Category: Free Essays

Gender inequality means inequality between men and women in accessing the existing resources. In the view of Krammara Treicehr any kind of behavior, policy, languages, and other actions that represents a fixed, comprehensive, and institutionalized view in regard to women as inferior beings, means gender inequality. (1985:185). Therefore, gender inequality refers to the differences between men and women in receiving social and economic advantages which is often to the benfit of men at the expense of women, which means men take superiority over women.

Men and women experience the world of work quite differently. Wage disparities, occupational sex segregation, and gender differences in authority, for example, are well recognized (e.g., Padavic and Reskin 2002). Despite distinguished changes in work, meaningful differences in these areas remain persistent features of contemporary society (England 2006, 2010).

While there are certainly other factors at play, this paper focuses on discrimination in a variety forms, including in hiring (Gorman 2005; Goldin and Rouse 2000), promotions (Olson and Becker 1983), wages (Meitzen 1986), glass ceiling, and as well as sexual harassment (Welsh 1999).Of course, documenting the contemporary occurrence of gender discrimination in employment is only a first step. As Reskin (2000, 320) argues, “We need to move beyond demonstrating that employment discrimination exists, and investigate why it persists in work organizations.” We must look at processes that lead to unequal outcomes for women and men. The real challenge is to uncover how discrimination unfolds in actual work settings.

1.2 Background

The issue of gender inequality can be considered as a universal feature of developing countries.One of the areas of disparity between males and females is related to the difference in their employment status which is present through occupational segregation, gender-based wage gaps, and women’s disproportionate representation in informal employment, unpaid work and higher unemployment rates (UNFPA, 2005). As women in developing countries have low status in the community, the activities they perform tend to be valued less; and women’s low status is also perpetuated through the low value placed on their activities (March et al., 1999).

In the case of Mauritius, even though there has been a rapid change in the society where women have reached a high level and hold status such as Judges, Directors, Engineers which were unconceivable to be the fields where women could emerged; there are still some occupation where women are entangled in the culture norms and could not take the lead. For example, there are some sectors such as Fire Men at the Fire Services where there are no female officers.

There are less women who work as Electrician, Plumber or even Carpenter, as these occupations do not allow women to perform well due to their physical strength. Besides there is no doubt that there are organisations which are gender biased. Most of the organisations are entirely rules by male managerial culture as when organisations were first performed; only males were in the paid workforce.

Despite there has been an increased in the education field at all level and the increase of women in the workforce, there has been a minor change to the men dominated culture in the workplace where women are still treated as inferior agents. Our study focused on how gender inequality still has an impact on the Mauritian female within the workplace.

1.3 Problem statement of the study

An ultimate matter of social scientists has been why women continue to lag behind in men salary, promotion and authority. Gender inequalities in the labour market have received considerable attention by researchers over the past twenty years. Since the colonial period, Mauritius has been regarded as a patriarchy society with a high rate of marriage. Overwhelming evidence suggests that gender segregation exists in more occupational categories and the number of women segregation is greater than the number of male segregation.

Gender socialization is one of the factors responsible for the reinforcement of gender inequality since childhood. The society continues to transmit the traditional gender roles to the individual through the various agencies of socialization. Despite many Acts of discrimination, many workers are faced with sex discrimination which affect them.

Gaps in wages, organizational power and employment opportunities have narrowed somewhat but disparities remain. According to the gender statistics in 2011, it has been found that a lesser proportion of men in employment and for female activity rate it was 43.7% against 75.5% for men. Even though women are higher than men in terms of population, they are still at the disadvantage of the corporate ladder. Studies in Mauritius on the labour market have laid much emphasis on gender equality. Therefore, this study will shed light on the other side of the coin where gender within the workplace is ignored.

1.4 Aim of the study: The study aim to analyse gender inequality within the workplace of Mauritius.

1.5 Objectives of the study:

To find out how gender socialization process reinforces gender inequality.

To discuss the different components of gender segregation.

To analyse how sex discrimination affect workers.

To identify which gender is more prone towards inequality at the workplace.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Gender inequality and occupational segregation

Gender can be identified as set roles, and behaviour patterns that differentiate women from men in socially, culturally and relations of power (Women Information Centre, 2005). From Hirut (2004) standpoint, these roles, behaviour models and power relations are active and vary over time and between different cultural groups. Gender inequality is the inequity of opportunity, right, role, and access to and control over resources and is the outcome of socialization Almaz E (1991).

Occupational gender segregation continued from era to era and is apparent in lands of the globe (Grusky and England 2004; Moshe and Frank 1999; Preston 1999; Rosenfeld and Spenner 1992). Anker (1997) distinguished two main explanations for why occupational gender segregation should is a continuing concern: first, it is a major foundation of labor market inflexibility and economic incompetency. Second, it is detrimental to women in the sense that segregation brings about harmful views of both men and women as a result, affecting women’s status, income, education, skills (Anker 1997).

The important outcome related with occupational gender segregation is the segregation of the payment methods and the continual sex discrepancy in earnings with women on the inferior edge. The proportion of the gender wage gap is to 5 to 40 percent attached to workplace segregation is seemingly advanced than the amount by career break 15 percent and equivalent worth wage upgrading 5 percent (Hakim 1992; Preston 1999).

There are two types of segregation: horizontal segregation, which occurs when there is a concentration of women and men in a determined ¬?elds and occupations, and produces disparity in terms of career, pension and vertical segregation, which take place when there is a focus of women and men in determined degrees and levels of responsibility or positions, and produces disparity on salaries.

2.2 An Overview of Gender Inequality in Developing Countries

The issue of gender inequality can be considered as a universal aspect of developing countries. Unlike women in developed countries who are, in relative terms, economically empowered and have a powerful voice that demands an audience and positive action, women in developing countries are generally silent and their voice has been stifled by economic and cultural factors.

Economic and cultural factors, together with institutional factors state the gender-based division of labour, rights, responsibilities, opportunities, and access to and control over resources. Education, literacy, access to media, employment, decision making, among other things, are some of the areas of gender disparity.

One of the areas of disparity between males and females is related to the difference in their employment status which is manifested by occupational segregation, gender-based wage gaps, and women’s unequal representation in informal employment, unpaid work and higher unemployment rates (UNFPA, 2005). As women in developing countries have low status in the community, the activities they perform tend to be valued less; and women’s low status is also perpetuated through the low value placed on their activities (March et al., 1999).

In-depth analysis of DHS by Hindin (2005) showed that only 17% of women in Zimbabwe, 12% in Zambia and 4% in Malawi have higher status job than their partners. The respective percentages of women whose partners have higher status jobs are 52, 43 and 53.

Women are also overrepresented in the informal sector. In Sub-Saharan Africa, 84% of women’s non-agricultural employment is informal compared to 63% of men’s. The figure is found to be 58% and 48% for women and men, respectively in Latin America (UNFPA, 2005). Studies generally show that women are more likely to be engaged in work which is for longer hours than men. For instance, in 18 of the 25 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, greater than 50% of women were employed and even in six of these countries the percentage of employed women was greater than 75% (Mukuria et al.,2005).

However, as most of the employed women work in agricultural and other activities which are mostly considered to be having limited or no financial returns, their employment does not contribute much to their status in the workplace. Thus, women in those countries are dependent on their partners in most aspects of their life. In spite of its importance in enabling women to get access to information about personal health behaviours and practices, household, and community, the percentage of women exposed to different types of media is limited in most developing countries.

Women’s limited access to education, employment opportunity, and media, attached with cultural factors, reduces their decision making power in the society in general and in a household in particular. Regarding their participation in decision making at national level, though the number of women in national parliaments has been increasing, no country in the world has yet achieved gender parity.

According to the millennium indicators data base of the United Nations, cited in the UNFPA (2005), the percentage of parliamentary seats held by women in 2005 was 16% at world level, 21% in developed countries, and 14% in developing countries. This low representation of women in national parliaments could be due, among others, to type of electoral systems in

different countries, women’s social and economic status, socio-cultural traditions and beliefs about women’s place in the family and society, and women’s double burden of work and family responsibilities (UNFPA, 2005).

Women are underrepresented in the formal sector of employment. The survey conducted by the Central Statistical Authority (CSA, 2004) showed that women account for less than half (43%) of the total employees in the country. Considering the percentage of female employees from the total number of employees by employment type, the highest was in domestic activities (78%) and followed by unpaid activities (59.3%). In other types of formal employment (e.g. government, NGOs, private organizations), the percentage of female workers is less than 35.

On the other hand, the survey showed overrepresentation of female workers in the informal sector. About 58% of working women work in the informal sector whereas the percentage of working men in the informal sector was 37.7 % (ibid).The breakdown of the federal government employees by occupational groups also indicated gender disparity. From federal government employees found in the clerical and fiscal type of jobs 71.3 % were female, while the percentage of females was slightly more than half (51%) in custodial and manual type of jobs.

Women make up 25% and 18% of the administrative and professional and scientific job categories, respectively, indicating that upper and middle level positions are overwhelmingly dominated by men (Federal Civil Service Commission, 2005). This concentration of women in the informal sector and low level positions has implication on their earnings. In this regard, the survey showed four out of ten women civil servants earn Birr 300 a month compared to two out of ten for men (Federal Civil Service Commission, 2005).Ethiopian women’s access to mass media is one of the lowest. In their DHS comparative report, Mukuria et al. (2005) show that, among 25 Sub-Saharan African countries,

2.3 Gender socialisation as a medium for encouraging gender inequality

Crespi (2003) see socialisation as a logical route with its objective is to construct gender personality. The gender socialization process is a further composition of socialization. It is how children of different sexes are socialized into their gender roles (Giddens, 1993, p. 165) and learn what is male or female character (Morris, 1988, p. 366). According to many sociologists, there exists difference between sex and gender. Sex is the biological classification and gender is the outcome of social construction of separate roles of males and females.

According to Lorber (2005), masculinity and femininity is not inborn that is children are taught these traits. As soon as a child is identified as being a male or female, everybody start treating him or her as such. Children learn to move in gendered ways through the support of his environment. As the child grows up, he develops his identity, know how to interact with others and learn the role to play in the society. There are many drivers involved in the socialization process which transmits the traditional gender role to the children and henceforth leading to occupational segregation later on.

One set of gender socialization occur between parents and the offspring. Parents are considered to be the primary agency in the process of socialization. They are inclined to interact with boys and girls in discrete styles. For example, a one year old baby is considered to have no sex difference however; parents are likely to act with boys and girls in dissimilar ways. They react to boys, when they seek interest by being aggressive and girls when they use gestures. As such interaction have long term effect on girls and boys communication styles, leading boys to more assertive styles and girls with more emotive styles in adulthood.

Ann Oakley (1974), studies mention four central avenues in which socialization into femininity and masculinity roles occur. Firstly, apply diverse physical and verbal manipulations to the child. For example, dress up children according to their sex, girls in pink and boys in blue color clothes. Secondly, draw the child concentration towards gender-identified toys. This is known as canalization whereby, boys and girls are given certain toys, clothing and other objects often culturally identified more with one gender than the other. The games of the boys tend to advance physical interest whereas for the girls it leads to physical closeness and mother-child talk.

Thirdly, employ different verbal explanations to similar behavior. In professional careers, women might find that they might are identified with different standards for the same behavior, being called “assertive,” for example, for behavior at work that in men is admired for being “aggressive.” In childhood it is the same case, a boy is cheered for being “active,” where as a girl is reprimanded for being “too rough.” Or a girl is complimented for being “gentle,” but a boy is criticized for not being “competitive enough.”

Finally, encourage or discourages certain stereotypical gender-identified activities. For example, girls are asked to help mother with sewing, cooking, ironing, and the like. Boys are to help dad to do yard work, shovel snow, takeout the trash, and so on. The classification of girls with indoor domestic chores and boys with outdoor chores becomes training for stereotypical gender roles. According to Oakley (1974), the socialization route aid to the preservation of male domination and female subservience. The roles learn through the above process shape adult behaviour and hence, contribute to the reproduction of differences in behavior of males and females.

School is the agency where conscious socialization happens. The education system is the main part of gender socialisation process. Looking through books from the very beginning gender stereotypes is present and reinforced. The small kids see women being represented in pictures in their books as with babies in their hands or women in domestic chores or at the high end – women nurses, women teachers. At the same moment, men are usually soldiers, playing some prestigious physical games and leaders. These images often direct to further divisions between man and woman.

The hidden curriculum is known for reinforcing the traditional model of how girls and boys look and act through the use of course material. For example, teachers strengthen gender roles by encouraging boys and girls to develop different skills. According to Thorne (1993), children also split themselves along gender lines in the lunch room, declaring different space of the playground and often sanction individuals who go against gender roles.

The school location can be strong context for gender behaviors. For example, the cafeteria is a strong context where boys and girls separate tables if given choice. Likewise, on the playground, boy and girl groups take over spaces. The children of Different World project found that in societies where all the boys and girls go to school together, identical gender interaction was very high during free play, thereby follow-on in more gender segregation than was generally found in homes and neighborhoods (Whiting & Edwards, 1988).

Generally the mass media are one of the most influential instruments of gender socialization because television, magazines, radio, newspapers, video games, movies, and the Internet are present in almost everywhere around the globe. As a social institution, the mass media reinforce traditional gender roles. Magazines pointing towards females bring light to the importance of physical appearance as well as finding, pleasing, and keeping a man. While boys’ and men’s magazines focus on significance of physical appearance, financial success, competitive hobbies, and attracting women for sexual encounter.

These supposed ”masculine” and ”feminine” characteristics and behaviors are reinforced across the media system, from video games and movies that show athletic heroes rescuing thin and busty damsels in distress, to television programs that depict women as housewives, nurses, and secretaries and men as lawyers, doctors, and corporate tycoons.

