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Introduction

This paper aims to critically explore the use of e-learning in the workplace, identifying both its benefits and its limitations as a viable alternative to more traditional forms of training and education at work. It begins by examining the growth in the use of e-learning systems and the rationale for this, and outlines its various forms. The paper then investigates the relative benefits e-learning has for organisations alongside some of the perceived challenges and criticisms of its use. The paper concludes by summarising the key learning points raised.

The growth of E-Learning

Globally, the e-learning market has been growing rapidly, and e-learning is beginning to emerge as the new model of training and education across a wide range of different sectors and industries (Su et al, 2008). This growth has resulted in part from extensive changes in the working environment, and from a shift from a product-based economy to a knowledge-based one, meaning that there is a more pressing need to train and educate workforces in new technologies and services (Ong, Lai and Wang, 2004). In addition, technological advancement and challenges in technology-oriented working life have paved the way for new forms of electronic learning (Cheng et al, 2014). Consequently, e-learning now accounts for a significant proportion of corporate investment in workforce training (Deeney, 2003).

Understanding the nature of E-Learning Systems

According to Govindasamy (2002), e-learning is a learning experience that is delivered by electronic technologies including for example, the use of the internet, intranets, interactive TV, virtual classrooms and so forth. However, there is no clear agreement on its definition and as a concept, it has been researched in various forms such as an ‘instructional medium’ (Salas et al, 2002), a ‘training method’ (Burgess and Russell, 2003), and a ‘learning environment’ (DeRouin, Fritzsche and Salas, 2005).

It has been reported that the lack of consensus over the typology of e-learning in an organisational setting, the vagueness of the terminology used, the vastness in the range of technology and pedagogy involved demonstrates the complexity of e-learning as an entity (Cheng et al, 2014).

For some, e-learning is considered only as a mechanism for delivering training and education via electronic medium (Engelbrecht, 2005), whereas for others, it is seen as a distinct form of learning which uses collaboration, internet-based communication and the transfer of knowledge to enhance and develop both the individual themselves and their organisation (Kelly and Bauer, 2004).

Whichever way it is viewed, the growth of the e-learning market has resulted in the development and innovation of a vast range of different e-learning technologies including media streaming, providing learners with a much more stimulating and interactive learning experience (Liu, Liao and Pratt, 2009).

The Benefits of E-Learning

Some of the most commonly cited benefits of using e-learning systems as a means of training and educating the workforce include: a reduction in costs due to decreasing the amount of time spent off-site at expensive courses, travel and venue costs, and allowing more effectual use of downtime at work (Jewson, Felsted and Green, 2015); overcoming the limitations of time and physical space to deliver training courses (Gordon, 2003); an increase in the level of compliance to mandatory training for large workforces (Harun, 2002); increased convenience for the participants themselves in terms of choosing when to undertake training and access the course materials (Capper, 2001); and not needing to depend on the time or availability of a trainer (Bouhnik and Marcus, 2006).

It has been claimed that with e-learning, employees are able to take part in self-faced and interactive learning that would otherwise not be possible, and that the learner-centered approach required by e-learning influences employees to alter their learning behaviours within their work environment as well as being an influential training tool (Bandura, 2002).

However, it has also been noted that learner control does not always deliver better outcomes; in that programmes and resources may be used superficially whereby learners skim read the e-learning materials without really absorbing the meaning of what is intended to be conveyed (Kraiger and Jerden, 2007).

It has been noted that e-learning can also be useful to organisations in terms of standardising their training and in delivering it simultaneously to large geographically dispersed employees (Brown and Charlier, 2013). Required training can also be delivered much more quickly to large numbers of staff than with more traditional approaches (Welsh et al, 2003). Furthermore, in comparison to more traditional classroom based training, studies have found that e-learning can be just as effective, and has advantages in terms of helping to overcome learning barriers associated with introversion and physical distance (McKenzie and Murray, 2010). However, it has also been recognised that undertaking e-learning may require better personal time management and study skills than those needed in a more directed taught environment (Helyer, 2010), and that e-learning may not be appropriate for all types of learning and content (Welsh et al, 2003).

Another, less frequently cited benefit of e-learning is that it has the potential to manage the growth in the amount of information that employees are required to learn. It is claimed that this growth has often led to information overload during training sessions, leading to ineffective training where learners cannot retain all that is being presented to them. By conducting the training via e-learning and only the most interactive part in a traditional classroom setting, the information can be delivered over a longer period of time, and therefore improve information retention (Welsh et al, 2003).

Finally, a further potential benefit of e-learning programmes is their capacity to track the activity of learners and their level of achievement in terms of online testing of learner activities (Welsh et al, 2003). Within e-learning, tracking and storage can be made automated. This is particularly beneficial when training is required to demonstrate compliance to mandatory training requirements for example (Welsh et al, 2003).

Limitations of E-Learning Systems

Whilst the benefits of e-learning systems are widely recognised, it has also been criticised as not being as effective or inclusive as more traditional approaches to training and education, and concerns have been expressed that e-learning sometimes fails to live up to its full potential demonstrated through high attrition and sometimes low usage rates (Wang, 2010).

Deltsidou et al (2010) found that some individuals who use e-learning systems experience higher levels of anxiety when doing so due to limited IT skills, which subsequently has a detrimental impact on their experience of learning. It has also been argued that for those who are more computer literate, some traditional types of e-learning programmes are found to be restrictive and do not facilitate effective self-directed learning (Pata, 2009). The lack of learner interaction that occurs in the more traditional classroom setting has also been identified as a potential drawback for e-learning programmes (Brown and Charlier, 2013). In particular, it is felt that senior management could become too preoccupied with the capability to push information onto employees and forget that in order for learning to become embedded it involves more than just information provision and instead also requires practice, feedback, and guidance (Welsh et al, 2003).

Other limitations of e-learning systems which have been identified stem from problems associated with the technology itself. In particular, unreliable IT systems can act as a key barrier to e-learning with insufficient access to technical support, freezing computer screens, intermittent internet connections, and excessively long download times for accessing course material (Creedy et al, 2007). Issues around security such as computer hacking and viruses can also be problematic for e-learning programmes and the organisations who use them (Ramim and Levy, 2006).

From a cost point of view, implementing e-learning systems often involves high levels of upfront investment to purchase not only the hardware that is required, but also in relation to the ongoing costs involved in maintaining and renewing licenses that are often associated with external e-learning packages (Childs et al, 2005).

Specific costs include development costs to design and build the actual courses as well as hardware and software costs to allow users to access the training (Welsh et al, 2003). Furthermore, conducting testing of learning can be challenging with e-learning in relation to assuring the authenticity of those taking the test or exam (Gunasekaran, McNeil and Shaul, 2002).

Acceptance of E-learning in the workplace

The acceptance of e-learning as an appropriate means of training and education by employees is critical to its successful implementation in the workplace, and the reasons why employees might accept or reject such technology must be considered by organisations (Joo Yoo, Han and Huang, 2012).

One of the main theories used to explain such acceptance and the relative success or failure of the implementation of new technology such as e-learning, is the technology acceptance model (TAM) (Liu, Liao and Pratt, 2009). The TAM was derived from the theory of reasoned action and proposes two speci¬?c perspectives on why new technology is accepted or not which relate to the usefulness of the technology and its ease of use (Vijayasarathy, 2004).

The greater the perceived usefulness and ease of use of a system, the stronger the willingness and intention is to use it (Davis, 1989). The perceived usefulness relates to the extent to which it is considered that the technology will improve performance, and the perceived ease of use is the degree to which it is believed that using the technology will be unproblematic (Davis et al, 1989). In relation to e-learning, Ong, Lai and Wang (2004) identified that computer self-efficacy significantly impacts on its perceived usefulness and ease of use, with those who have higher levels of computer self-efficacy being much more likely to have positive perceptions of usefulness and ease of use. Therefore, organisations need to take into consideration the level of computer efficacy amongst its workforce before implementing e-learning.

Associated with the TAM is the theory of flow. This theory is concerned with concentration and asserts that when individuals are in flow, they become engrossed in their activity, and according to Liu, Liao and Pratt (2009), this theory can help to explain the intended and actual use of e-learning programmes by individuals.

Media rich and interactive e-learning systems are more likely to engage individuals and result in ‘flow’ which then impacts on their learning outcomes and experience.

Critics of e-learning state that a high level of self-motivation is needed in order to effectively complete programmes, and Roca and Gagne (2008) propose that self-determination theory is useful for conceptualizing the influence of organisational factors in an individual’s motivation to use e-learning. From their study, they found that individuals were more likely to continue using e-learning when they feel autonomous, competent and enjoy using it. They conclude that consistent with self-directed theory, when individuals participate in learning because it is interesting and enjoyable, they are more likely to engage with it and benefit from it.

Conclusion

From the critical review above, it is evident that the use of e-learning, as a model of training and education in the workplace, is growing at a rapid pace in response to the demands from ever changing working environments, shifts towards knowledge based economies, and advancements in technology.

Numerous benefits of e-learning have been identified focusing mainly around cost savings, learner convenience, flexibility, consistency and particularly in its ability to provide training and education to large, dispersed workforces simultaneously.

However, a number of challenges for organisations have also been identified around, gaining the acceptance of the workforce in implementing such e-learning technologies, underpinned by different theories such as TAM, flow and self-determination theory. Other limitations of e-learning have also been cited in relation to high start-up costs and problems associated with equipment and internet problems. Further concerns that have been identified in the current literature are around the lack of interaction between learners with e-learning which exists with the more traditional classroom learning environment.

However, despite the identified limitations, it would appear that e-learning in the workplace is going to continue to grow alongside continuous advancements in associated technology, and sophistication of e-learning programme design.

In addition, computer usage and the use of digital technologies is expanding and becoming the norm and so acceptance of e-learning is becoming much more prevalent. It is therefore likely to continue to form a significant proportion of corporate investment in workforce training and development in the future.

References

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Introduction

“Play is essential to development because it contributes to the cognitive, physical, social and emotional well-being of children and youth” (Ginsberg, 2007, p. 182). Play is so important to children’s development is that it has been recognised as being of vital importance by the United Nations (1989), as it makes a contribution to the holistic development of children, allowing them to discover the world through experimenting within the various environments to which they are exposed (Bruce, 1996). Ginsberg (2007) makes the observation that all those involved with children’s development, learning and education must consider every factor which has the potential to interfere with children realising their full potential, and to work towards ensuring that every child has access to circumstances which allow them opportunities to reap the benefits that are linked with play. The aim of this essay is to investigate the notion of play in the light of learning theories, in order to determine its importance in children’s development during their early years.

