, and may even ??rise to distinction through special achievements?? (Herdt 1990). While the assignment comes with significant social stigma (it is a belief among the men that women may kill an intersex infant), many kwolu-aatmwol are known locally for being shamans or war leaders (Herdt 1990). The mythology of the Sambia contains a narrative with a ??hermaphroditic theme?? that tells the story of ??two persons, with small breasts and tiny penes, who began the world?? (Herdt 1990). These cultural aspects form a special societal, ??sacred?? role (Herdt 1990) for the intersex of the Sambia, instead of imposing the expectations to accommodate a sexual binary.

The studies of intersex individuals in the Dominican Republic and Papua, New Guinea present some significant contradictions to in regards to how gender is typically conceptualized by the Western medical community. From a social perspective, it would appear that the rural villages of the Dominican Republic and the Sambia have fostered and maintained a ??three-category sex code?? in response to the existence of intersex individuals over generations (Herdt 1990). In contrast, the Western medicalization of gender (resulting from reductionist perspectives of sex) has caused the intersex to be viewed as abnormal and ambiguous, requiring clinical treatment to satisfy the conditions of either the male or female sex. Intersexuality is considered incomplete or inconsistent male- or femaleness, which has influenced life-changing and often irreversible clinical ??corrections?? that, in the case of intersex infants, is done without patient consent. While these procedures are generally recommended in the interests of the infant, they also serve the interests of a sexually dimorphic society that frames healthy sex and gender development within a restrictive binary. Cultural examples from Papua New Guinea and the Dominican Republic contradict the assumed universalism of Western sexual dimorphism, and offer a clearer interpretation of the social forces that direct the treatment of the intersex.

References Cited

Berenbaum, Sheri A.

2006 ??Psychological Outcome in Children With Disorders of Sex Development: Implications for Treatment and Understanding Typical Development.?? Annual Review of Sex Research 17:1-32.

Conrad, Peter.

2007 ??The Medicalization of Society: On the Transformation of Human Conditions into Treatable Disorders.?? John Hopkins University Press 23-45.

Fausto-Sterling, Anne.

1992 ??The Five Sexes: Why Male and Female Are Not Enough.?? The Sciences. http://frank.mtsu.edu/~phollowa/5sexes.html

Herdt, Gilbert.

1990 ??Mistaken Gender: 5-Alpha Reductase Hermaphroditism and Biological Reductionism in Sexual Identity Reconsidered.?? American Anthropologist. 92(2):433-446

Hubbard, Ruth.

1996 ??Gender and Genitals: Constructs of Sex and Gender.?? Social Text 46(47): 157-165. JSTOR. http://www.jstor.org/stable/466851

Kuhnle, Ursula, and Krahl, Wolfgang.

2002 ??The Impact of Culture on Sex Assignment and Gender Development in Intersex Patients.?? Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 45(1): 85-103. http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/pbm/summary/v045/45.1kuhnle.html

Worthman, Carol M.

1995 ??Hormones, Sex, and Gender.?? Annual Review of Anthropology 24: 593-617. JSTOR. http://jstor.org/stable/2155951

Zucker, Kenneth J.

2002 ??Intersexuality and Gender Identity Differentiation.?? North American Society for Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology 15:3-13

Boester 5