Print media also play an important role in socialization. In children’s literature, for example, boys typically are the protagonists, who use strength and intelligence to overcome an obstacle. Girls are included in stories as being naturally passive followers of the male leader or helper’s eager to support the male protagonist in his plan. This state of affairs is undergoing change, however. An increasing number of television shows, movies and books have crafted new visions of masculinity and femininity. It remains to be seen if these images take hold and affect gender socialization processes.

2.4 Theories of gender inequality

Theories explaining the existence of occupational segregation by gender can be categorized into three broad groups: the neoclassical and human capital theories, institutional and labour market segmentation theories, and non-economic and feminist (or gender) theories.

2.4.1 The neoclassical human capital model

Neoclassical economics believes that workers and employers are normal and that labour markets function efficiently (Anker, 1997). The neoclassical economic view explains occupational segregation between individuals or groups by different human capital investment, or by different choices in the tradeoff between pecuniary and non pecuniary job rewards. According to the human capital theory, men are paid more than women because men usually have more human capital. The term human capital refers to qualities of individuals that employers consider useful, like level of education and years of experience. Females are considered to have a lesser experience than males due to careers break up in effect of motherhood.

Some economists who support this theory put forward that women’s are not dedicated towards their jobs and hence, they have to undergo through a series of difficulties. For example, they have less chance to have a permanent job, be promoted to superior and better paid occupation. In this model, wage gender inequality is maintained because men collect more human capital in the competitive free market. Opponent of this theory like Witz (1993) contends that even when female work constantly with no professional rupture, they still terminate in inferior and poor-grade employments.

2.4.2 Institutional and labour market segmentation theories

The initial point of Institutional and labour market segmentation theories is the notion that institutions, such as unions and large enterprises, join in determining who is employed, fired and promoted, and how much employees are paid. Institutional theories are also based on the belief that labour markets are divisional in certain ways. The famous institutional theory is the dual labour market approach.

Dual labour market theory was initially employed by Barron R.D. and Norris G.M. (1976). From their viewpoint, there are two labour markets. The primary labour market consists of high wage, job security and better chance for promotion. The secondary labour market includes lower paid occupation with little job security and poor working condition. According to this theory, women earn less than men because they are disproportionately employed in secondary labour market. Dual labour market is the outcome of the strategies used by company boss to get hold to the varieties of workforce they necessitate Barron and Norris (1976). Companies are ready to propose superior rewards to retain primary sector workers.

It is somewhat a short step to become accustomed to the model of dual labour markets to occupational segregation by gender, with one labour market segment consisting in “female” professions and the other in “male” occupations. This segmentation entails moderately low wage rates in “female” occupations because many women workers are “overcrowded” into a small number of “female” occupations. On the other side of the coin, “male” occupations, benefit from reduced competition within a broad set of occupations and, consequently, tend to enjoy relatively high wage rates. If females, but not males, are crowded into low earnings jobs only due to discrimination, then the gender composition of a job becomes an index of labour quality for males and, to a small degree, for females (Hansen and Wahlberg 2000).

Veronica Beechey in 1986, identified some limitations of this theory, firstly, certain women in blue-collar employment are given low salary even if their occupation is alike to primary area males employment. In addition, this model cannot clarify the reasons why women are less promoted than men, even when employment in same occupation.

2.4.3 Gender theories

The central image of the gender theories is that women’s disadvantaged status in the labour market is mainly due and is an evidence of patriarchy as well as females subordinate position in the society and in the family. In many societies, men are regarded as the sole breadwinner and women are accountable for household chores and child care. Anker (1997) explains, this division of responsibilities and male domination are vital for influencing females to accumulate less fewer human capital in contrast with men prior the labour workforce. That is, why girls receive less education than boys, and is less likely to pursue fields of study such as sciences, but is more talented for literature or languages study.

The same influences are also instrumental in explaining why women acquire less labour market experience, on average, because many of them withdraw from the labour force earlier, and many others have discontinuous labour experiences.This theory further show how female occupations mirror common stereotypical roles. For example, women’s caring nature, skill and experience in household work, greater manual dexterity, greater honesty and attractiveness can qualify her for occupations such as nurses, doctors, social worker, teacher, maid, housekeeper, cleaner, etc. while women’s lesser physical strength, lesser ability in math and science, and lesser willingness to face danger can disqualify her for occupations such as engineer, mathematician, driller, miner, construction worker (Anker 1997; Anker and Hein 1985)

2.5 Component of gender inequality-horizontal and vertical segregation

Jonung (1984, p. 45) defines the presence of occupational gender segregation as when women and men are differently spread across occupations than is consistent with their overall shares of employment, irrespective of the nature of job allocation. Gender segregation mean when the percentage of one gender is higher than that of males and females in an occupation. It reflects the gender differences in employment opportunity. The number of occupation with segregation against women is far greater than the number of occupations with segregation against men. Occupational gender segregation consists of two main component dimensions known as horizontal and vertical segregation (Blackburn et al, 2000).

Horizontal segregation is known as under or over representation of certain group in the workplace which is not ordered by any criterion (Bettio and Verashchagina, 2009). According to Anker (1998) horizontal segregation is an absolute and universal characteristic of contemporary socio-economic systems.

It focuses mainly when men and women possess different physical, emotional and mental capabilities. Such discrimination occurs when women are categorized as less intelligent, hormonal and sensitive (Acker 1990). Women are labeled as unreliable and dependent workers when they are pregnant. They are less competent as they will not work as long and hard as others. They become more stressful and sensible to tiny issues happen in the workplace. Martin (1994) declared that in masculine management style, most of the time women possess ‘soft skills’ and men possess ‘hard skills’. It is this concept which creates gender segregation in the workplace.

Vertical segregation referred to the under or over representation of a clearly identifiable group of workers in the workplace at the top of an ordering based on ‘desirable’ attributes such as income, prestige, authority and power.

Huffman (1995) finds that women do not possess enough supervisory authority at work, in education, occupational experience and prestige. One reason that women lack authority is because most women are more concentrated in female-dominated occupations which comprise fever position of authority than male-dominated occupations. Moreover, it is viewed that men’s have greater status value, that is men’s personality are more valuable than women’s and they are much more competent. (Broverman et al. 1972; Deaux and Kite 1987; Eagly 1987).

Men possess more powerful position in the workplace (Bridges & Nelson 1989). Women’s wage rates are lower than men’s even when their qualifications are similar. As women enter an occupation, this reduces the amount of prestige associated with the task and men leave these occupations.

2.6 Sex discrimination-discrimination, harassment and glass ceiling

In many parts of the world, women have experienced breakthroughs in their rights in employment. Despite these advances, women from every country and culture continue to face sex discrimination and sexual harassment in the workplace. The international community has recognized both discrimination based on sex in the terms and conditions of employment and sexual harassment as violations of the fundamental human rights of women (Gudrun and Danya, 1998).

Although sex discrimination is prohibited by law, it continues to be a widespread problem for working women. There are three forms of sex discrimination that have an effect on women in organizations: overt discrimination, sexual harassment and the glass ceiling. Each has negative effects on women’s status and ability to perform well at work.

Overt discrimination

Overt discrimination is defined as the use of gender as a decisive factor for employment-related decisions. This type of discrimination was targeted by Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibited making decisions based on sex in employment-related matters such as hiring, firing, and promotions. It consist such behaviours as to refuse to hire women, to pay them inequitably or even to steer them to “women’s jobs”. Overt discrimination also led to occupational sex segregation where jobs are classified by low pay, low status and short career ladders (Reskin, 1997).

Sexual Harassment

MacKinnon (1979:1) defined sexual harassment as “the unwanted imposition of sexual requirements in the context of a relationship of unequal power”. As in overt discrimination, sexual harassment is a persistent gendered problem for women in the workplace around the world. Sexual harassment, a form of sex discrimination, is but one manifestation of the larger problem of employment-related discrimination against women. It now appears obvious that sexual harassment is a form of sex discrimination.

There are three psychological dimensions of sexual harassment that continued to persist worldwide: sexual coercion, gender harassment and unwanted sexual attention ((Fitzgerald et al., 1995; Gelfand et al., 1995). The case of sexual harassment in the workplace is mainly due to obtain more power and status than the opposite sex (e.g., Baugh, 1997; McKinney, 1992; Piotrkowski, 1998; Riger, 1991; Welsh, 1999)

Statistical discrimination is another form of sex discrimination in the workplace, it consists of sex-typed job assignment (i.e. “error discrimination”-Aigner & Cain 1977, England & McCreary 1987, Bielby & Baron 1986a). For example, employers segregate men into jobs with physical demands and women into jobs demanding social skills (Bielby & Baron 1984, Farkas et al 1991). However, employers’ use of sex in job assignments exceeds technical or economic justifications: within the “mixed-sex” occupations that either sex could presumably perform, small differences in job requirements were accompanied by large differences in sex composition (Bielby & Baron 1986a:782).

The Glass ceiling

The term ‘the glass ceiling’ refers to invisible or artificial barriers that do not allow women from advancing past a certain level (Federal Glass Ceiling Commission -FGCC, 1997; Morrison and von Glinow, 1990). These barriers reflect “discrimination … a deep line of demarcation between those who prosper and those left behind.” The glass ceiling is the “unseen, yet unbreachable barrier that keeps minorities and women from rising to the upper rungs of the corporate ladder, regardless of their qualifications or achievements” (Federal Glass Ceiling Commission 1995b:4; emphasis added). This official description suggests that the definition of a glass ceiling m

According to the 2010 census, African Americans are less likely to marry or even graduate from college than Caucasian Americans, and black households on average earn $18,094 less per year than white households. The profound income and educational inequalities between African Americans and Caucasians in America today are strongly associated with the country’s history of slavery and racial discrimination. Though slavery was eliminated over 145 years ago, its practice, along with ensuing racial discrimination has had a direct influence on African American culture and opportunity throughout the past century. Multiple social institutions such as Jim Crow Laws, segregation, intimidation and discrimination have created cumulative disadvantages for many generations of African Americans. There has been a domino effect to the extent that despite great strides in racial equality, the lasting consequences of slavery and racism are still apparent today. Although legal barriers to equality have been eliminated with the civil rights movement and affirmative action, the lingering social, economic, and educational effects of earlier discrimination have been difficult to overcome because of the numerous disadvantages compounded through history that African Americans must face.

Due to a long history of unequal educational opportunity, African Americans still lag behind other groups in their academic success. For example, only 20% of all African American students leave high school ready for college, compared with 37% of Caucasians (Noonan 40). When the slaves were freed in 1865, almost none of them had any formal education and therefore were at an extreme disadvantage to the generally educated whites at that time. When these slaves were freed, they did not know how to read or write. Due to extraordinary racism

and the immediate need for money, education was unattainable and manual labor became their priority. This situation changed very little in the decades following emancipation. This was noted by the Richmond Planet, an African American newspaper, in 1936. It stated that “In the United States today there are one million Negro children of school age that are not attending, because of the inaccessibility of schools” (Richmond Planet). This is significant because several generations of African Americans missed out on education just as the country was becoming increasingly industrialized and education increasingly important. Essentially, they were set back many years, remaining stagnant while the rest of the country progressed.

Although many people recognized the need for a thorough education to attain a higher quality of life, this was not possible considering most African American’s need to work following emancipation. People such as W.E.B. Du Bois recognized the unfortunate contradiction in this situation, noting, “here is a race transplanted through the criminal foolishness of your fathers. Whether you like it or not the millions are here, and here they will remain. If you do not lift them up, they will pull you down. Education and work are the levers to uplift a people. Work alone will not do it unless inspired by the right ideals and guided by intelligence” (W.E.B. Du Bois). This statement is extraordinarily insightful as the impact of educational disparities can be felt by society as a whole. Du Bois’ statement still holds true today as educational disparities impact all areas of society.

Since emancipation both formal and informal segregation has also greatly impacted the educational opportunities of African Americans. Perhaps the most unfortunate Supreme Court ruling in African American history was Plessy vs. Ferguson, which allowed for “separate but equal” schools. However, this was never the case. John Ogbu’s article in the Journal of Negro Education states that before 1954, “Schools for Blacks were characterized by inadequately Trained and overworked teachers; by different and inferior curriculum; and by inadequate funding, facilities, and services. In the south, the school terms for black students were shorter than those for whites” (Ogbu 50). This impacted not only the current generation of African Americans but all following generations as a student’s academic success is correlated with their parent’s academic experience.

Not only did African Americans have to fight the law in order to gain equal education, but they also had to deal with racial violence and intimidation. For example, after Brown vs. Board of Education ruled that segregation is illegal in 1954, a group of students in Arkansas nick-named the Little Rock Nine had to be escorted by guards when attending a white school. This can be seen in Figure 1. The threat of physical violence most certainly impacted these and other African American students pushing the boundaries of segregation, ability to perform in a classroom setting.

The informal segregation that still exists to some degree today is just as harmful. Many inner city schools have a much higher percentage of African American students. These schools tend to be larger and perform worse in comparison to other schools. In one Harvard study it was discovered that “a majority minority school was five times as likely to have weak promoting power [graduation rate] as a majority white school” (Orfield 36). In these neighborhoods there is a concentration of poverty that greatly impacts a school’s performance. If the majority of students are dealing with poverty or personal issues many are not focusing on education. In addition many students must work in order to help out their family, leaving less time for school work. It is obvious that economic and educational inequalities are extremely interrelated. Not only did the educational disadvantages African Americans faced hurt their chances of gaining economic equality but they also faced many other purely economic obstacles.

The fact that African Americans were thrown into a money economy without any resources following emancipation put them at an immediate disadvantage. In order to make ends meet, they were forced into low paying and often exploitative jobs such as sharecropping. Sharecroppers were taken advantage of and usually accumulated prodigious debts. Merchants then took advantage of the in debt farmers and made it harder and harder for them to make money and pay off their debt.