Definition of Play

It is important to recognise that it is difficult to give a single definition of play (Lillemyr, 2009) and that it is regarded as an all embracing term (Bruce, 1991) which describes a diverse range of behaviours which see children interacting with each other (Dunn, 1993) in order to make sense of, and to enhance their understanding of, the environments in which they find themselves (Bruce, 1996; Wood, 2004). Play can be regarded as the means through which children are able to discover things about the world in order to amend their vision of it (Oko, 1987, p. 44 in Bozena, 2007, p. 80), as well as an avenue through which children can experience joy and/or recreation (Buhler, 1993, p. 91 in Bozena, 2007, p. 80). Play is an opportunity for children to develop a sense of self as a result of solving problems within their environment, which allows them to enhance their cognitive skills in the context of specific cultural environment/environments (Dunn, 1993; Meadows, 1993; Bruce, 1996; Gallahue and Ozman, 1998; Wood, 2004; Robson, 2006). Froebel (cited in Bruce, 2004, p. 132) believes that it provides children with opportunities to utilise their newly accumulated knowledge in different situations which encourages them to adopt flexible attitudes and ways of thinking, as well as providing them with opportunities to practice and understand societal ‘norms’ and their role in specific environments (Rogoff, 2003). Play also affords children the opportunity to discover the difference between fantasy and reality, safety and risk, order and anarchy and to grasp the concept of potential in themselves for the future (Wood and Attfield, 2005). It is a vital component in children’s physical, social, emotional and intellectual development (Elkind, 2008) which allows children to utilise their imagination whilst enhancing their communication skills through engaging in a number of different roles, depending upon their environment and the environment in which any specific interaction is taking place (Eddington, 2004).

Value/Importance for Development

The value and importance of play is the motivation behind recent developments with regard to Early Years education in the form of the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) documentation (Department for Education [DfE], 2014). The notion of child centred education is built upon the acknowledgement that every individual child is unique and is entitled to have their needs met through the careful design of activities which allow them to develop commensurate with their ability, as a result of encouraging positive relationships with all around them in order that learners become competent, self-confident and self-reliant people (DfE, 2014). The ability to communicate is critical to children’s development – the government stipulate that those responsible for providing children’s education must create opportunities for children to acquire language and communication skills through play, such that they are able to express themselves in a variety of different ways (language, gesture) and they are able to accumulate information as a result of reading and listening to others (DfE, 2014). This stipulation is a direct result of the Rose Report (2009), which highlighted the fact that curriculum provision should have explicit reference to the purposes of play and that the activities designed to promote it should be meticulously planned. Rose (2009) also stressed that children needed to engage not only in individual play but also in paired/group activities, so that language development and acquisition could be encouraged whilst simultaneously learning to cooperate with each other (endorsed by Coates & Thomson, 2009) and developing an understanding of the value of good behaviour. It is vital for practitioners to recognise that play is not some form of break from the curriculum; it is an opportunity for children to develop their physical and cognitive abilities for the 21st century (Moyles, 2010) and is an authentic means of implementing the school curriculum (Action Alliance for Children, 2007; Moyles, 2010).

The notion that play enables children to enhance the skills is put forward by Hughes (2006), who contends that there are a large number (up to 16) of different types of play, including movement and discovery which involves the exploration of the environment and the use of language (endorsed by Ginsberg, 2007; Singer et al., 2006; Bateson, 2005). Other scholars such as Manning-Morton and Thorp (2003) and Burghardt (2005) emphasise the multipurpose nature of play in that children are able to use play as a means for learning through practising skills for the future, tackling and solving problems, as well as a means through which they develop their methods of communicating with those around them. A critical factor in any child’s development is feeling safe within the boundaries of any environment to which they are exposed; a number of writers (Moore and Russ, 2006; Russ, 2004; Sayeed and Guerin, 2000) allude to the fact that children must feel safe and relaxed in order to play with freedom and that play in itself allows children to relax, which has a beneficial effect on their emotional outlook (Russ, 2004). This ‘safety’ element can be achieved through practitioners building upon children’s experiences within the home environment, which can then lead on to opportunities for progression and extension through challenge (Department for Children, Schools and Families [DCSF], 2009). Critical to the learning process is the careful design of activities which take advantage of children’s innate ability to enjoy play and the fact that playing “… engages children’s bodies, minds and emotions” (DCSF, 2009, p. 10). Furthermore, through this process children are able to learn the skills associated with successful interaction with others in order to be part of a community, to experience and to manage their feelings/emotions and to develop confidence in themselves and their abilities (DCSF, 2009). Play provides opportunities for children to develop positive attitudes towards learning, in that they are able to develop their interests, be creative and experimental, to be critically thoughtful (Trevlas et al, 2003; Hurvitz, 2003) as well as developing resilience and the ability to work alongside others as a part of the educative process (DCSF, 2009).

Play and Learning Theory

The most important point about play is that it is active in nature. This active pursuit of knowledge was stressed by Piaget, who emphasised children’s ability to construct their own knowledge as individuals (Moore, 2000) through exploring their environment (Phillips and Soltis, 1998) in order to make sense of it (Wyse, 2004). Having scientifically studied children (May, 2013), Piaget put forward the notion that children develop in distinctive stages – sensorimotor (birth to 2 years), preoperational (2 to 6 years), concrete operational (7 to adolescence) and formal operational (adolescence to adulthood) – and that play becomes more complex as learners mature (for example, sensorimotor/practice play, preoperational/symbolic, pretend and fantasy play [Krause et al., 2003]). He also stated that as children came upon new experiences and knowledge, they added them to their existing knowledge base (assimilation) prior to being able to employ this new knowledge (accommodation), thus enhancing their cognitive abilities (Curtis and O’Hagen, 2003). Piaget (1973) believed that children were only able to gain a true understanding of knowledge as a result of this process of discovery, which enables them to be innovative and flexible as opposed to learning in a mechanistic way.

These constructivist principles were shared by Vygotsky, although his emphasis was on social and collective learning as opposed to learning as an individual. It was his belief that interaction with others was a key element in enabling children to learn (Buchan, 2013, Daly et al., 2004), and that learning was a social process. Vygotsky contended that the development of children’s communication and language skills relied upon their being allowed to experience the world around them in the company of others in a social context, which lead learners to an understanding of how to behave and how to control themselves in specific contexts (John-Steiner et al., 2010). This social aspect of learning is borne out by observations of children who imitate the actions of others without understanding, until such time as they are able to initiate actions for themselves [which is indicative of their level of comprehension] (Vygotsky, 1978). Vygotsky took this notion of learning from others a stage further when he stated that there was a difference between what children are able to do alone and what they can achieve with the help of more experienced others, labelling this difference the ‘Zone of Proximal Development’ [ZPD] (Pound, 2005). He firmly believed that every interactive process in which learners engage, irrespective of the environment in which it takes place, provides them with opportunities to develop their language and thinking skills (Whitehead, 2010). Furthermore, Vygotsky (1978) commented that play was the best and most effective means of preschool development as it enabled children to develop their skills through interaction.

Play and Current Early Years Practice

As highlighted above, the current provision as laid out within the EYFS (DfE, 2014) documentation places the child at the centre of the learning process with a specific emphasis on play, which encourages the development of communication, language and literacy skills. There are three prime areas of learning (communication and language, physical development, personal, social and emotional development) and four specific areas which supplement the prime areas (literacy, mathematics, understanding the world and expressive arts and design). It is the responsibility of individual practitioners, and indeed settings in general, to consider the individual needs and stage of development for each individual in their care. Activities within classrooms must be planned to ensure equality of access for all, irrespective of their background or ability and they should be designed to engage learners in purposeful play which is both child initiated and adult led. The balance between these two types of play is of extreme importance. Children can learn by leading their own play and allowing their needs and interests to guide their activities. However, whilst responding to individual children in a positive and warm manner, it is critical that there is a gradual movement towards activities which are more adult led, in order to prepare them for more formal learning as they enter Year 1 (DfE, 2014). Play should provide children with opportunities to explore and express their feelings, to develop relationships with others, to make decisions, choices and errors whilst being respected and valued as individuals; they need to be encouraged to develop self-discipline whilst retaining their ability to be imaginative and creative in solving problems (Bruce, 1987 cited in Early Years Interboard Panel, n.d., p. 7)

Conclusion

Play is central to the development of children in their early years. It provides a platform through which children are able to learn about themselves and the world around them through interacting with it. It allows children to have fun while they are learning, and to engage with those around them as a part of the process of learning, which not only deepens their knowledge base but also provides them with life skills such as the ability to communicate and work effectively with others. Play has been recognised as a central element within the education system which allows children to blossom through interacting with and learning from those around them. It is “… essential for children’s development, building their confidence as they learn to explore, to think about problems, and to relate to others” (DfE, 2014, p. 9).

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How might technology be most effectively applied within this context?

The use of technology in schools has been associated with small positive associations with educational outcomes (Zhao & Frank, 2003; Ager, 2013). However, this does not necessarily relate to a causal relationship as this may relate to the fact that more effective schools are often those that use digital technologies to teach (Higgins et al., 2012). In a meta-analysis of research concerning the use of technology in teaching, Higgins et al. (2012) suggest that technology is most effective as a supplement rather than a replacement for teaching. Furthermore, the use of technology in schools may vary according to the context, with some subjects and classes being more suited to the technology uses (Adamson, 2004). This essay will consider the application of different forms of technology to teaching languages. This will consider the teaching context of ten adult learners of an intermediate standard. To examine the possible uses of technology, the traditional uses of technology will first be considered in the use of a number of the more mainstream uses of technology in the teaching context will be considered. This will be followed by a discussion of some more innovative methods of learning that are currently being developed, such as Web 2.0 technology.

Audio playback offers an effective use of technology in the language-learning context. The benefits of this include the fact that learners may hear the language spoken by other voices than the teacher (Najjari et al., 2012). Given that when languages are learnt, the teacher will attempt to outline the words as clearly as possible, being able to listen to audio recordings allow the listener to establish the use of language in other contexts where less attempt is being made to establish clarity (Ibrahim, 2013). The use of audio recordings may be used in a gradated approach according to the difficulty of language and the complexity and speed of the spoken word (Richards & Rodgers, 2014). It may provide the examples of language use in everyday situations, such as playing back transcripts of discussions when making purchases in shops. Audio recordings can thus be used effectively and by providing a questionnaire or using it to provoke discussion, the listener may be effectively engaged with the listening task, rather than simply listening to the presentation (Richards & Rodgers, 2014). This allows the development of comprehension to form a part of the listening approach. The teacher may thus use it to supplement teaching by providing clear indications of how the language is spoken.

The drawbacks to the use of audio playback to aid teaching may include the fact that listening to spoken language means that the listener is engaging in a relatively false scenario of listening to a transcript rather than being able to observe the discussion in a real-life example (Richards & Rodgers, 2014). It also has drawbacks in its use for beginners in a language-learning context because they may be too challenging before some facility is gained with vocabulary (Najjari et al., 2012). However, for intermediate students, as a supplement to the teacher’s discussion, and as providing examples and comprehension exercises, the uses of audio playback are invaluable but only as part of a structured aspect of the teaching experience (Najjari et al., 2012). The listening comprehension exercise is thus a useful way of supplementing the teaching experience. In the teaching context specified, it is important to use a listening comprehension exercise sparingly to avoid it become a routine test, such as every other lesson rather than every lesson.

Television offers some similar advantages to the playback of audio recording if applied to a teaching context, but offers some other potential benefits (Ibrahim, 2013). First, the use of visual cues to supplement the listening exercise may be beneficial and provide additional ways in which the language material may be developed and learnt (Ibrahim, 2013). In audio recording, only one method is available for the student to comprehend the material, whereas through the body language of the actors, text, or visual graphics, cues can complement the use of speech to help the learner (Richards & Rodgers, 2014). However, the use of television may prove more difficult when compared to audio technology because audio technology allows the students to take notes while listening, whereas television often demands a greater level of attention from the student (Richards & Rodgers, 2014). This can undermine the impact of the use of television, and it may often prove easier for students to reduce their attention and avoid paying attention. Some programmes used involve pauses in order to allow students to take notes, but this can often undermine the flow of the programme and there is a need to predict how long the students may need. The overall impact of television may thus be minimal, in that its use may be limited; it does not necessarily achieve anything that may not be achieved well through audio technology. In the teaching context, television may be used relatively sparingly, approximately two or three times per week (Richards & Rodgers, 2014).

Audio recording technology may also provide a useful role for the teaching context as it allows students to hear themselves. In particular, many students may find this a useful approach to establishing pronunciation difficulties by being able to hear how the language sounds when played back (Al-Saraj, 2014). This is a useful approach to teaching spoken English because the potential for students to become reflective listeners of their own attempts to speak English. A drawback with this use of technology is that students may find listening to themselves embarrassing or the sound of their own voice may prove a challenge if played back to the class (Cook, 2013). The approach may therefore benefit from setting a task whereby students listen to their own exercise and provide feedback on it, or where students may listen to their own recordings. This thus offers a benefit but must be used according to an effective context.

Although the features of the technology thus far described have long been a part of the classroom, recent advances can help the ease with which they can be used. Audio recordings may now be more easily made by the student using an ordinary laptop computer, whereas until relatively recently such technology was not as easily accessible (Cook, 2013). The potential for setting tasks for students at home may be allowed by asking them to watch a video on a video hosting site, which was previously a more difficult task to complete where only videotape was used (Richards & Rodgers, 2014). However, there are also some challenges that are brought to the unsupervised use of such technology as audio technology may be used to slow down or to stop and start a section repeatedly (Beatty, 2013). On one hand, there is no harm in this being done to practice, and may in fact represent a useful tool for the student to work at their own pace without feeling penalised by the classroom experience (Cook, 2013). This can allow a more student-centred approach to language learning, allowing the students to complete some tasks at their own pace, freeing up space in the classroom for class-based activities.

The use of Web 2.0 technology can prove of significant benefit to this teaching context (Pailly, 2013; Kaliampos & Schmidt, 2014). This refers to the use of dynamic web pages that are created through user-generated content with a strong emphasis on interaction (Stevenson & Liu, 2013). In particular, this can help with classroom learning by allowing the class to develop as a community of practice (Wenger, 2011). Communities of practice are a key way in which tacit knowledge may be developed amongst students, which is defined as that knowledge which is generated and shared through an informal conversation (Wenger, 2011). Such knowledge is possible to contextualise and embody, but can pose challenges for the teacher if it is codified and expressed as part of an information segment (Wang & Vasquez, 2012). An informal forum is thus an effective way in which this may be developed as part of the language learning. Communities of practice using Web 2.0 technology may thus allow such knowledge to be developed and this can form a useful model for aiding language development.

Web 2.0 may thus provide a way in which information processing can be integrated with everyday activities. Social networking between the students and the teacher may allow for the tacit knowledge in language use to be acquired more effectively than might be the case in a didactic teaching situation (Kaliampos & Schmidt, 2014). Likewise, it has been proposed that using situations such as Second Life, where each user is given an avatar with which to interact with each other can provide a way for students to participate in the learning process (Wang & Vasquez, 2012). However, there are also some dangers in the uses of such technology, as in interacting with each other without censure, there is the danger that mistakes may become more deeply ingrained. However, the advantages of using such technology are that they can break down barriers to learning. In many cases, participation in classroom learning, particularly in language learning, is dominated by 20% of students (Pailly, 2013). The classroom environment can overcome this issue to an extent through the use of pair-working or smaller groups that give an opportunity for the different students to take part (Beatty, 2013). Interactive web technology can provide a safe environment for other students to interact.

The use of Facebook or other social media may be used to supplement language learning in this teaching context because it may be used as a method to enhance communication and collaboration between students (Kaliampos & Schmidt, 2014). This is already a popular format among students, and thus any encouragement to use it to improve upon learning goals may be achieved. Social media forums may be set up by the classroom itself, with exercises set to allow students to engage in discussions can also help ensure that such communication can take place (Kaliampos & Schmidt, 2014). This can be achieved by setting tests where students are given assignments to present a short forum subject, and then to comment and discuss another individual’s work. This can give the students the opportunity to participate in discussion and gain experience and confident in such discussion (Beatty, 2013). However, the extent to which this may reflect a real-life experience can be questioned. To an extent, the fact that the students are using their learning language may reduce the extent to which they provide this work (Blake, 2013). Furthermore, the fact that the students are encouraged to communicate in an informal setting may mean that they adopt a more colloquial method of writing, which may achieve communication while being largely inaccurate.

The benefit of using the interactive technology may thus be gauged according to the aims of the class (Blake, 2013). If the aim is to achieve a perfect understanding of the language then the extent to which encouraging students to interact in their own time may be questioned (Beatty, 2013). However, if the aim is to provide a medium in which students may practise their writing and reading work, allowing them to interpret the meaning through reading other students’ work, and ascertain their clarity by examining the response, then this technology may prove an important way to supplement the teacher’s work (Kaliampos & Schmidt, 2014). There may be different approaches to the assessment of exercises, but perhaps the most important method in this is to encourage participation, language practice, and this can prove of benefit to overall language learning goals (Pailly, 2013). It would therefore seem an effective contribution to this teaching context as it not only complements the provision of learning in school but provides the possibility of allowing language learning to cover aspects not easily covered through formal teaching.

In conclusion, there are a number of ways in which technology may be applied to the learning context in language teaching. Many of these have been used in different forms to complement language teaching for some time, and the use of audio playback and television has been a mainstay of language learning since such technology has been made available. However, with the rapid development of computer technology, it has become possible to streamline these approaches, allowing such media to be combined. Furthermore, Web 2.0 technology provides the opportunity for communities of learning to be developed online, which can allow tacit understanding of language concepts to be developed as well as different features of language use to be explored. Ultimately, it seems unlikely that technology can replace the traditional centrepiece of teacher-based language learning, but it can offer some important complementary activities that can benefit learners to a great extent.

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Introduction

Education should be the means through which children are provided with guidance with regard to spiritual, moral, cultural, social, physical and mental development which should, in turn, provide equality of opportunity, justice, access to democracy, and a productive and sustainable economy for everyone (The National Curriculum, 2000 cited in Inman et al., 2003, p. 5). The National Curriculum (2000 cited in Inman et al., 2003, p. 5) sets out the expressed aim that pupils should be encouraged to develop enduring values which foster integrity whilst helping them to develop into autonomous responsible citizens who are able to make an active contribution to the society in which they live. The curriculum should provide opportunities for students to reflect upon the belief systems and culture of those around them, while simultaneously developing their sense of self, as well as a sense of respect and tolerance for diversity (National Curriculum, 2000 cited in Inman et al., 2003, p. 5). The notion that Personal, Health, Social and Economic Education (PSHE) is the appropriate curriculum area through which this might be delivered is endorsed by the recent review conducted by the Department for Education (DfE, 2015). This document states that an in-depth review of over 70 studies found that these lessons could benefit pupils across a diverse range of outcomes if there was a coherent, universal approach towards the social, emotional and behavioural development of students (Sklad et al., 2012). Furthermore, Langford et al. (2014) state that concerted efforts to promote health and well-being within schools had a demonstrable positive effect on issues such as smoking, bullying, diet and exercise. The aim of this essay is to look at the place of PSHE in the curriculum and the influence that this (as a subject area/concept) can have upon the life of a school.

Definition

PSHE is described as an important part of a child’s education which should be delivered by all schools (DfE, 2013). The DfE (2013) state that the non-statutory nature of the subject allows PSHE to be moulded to the needs of specific groups of pupils, depending upon the environment in which they live and their particular needs. A critical aim provided for by this subject is that it should enable pupils to be able to make sound assessment of risk, and encourage learners to build up the necessary skills and knowledge to enable them to make considered, informed decisions (DfE, 2013). This is particularly important with regard to issues such as drug education, sex and relationships education, financial education and health education (DfE, 2013). The subject is described as the vehicle through which meaningful debate about essential issues can be brought into children’s lives (Goddard et al., 2013) which allows them to develop the life skills to become independent, informed and active citizens (Department for Education and Employment/Qualifications and Curriculum Authority [DfEE/QCA], 1999; endorsed by Worcestershire County Council, 2007). The DfE (2015, p. 4) state that PSHE “… is a planned programme of school-based learning opportunities and experiences that deal with the real life issues children and young people face as they grow up,” covering those issues in two strands: personal well-being covers sex and relationships education, drug and alcohol education, emotional health and well-being, diet and healthy lifestyle and safety education, with economic well-being covering careers education, work-related learning, enterprise education and financial capability.

It is pertinent to note that although PSHE for Key Stages 1 – 4 is not compulsory, some aspects are statutory, such as education with regard to sex and relationships, drugs, careers and work-related learning. It should also be noted that schools are expected to coordinate, plan, monitor and assess their provision of PSHE, as with any other subject area (DfE, 2015).

Development

In order to be able to fully comprehend PSHE in its current form, it is important that there is an understanding of its development which began with an acknowledgement that children’s personal and social development should be at the centre of any educative process, in order to ensure balanced cultural, spiritual, moral, mental and physical well-being (DfES/QCA, 2004). As stated above, the educative process should foster attitudes of equal opportunity, democracy, healthy living and sustainable development which in turn should enable pupils to develop a profound sense of self (DfES/QCA, 2004). Its inception as a subject came in the 1980s although much of the content associated with it was delivered via the hidden curriculum (Goddard et al., 2013). With the advent of the National Curriculum (DfE, 1989) came the notion that this content could be delivered as a part of the 10 curriculum subjects stipulated as being compulsory by the government. It was only as a result of the increased emphasis upon inclusive education that PSHE began to be seen as a discrete subject in its own right, being driven by the need for a citizenship education programme (Citizenship Advisory Group, 1997; DfEE/QCA, 1999) and a renewed commitment to the highest quality educational provision for all children (Department for Education and Employment, 1997). Health education as well as personal, social and emotional development were addressed via the Foundation Stage curriculum documentation (DfES/QCA, 2000) which paved the way for the Early Years Foundation Stage [EYFS] (Department for Children, Schools and Families [DCSF], 2008). This document, and documents produced for educational provision post 2003, were influenced by the Every Child Matters (ECM) initiative which called for a greater degree of multiagency working in order to ensure the safeguarding of children. ECM (DfES, 2004) aimed to provide teaching which allows children the opportunity to develop the knowledge, understanding and skills which enable them to be healthy, to remain safe, to enjoy life and to achieve things, to contribute to society around them and to be able to attain financial stability. There are palpable links between these aims and that of any good quality PSHE provision (Knowles, 2009) as well as additional support programmes across all age groups, such as the Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning Syllabus (SEAL, DfES, 2005) which provides a holistic approach towards encouraging “… the social and emotional skills that underpin effective learning, positive behaviour, regular attendance, staff effectiveness and the emotional health and well-being of all learning and work in schools” (DCSF, 2007, p. 4).