African Americans have also faced disadvantages in job opportunity due to outright discrimination, violence and intimidation. African Americans received intimidation by groups such as the Ku Klux Klan. The KKK “employed extensive violence and terror to thwart reconstruction and undermine black freedom.” In addition, black codes specified what jobs African Americans could hold and outlined strict conditions of their employment. These unrealistic conditions can be seen in the Texas 1866 Black Codes which state, “In case of sickness of the laborer, wages for the time lost shall be deducted, and, when the sickness is feigned, for purposes of idleness and also, on refusal to work according to contract, double the amount of wages shall be deducted for the time lost and, also, when rations have been furnished, and should the refusal to work continue beyond three days, the offender shall be reported to a Justice of the Peace or Mayor of a town or city and shall be forced to labor on roads, streets and other public works, without pay, until the offender consents to return to his labor” (GWU). Though these African Americans were technically free their employment conditions often bordered those of slavery. These strict rules which do not even permit one to get sick made it practically impossible for African Americans to gain any sort of economic stability for many years. In the past century social mobility has been excruciatingly hard for African Americans because they started at the very bottom of the economic ladder and had little opportunity to move up. While many people argue that the decrease in income inequality since the turn of the century means that African Americans are catching up economically there still exists a large gap in wealth by race. There is an important difference between income, which has risen among African Americans, and wealth which mostly has not. Wealth is accumulated over time and consists of valuable assets people own and control, not necessarily money. While most whites start out adulthood with some sort of inheritance or property ownership, “Right now almost 80 percent of black kids begin their adult lives with no assets whatsoever” (Oliver). Since the majority of African Americans are entering adulthood without financial stability they are less able to grow wealth to pass along to their children. African Americans are less able to take financial risks in order to grow wealth such as investing or purchasing a house. In addition, it has also been proven that blacks are less likely to have a home loan application accepted, and that blacks are given higher interest rates. (Oliver 17)

African Americans have been disadvantaged in business, which is another way to grow wealth. Black run businesses and entrepreneurs could not thrive in the poor socioeconomic conditions in inner city African American neighborhoods. “While whites and other ethnic groups could do business with blacks, whites, and whomever else they pleased, black business was prohibited from entering into any but all – black markets”(Oliver 46). Since most African American businesses were restricted to poorer neighborhoods their ability to make a profit was reduced. These poor neighborhoods have made it very hard even to today for African Americans to move up socioeconomically. Clearly a large part of African American economic struggle today has stemmed from reduced opportunity to grow wealth through investments, home ownership or business.

Despite apparent advances in racial equality there has been a decline in economic equality in recent years. “In 2004, a typical black family had an income that was only 58 percent of a typical white family’s. In 1974, median black incomes were 63 percent of those of whites” (msnbc). The increase in the economic gap between Whites and African Americans can easily be explained. In general, there has been a growing gap between the higher class and the lower class. Since African Americans often are lower on the socioeconomic scale, they have been the victim of a generally more impoverished lower class. Due to their poverty, in places like Detroit where the economy got very bad, blacks couldn’t afford to move out of these cities where there was little job opportunity. In addition, since the 1970’s, our economy has evolved in such a way that higher education is more important than it ever has been in order to achieve success. This has hurt blacks because they have always had lower education rates and as society changed it became much harder for them to attain success without higher education. As msnbc puts it, “Black families have also been hurt by the decline of manufacturing jobs – the same jobs that helped propel many white families into the middle class after World War II” (msnbc).

In recent history, other societal forces have impacted gains in economic and educational equality such as increasing numbers of single parent households, trouble with the criminal justice system, and different expectations in American society. More African American households are run by single parents, and since marriage has been proven to give many economic benefits, blacks are at an economic disadvantage due to their lower marriage rates. (Oliver 122)

In addition, African Americans are more likely to be incarcerated than whites are. Ginwright shows that African Americans are unfairly treated in the justice system. He found that in Los Angeles County during 1990’s, “When charged with the same violent crime, blacks were nine times more likely to be sentenced; for drug offenses they were sent to prison 48 times more often than whites charged with same crimes”(Ginwright 4). Jail time and criminal records certainly make it harder for the African American to get a good job and often criminal offenses cause them to get fired from their job.

Lastly, there have been other attempts to explain differing motivations in education. One theory proposed by John Ogbu is that some African Americans in society simply feel defeated by history and that, “Black Americans, in particular, have witnessed many events in their history that have left them with the feeling that they simply cannot trust White Americans and their institutions” (Ogbu).

These societal problems compound upon each other. There is a vicious cycle where educational inequalities lead to economic inequality which holds back educational achievement. The simple truth is that this starts long before a child even enters school and “children in low-income housing hear fewer words than children in more affluent households” (Noonan 19). Though some have managed to escape this cycle many have not. The lingering question is what can be done?

Perhaps it is simply a matter of time and that slavery was such a disruptive force that it may take much longer to reverse the damage done by slavery and many years of racial discrimination. Despite the many disadvantages they have faced, specifically unequal educational opportunity, segregation and outright discrimination, limited opportunities to accumulate wealth along with other societal forces; African Americans have been extremely resilient, managing to attain an impressive level of equality. However, there is much work to be done and tracing these compounded disadvantages through history allows us to analyze and understand the barriers facing African Americans in society today.

Figure 1:

Unknown “Little Rock Nine.” Photograph. 1957. Accessed Feburary 22, 2011. http://www.ipelf.com/jefferson-thomas-of-the-little-rock-nine-dies/221424/

Sources

“An Act Regulating Contracts for Labor.” State of Texas. August 26, 1866. From The American Black Codes 1865-1866. George Washington University. http://home.gwu.edu/~jjhawkin/BlackCodes/pdfTexas.pdf. Accessed February 22, 2011.

“Can We Help Liberia.” Richmond Planet. January 20, 1934. University of Virginia Archives. Http://www2.vcdh.virginia.edu/saxon/servlet?source=/xml_docs/rp_news/raceplace_news.xml&style=/xml_docs/rp_news/raceplace_news.xsl&level=single&order=none&item=va.np.reflector.01.20.34 . Accessed February 22, 2011.

“Census Report: Broad Racial Disparities Persist.” Associated Press. Last modified November 14, 2006. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/15704759/ns/us_news-life/ Accessed February 19, 2011

Du Bois, W.E.B. “The Talented Tenth.” The Negro Problem: A Series of Articles by Representative Negros To-day. New York, 1903. http://www.yale.edu/glc/archive/1148.htm. Accessed February 19, 2011.

“FACTBOX: Racial inequality in the United States” Reuters.com January 18, 2009. http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/01/18/us-usa-obama-race-inequality-factbox-idUSTRE50H0EC20090118. Accessed February 11, 2011.

Houston, James Herbert et al. African American Family Structure: Are There Differences in Social, Psychological, and Economic Well-Being? Journal of Family Issues. Vol. 21. No. 7. October 2000.

“Income gap between black and white families grows.” Associated Press. Last modified November 13, 2007. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/21759075/ns/business-stocks_and_economy/

Noonan, Kathleen, Hilary Rhodes, Katherina Rosqueta. “Pathways to Student Success: A Guide to Translating Good Intentions into Meaningful Impact” The Center for High Impact Philanthropy. School of Social Policy and Practice. University of Pennsylvania. December 2008. http://www.impact.upenn.edu/ Accessed February 28, 2011.

Norton, Mary Beth, Sheriff, Carol, Katzman, David, Chudacoff, Howard P, Lodgevail, Fredrik, and Bailey, Beth. A People And A Nation. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2008.

Ogbu, John U. Minority Education in Comparative Perspective The journal of Negro Education, Vol. 59, No. 1. Pp. 45-57. Winter 1990

Oliver, Melvin L. and Shapiro, Thomas M. Black Wealth / White Wealth: A New Perspective on Racial Inequality. New York: Routledge, 1995.

Orfield,Gary.”Why Segregation Matters:Poverty.” The Civil Rights Project: Harvard University. Cambridge, Massachusetts. January 2005. Accessed March 8, 2011. http://bsdweb.bsdvt.org/district/EquityExcellence/Research/Why_Segreg_Matters.pdf

Petersilia, Joan. “Racial Disparities in the Criminal Justice System: A Summary.” Crime & Delinquency Vol. 31 No. 1. January 1985. Accessed February 22, 2011. Http://cad.sagepub.com/content/31/1/15

Ruggles, Steve The Origins of African-American Family Structure American Sociological Review. Vol. 59, No. 1. Pp. 136-151 Feb 1994

Unknown “Little Rock Nine.” Photograph. 1957. Accessed Feburary 22, 2011. http://www.ipelf.com/jefferson-thomas-of-the-little-rock-nine-dies/221424/

U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2011

The nature of inequalities between men and women dates back to the sociologist view of Emile Durkheim, and the idea of social facts and the essence of an individuals ability to act independently of the obstacles that deter from their personal right of achieving social equality (Ferrante 5). As Durkheim lay the groundwork for gender inequalities in society, the inequalities in leadership roles in the workplace are also in turn modeled by a society’s hierarchical structure or choice of social agency. Furthermore, the patriarchal social structure in the workforce in which women are seen as inferior is perpetuated by the collective social belief of female inferiority and a male dominance of power, as created by a mutual interaction between men and women. Since the women’s rights movement, the presence of women in the workforce has been increasing greatly, but discrimination and inequality in earnings is still prevalent in leadership positions. The nature of gender inequalities in society have laid the foundation for a structured system of inequality in the workforce while simultaneously reinforcing the social construct of male dominance and the psychological belief of self inferiority in females.

The nature of gender inequalities in leadership positions can be partially attributed to the viewpoint of Emile Durkheim in relation to social facts and the effect of a social structure that invests most power in males. Werner J. Cahnman and Joseph Maier’s article on sociologist, Emile Durkheim, in the Encyclopaedia Judaica, highlights Durkheim’s inquiries on social inequalities that are still prevalent today. Durkheim’s legacy was partially created by the connection he made between a social fact and it’s affect on societal structures, such as occupational status. According to Durkheim, because society “is above man and penetrates man [at the same time], it is ultimately the only thing that has the power to [. . .] submit them to rules of conduct, to privations, and to the kind of sacrifice without which society would be impossible” (Cahnman and Maier 63). Durkheim suggests that the individual of society experiences an indirect dependence “by focusing his attention on everything essential to the maintenance of society: its principle norms, values, institutions, its sacred symbols”, and as a result, they are subject to obey the popular belief of a hierarchical structure. This in turn leads to a distinct gender inequality between men and women (Cahnman and Maier 63). The opposing force of an authoritative societal structure is agency. According to writers Terri Apter and Elizabeth Garnsey of the Women’s Studies International Forum, the sociological debate of structure and agency emphasizes “the individual’s capacity to act independently of structural constraints” (20). Whereas Durkheim suggested that society maintains stability and structure through the individual’s submission to structure, agency advocates for the individual to be an active participant in society and face the constraints of society head on. As women are constantly perceived as inadequate active citizens in their society, they have learned to internalize the social constraints and reinforce the perception of females in society as the inferior counterpart of males.

The nature behind this hierarchical social structure that gives way to gender inequalities in the workforce is partially affected by psychological constraints that women experience through the structural constraints of society. Apter and Garnsey explain that social actions refer to the interactions and “mutuality of experiences” between the participants of society to formulate a common belief stemming from “constructional constraints in society” (19). Furthermore, as the belief of male superiority and female inferiority is formulated as a common conception, the “woman’s failure to act independently of social constraints prevents [her] from asserting their rights and successfully challenging the status quo in which [she] has an unequal share” (Apter and Garnsey 21). Women have been socialized to accept social constraints, causing an overall lack of agency that is essential to obtaining positions at the top of the hierarchical social structure. Societal gender inequalities were first formulated centuries ago, with causes stemming from social constraints working against women as enforced by the male dominance and the female’s submission to the society’s structural hierarchies. The American Psychological Association released the article, “Role Congruity Theory of Prejudice Toward Female Leaders” in the Psychological Review in July of 2002, to highlight the blatant prejudices toward women in leadership positions, as well as the obstacles women face in their endeavor to reach the top. Researchers Alice H. Eagly and Steven J. Karau state in this article that “leadership has been predominantly a male prerogative in corporate, political, military, and other sectors of society” and although women have, indeed, gained “increased access to supervisory and middle management positions”, they continue to “remain quite rare as elite leaders and top executives” (575). While women have come far from the times before the Women’s Rights movement, there is still room for improvement, as societal constraints continue to hinder a woman’s occupation of a leadership role in the workforce.

The causes behind workforce gender inequality is undoubtedly a product of societal constraints that inhibit a woman’s upward strive to leadership. The belief of male superiority in the workforce is reinforced as the “terms of male power rest on the assumption that society is structured to support male interests” (Apter and Garnsey 19-20). This belief of male superiority has perpetuated a distinct gender segregation that has been a long acting force in nearly every aspect of a woman’s life, as “prejudice against women causes and continues job segregation at work, while directly and indirectly men maintain that power in the home” (Apter and Garnsey 21). Because women often are expected to stay home and help create a family unit, “women are viewed as largely powerless when faced with such structures as the educational system and job segregation, which appear in crucial ways to embody male power” (Apter and Garnsey 20). As a result, a female’s worth is often determined by the male population, and the possibility of success is limited.

As social constraints block upward mobility, women have become socialized to psychologically limit themselves as a gender in their vocations, allowing the male gender to take on the role of superiority. This is emphasized by Apter and Garnsey in the Women’s Studies International Forum suggests that “women are seen from this perspective to take a shrewd measure of the cost of success in male terms in a male world and, accordingly, to choose different goals and other means of achieving them” (20). This viewpoint suggests that the inequalities in gender are not only enforced by powerful male figures, but also by the female population instead. According to this perspective, “if women freed themselves psychologically, if they changed their outlook, they could take action to remedy inequalities” (Apter and Garnsey 20). As society has formulated a belief of female inferiority, the possibility – in both a woman and man’s mind – of a woman reaching an elitist position of leadership in the workforce is seen as completely unattainable.

The main reason that perpetuates the job inequalities between men and women in the workforce can be attributed to the blatant discrimination of women’s entrance into previously male dominated jobs. The article, “Gender Inequality Across Local Wage Hierarchies” by Matt L. Huffman explains this gender discrimination and the limitations of female workers. Huffman states that the explanation behind “gender inequality jobs include a cultural devaluation of work done by women” as well as the fact that “hiring discrimination restricting women’s access to some jobs” inevitably results in “occupational crowding that drives down pay in female-dominated jobs” (324). Huffman accordingly inquires that another mechanism in perpetuating this inequality is “in the ability of powerful groups (such as men) to monopolize the most powerful positions in organizations” which can be found in jobs that ensue “the highest skill requirements, opportunities for advancement, and/or chances to exercise authority” (325). Huffman furthers his argument by conceptually calling his claim a “social closure process” in which “gender inequality is created and sustained through the allocation of women and men into positions that differ along key pay-related dimensions” (325). Huffman argues that societies “function to maintain the dominant group’s interest by sustaining existing inequalities in workplace through power and rewards” (325). This social closure process coincides with the sociological term the “glass ceiling effect” of which “blocks women’s social mobility into the upper levels in organizational hierarchies” as it explains the constant limitation experienced by women in climbing the ladder of success when in competition with male authoritative figures. Accordingly, studies have shown that within the presence of the glass ceiling effect, “increased inequality at high levels of an outcome, such as earnings and authority” are often present as well (Huffman 326). The inequalities in the workforce can be best understood by the wage discrepancies between equal paying jobs of men and women, primarily in leadership positions.

The findings from research in this particular area of study on gender inequalities show that there is a noticeable inconsistency between the earnings of men and women not only in equal job statuses, but primarily in positions of leadership as well. Two sociologists, Steven Sweet and Kimberly Baker, designed two learning modules to increase college student’s understandings of gender and racial inequalities in their intended vocations. The study supplied students with information and data from the census of that particular year, showing that the gender inequalities do exist in today’s society and are extremely prevalent. The data show that women under-earn men in 94.1 percent of the student’s chosen occupations, in 91.1 percent of all occupations, and in 92.4 percent of upper tier occupations (Sweet and Baker 7). Accordingly, it is only found that within 5.5 percent of the student’s chosen careers, 8.4 percent of all careers, and 7.1 percent of upper tier careers that men and women make equal earnings today in America (Sweet and Baker 7). As shown in these statistics, it is nearly impossible to escape gender inequalities in the workforce throughout America. Furthermore, The Psychological Review shows research that coincides with this phenomenon as they collected an array of statistics pertaining to major leadership roles that consistently show inequality, namely: “women constitute 4% of the five highest earning officers in Fortune 500 companies and 0. 4% of the CEOs (Catalyst, 2000); 13% of senators, 14% of congressional representatives, and 10% of state governors (Center for the American Woman and Politics, 2001); and 2% of military officers at the level of brigadier general and rear admiral or higher (U.S. Department of Defense, 1998)” (Eagly and Karau 573). As the preceding statistics show, women representation in the elite power jobs is highly limited; despite the fact that the number of women in the workforce has been steadily increasing. According to the New York Times, “throughout the 1900s and 2000s, and until this recession, women occupied less than 49 percent of the workforce. However, that percent has now crossed the 50 percent threshold for the first time” (Mulligan). Yet despite this achievement, “women make only 77.5 cents for every dollar that men earn” and to further these facts, statistics show that as the amount of education a woman has increases, the greater the disparity will be that she will have to accommodate for; stating that “women in specialty occupations were found to earn just 72.7 percent of what men in the same occupation were earning” (Mulligan). Although women’s rights have come a long way since the predating times of the Women’s Rights Movement, there is still a blatantly obvious discrimination towards women in the workforce, hindering the gender from attaining the success that society has strictly deemed achievable for the male species only.

Industrialization is a period in time in which economic and social changes lead a pre-industrial agrarian society into an industrial one. During this period, both economic and social changes are paired with technological innovation, leading to a massive manufacturing growth, where the economy itself, is organizing for the purpose of manufacturing. [1] Industrialization is also defined as the replacement of farming and resource extracting by manufacturing and the growth of the service industry. [2]

Industrialization started with the industrial revolution, around 1760, in Britain. It is considered to be a huge turning point in history; Daily life of everyone around the world changed because of industrial revolution. Average income and population underwent a sustainable growth that was never seen before. Nobel Prize winner Robert E. Lucas, Jr. said: “For the first time in history, the living standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained growth … Nothing remotely like this economic behavior is mentioned by the classical economists, even as a theoretical possibility.” [3]

I believe, along with literature evidence, that industrialization impacted the society and economy of the countries in which it occurred in so many ways. Industrialization caused or at the very least heavily participated in the shift from rural to urban our current society is a result of, it also changed the family structure as argued by many scholars, along with many other changes. I will first discuss the different views on the social impacts resulting of industrialization, before moving on to the economic ones.

The most widely agreed upon social impact of industrialization is urbanization; urbanization is the increase (both in population and in size) in the urban area. It is caused by rural migration, which is itself caused by the increasing concentration of labor into factories. [4] I personally believe that industrialization is the direct cause or urbanization. Since most of pre-industrialization societies were only based on subsistence, where each country would produce what it needed to “survive”, and that was mainly food, which made most of these countries rural; based on their own agriculture to create their means of survival. This is what we call subsistence agriculture. But with industrialization, a lot more goods were able to be produced and traded, so less and less subsistence agriculture was needed, and more people to work on the factories were needed. [5] Those workers needed houses to live in with their families, shops to buy the goods needed for their well-being and that of their families, etc. These needs caused large towns to be created as the number of workers needed to operate factories kept on increasing as industrialization started setting its roots deeper and deeper within the societies it started in.

Along with urbanization, industrialization caused the family structure to change heavily. In the pre-industrialization era, extended families used to live together in the same place for generations (uncles, grandparents, etc.), but with industrialization, men had to go work in the factories far away from home, so their nuclear families (parents with their growing children) eventually had to move depending on where work was available, making the extended family bonds less and less significant. [6] Talcott Parsons also argues that in the modern industrial society, individuals gain more by rejecting extended families relationships than by holding on to them, as an evidence of this, he shows how the only families maintaining kinship relationships are from the upper-class, where such connections have direct economic benefits, while in lower classes, nuclear families lived by themselves, as their extended families did not bring anything to them but obstacles.

Another social impact of industrialization has to do with women’s place in the society. It is argued in the literature that industrialization is the “real” beginning of women’s participation in the labor force; however, women were always expected to work, some of them were working on farms in agricultural oriented societies, else they were either heavily involved in textile work, or they were working alongside with their husbands in their shops, this while giving birth, raising children, and running the house. These kind of jobs could be done from home, since they did not require any heavy kind of equipment. Maxine Berg quotes an observer in Scotland: “Here as in all semi-barbarous countries, is the woman seen to be regarded rather the drudge than the companion to the man. The husband turns up the land and sows it – the wife conveys the manure to it in a creel, tends the corn, reaps it, hoes the potatoes, digs them up, carries the whole home on her back, when bearing the creel she is also engaged with spinning with the distaff” [7] With industrialization, women were expected to work outside of their homes, with completely different conditions. With strict work hours, women could no longer pace themselves, and find that balance between running the house, raising the children and doing work. Plus, the conditions under which they worked were a lot tougher, even dangerous. But they were still earning less than men even working equal hours. Due to these new conditions, women were no longer able to raise their children, so they were sending them to be nursed in the countryside: “”close to one third of all babies born in Lyons (some 2,000 of 5,000-6000) were carted off to the countryside” to be nursed.” [8] Based on the different opinions in the literature, I came to the conclusion that women’s working conditions changed with industrialization, for the worst during the industrial revolution (considering the fact that women now work outside their homes for the “first” time, and the fact that they were working in terrible and dangerous conditions), but as conditions got better with time, industrialization’s effect on women’s work conditions definitely became positive. One might even argue that the only reason women are now working in the same condition as men is industrialization.

Industrialization also had a direct impact on income and income distribution; a perfect example is the increase in income observed especially in Europe directly following the industrial revolution. The following graph describes those increases in income levels:

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Maddison_GDP_per_capita_1500-1950.svg/350px-Maddison_GDP_per_capita_1500-1950.svg.png

The graph is showing the gross domestic product per capita starting from year 1500 till 1950. The unit used is 1990 International dollars. [9] We can clearly see that following the industrial revolution, which started during the second half of the 18th century, income levels skyrocketed to the roofs in the countries that took part in the industrialization process.

Ronald Hsia and Larry Chau discuss in their journal article how industrialization in Hong Kong affected income and income distribution. Unsurprisingly, income levels rose as industrialization set foot in the country, but the authors argue that the increase was far more important for “the poorest” of the country, this is explained by the fact that a lot more jobs were created for those who were looking, and getting a job in a factory at that time only required to be physically capable to do the work. [10] With this disparity in the increase of income levels, income distribution got significantly narrowed as the poor are making “a lot” more money, while the rich are only making “a little bit” more. I believe this to be true in all countries affected by industrialization, while this might not hold for every single industrialized country; it is at least a direct consequence of a rapid industrialization.

It is also heavily discussed how much industrialization impacted the economy of the societies it reached, and even the world economy. Pollard argues in his article that the major economic impact of industrialization is time-space compression, which is something I agree with. Time-space compression means that with industrialization, it now takes a lot less time to travel the same distance compared to the pre-industrialization era. [11] One might wonder how is travel time relevant to the economy, it is pretty simple, since it now requires less time to travel, it also takes less time to trade, which directly makes the global economy more active. With this reduced “trade time”, countries no longer have to be subsistent, they can produce what they excel at and sell what is left, while buying other goods they need and don’t produce. Another thing time-space compression allowed was the access to previously unavailable regions; some of these regions had many resources to be used to expand the economy, plus the population growth could be better managed with the increased available space.

Industrialization impacted the society and the economy of the countries in which it set foot in so many ways. Industrialization caused the massive urbanization we can still witness today, it caused the family structure to be changed (dominance of nuclear families), it had to do with how women’s place in the society changed. Industrialization was also a catalyst for the income levels increase, and arguably for the decrease in the income level distribution, and it also, among other things, cause the time-space compression that now allows trade to be such an important part of the economy. To put it in a nutshell, industrialization had many impacts in the societies in which it was introduced, although some impacts seemed negative at first (like the working conditions in the factories along with the child labor with all the dangers involved in such conditions), it was all for the best in the end.

Sociology is defined as the study of social life of human beings. It helps social analysts to understand the working of human beings and society (Moore Kelly, 2008). Relationship between the individual and society has formed the major basis of sociological principles.

George Ritzer’s Integration model:

Ritzer’s model is a good example of sociological theory based on integrationist approach. It combines both macro and micro level theories in it. According to him, there are four highly interdependent elements in the society which are a macro objective component, a micro objective component, a macro subjective component, a micro subjective component. This theory is beneficial in understanding the society in both objective and subjective levels. It also aims at understanding the society norms and individual benefits from the society (Ritzer et al., 2003).

Adapted from (Ritzer et al., 2003)

According to this theory, all the four components are distinct and interdependent to influence the society. It emphasizes that individuals can change cultural norms and society according to their behaviour.

Behaviour of the individual doesn’t essentially influence the society. However certain habits may create positive or negative effect on the society. When a individual tries and modifies their bodies away from the knowledge of the society, it makes no difference. However, when individual tries to modify the society by habits and behaviour, it creates a social impact.

According to Ann swindler, ideology is a determining factor for influencing empowerment in the society and body modification is one such ideology. Body modification increased rapidly in the western countries over the years and slowly spreading to other countries as a trend of fashion. Body modification refers to changes to the external appearance of the body by using devices or fashion to change the body rapidly or gradually. Some of the body modifications include tattooing, piercing, cutting, branding, inserting rings or studs to ears, navel, nose, eye brows (Featherstone, 1999). Body modification can also be extended to the practices such as gymnastics, dieting and physical exercising techniques to alter the existing body structure. These modifications are gradually occurring and take a period of time to get noticeable (Featherstone, 1999).

Use of technology in body modifications is another additional practice, and this includes wearing spectacles for clear vision, using hearing aids and various body implants at heart, kidney and skin surfaces. Use of these modifications is necessary in normal functioning of a body in absence of regular controlled physiological process. When the body tends to become weak or unable to resist changes, these technological devices and nano technological products are used within or over the body to improve health condition and reduce pain in human beings (Featherstone, 1999).

Science and fiction influence body modification procedures indirectly by fascination and intention to follow or copy. Films are the major sources of science fiction and some of them include Robocop (Paul Verhoeven, 1987), Blade runner (Michael Deeley and Ridley Scott, 1982). Some of the films also emphasized on cyberspace and its influences which markedly improved fashion sense of human beings (William Gibson, 1986).

Media and magazines are alternatively cheaper resources to human beings which influence fashion. These resources create a cultural impact on human beings to adapt very commonly to makeovers and changeovers. Cultural aspects of the society have been gradually changing through media (Featherstone, 1982, 1991). Society tends to copy the fashion culture and adapts to it rapidly. Clothing is one such example, which changed over the years from extensive heavy clothing to lighter loose clothing exposing the skin (Bourdieu, 1978; Featherstone, 1987). However, these changes could create a wrong social and cultural impact on the society when wrongly used and interpreted in certain circumstances (Lloyd, 1996).