Present Role and Influence

The role of PSHE is critical in a number of ways. It provides opportunities for educators and society as a whole to provide children with the opportunity to develop a balanced perspective about many important issues which they will face during the course of their lives and to develop life skills. Often it also has the role of coordinating the delivery of compulsory aspects of education such as Sex and Relationships (SRE), work-related learning, and careers guidance (PSHE Association, 2010). In fact, it is viewed as being so important that there has been a recommendation by the government that PSHE should become a statutory subject in all schools (DCSF, 2009). McDonald’s report (DCSF, 2009) recommended that learning in the primary sector should focus upon physical development, health and well-being with the secondary sector having PSHE as a foundation subject. He also suggested that research should be conducted with regard to how this core provision could be most effectively delivered and stipulated that the subject’s profile should be enhanced with practitioners through increased levels of professional development programmes, and the use of external providers within PSHE programmes.

Further acknowledgement of the benefits that PSHE brings to pupils was highlighted by the DfE (2010) who made the point that the subject develops pupils’ skills to the extent that they are able to make informed choices and can help schools and society address major issues such as the misuse of drugs and appropriate sex/relationship behaviour (BBC News, 2015). Furthermore, the government has stressed the need for personal development within education through highlighting the need to provide a balanced curriculum which affirms the importance of subject knowledge and personal, social, health and economic awareness (DfE, 2011). This review of the National Curriculum (DfE, 2011) confirmed the government’s view that PSHE should form part of the statutory curriculum, although they recommended that the provision should be under the control of individual schools/local authorities in order to cater for the needs of children within specific environments, with the proviso that children’s personal development could be clearly observed and documented. Clearly, PSHE simultaneously fulfils a number of roles – a legislative role which ensures the safeguarding of children, a societal role that enables children to make a valuable contribution as they mature, an academic role in helping to raise educational standards as a result of children feeling emotionally secure, and a human rights role (Goddard et al., 2013).

The level of influence and impact that PSHE can have within any educational environment will depend upon the way in which the subject is approached and the extent to which the staff, and indeed the school as a whole, are committed to it. Schools can adopt a discrete subject approach which provides it with a greater degree of gravitas for both pupils and teachers which is more easily achieved in a secondary school environment (Kitson, 2004). A cross curricular approach is one that is seen as more desirable in a primary setting, in that children are able to make cognitive links between different subject areas whilst tackling the activities that are set for them by practitioners (Hayes, 2006; Savage, 2011). A whole school approach requires the whole school community to become involved in delivering a specific ethos which is provided not only through lesson content, but also in the interactions which take place across the school environment as peers interact with each other and adults (practitioners, ancillary staff, and support staff) engage with children (Denman et al., 2004). Government inspectors recommend that the subject be delivered in discrete lessons which should be supplemented through links being made to it in other curriculum subjects (Office for Standards in Education [Ofsted], 2013), and through engaging in whole school, cross curricular activities as well as group teaching/guidance in specific aspects of development and learning (PSHE Association, n.d.). Whichever route is taken by individual schools, it is critical that the delivery is one which is interactive, vibrant and engaging, which provides children with an opportunity to express their feelings and views with regard to the important issues of the day (National Children’s Bureau, 2006), although current government thinking (DfE, 2015) indicates that a whole school approach should be taken towards PSHE. This whole school approach should foster good relationships within the school community, include lessons which are interactive and engaging, provide students with a voice, encourage an acceptance of diversity, are relevant to the circumstances in which pupils find themselves and encourage not only a sense of self but also a sense of community (DfE, 2015). This type of approach can be evidentially linked to pupils’ readiness to learn, with links being found between pupils’ health and well-being and attainment levels in schools where health and well-being form part of a schools effectiveness strategy (Public Health England, 2014). Evidence would also suggest that PSHE can improve the physical and psychosocial well-being of students, which has a beneficial effect upon their academic achievement (DfE, 2015). It has also been found that good quality careers education, information and advice can have a positive impact upon pupils, in that it has been shown to increase the levels of self-confidence and enhance decision-making skills, both of which are beneficial to students’ prospects for a stable economic future (Hughes and Gration, 2009).

Conclusion

Clearly, PSHE has a central role to play in the curriculum with regard to providing pupils with opportunities to explore important issues which effect of them as individuals and society in general. The approach which individual settings take with regard to this area will have an impact upon the effect that it can have in children’s lives. It is critical that the school’s approach to PSHE is one which is engaging, thought-provoking and inclusive in order to provide equality of opportunity and an acceptance of difference irrespective of individual pupil backgrounds, abilities, faith, sexual orientation and gender identity (DfE, 2015). The whole school community must work as a team from the governors all the way through to the youngest pupils in order that pupils are provided with opportunities to develop as balanced, fair minded individuals.

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Sklad, M., Diekstra, R., Ritter, M. D., Ben, J., Gravesteijn, C. (2012) ‘Effectiveness of school-based universal social, emotional, and behavioural programs: do they enhance students’ development in the area of skill, behaviour, and adjustment?’ Psychology in the schools 49, pp. 892 – 909

Worcestershire County Council (2007) The Worcestershire Healthy Schools PSHE Handbook. Worcester: Worcestershire County Council

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I would like to study a PGCE as I embrace teaching as an opportunity to engage pupils in subjects about which I am passionate. I am confident that I am suited to study a PGCE because this particular course of study allows developing teachers to apply their specialist subject(s) in a creative way.

Having researched the PGCE course content I have found it to be dynamic, engaging, and of great value to teaching expertise and personal development. I look forward to engaging with children and young people and receiving and developing their ideas. Indeed, one of my greatest strengths is my ability to communicate. I convey my ideas and thoughts to students succinctly and enthusiastically, while appreciating the ideas of the pupils themselves, ensuring that they are listened to and understood. An enthusiastic and friendly disposition is essential to encourage interrelations between pupils and teachers. I am passionate about finding the most effective ways of stimulating and sustaining creative development, and it is important to me to optimize student engagement and success.

I am currently studying my BA in English and Media studies, and work as a Teaching Assistant in a secondary school. Studying at undergraduate level has taught me to schedule my time well, and I credit myself on being punctual and reliable. I enjoy working to deadlines, finding that working under pressure sharpens my focus. I understand that a PGCE is a full time occupation and will require considerable periods of preparation time, before teaching in a classroom. I keep an organised and balanced home environment, designed to maximise the benefits of my home study time. Indeed, my home environment when younger was particularly supportive of my interest in teaching, which has been cultivated from an early age.

I appreciate the value of acquiring behaviour management skills. Although I have had experience in dealing with difficult situations in the classroom, I look forward to developing these skills during a PGCE where I will be introduced to children of varying ages and abilities. As demonstrated throughout my BA I am an able public speaker, not afraid to speak in front of groups of people, and am confident that during a further year of study and experience I will become competent in controlling, and challenging, difficult behaviour.

I believe that I can contribute creatively to existing methods and theories in the practise of teaching. While I understand that conventional teaching methods must be respected, I believe that the development of a creative teaching style ultimately rests with the individual. I look forward to studying the national curriculum and applying it in a classroom environment, while at the same time relating it to the design of my own lessons to meet the standards which it sets. My work experience in a school environment has made me aware of the importance of school rules, and that teaching places great emphasis on the enforcement of these rules. I understand that it is sometimes extremely hard work to manage pupils who do not want to apply themselves and am willing to invest substantial time and energy into the challenging situations which might arise during a PGCE.

The theory and practice of teaching should ideally be integrated. I am an independent thinker, a quick learner, and adept at applying myself to the different facets of teaching. Yet I also work well with others, and enjoy sharing and cultivating new ideas in both the theory and practice of teaching. I believe that study within the Humanities can help students acquire confidence in their own abilities and can expand their experience of the world. I aim to help pupils develop the skills needed to work independently and competently, while encouraging them to enjoy and gain the most that they can from their studies.

During my time teaching at secondary level, I have seen that classroom study can be complemented and enriched by practical activities, such as excursions to museums and lessons in using library resources. Furthermore, while the classroom environment remains crucial to students’ assimilation of ideas and knowledge, the interpretation of these ideas that can be encouraged through critical study projects and even extra-curricular projects aimed to stimulate and perpetuate creativity. During my work as a Teaching Assistant I have developed a good rapport with the students. Already I have begun to develop a reputation as being kind, enthusiastic, and dedicated. Aspects of my character which I will carry into a PGCE are patience, conscientiousness, affability, and efficiency. Throughout my University career I have shown that I am competent at organising. While always handing my own work in on time I have helped to organise extra-curricular activities for students in the Humanities departments, such as workshops and seminar programs.

The development of my own education is important to me. I have taken additional courses to complement the BA course program. I would like to continue developing my own knowledge and skills throughout my proposed career in teaching, as I believe that progress and time management are key components to establishing my identity as a teacher. Furthermore, during my experience as a Teaching Assistant I have learnt the value of continually refining teaching practices and have recognised the importance of growing as a teacher. It is crucial that teachers recognize the influence inherent in their role and are self-reflective about their actions.

I am keen to share my knowledge of English and Media within the Humanities, and feel that I could make a substantial contribution to your department which enjoys a high reputation. The School is clearly very successful with a creative and stimulating approach to education, and I would be honoured to be a part of this. As part of a PGCE I envisage that further professional training and experience would be extremely valuable to me, and I look forward to applying my creative and personal skills in an academic environment.

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This essay will focus on the relationship between lifestyle factors and poor health outcomes, and will examine how effective interventions are in improving public health. In the 21st century it is possible for individuals to avoid a large burden of ill-health, and a third of all deaths are recorded as premature, meaning that lifestyle changes undertaken earlier in life could have prevented them (van der Brandt, 2011). These premature deaths equate to 44 years of lost life per 1000 people, and the main causes are smoking, lack of physical activity, obesity, and poor nutrition (Behrens et al, 2013). There is also considerable economic impact from preventable illness and premature death (Behrens et al, 2013). The evidence highlighting the importance of a healthy lifestyle is significant, with several studies demonstrating that lifestyle changes in diet, levels of physical activity, cessation of smoking, and better nutrition improve the health of entire communities (Doubeni, 2012, Li, 2014). However, one of the greatest challenges in implementing lifestyle interventions can be ensuring that the interventions are enacted in an effective way in the areas of greatest need, which are often areas of deprivation (Doubeni, 2012).

Smoking

Smoking is the current single largest cause of preventable illness and early death in the UK, although it seems likely that this will soon be superseded by obesity (Peterson, 2015). Smokers aged between 45 and 64 are three times more likely to have early deaths compared to non-smokers, and double for those aged between 65 and 84 (Peterson, 2015). There were 106,000 deaths in the UK (86,500 in England alone) in 2010 which were primarily linked to smoking (Oza, 2011). The main causes of death were chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cancers (in particular lung cancer, but also cancers of the oesophagus, pharynx, larynx, bladder, pancreas, and mouth), and circulatory disease, in particular peripheral vascular disease (Oza, 2011). In addition to this, there is a 60% increase in the levels of mortality in smokers from circulatory disease, which rises to 85% in those classed as heavy smokers (Carter, 2015). Overall, 1 in 5 premature deaths are directly attributable to circulatory disease caused by smoking (Carter, 2015). Those exposed to second-hand smoke on a regular basis have a 25% increased risk of circulatory disease (Carter, 2015). Complete smoking cessation will reduce overall morbidity and mortality, but any reduction will reduce the risk of developing aforementioned diseases (Jha, 2013).

Current guidance states that all smokers should be advised to stop smoking and should be offered evidence-based interventions (Cahill, 2013). Examples of interventions include school-based interventions which aim to prevent the uptake of smoking by informing pupils about the health effects of tobacco use in addition to social and economic aspects of smoking (Cahill. 2013) and community-based interventions such as cessation support groups. In addition to this, research has demonstrated that all healthcare professionals can have a positive effect on a person’s decision to stop smoking and so all should be aware of how to direct those who wish to stop to local stop smoking service providers (Cahill, 2013, Jha, 2013). Reviews have demonstrated that the most effective of these interventions are community-based, such as cessation support groups; however this is a problematic conclusion as many support groups were only run for the duration of the study with no longer term follow-up, meaning that longevity of smoking cessation in participants could not be established (Cahill, 2013, Jha, 2013). In addition to this, the sheer diversity of many of the school-based interventions makes generalisation of results difficult, particularly when tailoring interventions which target high-risk groups, including low income communities (Cahill, 2013, Jha, 2013).

Weight management

Behaviour and lifestyle choices are also fundamental factors in a person’s weight, and are key factors in the development of obesity (Cahill, 2013). A combination of an unhealthy diet and little or no physical activity are major risk factors for becoming overweight or obese, in addition to a number of other chronic health conditions, such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, hypertension, and some forms of cancer (Cahill, 2013, Jha, 2013). Physical activity is a key factor in determining energy utilisation, which is key in both weight loss and control, (Cahill, 2013). Current recommendations from the Department of Health (DoH, 2011) stipulate that adults spend at least 150 minutes a week performing aerobic activity of at least moderate intensity, and children over the age of 5 should spend at least 60 minutes doing physical activity each day (Doh, 2011). However, recent research has demonstrated that even those who exercise at the recommended levels are still at higher risk of poor health outcomes if they are still otherwise sedentary for a large amount of time (Nicholas et al, 2015). It is important that physical activity is incorporated into regular daily life, as research has shown that this is at least as effective, if not more effective, than weight loss through a supervised exercise programme, either in schools or in a community setting (Plasqui, 2013). Further research has also shown that regular aerobic exercise is the most effective form of exercise when reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease and can also be used as an effective treatment for peripheral vascular disease (Plasqui, 2013).

Despite a number of interventions such as Strength and Flex, Forever Fit, and increased funding for classes such as yoga which particularly target older adults there is still a clear disparity between the targets and the actual levels of physical activity (Sallis, 2012). Reviews of the literature suggest that this may be in part due to level of importance ascribed to exercise within the community, and also in part due to concerns around participating and therefore increasing the risk of falls or injury in the elderly (Sallis, 2012). Plasqui (2013) demonstrated that if these concerns are addressed before the programme is commenced, there will be a statistically significant increase in the levels of satisfaction reported, and an increase in the amount of time spent participating in exercise; however, there was no attempt to increase the level of importance ascribed to exercise within the participants. There is also a variation of physical activity according to social class and ethnic background, with black Caribbean men and women being the most likely to be physically active, and those from south Asia the least likely to achieve recommended levels (Sallis, 2012), although no clear cause for this has been established (Sallis, 2012). It is important to note that within this study, there was no robust method for validating the levels of activity reported; therefore, the levels of activity reported may not accurately reflect reality.

Levels of decreased physical activity can lead to obesity, which occurs when the intake of energy from food and drinks is greater than the total energy expended by the body through maintenance of normal homeostasis, the body’s metabolism, and overall physical activity (Carlsson, 2015). Current industrialised nations can be described as obesity-causing, meaning that it can be difficult for the population to maintain a healthy weight (Carlsson, 2015). This is usually because there is an abundance of highly calorific foods and drinks available and an increase in sedentary lifestyles due to an over-reliance on motorised transport and a decrease in physical activity (Plasqui, 2013). There is also strong evidence to suggest that eating habits which are established in childhood through cultural and familial traits are often upheld into adulthood (Carlsson, 2015). Research into obesity and obesity interventions generally lack specific details about effective approaches or individual programmes, and guidance extrapolated from this research is quite vague (Ding, 2012). An overall review of the literature shows a great variation in study design and other parameters, such as standardised service settings, long-term follow ups and their intervals, cost-effectiveness data, and intervention groups which included minority or those deemed to be more vulnerable (Ding, 2012). There is clear research evidence which states that obesity interventions should be focused on both diet and physical activity together rather than attempting to modify either in isolation, as research data demonstrates that a combined approach is more effective for weight outcomes (Ding, 2012). As obesity interventions should be multi-faceted, it is important to recognise the role of behaviour change and to develop strategies which encourage increased levels of physical activity and improve eating behaviours, as well as the quality of the food selected (Wadden, 2012). In addition, many interventions can also be delivered to families as well as individuals (Wadden, 2012).

Nutrition

Nutrition is not just a key component in tackling obesity, but is in itself a key area of interest when considering public health outcomes. It is estimated that up to a third of deaths from cancer may be attributable to unhealthy diets (Lang, 2012). In addition to this, the World Health Organisation accredit almost 5% of the overall disease burden in industrialised nations to poor nutrition, specifically to a low intake of fruit and vegetables, and achieving an intake of 5 fruit and vegetables portions per day is viewed as second only to a reduction in smoking when preventing cancer (Lang, 2012). It is also well documented that an intake of 5 fruit and vegetable portions will reduce the risk of stroke by 6% and the risk of heart disease by 4%, will contribute to other nutritional goals such as weight loss or maintaining a healthy weight, and will contribute significantly to controlling diabetes and lowering blood pressure (Popkin, 2012). Research in this area has shown that when experimental groups increased their vitamin and mineral intake by either increasing their dietary intake of fruit and vegetables or by taking dietary supplements which contained isolated vitamins and minerals, the isolated dietary supplements did not show the same beneficial effects as an increased level of fruit and vegetable intake (Popkin, 2012), although this was a short-term study and therefore this data does not indicate the long-term impact that additional dietary supplements may have.

There are a number of factors which may present difficulties in increasing the average fruit and vegetable consumption from the current levels of less than 3 a day, which is lower still among those on low incomes and among children (Yang, 2012). The first of these factors addresses access and availability and is concerned with environmental variables, such as location, range of produce available, and costs (Yang, 2012). The second of these is focused on the individual, and addresses more personal motivations such as beliefs and knowledge, habits, and taste (Popkin, 2012). Programmes aiming to improve nutrition and address obesity are addressing these issues by working with the food industry to change food labelling, establish goals for reducing the levels of fat and sugar in food and improving the ease of access to healthy foods (Popkin, 2012). As these changes would be relatively simple to implement, it is concerning to see that research shows that figures for children’s consumption of fruit and vegetables remain low (Yang, 2012). The average consumption is around 15% of the daily recommended intake, with poorer areas reporting lower averages of less than 10% (Yang, 2012). Perhaps the most important factor in this will be the knowledge and motivations of the care provider and it is important that programmes which aim to improve children’s consumption of fruit and vegetables also includes the wider family (Popkin, 2012).

In conclusion, there is strong evidence that lifestyle interventions can be effectively employed to improve public health in the short-term where there is funding to do so and where there are clear examples of effective strategies and follow-ups within research. However it is important to note that users of these services will often require input from more than one intervention service, and that consideration of integration of some key services such as smoking cessation and weight management should be considered. There is a clear need for longer follow-ups within all intervention research and it is important to recognise that many of these interventions will have numerous strands, targeting both individuals and their wider social groups. It can thereby be seen that lifestyle factors and poor health outcomes are clearly irrevocably linked, and that any intervention put in place to prevent poor health outcomes should involve both the individual and the wider community in which they are involved. This may act as a source of support and encouragement, and may be instrumental in motivating individuals. Although a large number of these interventions require individual motivation, it is also important to note that in order for these interventions to be successful, individuals and communities must be able to take effective steps to achieve their aims. For example, in the case of childhood nutrition, unless there is ready access to healthy and nutritious food, any educational programmes aimed to increase awareness will only be partially successful. Lifestyle factors and public health can therefore be seen to be the responsibility of not only the individual, but those providing the intervention and the community as a whole.

References

Behrens, G., Fischer, B., Kohler, S., Park, Y., Hollenbeck, A., and Leitzmann, M. (2013). Health lifestyles behaviours and decreased risk of mortality in a large prospective study of U.S men and women, European Journal of Epidemiology, 28(5), pp.361-372.

Cahill, L. (2013). Pharmacological interventions for smoking cessation: an overview and network meta-analysis, British Medical Journal, 1521(23), pp.264-270.

Carlsson, A. (2015). Physical activity, obesity, and risk of cardiovascular disease in middle-aged men during a median of 30 years follow up, European Journal of Preventative Cardiology, 101(2), pp.246-249.

Carter, B. (2015). Smoking and mortality – beyond established causes, New England Journal of Medicine, 372(4), pp. 631-640.

Department of Health, (2011). Making the case for UK physical activity. Elsevier: London.

Ding, D. (2012). Built environment, physical activity, and obesity: what have we learned from reviewing the literature? Health and Place, 18(1), pp.100-105.

Doubeni, C. (2012). Health status, neighbourhood socioeconomic context, and premature mortality in the United States: the National Institutes of Health – AARP Diet and Health Study, American Journal of Public Health, 102(4), pp.98-107.

Jha, J. (2013). 21st century hazards of smoking and benefits of cessation in the United States, New England Journal of Medicine, 368(2), pp.341-350.

Lang, J. (2012). Paediataric allergy, immunology, and pulmonology, Allergy, 25(2), pp.64-75.

Li, K. (2014). Lifestyle risk factors and residual life expectancy at age 40: a German cohort study, BMC Medicine, 12(59), pp.1186-1189.

Nicholas, J., Lo, G., Lynch, B., Friedenreich, C., and Csizmadi, L. (2015). Leisure-time physical activity does not attenuate the association between occupational sedentary behaviour and obesity, Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 1123 (4), pp.692-698.

Oza, S. (2011). How many deaths are attributable to smoking in the United States? Comparison of methods for estimating smoking-attributable mortality when smoking prevalence changes, Preventative Medicine, 52(6), pp.428-433.

Peterson, M. (2015). The combined impact of adherence to five lifestyle factors on all-cause cancer, and cardiovascular mortality: a prospective cohort study among Danish men and women, British Journal of Nutrition, 113(5), pp.849-858.

Plasqui, G. (2013). Daily physical activity assessment with accelerometers: new insights and validation studies, Obesity Reviews, 14(6), pp.451-462.

Popkin, N. (2012). Global nutrition transition and the pandemic of obesity in developing countries, Nutrition Reviews, 70(1), pp.3-21.

Sallis, J. (2012). Role of built environments in physical activity, obesity, and cardiovascular disease, Circulation, 125(2), pp.729-737.

van der Brandt, P. (2011). The impact of a Mediterranean diet and healthy lifestyle on premature mortality in men and women, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 94(3), pp.169-174.

Wadden, T. (2012). Lifestyle modification for obesity: new developments in diet, physical activity, and behaviour therapy, Circulation, 125(11), pp.1157-1170.

Yang, Z. (2012). Nutrition in pregnancy and early childhood and associations with obesity in developing countries, Maternal and Child Nutrition, 9(1), pp.105-109.

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A large number of children are being deprived of their right to study. Education is important to be able to build a better nation. However there are some cases wherein children are being banned from going to school because of their disability. Issues are arising and they need to be answered. Inequalities, especially in education, are not acceptable. This paper is about the strengths and weaknesses of inclusion and integration policies and support for children with special educational needs.