One of the major body modifications noticed almost everywhere is body building in men and dieting practices in women to change their body pattern to an entirely different look. According to Lee Monaghan, Males tend to in habitat the culture of musculature increasingly and depend on gym and training centres to shape out the body. They tend to adapt these changes to gain the attention of women and society. Females, on the other hand are in a trend of zero-size and slim versions and depend drastically on gym and dieting centres to shred the extra fat away (Featherstone, 1999). These attempts by the society although improves the heath and physique of an individual, it also brings some deleterious changes in the human body. Some of the changes include unimaginable body shapes after rigorous work outs and change in the feminine body structure in females. According to Roberta, not every body reacts in the similar manner to technology and exercise. Some bodies tend to improve and some tend to become abnormal in look and sense. In certain women, changeovers and makeovers could lead to deleterious effects such as change in feminine features (Doug Aaoki, 1996). She describes the use of lipsticks and feminine aids to restore the lost feminity. Regardless of all these attempts, it appears as ‘gender crossing dressing’ to the society (St Matin and Gavey, 1996). Many of the body modifications are irreversible and hence care should be taken in order to adapt to them.

Many of the body modifications are based on changing culture and fashion. Improving with fashion is different from complete transformation. Many of the body modifications cannot be reversed and irreversible body modifications are a risk to try (Paul sweetman). Sweetman describes that fashion trends vary from person to person and permanence of fashion depends on the type of body modifications he is willing to adapt. According to Polhemus and Procter (1978), body modifications are anti-fashion trend followed in modern days and is a means of escapism to avoid the traditional attire. Giddens (1991) supports the context by description of ‘body project’ whereby tradition is dissolved in modern times with relevant excuse of fashion trends.

Positive influence of body modifications on the society:

Body modifications are seen as positive phenomenon by various sociologists. Many of them describe it as growing modern with the changing world. Shildrick describes that society tends to change rapidly and body modification is an enhancement procedure to individualise and identify ones own self separately and uniquely. The positive aspect of modifying body according to the latest trends to inculcate modernity in the system is appreciated by many modern sociologists.

In addition, Society has gained a lot from using certain body modifications to ease their lifestyle (Featherstone, 1999). Use of spectacles and hearing aids has improved style of living with betterment. Adventures in surgical and clinical field by body implants of heart, kidney and artificial limbs have created a milestone. Use of these clinical modifications reduced mortality rate and improved longetivity of life (Featherstone, 1999). Use of artificial limbs has paved an ease of lifestyle for the physically challenged people. This improved their lifestyle and increased chances of competition and survival in complex modern life.

Body project as described by Giddens (1991) is complex and scrutinising the body projects by individuals for their own benefit has become a common practice in modern times. Use of clinical, scientific body modifications for the individual benefit is encouraged by many socialists and has become a common practice in all the places of the world. According to Virilio, body modifications are part of third technological revolution (Armitage, 1999).

Negative influence of body modifications on the society:

Some sociologists have rightly said that great inventions or developments are always followed by potential risk to the society. The modern society has incorporated many body modifications as a part of their lifestyle. Many sociologists discuss that although human beings neglect the fast pace of time, time is always reflected in the body change (Featherstone, 1999).

Society has imbibed the craze of fashion and body modifications to the maximum and these changes tend to be irreversible and deleterious in certain conditions. One of the most objectionable body modifications is cutting and piercing. Insertion of studs and rings to various parts of the body has become a common practice in modern days. Victoria Pitts argues that body modification is seen as factor of mutilation by the media and severely leads to certain mental disorders. Irvine Walsch (1993) describes the body modification as a craze and addiction to the society.

Conclusion:

In the modern era, body modification and fashion have become a common trend. Society has reacted to the new change increasing over the period of time. Although there is a positive impact of the new change in the society, the negative phenomenon is also associated along with it. Sociologists have mixed reactions to the change. The positive factor considered is reformation in medicine and improvement of human beings. The negative impact associated with it is craze, addiction and racism associated with the new fashion trend.

The media role in informing society about the surrounding world is imperative. Media has the influencing power of decisions both for what is news and what gets to be published, and the capacity to signify, events, places, people and situations in definite ways. Accordingly, media is considered as a dynamic stakeholder in giving significance to issues and events as they come up in the public sphere. Considerable levels of discussions are in progress about the effects of the media; a core assumption of media analysis is that the making of news has the prospects of influencing readers or audiences (Street, 2001).

Indigenous people’s representation in mainstream media of Australia is vital; as the media has the potential tools of describing indigenous people to non-indigenous Australians. The media present a baseline regarding what to think about Indigenous Australians, which has an impact on their mind-set afterwards. The media role of reporting race related issues was discussed in the report of The National Inquiry into Racial Violence 1991 (NIRV) stating that the perpetuation and encouragement of negative racial stereotypes, a propensity towards conflictual and sensationalist reporting and an inattentiveness towards, and often unawareness of, minority cultures can all add to build a social climate which is tolerant of racist violence (HEORC, 1991).

I found that Yolanda Walker’s article “Aboriginal family issues” which effectively enlightened the problems of Aboriginal people in contemporary Australia. This essay inline with Yolanda’s findings provides an analytical brief account of how mainstream Australian media portrays the Aboriginal family issues. This essay is focused on the removal of aboriginal children from their families, its effects on their development and

the reporting of these issues in the media.

2. Media – Positioning public opinion and perceptions

The role of the media in shaping public perceptions and opinions about significant political and social issues has long been the subject matter of much speculation and debate (Wilson & Wilson, 2001). Generally, it is acknowledged that our knowledge, thinking and beliefs about the happenings in the world, outside of our personal first-hand experience, is shaped, and some would say orchestrated, by how all these events are reported in print media and communicated through the electronic media.

Bernard Cohen stated “the press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about” (Cohen, 1963, p.13).

Explanations of the media’s influence describe, to some extent, what actually happens. The media can and often does decide what is reported, and these stories, in whole or in part, are assimilated and accommodated into the emotional fabric and cognitive

structures of individual readers and viewers.

3. Aboriginal: the concept of family

The expression “family” necessitates for brainstorming for finding its meaning for different cultural setups. The family is a social unit made up of father, mother, brothers and sisters. All these members play an important role while living together. The family has to fulfill some primary roles in respective cultures. Children in their early age of dependency are nourished and looked after by their families. A family passes on to their children the communication skills such as language providing a code of dealings with others enabling them to play an active role in the society.

And the family inculcates values and norms, the feeling of what is essential, what is worth protecting, defending and, if essential, fighting for. For Aboriginal people kinship and family are of particular importance. The concept of family is very strong among them in a sense that they give more importance to the members in their families such as more respect to their elders; respect their decisions, great love for their younger ones (Working with ATSI, n.d.).

Envisioning, the grief that develops when families consider themselves inadequate to fulfill their liabilities, or the child dies, or is taken away through state intervention, never to return. In public hearings of HREOC (1997) frequently, it was heard from Aboriginal presenters the assertion that “Our children are our future” and almost as often the lament “We have lost our parenting skills”.

4. Aboriginal Children removal from family

The Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission’s national inquiry for separation of indigenous children from their families in its final report (‘Bringing Them Home’) has exposed the level to which Aboriginal families have been disrupted since the entrance of Europeans on these coasts (HREOC, 1997).

It is hard to regard the level of impact on the Aboriginal families as result of removing children from them but the report (‘Bringing Them Home’) has recognised the fact that in 1910 until between one in three and one in ten indigenous children were forcibly removed from their families and communities. This forceful removal of children has affected most of the families for one or more generations (HREOC, 1997).

Since 1937, the removal of indigenous children from their families on such a large scale depicting it as national policy. Therefore, the Human Rights Commission said that official strategy and law for indigenous families and children were opposing to recognise lawful rule introduced into Australia as British common law and from late 1946, constituted an offense against civilization. It violated the accepted values and principles of the times and was the focus of dispute and confrontation. The officials and other contributors are to be held responsible for the imposition of such biased legislation which was harmful of vulnerable and needy children whose parents were incapable to inquire and know their children’s situation and defend them from misuse and mistreatment (HREOC, 1997).

Genocide is the forcible transfer of children from one group of national, ethnic, racial or religious to another group and to destroy them in whole or in part. At the height of the strategy of disconnecting Aboriginal children from their families is `genocide’ (HREOC, 1997, p.270.) The colonisers of this continent have thought that the best way to make black people act like white people was to get control of the children who had not so far learned aboriginal lifeways.

The removal policies have severely affected every concerned individual – where worst lives were lost. A little known but the most astonishing fact that 43 out of the 99 Aboriginal people had died in custody were separated in childhood from their natural families by the involvement of the State, Mission organizations or other institutions’ was exposed by the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody (RCIADIC, 1991).

5. Child Removal: Effects

Aboriginal children removed from families often suffer from or demonstrate

Mostly isolation from others.

Low self-esteem and thoughts of worthlessness.

Mistrusting everyone including state functionaries who maintain to shape community relationship to them.

Loss of identity: A former Aboriginal footballer Sydney Jackson’s exact age cannot be assured because the birth of Sydney Jackson can’t be verified by reference. July 1, 1944 was simply understood to be his birthday. Thus, people like Sydney have problems applying for lawful credentials such as passports (The Stolen Generations, n.d.).

Difficulties to find their religious beliefs: Since they were brought to many different missions or homes where they were taught different kinds of religions.

Inner guilt: Because Aboriginal children often blame their families for not caring and loving for them, based on incorrect information communicated by caregivers. However, later they often find out that their powerless families were frequently trying to bring them back to home.

Psychological problems.

Inspite of living parents most children (particularly boys) were told that their parents were dead, caused many to suffer severe Psychological problems… some just wanted to end their lives. -Bill Simon, taken away aged 10 (The Stolen Generations, n.d.).

Difficult to administer associations: Because they have never had a role representation to be taught from. Many interactions are vicious and abusive which left affecting and bodily scars so deep they would have a permanent impact on victim life and all his future relationships.-Bill Simon, taken aged ten (The Stolen Generations, n.d.).

Loss of cultural affiliation and language: Since they were deprived of traditional knowledge, therefore, Aboriginal children cannot take a part in the educational and religious life of their own communities. “I don’t know nothing about my culture. I don’t know nothing about the land and the language,” says Cynthia Sariago whose mother has died. “It’s hard going back to your native traditional setup because you’re not really accepted by your mother’s traditional people”

(The Stolen Generations, n.d.).

6. Negative Exposure: A Snapshot of Aboriginal Family issues in Australia’s
Mainstream Media

Since the white settlement in Australia, Meadows (2001) outlined the growth of media and journalistic practices in Australia. According to him, earlier the media coverage of Indigenous people mostly composed of conventional reflections that have been obviously racist (Meadows, 2001). His idea includes instances a subtitle from news publication The Bulletin in May 1908 that state publicly below its masthead: Australia for the Whiteman, a subtitle that practiced till 1960 when the magazine changed ownership (Meadow, 2001, p.41). The Moreton Bay Courier, an early newspaper of Queensland, incorporated a regular section titled The Blacks, which transmitted to its readers the most recent news of disagreement between settlers and Indigenous Australians. Even recently, exposure of Aboriginal proceedings and issues has sustained to place Indigenous people in a specific way, but has carried out this through a continuing structure of mind-sets and inferential racism, relatively than the previously overtly racist coverage. Meadows concluded that “… overall, Indigenous people remain largely excluded from mainstream media processes, their interests ignored, and their voices seldom, if ever, heard” (Meadow, 2001, p.163).

Elliott Johnston QC in his reports to the Royal Commission recognised that usually the Aboriginal people complain that they have had an extremely bad deal from the media, experiencing discrimination in access and presentation. We all accept that and know the pain and suffering that has been caused by the lies and distortions, negative stereotypes that the media often uses when reporting on Aboriginal issues (RCIADIC, 1991).

Sweet (2009) quoted Stanley (incharge of The Telethon Institute for Child Health Research) that “the more that the dominant culture reports negative stories about Aboriginal people, the more that Aboriginal children feel bad about being Aboriginal”. She says that the positive stories have better impacts at many levels. Academic articles published for years about the benefits of swimming pools for Aboriginal children’s health, with comparatively little impact. But in the media just one positive front-page story “resulted in swimming pools being put in all over the place.” Says Stanley: “I have these fantasy conversations with Rupert Murdoch and say, ‘you could Actually turn around Aboriginal people if you could change the way you report, even if you just made just 50 per cent of your articles positive, you could reduce suicide rates’” (Sweet, 2009).

Some Positive Stories: However, on the other hand media has some positive stories as well on its credit like Elliott Johnston QC in his reports to the Royal Commission recognised the positive role of the media.

The media played a significant roleaˆ¦in the establishment of this Royal Commission. By its coverage of the issues, from the death of John Pat to that of Lloyd Boney, by placing them in their broader social and moral context, and by its presentation of the campaign of the Committee to Defend Black Rights, the media has acted as one of the protagonists in the process of achieving greater justice for Aboriginal people that is the goal of this Commission (RCIADIC, 1991).

Therefore, in recommendation 208, the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody states:

That, in view of the complaints of Aboriginal people about portraying them prejudicially by the media, the media industry stakeholders should develop and promote formal and informal contacts with Aboriginal people through Aboriginal welfare and media organisations. The objectivity of such contacts should be the creation of more improved understanding on all sides, of issues relating to the media management behaviours of Aboriginal affairs (RCIADIC, 1991).

The media, though – for all its faults – is merely a mirror of Australian society. Certainly their production is based on the wishes of their consumers. Thus, one can argue that Australians allow their media to be languid and imprecise. It is also recognizable that rarely media as a whole attained the high moral standards that it imposes on other segments of the society. This unfair attitude is criticized by people and organization and deems it as oafish, bureaucratic, egotistical and occasionally utter dishonesty (Graham, 2005).

7. Conclusion

Media outlets make decisions about what to report, and what not to report. Similarly, they make decisions regarding what makes front page, and what does not. It is evident from the demographic information that Aboriginal family issues did not feature prominently in mainstream media. Only stories that involved controversy made it to the front page. This suggests that journalists and editors believed that newspaper readers had only marginal interests in the political and social affairs of Indigenous people. Given this, it is possible to argue, as stated by Molnar (2001) ‘that bad news is good news, and good news is no news’ (p.320).