To fully understand the subject it is best to define the issues and concepts involved. A review on research and studies done on education for special children will be presented. In the article written by Anastasia Vlachou (2008) she shows awareness on teachers to change their view regarding inclusion. Integration has been reported that requires change, creates discomfort and involves a considerable challenge to those whose careers, work and social relationships reinforce a segregated system.

According to Vlachou (2008), “it would be naive to believe that integration policy will happen as part of a natural evolution in attitudes towards students with special needs.’ Vlachou (2008) article will be discussed in the literature review together with the study done by several researchers. At the end of the paper the personal view of the writer regarding the subject will be presented. The inequalities and issues will be summarized to support the writers claim in the conclusion.

Definition of Terms

To fully understand what the topic is, it is best to define the important terms used in the paper.

Inclusion as defined in the Webster dictionary – “to put in or consider as part of a group or category”. McBrien and Brandt of Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development define inclusion as based on the situation of the disabled child in school. The practice of educating children in one classroom, including children with physical, mental, and developmental disabilities is important. Inclusion classes often require a special assistant to the classroom teacher.

The 1975 Education for All Handicapped Children Act (P.L. 94-142) made inclusion a controversial topic by requiring a free and appropriate education with related services for each child in the least restrictive environment possible, and an Individualized Education Program (IEP) for each qualifying child. In 1991, the bill was renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and the revision broadened the definition of disabilities and added related services. (Hummel,2008).

Another definition of inclusion is defined in the website of teachernet.com. “One of the greatest challenges facing schools is the provision of appropriate learning opportunities for all pupils (www.teachernet.com). Within schools there are pupils with a range of abilities from different cultures, religions and social backgrounds. Some of these pupils experience barriers to learning as a result of their disability, heritage, gender, special educational need, ethnicity, social group, sexual orientation, race or culture.

Research has proved that children from lower socio-economic backgrounds and/or specific ethnic and social groups are more likely to underachieve at school. This may lead to disaffection, low self-esteem, and marginalisation by others and, in some cases, formal exclusion from school. (www.teachernet.com). Some schools are more successful than others in meeting the needs of pupils from diverse backgrounds.“ Mason, H. (2003) of Birminghan, UK presented process of inclusion in education:

Increasing the participation of students with disabilities in, and reducing their exclusion from, curricula and communities of local schools;

Restructuring the cultures, policies and practices in schools so that they respond to the diversity of students’ needs;

Accepting diversity as normal and as a rich source for all students;

Responding to the diverse needs of all students;

Accommodating both different styles and rates of learning;

Ensuring the quality of education to all students through appropriate curricula, support and teaching strategies;

Accepting that inclusion in education is one aspect of inclusion in society.

Another important term to define is the word integration. Integration traditionally refers to the education of children with special needs in mainstream settings. (Mason,H. 2003). Organ (1993) defines the term integration that pertains to a social domain; it does and should refer to individuals of different background who opt to interact.

Review of Literature

The review contains the study done by researchers on inclusion and integration policies in education of children with special needs. The article written by Schwartz, Odom and Sandall (1999), includes their research and found out that most of successful inclusive programs view inclusion as that starting point for all children. Children with disabilities are not expected to “earn” their way into early childhood programs by having the necessary “entry” skills (e.g. toilet training, communicating in sentences). ( Schwartz, Odom and Sandall, 1999), Programs may need to make special accommodations to make the inclusive experience successful.

Jimmy lacked many of the skills that were typical of his four-year-old classmates; but the classroom teacher, itinerant teacher, and assistant teacher, with the help of the other classmates, arranged activities in ways that encouraged and even required Jimmy to participate. (Schwartz, Odom and Sandall,1999), This view of inclusion is based on the belief that inclusion can be appropriate for all children; making it work successfully depends on planning, training, and support

The Language of Learning: A Guide to Education Terms, by J. L. McBrien and R. S. Brandt, 1997, Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development

http://www.teachernet.gov.uk

http://www.icevi-europe.org/tt/ttw3/topic5.html

Dr Heather Mason, Birmingham, UK

Publication Date: Wednesday Aug 13, 1997 The true definition of integration Henry Organ http://www.paloaltoonline.com/weekly/morgue/spectrum/1997_Aug_13.GUEST130.html

Including Young Children with Special Needs by Ilene S. Schwartz, Samuel L. Odom, and Susan R. Sandall

http://www.newhorizons.org/spneeds/inclusion/information/schwartz3.htm#author

School Site http://www.atocbkk.com/school_site.php

http://www.ccboe.net/Teachers/Hummel_Heather/onlineresources.html

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What are the advantages and disadvantages of incorporating technology into the classroom – with a specific focus on non-ICT lessons?

The use of Information Communication Technology (ICT) in education has been described as engaging, enabling and transformative (Clark et al. 2009; Prensky, 2010). ICT can improve both personalisation and collaboration, providing tools and experiences that can aid social and independent learning (O’Hara, 2008; Selwyn et al. 2010). Throughout non-ICT subjects, technology can help to create an ‘enabling environment’, founded on communication and interaction (O’Hara, 2008, p.29). ICT can also structure children’s understanding of curriculum content in non-ICT lessons, while helping them to develop knowledge of processes that will be of significant use in their future lives (DfES, 2006).

However, only one in four schools are succeeding in employing ICT to enhance learning across the curriculum, which suggests that there are barriers to the effective use of ICT in non-ICT lessons (BECTA, 2009). While developing practical skills with technology is essential, children will also need to cultivate a reflective, ‘metacognitive awareness’ (Flavell, 1979, p.908) of their own creative and safe engagement with ICT in order to use it effectively in non-ICT lessons (Sharples et al. 2009). This concept has been defined as ‘e-confidence’ and is a key concern for teachers when planning learning experiences involving ICT (QCA/NAACE, 2007).

A framework of possibilities for using ICT throughout the curriculum has been developed by the National College of School Leadership (Blows, 2009). This matrix involves a progressive scale of ‘e-words’, which describe the increasing effectiveness of ICT as a tool to transform learning and develop children’s higher-order thinking skills (Blows, 2009; Bloom, 1956). The ‘ICT and Learning’ matrix can be seen in Fig.1:

Fig.1 ICT and Learning: e-words matrix (Blows, 2009)

By referencing this matrix against other educational theories, it will be argued that embedding technology into non-ICT has the potential to extend and empower learners (Blows, 2009). However, the key point is that ICT needs to be used to support, challenge and ’empower’ learners, rather than simply being ‘exchanged’ for traditional teaching methods in order to meet national agendas (Blows, 2009).

Blows (2009, no page numbers) emphasises the importance of using ICT to ‘enhance’ learning, rather than simply ‘exchange’ it with traditional resources. Furthermore, Prensky (2010) recognises the limitations of using technology just for the sake of it. For example, using an iPAD or SMARTboard as a dynamic, problem-solving device for group work in mathematics or geography would be beneficial to supporting cognitive development (Adey, 1992). However using these technologies as basic presentation tools, or only to display multimedia content would be a less effective use of the resources. Tondeur et al. (2006, p.963) assert that schools concentrate too much on teaching the practical use of ICT programs, rather than using technology to improve learning, collaboration and cognition. ICT is still seen as separate from other subjects and needs to be embedded into non-ICT subjects more organically (Tondeur et al., 2006). However, this should not be at the detriment of traditional skills, for example map reading and measuring in geography.

Conole (2007, p.82) recognises three ‘fundamental shifts’ in education since the beginning of the twenty-first century:

‘from a focus on information to communication, […] from a passive to more interactive engagement, and [….] from a focus on individual learners to more socially situative learning’.

The implication is that technology must be harnessed to ‘extend’ learners, rather than ‘passively’ replacing previous resources (Blows, 2009). By successfully integrating technology into non-ICT subjects, ICT can create collaborative experiences that are both engaging and more effective than was previously possible (O’Hara, 2008). For example, students can use the internet to research and share knowledge, and use creative computer programs in collaboration with other social groups. However, a disadvantage of using ICT is that it can hinder student’s cognitive and problem-solving by providing too much support (O’Hara, 2008). An interactive database in science is beneficial to learning, but should not over-simplify learning as this would be to the detriment of student progression and understanding. In contrast, the new ‘Computing Programmes of Study’ (DfE, 2013) suggest that students need practical skills in computing before ICT can be used to enhance non-ICT subjects. ICT can be advantageous in non-ICT subjects as long as it balances practical application with collaborative and creative learning.

Technology can be employed in non-ICT lessons to support children in creating material for specific purposes and audiences, using various modes of communication (Bearne, 2003). An example of this could be setting up a class blog in Literacy or Art lessons with which pupils could display and discuss their work and learning, using photos and sound files to create their own multimodal blog-site. Richardson (2009, p.27) argues that ‘blogs are a truly constructivist tool for learning’ and can therefore be employed by teachers to engage and structure learning. It has been suggested that while formal writing can be described as independent ‘monologue’, blogging should be regarded as a ‘conversation’ (Selwyn et al. 2010, p.30). ICT allows children’s work to be dynamically shared with parents and family on a regular basis, resulting in the continuation of learning outside of school and improved links to the community. However, while ICT can provide a supportive learning framework or resource, this relies on the teacher to guide children through progressive stages of learning (Wood et al. 1976). The use of ICT in non-ICT lessons relies on the presence and planning of a skilled teacher who recognises how to harness technology to improve learning, rather than just replace, for example, existing literacy practices.

When embedding ICT into non-ICT lessons, the teacher should act as a facilitator and enabler, using technology as a tool to increase learning possibilities for a group of children working at different attainment levels (Prensky, 2010). Technology can enhance learning by connecting the elements of exploration, contribution and completion (Richardson, 2009). An example is the proposal that video games can engage reluctant learners (DfES, 2005). Young pupils may have become disengaged by a ‘digital divide’ between their home use of ICT, and the ICT that they have access to in school. Therefore, using games as a learning resource in Mathematics or Geography could create links between home interests and school classroom cultures (Sutherland-Smith et al. 2003, p.31). Using ICT to connect curriculum areas has the potential to increase social participation in schools and reengage disenfranchised learners (Clark et al. 2009).

An example of this concept is the video game Wild Earth: African Safari on Nintendo Wii; in which the player is a photojournalist touring the Serengeti National Park, taking photos of indigenous animals. This game could be used to actively demonstrate a different part of the world to young learners, which would be impossible without ICT. Children could subsequently create paintings, drama or simply discuss what they have seen to improve collaboration and cognition (Hong et al. 2009). ICT can therefore enhance cultural understanding and critical thinking in non-ICT subjects (Hague and Payton, 2010). However, the teacher’s selection of game, or other ICT resource, must be relevant to the learning experience and support the achievement of learning objectives, so that technology is not simply replacing traditional resources (Learning and Teaching Scotland, 2010). Structured by their interactions with ICT, children can develop communication skills that will prepare them for the future. However, it could be argued that ICT is never a substitute for real experiences. It should instead be viewed as a tool for improving non ICT-lessons.

This example demonstrates that ICT offers teachers a set of ‘virtual tools’ that can enhance learning in non-ICT lessons (Simpson and Toyn, 2012, p.1). However, students will need to be taught how to use these tools effectively so that they can employ them in non-ICT subjects. ICT in other subjects requires additional training and instruction, which may detract from general teaching and learning time (Simpson and Toyn, 2012). Using technology in non-ICT lessons is all about balance, with the teacher needing to balance ICT with traditional and transitional learning skills in order to support progression.