Perspectives on Nursing Health, Culture And Society. This essay will discuss Indigenous health as an important issue to the Australian community and the problems that Indigenous Australian may experience within the current health care system. This will firstly analysis in depth the historical, cultural, social and political factors that have affected the healthcare for the Indigenous Australians. Secondly, some strategies that may improve the health care system.

Indigenous Australians culture is complex and diverse. The indigenous culture of Australia is the oldest living cultural history in the world dating back at least 50,000years. The reason why it’s survived this long is their ability to adapt and change over time. Aboriginals keep their cultural heritage rich and alive by passing their knowledge, arts, rituals and performances the passing from one generation to the next. The fundamental wellbeing of the Aboriginal people is their land, its environment that sustained by the people and culture, full of spiritual wellbeing. Aboriginal people were hunter-gathers who foraged for uncultivated plant and wild animals. The traditional diet was high in carbohydrates, proteins and nutrients and low in fat and sugars. However, modern Aboriginal diet are heavily westernised and tend to be high in fat and sugar but low in carbohydrate, fibre and nutritional value.

The World Health Organisation, social determination of health (SODH)are defined as ‘the fundamental structures of social hierarchy and the socially determined conditions these structures create in which people grow, live, work and age.” The structural organisation for the Aboriginal people is to settle them with housing, employment, educations and health services so they can live in a well presented environment. Health interventions have a clinical focus on individual behaviours such as diet, condom use, exercise, alcohol, etc despite the fact that when structural issues such as poverty is not addressed. Poverty, as represents most Indigenous people as lower socio economic status shows unhealthy behaviour, smoking, poor diet and physical activity which put a risk for numerous health problems. Indigenous people have been victims of societal and racism since colonial times. The dominant culture promotes exclusion, inclusion, inferior conditions or assimilation (loss of individual, unique culture). Though education is available it is often unmet to the needs of the indigenous children resulting to have low enrolment rate, poor school performance and high dropout rate which increase the vulnerability to child labours. It is important to have tradition Indigenous education to be acknowledged and valued. Literacy for the Indigenous must be proficient in their own languages but also to the nation language. Also education should include the land establishment forms of livelihoods that usual involve the land to understand the tradition competencies. The underinvestment in health care in areas in which Indigenous people live is due to rural/remote nature. There are a number of cultural barriers that prevent access to health care. Indigenous languages are often difficult leading to poor communication between nurse and patient. The may experience discrimination by the staff. The traditional land is vital source of material and spiritual well being serving a crucial resource for their reproduction. The loss of land due to polices of dominant culture creates a social problem. The restored relationship to the land is central to restore sense of identity, social status and political power as well as economic, food security, rehabilitation of land. It is important for health care workers to have a degree of cultural competence and work with traditional healing modalities to make cultural safety.

In 1788 European settlers colonised Australia. Upon settlement, the aboriginal people lost their land, their social and economical structure and in general, their way of life. Since colonisation Indigenous Australians have experienced extreme levels of loss, grief, disempowerment, cultural alienation, and loss of identity (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2002, 2003; Hunter, 1993) The trauma suffered by the stolen generations as a result of the assimilation policies of the Australian Government has direct relevance to the psychological adjustment of indigenous Australians when considered within the framework of attachment theory. Attachment theory is the quality of early parent-child bonding, as well as the infants actual experience of the relationship with their parents has important implications for psychological and emotional adjustment later in life. (Strahan, 1995).

There is enough evidence to suggest that Aboriginal people do not have the same degree of access to many of the health services as other Australians. This implies negative implications for the outcomes of Indigenous health. The access of primary health care is compromised or obstructed as they are more likely to present care later stage meaning more unhealthy state. “I was shocked by the poverty, disadvantage and a medical model of care working “downstream” patching local people up and sending them home again without any longer term, preventative care. The issues are not only health services offering primary health care but also acute care providing in hospitals and specialist’s services. Issues such as distance, transport, affordability, availability, language, and cultural stability are all potential hindrances to access health services. Transport, long waiting time, cost to be some of the most commonly cited barriers. Indigenous people also feel disempowered and are less likely to use health services. It is also very important to note that communication difficulties come from those living in remote areas. However the presence of an Aboriginal health worker can be a strong determinant in whether an Indigenous person will access health services. It is important that primary health care services are run by Aboriginal communities to aim to offer health care in a culturally appropriate setting. This causes to a major source of providing education and training for staff. Indigenous health workers and nurses are to provide primary care services based to interlinked with a holistic Indigenous specific definition of health that states: ‘Aboriginal Health is not just the physical well being of an individual but is the social, emotional and cultural well being of the whole community in which each individuals is able to achieve their full potential thereby about the total well being of their community. It is a whole -of- life view and includes the cyclical concept of life- death-life” (NAHS, 1989) It is also important to build a shared understanding of how community input will inform policy or decision making processes. Numerous attempt to define Indigenous mental health concepts, the common theme has consistently been the holistic nature of health and wellbeing. The word punyu (Ngaringman) encompasses both person and country. In fact caring for the country has been associated with improvements in wellbeing. Suggesting that for Indigenous people ‘our identity as human beings remains tied to our land , to our cultural practices, our systems of authority and social control, our intellectual traditions, our concepts of spirituality, and to our systems of resource ownership and exchange. Destroy this relationship and you damage- sometimes irrevocably-individual human beings and their health'(cited in Burgess et al.,2008,p.2).

On February 13 2008, the Prime Minister of Australia, Mr Kevin Rudd, offered an apology to members of the ‘stolen generation’. The apology attracted words and gestures of gratitude, relief, pride and sorrow. Also for some closure to a painful emotional wound. This let the healing begin it was an act of hope, dignity and respect acknowledging the existence and impacts of past policies and practices of forcibly removing indigenous children from their families. The apology represented that the ‘past of mistreatment and blemished chapter in our country to reconcile indigenous and non indigenous people to a better future. The Prime Minister and opposition leader Brendan Nelson both pledged to close the 17 year life expectancy gap between Indigenous and non- Indigenous Aboriginals by 2030. Promising that Indigenous Australians to have access to same quality health services. As Mr Rudd said “he is determined to make a difference.” Curtin’s University professor of health economics, Gavin Mooney said “it is important that Aboriginal people are involved in the process” It is important to involve the indigenous and ask what they want. As it is important to ensure that the voice of ordinary Aboriginal people to be heard and what it is that they want.

In conclusion aˆ¦.. the services of Aboriginal health aˆ¦.. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people’s health disadvantage needs to be considered in the broader context of social disadvantage, inequality and exclusion, political marginalisation and the historical currents of colonialism. In order to find strategies for health services for the Indigenous Australian need to take account of historical, social, cultural and political factors in order to understand the health disadvantage faced by Aboriginal peoples in contemporary society. This enhances our knowledge of unequal health outcomes between Aboriginal and non – Aboriginal people by focusing on the impacts of social structures and cultural appropriateness of health care services.

Indians are known for family-oriented culture. The family values play a very important role in their social life. A very important responsibility of family is the transmission of beliefs, traditions and core values.

India has a strong tradition of joint family system, in which members of multiple patrilineal related generations stay together and may or may not linked with possession of joint family property (Ghosh & Basu, 2008). Married women usually live with their husbands’ families, with retaining bonds with their natal families. They live under same roof, working, worshiping, eating, and cooperating together in social and economic activities.

Under this structure, there are clear lines of hierarchy and authority. And great respects should be shown to the members who are at higher position in the hierarchy. In general, elders rank above juniors, and among people of similar age; males outrank females. And traditionally, the oldest male member, which is usually the grandfather in the family, is the head in this family unit. And he has the authority over the whole family, especially in terms of big decision making and discipline creation. However, in some cases, grandmother also has certain authority over the younger females in the family (“Essay on the concept of joint family system in India”, n.d.).

With the economy development and urbanization, traditional large families face difficulties to adapt to modern rapid and flexible life style. More and more traditional joint families have split into nuclear families, in which a couple live with their unmarried children, as a reaction to a variety of conditions, including the requirement for some members to move from village to city, or from one city to another to obtain the advantage of employment opportunities. And this trend has been increasing under the impact of westernization and secularization.

However, the relative ties are still strongly connected to each other within kinships and loyalty to family is still a deeply imbibed principle from family members.

When facing with crucial decision and emergencies, seeking family agreement and support are still their first consideration. Numerous prominent Indian families, such as the Tatas, Birlas, and Sarabhais, retain joint family arrangements even today and they work together to control some of the country`s largest financial empires (“Indian family structure, indian society”, n.d.).

Indian Family Structure – Indian families

Some family types bear special mention because of their unique qualities. In the sub-Himalayan region of Uttar Pradesh, polygyny is commonly practiced. There, among Hindus, a simple polygynous family is composed of a man, his two wives, and their unmarried children. Various other family types occur there, including the supplemented subpolygynous household–a woman whose husband lives elsewhere (perhaps with his other wife), her children, plus other adult relatives. Polygyny is also practiced in other parts of India by a tiny minority of the population, especially in families in which the first wife has not been able to bear children.Among the Buddhist people of the mountainous Ladakh District of Jammu and Kashmir, who have cultural ties to Tibet, fraternal polyandry is practiced, and a household may include a set of brothers with their common wife or wives. This family type, in which brothers also share land, is almost certainly linked to the extreme scarcity of cultivable land in the Himalayan region, because it discourages fragmentation of holdings.

The peoples of the northeastern hill areas are known for their matriliny, tracing descent and inheritance in the female line rather than the male line. One of the largest of these groups, the Khasis–an ethnic or tribal people in the state of Meghalaya–are divided into matrilineal clans; the youngest daughter receives almost all of the inheritance including the house. A Khasi husband goes to live in his wife’s house. Khasis, many of whom have become Christian, have the highest literacy rate in India, and Khasi women maintain notable authority in the family and community.

Perhaps the best known of India’s unusual family types is the traditional Nayar taravad , or great house. The Nayars are a cluster of castes in Kerala. High-ranking and prosperous, the Nayars maintained matrilineal households in which sisters and brothers and their children were the permanent residents. After an official pre-puberty marriage, each woman received a series of visiting husbands in her room in the taravad at night. Her children were all legitimate members of the taravad . Property, matrilineally inherited, was managed by the eldest brother of the senior woman. This system, the focus of much anthropological interest, has been disintegrating in the twentieth century, and in the 1990s probably fewer than 5 percent of the Nayars live in matrilineal taravads . Like the Khasis, Nayar women are known for being well-educated and powerful within the family.

Malabar rite Christians, an ancient community in Kerala, adopted many practices of their powerful Nayar neighbors, including naming their sons for matrilineal forebears. Their kinship system, however, is patrilineal. Kerala Christians have a very high literacy rate, as do most Indian Christian groups.

–end (need to simplify into 5 sentences)

Family-building strategies in urban India: converging demographic

trends in two culturally distinct communities

Contemporary South Asia

Vol. 17, No. 2, June 2009, 141-158

Since the early 1950s, India’s population is characterized by a persistent trend of a masculine sex ratio4. In recent census enumerations, this trend has been especially noticeable in sex ratios at birth and in the child population (0-6 years old). Several studies on inter-regional variation in the

overall sex ratio and child sex ratio report stronger masculine sex ratios in the northIndian states of Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh than in the southIndian states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu 5.

The widely discussed ‘divide’ between north and south also relates to gender relations, status of women, and the kinship systems. Traditionally, the south Indian kinship system has been described as bilateral, with women having some rights ofinheritance and flexibility of residence after marriage. This is in stark contrast to the patrilineal, patrilocal, and exogamous kinship system in the north (Dyson and Moore 1983; Kishor 1993).

Some studies suggest that desire for a small family size in India is associated with a decline in preference for sons and in balancing of the sex ratio among children in the family (Bhat and Zavier 2003; Saluja 2005). A recent analysis of the National Family Health Survey II data suggests that a majority of married couples in Kerala and Punjab want a sex-balanced family and that a decline in the desired family size is associated with a weakened preference for sons in India.

–end

The nuclear family

The extended family

Dynamics of the family

Parental roles

For Indian women, giving birth to a child is a socio-religious obligation, adding accomplishment and fulfillment to their social roles. And after 30 years old is considered old to give birth to the first child. Besides of breast-feeding their children, traditionally, the mothers usually put great effort on taking care of the food and eating aspect of their children.

With female literacy growing to 54% in the 2001 census, more and more women are taking part in work force (need reference).

Marriage and courtship

http://www.chillibreeze.com/articles/tips-for-the-visitor.asp

It is amazing to see how often well-educated, independent professionals have to consult their parents before accepting a job offer or traveling abroad. At the core of Indian culture lies an innate respect for parents and other elders in the family, and usually no major decision is taken without consulting them. Parents often live with their married children, typically with a son. There is really no concept of a grown-up son or daughter ‘moving out of the house’ unless it is the result of circumstances like a job in a different city.

The arranged marriage is another practice that illustrates the importance Indians place on the family. A majority of marriages in India are arranged by families and several people are involved in the decision-making process. As popular belief goes, a marriage tied with many knots will not come undone. This is in complete contrast to the American culture where only two people tie the knot and experience has indeed shown us that it can be undone more easily. The divorce rate in America is much higher than in India.

American culture can sometimes appear to be too rebellious and independent, with children growing apart from their parents as they grow older. At other times Indian culture can seem too dependent on other people’s opinions and subject to unnecessary involvement from relatives, near and far. There are positives and negatives in both cultures. However it is important for foreign businessmen visiting India, especially those who are new, to remember that in general, important decisions are not made individually but as a family. This may not be apparent on a daily basis but will surface in critical situations.