ICT can enhance (Blows, 2009) learning experiences in non-ICT lessons by structuring the development of skills and understanding. However, Prensky (2010, p.72) proposes that there is a difference between a learning experience being relevant to children and being ‘real’. Rather than providing passing allusions to children’s interests, teachers must use ICT to find ways to help children connect with ‘real’ issues. ICT must be employed in ‘authentic and purposeful contexts’ (Loveless, 2003, p.102) to empower learners (Blows, 2009) so that they can achieve a greater understanding of a topic in non-ICT lessons.

An example is using video-conferencing technology to create links between the classroom and other areas, and broaden the landscape for learning. A teacher could set up a conversation with a school in a different location, with a contrasting community but similar issues. Classes could ask each other questions and describe their school and community environments. This would support the development of speaking and listening skills, alongside ‘personal [and] social development’ (DfCSF, 2008, p.13). By linking learning to other places and communities, ICT can create a wider ‘community of practice’ in non-ICT lessons, where young children recognise that education and learning are not isolated to their school location (Wenger, 1999, p.4).

Technology can therefore have a positive and transformative effect (Wheeler and Winter, 2005) by allowing children to develop personal reflection during purposeful social participation (Richardson, 2009). However, young people need to recognise how to utilise technology to support their ongoing learning. Hague and Payton (2010, p.8) argue that ‘education systems need to help young people to understand and benefit from their engagement with digital technology and digital cultures’. ICT supports and extends (Blows, 2009) both independent and social progression, but young people need to recognise how to use technology as a tool to expand their learning in non-ICT lessons.

An appraisal of advantages and disadvantages of using ICT in non-ICT lessons needs to investigate potential problems and highlight areas of concern. Critics argue that early computer use can affect young children’s vision and physical development, leading to a possible deficit in the advancement of their motor skills (AfC, 2000). Furthermore, technology can often fail to work, which could disrupt lessons and demotivate learners in non-ICT lessons (O’Hara, 2008). Practitioners also need to be knowledgeable enough to successfully integrate ICTs into teaching and learning, and this is reliant on available budgets for high quality training (O’Hara, 2008). A lack of expertise can be a ‘limiting factor’ that can negate the potential of ICT to improve learning across the curriculum (Beetham, 2007, p.32). Similarly, students may have different skill-levels with ICT, so the teacher needs to incorporate this into lesson planning in the same way that they would differentiate by ability in core subjects (Hague and Payton, 2010).

Perhaps the most debated area of concern of using ICT across the curriculum is that of ‘e-safety’ (Sharples et al. 2009). The integration of ICT into non-ICT lessons must be supported by a comprehensive school e-safety policy (Byron, 2008). The supposed ‘moral panic’ (Bennett et al. 2008, p.775) associated with children’s use of ICT, particularly the internet, can create pedagogical difficulties for teachers. A balance must be achieved between encouraging pupils to participate in creative, collaborative activities in non-ICT subjects, while also protecting them from risk (Sharples et al. 2009). Prensky (2009) asserts that adults should not simply instruct young learners about the risks associated with using ICT. Children must also develop ‘digital wisdom’ in order to understand safe practice and an awareness of their identity as users of technology (Prensky, 2009, p.11). The topic of e-safety shows that incorporating technology into non-ICT lessons has simultaneous advantages and disadvantages that need to be diligently managed by the school, the teachers, and by the students themselves.

The use of technology in non-ICT lessons can engage learners and enhance learning experiences (Wheeler and Winter, 2005). However, the integration of ICT into classroom practice requires balance so that it does not detract from physical and social development (AfC, 2000). ICT can be embedded into learning activities to improve collaborative learning (DfES, 2006), yet it also supports the personalisation of activity and assessment. Activities involving ICT should negotiate a balance between creativity and safety, in order to adhere to the school’s e-safety policy (Sharples et al. 2009). Children need to develop practical skills in ICT, alongside a social and cognitive awareness that will help them to succeed in a technology-driven society.

An essential part of using ICT in non-ICT lessons is that young children are gradually encouraged to recognise the difference between information and knowledge (Nutt, 2010). ICT provides new means to investigate and retrieve information (BECTA, 2009) and empowers learners (Blows, 2009) with new modes of communication (Bearne, 2003). However, these benefits would prove irrelevant without the transformation of information and digital discourse into knowledge and understanding. Technology can have huge advantages for learning in non-ICT lessons, while the disadvantages and barriers can be managed by educators. However, ultimately, it is not what ICTs children are using across the curriculum, but what they are using them for that really matters for the future.

References

Adey, P. (1992) ‘The CASE results: implications for science teaching’. International Journal of Science Education. 14 (2) pp.137-146.

AfC (2000) ‘Fool’s Gold: a critical look at computers in childhood’. [Online]. Available at: http://www.allianceforchildhood.org/fools_gold (Accessed: 6th Oct 2015).

Bearne, E. (2003) ‘Rethinking literacy: communication, representation and text’. Reading, Literacy and Language. 37 (3) pp.98-103.

BECTA (2009) ‘Becta’s Contribution to the Rose Review’. [Online]. Available at: https://clc2.uniservity.com/GroupDownloadFile.asp?GroupId=20115174&ResourceId=2892751 (Accessed: 7th Oct 2015).

Beetham, H. (2007) ‘An Approach to Learning Activity Design’, in Beetham, H. and Sharpe, R. (eds.) Rethinking Pedagogy for a Digital Age. Abingdon: Routledge, pp.26-40.

Bennett, S., Maton, K. and Kervin, L. (2008) ‘The ‘digital natives’ debate: A critical review of the evidence’. British Journal of Educational Technology. 39 (5) pp.775-786.

Bloom, B.S. (1956) ‘Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals’, in Bloom, B.S. (ed.) Taxonomy of Education Objectives, Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain. New York: McKay, pp.201-207.

Blows, M. (2009) ‘E-words for ICT and classroom creativity’. National College of School Leadership. [Online]. Available at: http://future.ncsl.org.uk/ShowResource.aspx?ID=812 (Accessed: 7th Oct 2015).

Byron, T. (2008) Safer Children in a Digital World: the Report of the Byron Review. Nottingham: DCSF Publications.

Clark, W., Logan, K., Luckin, R., Mee, A. and Oliver, M. (2009) ‘Beyond Web 2.0: mapping the technology landscapes of young learners’. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. 25 (1) pp.56-69.

Conole, G. (2007) ‘Describing learning activities – tools and resources to guide practice, in Beetham, H. and Sharpe, R. (eds.) Rethinking Pedagogy for a Digital Age. Abingdon: Routledge, pp.81-91.

DfCSF (2008) Statutory Framework for the Early Years Foundation Stage. Nottingham: DfCSF Publications.

DfE (2013) ‘Computing programmes of study: key stages 1 and 2’. DfE. [Online]. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/239033/PRIMARY_national_curriculum_-_Computing.pdf (Accessed: 6th Oct 2015).

DfES (2005) Harnessing Technology: Transforming Learning and Children’s Services. Nottingham: DfES Publications.

DfES (2006) 2020 Vision: Report of the Teaching and Learning in 2020 Review Group. Nottingham: DfES Publications.

Flavell, J. (1979) ‘Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry’. American Psychologist. 34 (10) pp.906-911.

Hague, C. and Payton, S. (2010) Digital Literacy Across the Curriculum. Bristol: Futurelab.

Hong, J-C., Cheng, C-L., Hwang, M-Y., Lee, C-K. and Chang, H-Y. (2009) ‘Assessing the educational values of digital games’. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. 25 (5) pp.423-437.

Learning and Teaching Scotland (2010) ‘About Game Based Learning: what children learn’. [Online]. Available at: http://www.ltscotland.org.uk/usingglowandict/gamesbasedlearning/about/understanding.asp (Accessed: 6th Oct 2015).

Loveless, A. (2003) Role of ICT. 2nd edn. London: Continuum.

Nutt, J. (2010) ‘Professional Educators and the evolving role of ICT in schools: Perspective Report’. [Online]. Available at: http://www.cfbt.com/evidenceforeducation/our_research/evidence_for_schools/school_improvement/the_role_of_ict_in_schools.aspx (Accessed: 7th Oct 2015).

O’Hara, M. (2008) ‘Young children, learning and ICT: a case study in the UK maintained sector’. Technology, Pedagogy and Education. 17 (1) pp.29-40.

Prensky, M. (2009). ‘H. sapiens digital: From digital immigrants and digital natives to digital wisdom’. Innovate 5 (3) pp.1-9. [Online]. Available at: http://www.innovateonline.info/index.php?view=article&id=705 (Accessed: 6 Oct 2015).

Prensky, M. (2010) Teaching Digital Natives: Partnering for Real Learning. London: SAGE.

QCA/NAACE (2007) ‘E-Learning: What is it, why it is important and how it will develop?’ [Online]. Available at: http://www.shambles.net/elearning/publications/elearning_naace_aug07.pdf (Accessed: 6th Oct 2015).

Richardson, W. (2009) Blogs, Wikis, Podcasts and other Powerful Web Tools for Classrooms. 2nd edn. London: SAGE.

Selwyn, N., Potter, J. and Cranmer, S. (2010) Primary Schools and ICT: Learning from Pupil Perspectives. London: Continuum.

Sharples, M., Graber, R., Harrison, C. and Logan, K. (2009) ‘E-Safety and Web 2.0 for children aged 11-16’. Journal of Computer-Assisted Learning. 25 (1) pp.70-84.

Simpson, D. and Toyn, M. (2012) Primary ICT Across the Curriculum. 2nd edn. London: SAGE.

Sutherland-Smith, W., Snyder, I., and Angus, L. (2003) ‘The Digital Divide: differences in computer use between home and school in low socio-economic households’. Educational Studies in Language and Literature. 3 (1-2) pp.5-19.

Tondeur, J., Van Braak, J. and Valcke, M. (2006) ‘Curricula and the use of ICT in Education: Two Worlds Apart?’ British Journal of Educational Technology. 38 (6) pp.962-976.

Wenger, E. (1999) Communities of Practice – Learning, Meaning and Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Wheeler, S. and Winter, A. (2005) ‘ICT – Winning Hearts and Minds’, in Wheeler, S. (ed.) Transforming Primary ICT. Exeter: Learning Matters, pp.7-25.

Wood, D., Bruner, J. and Ross, G. (1976) ‘The role of tutoring in problem solving’. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 17 (2) pp.89-100.

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What are the challenges to the inclusion of children with those difficulties and how can they be overcome?

Introduction

The DSM-V (APA, 2013) has recently revised the diagnosis of learning disability into a single category, specific learning disabilities (SLD), in order to emphasise the fact that children tend to experience general difficulties in academic abilities and that such difficulties are inter-related. SLD in DSM-V are classified under neurodevelopmental disorders and it is stated that a diagnosis is dependent on impairment in the child’s learning using specific academic skills such as reading, writing or arithmetic, which then disrupt further academic learning (Tannock, 2014). Typically, children are recognised as having a difficulty in certain areas of learning when they begin formal education, the difficulties can occur in different cultural groups and without interventions can persist into adulthood (Tannock, 2014). One area of difficulty experienced by children is dyslexia which occurs predominately in the domain of reading in the English language. Dyslexia mainly involves a problem when learning the correspondence between letters and sounds (Rose 2009; Snowling, 2013). Therefore the aspect of SLD to be focused on in the following essay will be dyslexia, the challenges encountered with this impairment and ways in which the challenges may be addressed.