—end

Female/male roles (changing or static?)

http://www.indianchild.com/culture%20_1.htm

Certain families observe a matriarchal concept i.e. the groom resides in the house of the bride or also follows a tradition as per the bride’s ancestors. Generally India is patriarchal in the sense the children get the surname of the father and the wife changes her surname to follow that of the husbands. It is also a tradition in certain families that the wife changes her maiden name but again this concept is also changing. Indian families are very accommodating and willing to accept change. It is a concept to observe the karva chauth or the raksha bandhan with great aplomb. There is an occasion for gifting and seeking the blessings of elders. It is important to respect and hold certain family traditions which are unique in terms of cooking, rituals and beliefs. Families give a lot of importance to lighting the diya in the evening and also each person in family has a habit of doing the puja in his own way.

–end

Education

http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+in0044%29

Education is divided into preprimary, primary, middle (or intermediate), secondary (or high school), and higher levels. Primary school includes children of ages six to eleven, organized into classes one through five. Middle school pupils aged eleven through fourteen are organized into classes six through eight, and high school students ages fourteen through seventeen are enrolled in classes nine through twelve. Higher education includes technical schools, colleges, and universities.

–end

—Summarized from (Cheney, Ruzzi, & Muralidharan, 2005)

Historically, Hindu education was tailored to the needs of Brahmin boys. Together with the colonial rule under British from 1700s until 1947, the education system was geared to preserve the position of the more privileged classes, permitting an avenue of upward mobility only to those with resources. Even today, the vast majority of students with high school education come from high-level castes and middle-to-upper class families in urban area. Due to the historical barrier and previous education focus on tertiary education, more than 1/3 Indian citizens (42% of adults) is illiterate, with 25% males and 46% females, according to 2001 Census (need original data search).

–Summarized from (Cheney, Ruzzi, & Muralidharan, 2005)

From: A Profile of the Indian Education system (in education folder) cited in above text as (Cheney, Ruzzi, & Muralidharan, 2005)

National center on education and the Economy, 2006

India has the second largest education system in the world (after China). Experts estimate that 32% of its current population is under the age of 15. Males in India complete just 2.9 years of schooling on average, females just 1.8 years. The quality of instruction varies widely, depending on the region of the country and whether one is enrolled in a State-supported public school or a fee-based private school.

Despite the highly inefficient delivery of public services, high levels of tesacher absenteeism and non-teaching activity, many Indian students remain motivated to succeed on the college entrance exams. The high level of competition for entry into the Indian Institutes of Technology, the Indian Institutes of Management and other top institutions is enough to spur millions of students to achieve at remarkably high levels, particularly in the areas of science and mathematics. Only 10% of the age cohort is actually enrolled in higher education. But in a country with sucha a large population, it amounts to 9 million students, resulting in 2.5 million new college graduates a year.

–end

1. The role of education in society

a. Primary education (quality, levels of development, etc.)

Summarized from (Cheney, Ruzzi, & Muralidharan, 2005)

The Indian school system follows the British structure. Primary school consists of grades 1-5 (ages 6-11) and middle school consists of grades 6-8 (ages 11-14). Primary school and middle school are compulsory. However, researchers estimate that an average of 70% percent of children between the ages of 6 and 14 actually attend school (need to search source, Karthik Mualidharan’s work).

Quality of state-run schools ranges from top-notch to abysmal. Private schools are, on the whole, better, but are charging high fees and are competitive to get admission. Mostly, they are choices of middle and higher class families. A recent phenomenon is the rising of low-cost private schools in both rural and urban India. Facilities and infrastructure are poorer, but they can offer smaller classes and greater teaching activity due to the lower salaries paid to the teachers and more teachers hired.

2 out of 5 first-grade students will not complete the primary cycles of 4 to 5 years (depending on the State) (need source, world bank).

Primary Stage (5 years)

The curriculum includes:

Grade 1 and 2

One language- the mother tongue/the regional language

Mathematics

Art of Healthy and Productive living

Grade 3 to 5

One language – the mother tongue/the regional language

Mathematics

Environmental studies

Art of Healthy and productive living

Upper Primary/Middle stage (3 years)

Grade 6-8

Three languages – the mother tongue/the regional language, Hindi and English

Mathematics

Science and Technology

Social Sciences

Work Education

Art Education (fine arts: visual and performing)

Health and Physical education

The issue is not a lack of demand, but the quality of supply. The main reason for students to drop out is because their public school experiences are often so poor that students can learn very little.

Girls get less chance to be supported in education. It is estimated that for every 100 girls that enroll in school in rural India, only one will make it to grade 12. Parents perceive returns to investment in educations of boys higher than that of girls. The PROBE study revealed that 98% of parents surveyed felt education was necessary for boys, and 89% of them felt it necessary for girls.

Secondary education

India has more than 100,000 secondary and senior secondary schools serving 30 million students, with the average teacher to student ratio of 1:34. The education in government schools continues to be free for grades 9 and above. But the majority of enrollment is in private schools whose fees vary considerably.

Secondary stage grades 9 and 10 (2 years)

Curriculum includes:

Three languages – mother tongue/regional language, Hindi, English (some schools offer as electives other languages such as Sanskrit, Chinese, Japanese, etc.)

Mathematics

Science and technology

Social sciences

Work education or pre-vocational education

Art education (fine art: visual and performing)

Physical and health education

—-Summarized from (Cheney, Ruzzi, & Muralidharan, 2005)

b. Secondary education (quality, levels of development, etc.)

c. Higher education (quality, levels of development, etc.)

2. Literacy rates

Languages:

With 15 main languages and hundreds of other languages and dialects, India has more languages than any other country. With 30% primary tongue, Hindi is the national language. English is ubiquitous language, because of the historical colonization by British. Other main languages include Bengali, Gujarati, Paunjabi, Tamil and Telegu and Urdu.

In 1980s, about 4 to 5 % of the population were estimated to use English. In 1997, 1/3 of population in India had the ability to carry on a conversation in English. And it’s estimated that there are 350 million English-speaking Indians in 2005 a8 (need data 2012).

Referrence:

“Essay on the concept of joint family system in India”, n.d. Retrieved Sep 19, 2012 from http://www.preservearticles.com/201106027427/essay-on-the-concept-of-joint-family-system-in-india.html

Ghosh, A & Basu, D. 2008. Evolution of joint family structure in India and the role of legislative inroads. West Bengal.

“Indian family structure, indian society”. n.d. Retrieved Sep 19, 2012 from http://www.indianetzone.com/38/indian_family_structure.htm

a8 David Crystal (honorary professor of linguistics at the Unileversity of Wales, Bangor) “sub continent raises its voice.” Yale global online. Nov 30, 2004.

Political system

Political structure

http://www.rogerdarlington.me.uk/Indianpoliticalsystem.html

the Indian political system is a much more recent construct dating from India’s independence from Britain in 1947. The current constitution came into force on 26 November 1950 and advocates the trinity of justice, liberty and equality for all citizens.

India’s lower house, the Lok Sabha, is modelled on the British House of Commons, but its federal system of government borrows from the experience of the United States, Canada and Australia.

THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH

The head of state in India is the President.

As members of an electoral college, around 4,500 members of the national parliament and state legislators are eligible to vote in the election of the President.

for the first time a woman now occupies the role of Presidency: Pratibha Patil who was formerly governor of the northern Indian state of Rajasthan.

Vice-President is elected by the members of an electoral college consisting of both houses of parliament. The Vice-President chairs the the upper house called the Rajya Sabh.

The head of the government is the Prime Minister who is appointed by the President on the nomination of the majority party in the lower house or Lok Sabha. Currently the Prime Minister is Manmohan Singh of the ruling United Progressive Alliance

Ministers are then appointed by the President on the recommendation of the Prime Minister and these ministers collectively comprise the Council of Ministers.

–pause

THE LEGISLATIVE BRANCH

http://loksabha.nic.in/

Lok Sabha is composed of representatives of the people chosen by direct election on the basis of the adult suffrage. The maximum strength of the House envisaged by the Constitution is 552, which is made up by election of upto 530 members to represent the States, upto 20 members to represent the Union Territories and not more than two members of the Anglo-Indian Community to be nominated by the Hon’ble President, if, in his/her opinion, that community is not adequately represented in the House. The total elective membership is distributed among the States in such a way that the ratio between the number of seats allotted to each State and the population of the State is, so far as practicable, the same for all States.

–end

–end pause

Currently the size of the house is 545 – made up of 530 elected from the states, 13 elected from the territories, and two nominated from the Anglo-Indian community. By far the largest state representation is that of Uttar Pradesh with 80 members.

Each Lok Sabha is formed for a five year term, after which it is automatically dissolved, unless extended by a Proclamation of Emergency which may extend the term in one year increments.

The upper house in the Indian political system is the Rajya Sabha or Council of States.

–pause

http://rajyasabha.nic.in/rsnew/council_state/council_state.asp

Article 80 of the Constitution lays down the maximum strength of Rajya Sabha as 250, out of which 12 members are nominated by the President and 238 are representatives of the States and of the two Union Territories. The present strength of Rajya Sabha, however, is 245, out of which 233 are representatives of the States and Union territories of Delhi and Puducherry and 12 are nominated by the President. The members nominated by the President are persons having special knowledge or practical experience in respect of such matters as literature, science, art and social service.

–end

–end pause

—end

Political parties

http://www.rogerdarlington.me.uk/Indianpoliticalsystem.html

In India, political parties are either a National Party or a State Party. To be considered a National Party, a political party has to be recognised in four or more states and to be either the ruling party or in the opposition in those states.

The original Congress Party espoused moderate socialism and a planned, mixed economy. However, its spin-off and successor, Congress (I) – ‘I’ in honour of Indira Gandhi – now supports deregulation, privatisation and foreign investment.

Over the years, India has evolved from a highly centralised state dominated by one political party to an increasingly fragmented nation, more and more influenced by regional parties and more and more governed locally by unstable multi-party alliances.

The Indian Congress Party is the leading party in the Centre-Left political coalition called the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) which embraces a total of 16 parties.

The other major, but more recently-established, political party in India is the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). Created in 1980, it represents itself as a champion of the socio-religious cultural values of the country’s Hindu majority and advocates conservative social policies and strong national defence. The BJP, in alliance with several other parties, led the government between 1998-2004.

The Bharatiya Janata Party is the leading party in the Right-wing political coalition called the National Democratic Alliance (NDA). When it was originally founded in 1998, there were 13 parties in the coalition but currently there are eight.

-end

http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+in0147%29

At the beginning of the 1990s, political domination by the Congress (I) branch of the Indian National Congress (see Glossary) came to an end with the party’s defeat in the 1989 general elections, and India began a period of intense multiparty political competition.

The Congress (I) political leadership had lost the mantle of moral integrity inherited from the Indian National Congress’s role in the independence movement, and it was widely viewed as corrupt.

The main alternative to the Congress (I), the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP–Indian People’s Party), embarked on a campaign to reorganize the Indian electorate in an effort to create a Hindu nationalist majority coalition. Simultaneously, such parties as the Janata Dal (People’s Party), the Samajwadi Party (Socialist Party), and the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP–Party of Society’s Majority) attempted to ascend to power on the crest of an alliance of interests uniting Dalits (see Glossary), Backward Classes (see Glossary), Scheduled Tribes (see Glossary), and religious minorities.

The structure of India’s federal–or union–system not only creates a strong central government with centralization of power.

–end

3. Stability of government

4. Special taxes

5. Role of local government

D. Legal system

1. Organization of the judiciary system

2. Code, common, socialist, or Islamic-law country?

3. Participation in patents, trademarks, and other conventions

4. Marketing Laws

Why is theory important in the area of sociology?

A theory is a proposed relationship between two or more concepts. In sociology, sociological theories are statements of how and why particular facts about the social world are related (Marcioni & Geber, 2010, p14). They range in scope from concise descriptions of a single social process to examples or models for analysis and interpretation.

Some sociological theories explain aspects of the social world and enable prediction about future events (Robert, 2012), while others function as broad perspective which guides further sociological analyses (Kallom, 2002). The importance of theory in the area of sociology cannot be overemphasized. Theories such as the social conflict theory, structural functionalism theory, positivism theory, field theory, rational choice theory, and so on, were developed to explain social phenomena.

In sociology, a theory may specify deterministic properties of a set of entities, thus permitting point predictions about future states of the relevant system, or it may specify probabilistic relations among entities, giving rise to statements about the distribution of possible future states of the system. A theory is provided with a set of “bridge” statement that permit the theorist to connect the consequences of the theory with predictions about, observable state of affairs.

Sociology is an examination of human beings in social contexts. Observing how people in specific communities interact, taking surveys and conducting experiments yield new data to build sociological knowledge. Sociological theories are frameworks explaining how specific aspects of society are linked to larger processes. An element characterizing society is interdependence. Individuals or organizations cannot survive independently while even seemingly dissimilar concept such as religion and the rise of an economic system can be closely connected. In other words, theories help determine interdependent aspects. Civic competence involved been able to make informed and rational decisions on every issue, from participating in elections to settling disputes with their neighbours. Theories in the area of sociology will help people understand how society works and how they can be a useful part in it.

Furthermore, it almost impossible to make decisions affecting a certain community without deep knowledge of its structure, as miscalculated decisions can have a severe impact on people’s lives. Tackling societal problems such as alcoholism, high criminal rate, requires decision makers to know what exactly the problem is and its causes. Sociological theories provide an insight on such issues, making it easier and safer for elected representatives to find solutions to social problems. Sociologist focus on how a society is structured, how each and every individual works as part of the whole, how society has changed over the years and predictions of future changes. In essence, sociological theories help people understand society and knowledge of the world as it grows.

Conclusively therefore sociological theory was defined by Rizzer (2013) as a set of interrelated ideas that allow for the systematization of knowledge of the social world. This knowledge is then used to explain the social world and make predictions about the future of the world (p5).

Discuss any sociology theory of your choice

The Social Conflict Theory is one of the theories in sociology. The conflict theory was originated by Karl Marx in the mid – 1800’s. The theory states that human behaviour results in conflicts between competiting groups. The belief is that in all stratified societies, there are two major social groups, a ruling class and a subject class (Anderson & Taylor, 2009). The ruling class enjoys been the owner and having control over forces of production hereby exploiting the subject class. This has resulted in a basic conflict of interest between the two classes.

Social conflict is the struggle between segments of society over valued resources (Aghababa, 2011). Social conflict turned a small population into capitalists in the nineteenth century. Capitalists are people who own and operate factories and other businesses in pursuit of profits. However, capitalism turned most people into industrial workers whom Marx called proletarians. Proletarians actually sold their labour for wages. Conflict theories draw attention to power differentials such as class, gender and race conflict, and contrast historically dominant ideologies.

It is therefore a macro level analysis of society that sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and social change (Macious & Gerber, 2011, p15). Social conflict theory is a compact of the four major paradigms of sociology. Other important sociologists Harriet Martinean, Hane Addams and Dubois (Macious & Geber, 2011) argue that this sociological approach does not look at how social structures help society to operate, but instead looks at how “social patterns” can cause some people in the society to be dominant and others to be oppressed.

The social conflict theory opines that individuals and groups (social classes) within society have differing amounts of material and non-material resources (such as the wealthy vs the poor) and that the more powerful groups use their power in order to exploit groups with less power. Two methods by which this exploitation is done are through brute force usually done by police, the army and economics. Earlier social conflict theories argue that money is the mechanism which creates social disorder. It can also be deduced from their beliefs that the society is created from ongoing social conflict between various groups. The social conflict theory believes social relationships are about power and exploitation; the rich exploiting the poor. Citing an example of this oppression is a renter for instance, living in a rented apartment for fifty years and having no right or economic interest within the property.

In sociology, conflict theory opines that the society functions so that everyone or group involved can make the best use of benefits which in the long run brings about social changes. Most times, the theory is applied to explain conflict between social classes in ideas such as socialism and communism. Competition plays a vital role in understanding conflict theory. Accordingly, there are three primary assumptions of modern conflict theory. The first is competition over scarce resources such as money and leisure which is characteristic of human relationship. Second is structural inequality which has to do with inequalities in power and reward. Thirdly, it is believed that revolution is eminent because change occurs as a result of conflict between competing interests, rather than through adaptation. According to McCafferty (2006), conflict theory emphasizes the social political or material inequality of a social group. It also contrast dominant ideologies and make open differences in power.

Conflict theory is mostly associated with Marxism, but as a reaction to functionalism and positivist method, may also be associated with number of other perspectives including critical theory, feminist theory, post-modern theory, post structural theory etc (Rodney, 2007). Conflict theory posits that social groups or classes compete with each other in order to obtain resources that the society deems important. A realistic social conflict theory is an understanding of the positive role of social conflict in serving the common good. It is actually expected to put change in perspective since all substantial social change involves social conflict. Social conflict theory plays a position role, when properly understood, in promoting groups to find common ground, form alliances, define core values, identify differences in view point, set group boundaries, and inform strategies for achieving expected change. Understanding these functions of social conflict in the context of a social conflict theory is an essential process in positive social change.

To understand social conflict theory, it must be known that in a democratic society, no one group should dominate all other groups. The power any group is supposed to have and especially of large institutions, is limited by force of law and by social impact, custom and social tradition within that frame of reference. Various interest groups and institutions compete, negotiate and work out changes in socio-economic arrangements generating social conflict in the process.

Wright Mills who has been called the founder of modern conflict theory opined that social structures are created through conflict between people with differing interest and resources. Individuals and resources in turn, are influential by these structures and by the unequal distribution of power and resources in the society (Knapp, 1994, pp228-246).

REFERENCES

Aghababa, Hossein (October, 2011). There will be Blood http://www.independent.fil Reviews. Com/there will be Blood

Anderson, M L. And Taylor, H.F., Sociology: The Essentials, (Rhomson Wadswoth, Belmot Ca, 2009).

Berger, Joseph,2000 “Theory and Formalization, Some Reflections on Experience. Sociological Theory 18 93): 482 – 489.

Craig J. Calhoun (2002). Classical Sociological Theory. Wiley – Blackwell pp.1

Gerber, John J. Macious, Linda M. Gerber 2011 “Sociology” (7^th Canadian Ed) 2011., Toronto: Pearson Canada p. 15

John J. Macious, Linda M. Gerber, “Sociology” Seventh Canadian Edition, Pearson Canada.

Keel, Robert.”What is Sociological Theory?” Robert Keel. Retrieved 29 February 2012.

Knapp, P-. (1994) One World – Many Worlds; Contemporary Sociological Theory (2^nd Ed.) It Apprercollins Colleges Div, Pp 228 – 246

Liz, Sharon, Granehoolz, Boiuma – Holtrop (2003) “Explaining Critical Sociological Thinking. Teaching Sociology 31 (4): 485 – 496.

Macious & Gerber, John J. and Linda M. (2010). Sociology 7^th Canadian edition. Uppersaddle River, New Jessey, USA: Pearson Education Inc P.14

Marx, karl 1971, Preface to Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, TR S.W. Ryanzanskaya, Edited by M. Dobbi. London; Lawrence & Whishart.

McCafferty Kevin C (2006) Conflict Theory How Contributor, http://www.Ehow.Com/Facts-5518763 – conflict-theory.

Obserschal Anthony, Theories of Social Conflict, from Annual Review of Sociology, Vol 4, pp291 – 315, (1978).

Rizzer, G., Contemporary Sociological Theory and its Classical Roots from The Basics, 4^th ed., (McGraw Hill, St Louis, 2013).

Rodney, Stark (2007).Sociology (10^th Ed.) Thomas Wadsworth.

Sears, A., A Good Book, In Theory A Guide To Theoretical Thing North York Higher Education (University Of Toronto Press, P.G, 2008) pp 4 -6.

Skocpol, Theda., States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China, (Cambridge University Press, New York, 1980).

Thio, Alek (2008). Sociology: A Brief Introduction (7^th Ed) Pearson.

Understanding Social Conflict Theory [online], Available from: http://www.orgownneysinto-the Justice.Com/Social Conflict Theory_ht,.

http://neo humanism./org/c/co/conflict_theory.html. [Accessed 23 March 2014].

1

INTRODUCTIONDefinition of sociological imagination

Sociological theories describe causes and effects of human behavior; study the social life, and society. Above definition displays two concepts: human being at the micro level and society at the macro level. Sociological imagination is a sociological theory that encapsulates these two concepts: individual, and society (What is Sciology). An individual is an element of society. The society acts forces on this element. Sociological imagination enables the individual to identify these forces, their impacts. Sociological imagination is the ability of connecting micro level to the macro level, and distinguishing personal troubles and social issues.

Importance of sociological imagination

External act of an individual displays what one does, which is the result of cause and effect. The cause aspect defines why one acts in a specific way. Individual act also displays the structural arrangement of a society at a location and a historical point of civilization. Individual act, history, and location are intertwined. Sociological imagination demonstrates how an individual perceives the social forces, as well as the cause and effect relationship of an individual or group of individuals with social issues or social forces. This is why we should care for sociological imagination.

Examples

In India, many centuries ago, widow women used to commit ritualistic suicide by being burnt alive along with the dead husband. The act of widow women was the result of social forces that existed during that time in India (Deducing with sociological imagination). In John Grisham’s novel A Time to Kill, the African American Carl Lee Hailey kills two white men who raped and killed his little daughter Tonya. Acts of the white men and Carl Lee Hailey were the result of social forces that existed in social groups in the USA at that time. The social force in this case was racism. Two white men raped and killed Tonya because she was black. Carl Lee killed the white rapists because he knew justice would not prevail for white men (A time to kill 2008).

Thesis statement

When I analyze my own life through sociological imagination, I am able to explain my acts and social forces behind them. If I can distinguish, good and bad acts using wisdom then I can change my behavior and worldview. Conflict theory envisioned a society as fragmented into groups. More powerful social groups exert forces on less powerful groups. Social imagination discloses the characteristics of social forces when and only when individuals interact with these forces.

SOCIAL CONTEXT

Definition of social context

In a net shell, sociological imagination is an interaction between an individual and social forces. This abstraction points towards the concept of existence of correlation between psychology and sociology. Social context theory reveals this relationship and show societal and social changes over the passage of time, explains the causes that brought changes and offers future change patterns. The model includes three factors: micro socialization process through the behavior of individual and collective of individuals, macro social forces through the social structure, and time (Social context theory). Social context theory is analyzed through social environment dimension and time dimension. Social environment dimension consists of social structures that shape the behavior of individual or group of individuals, social process demonstrates how individuals perceive, interpret and interact with the social structures, and social behavior represents the social realities through behavior of individuals. Time dimension enacts the power of the existing societal forces in maintaining social behavior patters (Social context theory). Social imagination acknowledges the existence of interaction between individual or group of individuals and social forces. Social context theory explains how and why the relationship emerged and what changes the relationship could bring over the passage of time.

Specific socio-historical force – 1

I lived in Russian part of the Ex-Soviet Union. During mid 1980s, country’s economic conditions started deteriorating. By late 1980s absence of adequate commodities started hurting public. Bad economy as a social structure shaped individuals behaviors with the concept that Russian Federation was feeding the parasites, non-Russians, so Russians must abandon “them,” the non-Russians. When social structure (bad economy) and social process (individuals interaction) came into conflict, it resulted the break up of the country.

Specific socio-historical force – 2

I was born and raised in Palestine. Social structure was poor economy, poor living conditions, fundamental religious belief, and constant aggression from Israel. Social process was my perception about Israel and their politics towards Palestine. Poverty, religion, and bad living environment shaped my behavior. My perception was to change living environment, which I found in cooperation with Israel. I voted for peace roadmap with Israel.

How your social context could be different

Imagine I am living in the USA during the period of segregation. I am an African American. The social structure created by European whites suppressed my rights; I cannot get proper education, proper job, and even a decent place to live. Now, guess I live in the USA when the country has a president who is an African American. It took a long time to make this change, however, now I have equal rights as whites.

SOCIAL LOCATION

Definition of social location

The concept social imagination assigns two attributes: an individual or group of individuals and social forces. Social imagination defines the interaction of an individual or group of individuals with social forces. At the same time, the individual is a character located at a certain place in the society. In American society, white, Anglo-Saxon, Protestant, male, heterosexual, upper middle-class, educated, older defines social location of a person (Social location). Social location defines a person’s place in their particular social order. A person’s bias, belief, and values are shaped based on social locations. Gender, color, economic level, coming from the village or town, healthy or sick, young or old; these are some of attributes of social location. Individuals from similar social location create their own social hierarchy. Social hierarchy classifies individuals in a group based on esteem, prestige, economic success, and accumulation of wealth into social classes.

Description of social location

I am from India, a country with 1.22 billion populations. I am male, less than 25, from town, literate, which respectively corresponds to 50 %, 51 %, 75 %, and 28 % of the total population. From the economic standpoint, 18 % constitutes rich and upper middle class, 23 % constitute middle class, and 59 % of the total population are poor. I belong to the 18 % social class (India’s middle class population 2011; India’s population 2012).

Personal experience #1

My childhood social location should be classified than middle class. I faced absence of money in fulfilling a child’s desire of purchasing toys.

Personal experience #2

Teenage years were financially little better, but my parents still were unable to pay tuition for schools with better teachers, and technology. I studied in schools for children from underprivileged families.

Personal experience #3

In college years, I became interested in Marxism and concept of conflict theory. Years of impoverished economic conditions contributed social imagination that rich and upper middle class are greedy and want to keep the middle class economically handcuffed forever.

RELATIVE CULTURE

Personal beliefs, values, or attitudes #1

Edward Taylor defined culture as a complex of behavior pattern and perception which includes knowledge, beliefs, morals, customs, ethics and any other skill and habits acquired by man as a member of society (What is culture?). At the same time, belief, customs, and ethics are relative to individual within his own social context. This is how anthropologist explains comparative culture concept (What is culture relativism?). Sociological imagination is interaction between individual or group of individuals’ acts and social forces. Individual act is a function of social process; hence, it characterizes consciousness of individuals. Perception, on the other hand, is a function of relative culture. Belief, morals, ethics form the foundation of human perception and its value varies from one social context to other. Social imagination relates to the culture.

Personal beliefs, values, or attitudes #2

My social location is poor class in India. Belief, morals, customs relate to orthodox Hindu religion. This culture determines my social context. Hindu religion believes cows are sacred animals. On the other hand, Muslims of the society sacrifice cows in the name of their religion. Social imagination is to make protest to this practice and stop sacrificing cows in the name of religion.

Personal beliefs, values, or attitudes #3

I am a Palestinian youth, spend the life in the ghetto in poverty; this is my social location. Belief, morals, customs and ethics relate to fundamental Muslim culture. Social context is formed by the fundamental culture. I perceive that Israel is the cause of my personal problems. Social imagination is to change Israeli attitude toward Palestinians. That is way; I am a member of Hamaz political party.

Personal beliefs, values, or attitudes # 4

Social location rich, male, middle aged, an Arab, and an owner of an industry that feeds 300 families. I believe my financial position is vital for the well being of employees. However, due to the economic downturn, the plant has stopped several employee support activities and has reduced salary by 15 %. Employees are blaming me for their personal financial problems. Employees are also blaming that the owner has not reduced own expenses. Employees have taken vows to fight me back. My social imagination is to suppress these new social forces with the help of country’s law enforcement agency.

CONCLUSION

Sociological imagination to a certain extent accepts Marx’s conflict theory and agrees that society is divided into fragmented classes with respective social, political and economic power. Conflict arises when a class or group feels social forces from other classes. Social imagination theory recognizes that social behavior is a result of social culture.