Specific Learning Disabilities

The diagnostic criteria for SLD in the DSM-V, involves firstly an overall diagnosis of SLD and secondly the identification of specifiers. The specifiers identify the key characterisation of the disorder in the three academic domains of reading, writing and arithmetic. The diagnosis also involves a child demonstrating one of six symptoms over a 6 month period, which is persistent despite receiving any intervention strategies. Furthermore, the child’s abilities in the academic domain are below those of other children of the same age and cause disruption in academic and everyday activities (APA, 2013). In order to be diagnosed with SLD other conditions, for example, other neurological conditions or psychological issues must be excluded (APA, 2013). The key difference for a diagnosis of a learning disorder is the change from specific subtypes (reading disorder, mathematics disorder and written expressive disorder) in DSM-IV to one overarching condition (SLD) in DSM-V. One component of SLD is dyslexia, although terms such as dyslexia or dyscalculia are no longer used in the same way as they were previously in DSM-IV (Tannock, 2014).

Inclusive Education

Warnock, Norwich and Terzi (2010) define inclusive education as providing each child with an opportunity to be educated in a mainstream school. One of the central principles of inclusive education is that each child’s needs are assessed and there is flexibility to respond to their differences and individual requirements. In the UK, the aim is to educate all children with different needs in mainstream schools, including those children with SLD. The rationale behind this philosophy is that segregating children with special educational needs (SEN) from their typically developing peers does not prepare them for adult life when they will be expected to integrate into society (Fisher, Roach, and Frey, 2002). Furthermore, inclusive education aims to develop tolerance and understanding towards others and promote social cohesion (O’Gorman and Drudy, 2011). Children with SEN are defined as having ‘a significantly greater difficulty in learning than the majority of children his age’ (Department for Education and Science, DfES, 1981, p.1). Each child should be assessed by professionals to determine the level of support required which is detailed in a statement of needs (DfES, 1981).

Inclusive education should include ‘children of all backgrounds irrespective of gender, religion, class, ethnicity or any other characteristic’, thereby including children with diverse types of SEN (O’Gorman and Drudy, 2011, p.4). However, one challenge faced by all children with SEN is that they are not a homogenous group and some children do not thrive in an inclusive environment and may instead experience less stress and anxiety in a specialist school environment (Cigman, 2007). As suggested by Lewis and Norwich (2005), inclusive education is not just assimilating children with SENs into a mainstream schools; instead, the emphasis should be on ‘developing an education system in which equity is striven for and diversity is welcome’ (Lewis and Norwich, 2005, p.xi).

Dyslexia

There are a number of definitions of dyslexia, all of which include a similar theme of difficulties in reading ‘accurately and with fluency’ (Hulme and Snowling, 2009, p.37). According to Rose (2009), dyslexia is a continuum of disorders ranging from mild to severe and is not related to the IQ of an individual. Rose also supports the DSM-V perspective of SLD not being separate categories but being inter-related with other impairments in motor co-ordination, attention, working memory and organisational skills. Dyslexia, as mentioned previously is characterised by an inability to recognise a relationship between sounds, letters and words, which is known as phonological awareness (Hulme and Snowling, 2009). It is important to distinguish between children who are poor readers, as they can also demonstrate difficulties in phonological awareness. Poor readers may have difficulties because of poor pre-school literacy or perhaps if they are from families where English is not the first language used. However, children with dyslexia additionally show a core difficulty of word decoding which affects spelling and oral language skills (Snowling, 2013).

Challenges facing children with SLD and Dyslexia

There are a number of challenges that face children with SLD and although they are not a homogenous group, the issues they face can be common to all children who have SEN. First, not all children are happy in an inclusive mainstream school. Kavale and Forness (2000) report that historically, children with SEN were taught in specialist schools which had small classes and specialist teachers. There was also more differentiation between different types of SEN and therefore a more heterogeneous and individual approach to the children who had certain needs. However, it has also been argued by Kavale and Forness (2000) that there is limited evidence that specialised education is any different to inclusive education in mainstream schools in developing the academic or social skills of SEN pupils. Kerins (2014) found that many children in Ireland with mild-learning disabilities were leaving mainstream schools and transferring to specialised schools. A similar finding of children with SEN leaving mainstream schools for specialist schools is reported by Kelly, Devitt, O’Keeffe and Donovan (2014).

A further challenge that can affect many pupils with SEN is bullying by non-disabled peers, which occurred within mainstream schools and also among children in special schools, who were bullied outside of the school environment (Lewis and Norwich, 2005). The findings in Lewis and Norwich’s (2005) study are supported by Frederickson (2010), who found that children with SEN were typically not accepted, frequently rejected and tended to be the victims of bullying more often than typically developing children. In order to overcome the challenge of bullying, Frederickson (2010) found that positive and supportive peer relationships developed if the impairment was severe and obvious; often learning disorders are not obvious, particularly if they are mild SLD. It was also found that older peers were more accepting if they understood the nature of the special needs, although schools were found to be reluctant to discuss pupil’s SEN as they were concerned about labelling. Frederickson (2010) argues that positive relationships can develop between pupils with SEN and typically developing pupils if the school promotes respect and emphasises caring relationships. Norwich and Kelly (2004) investigated the views of children aged between 10 and 14 who had statements for moderate learning difficulties. It was found that the majority of mainstream children preferred to receive support away from other children, which may have been related to the very high rate of bullying reported by the children.

In examining the more specific challenges faced by children with dyslexia, these include the failure of adults, such as parents and teachers, to detect and recognise the signs that indicate the child is failing in their ability to read (Snowling, 2013). If interventions are not implemented early, the child may become frustrated and unmotivated at school, developing a low self-esteem (Snowling, 2013). There will usually be a number of difficulties in many areas of their academic life and education that can continue into adulthood. A study undertaken by Nugent (2007) examined the parental perspectives of the education of their children with dyslexia in three different educational environments in Ireland – namely, special schools, separate specialist units within schools and resources in mainstream schools. The results of the postal questionnaire indicated that parents had positive perceptions of all three areas of provision. However, there was greater support by the parents for the specialist services in special schools and units than the provision in mainstream schools.

Addressing the Challenges

The importance of early identification can be addressed by assessing pre-school children’s language skills, and early recognition of letters and the sounds of different letters (Snowling 2013). There also appears to be a genetic component to dyslexia as it is often seen in different members of the same family (Nash, Hulme, Gooch and Snowling, 2013). In their study, Nash et al. explored the literacy skills of preschool children at family risk from dyslexia in comparison to a group of typically developing children of the same age and a third group of children with other language deficits. Both groups of children at risk from language impairment showed phonological deficits and, there was an overlap for both language conditions, further supporting the more generalised classification of SLD found in the DSM-V.

Screening pre-school children is expensive and therefore it is important that teachers are able to identify when a child is failing to respond to effective teaching methods – particularly in relation to the progress of children who are the same age (Snowling, 2013). The type of teaching methods include provision for children who may be slow learners and who are provided with the opportunity to catch-up with their peers. However, Rose (2009) argues that intervention strategies that are used with poor readers or slow learners do not provide evidence of improvement in the reading ability of children with dyslexia. If a child fails to achieve a certain level with early intervention strategies they can receive additional individual support. This can be monitored as children are assessed at regular intervals during their formal education (Snowling, 2013). Rose (2009) argues that intervention strategies for children with dyslexia must be highly structured, systematic and implemented regularly so there is that constant reinforcement and the generalisation of reading skills. O’Gorman and Drudy (2011) report that the positive attitudes of teachers towards children with SEN is an important factor in the success of their education. Attitudes of teachers towards pupils with SEN tend to reflect the severity of the disorder and the role of the special educational needs co-ordinator (SENCo) is highly relevant to the successful inclusion of children with SEN in UK mainstream schools.

Conclusion

Children with learning disabilities do not tend to experience one specific learning disability. The DSM-V (APA, 2013) reflects this perspective by categorising learning difficulties as one group (SLD), which appears to be necessary because impairments often overlap and children can experience difficulties in more than one area. Snowling (2013) and Rose (2009) support the DSM-V perspective that dyslexia is a multi-faceted disorder. There are a number of challenges for children with dyslexia. If the condition is not diagnosed early when the child is young and which enables interventions to be implemented, this can have a negative effect for the future of the child. Children can experience a lack of motivation and low self -esteem which can affect their educational achievement and also have a negative affect when they are adults. Snowling (2013) therefore stresses the importance of early detection and early intervention strategies for children at risk from dyslexia, particularly if there is a family history (Nash et al. 2013).

In general, children with SLD can experiencing bullying (Lewis and Norwich, 2005; Frederickson 2010) and it has been found recently that many children with SEN have left mainstream schools in preference for specialist schools (Kelly et al. 2014; Kerins, 2014). These findings may also be related to the bullying of SEN pupils by their typically developing peers. Not all children thrive in inclusive mainstream schools, although the principles of inclusive education are to help a child achieve their full potential during their formal education and also to facilitate tolerance and an inclusive community.

References

American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.

Cigman, R. (2007). Included or Excluded? The Challenge of the Mainstream for some SEN Children. Oxford: Routledge.

Department for Education and Science, DfES (1981). Education Act. London: Her Majesty’s Stationary Office, DfES

Fisher, D., Roach, V., and Frey, N. (2002). Examining the general programmatic benefits of inclusive schools. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 6(1), 63-78.

Frederickson, N.L. (2010). Bullying or befriending? Children’s responses to classmates with special needs. British Journal of Special Education, 37(1), 4-12.

Hulme, C. and Snowling, M. (2009). Developmental Disorders of Language Learning and Cognition, Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.

Kavale, K.A. and Forness, S.R. (2000). History, rhetoric, and reality. Remedial & Special Education, 21(5), 279-296.

Kelly, A., Devitt, C., O’Keeffe and Donovan, A.M. (2014). Challenges in implementing inclusive education in Ireland: Principle’s views of the reasons students aged 12+ are seeking enrolment to special schools. Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities, 11(1), 68-81

Kerins, P. (2014). Dilemmas of difference and educational provision for pupils with mild general learning disabilities in the Republic of Ireland. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 29(1), 47-58.

Lewis, A. and Norwich, B. (Eds) (2005). Special Teaching for Special children? Pedagogies for Inclusion. Berkshire: Open University Press

Nash, H.M., Hulme, C., Gooch, D. and Snowling, M.J. (2013). Preschool language profiles of children at family risk of dyslexia: continuities with specific language impairment. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(9), 958-968

Norwich, B. and Kelly, N. (2004). Pupil’s views on inclusion: moderate learning difficulties and bullying in mainstream and special schools. British Educational Research Journal, 30(1), 43-65.

Nugent, M. (2007). Comparing inclusive and segregated settings for children with dyslexia – parental perspectives from Ireland. Support for Learning, 22(2), 52-59

O’Gorman, E. and Drudy, S. (2011). Professional development for teachers working in special education/inclusion in mainstream schools: the views of teachers and other stakeholders. A Research Report part-funded by the National Council for Special Education, Special Education Research Initiative, Dublin. National Council for Special Education.

Rose, J. (2009). Identifying and Teaching Children with Dyslexia and Literacy Difficulties. London, Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF).

Snowling, M.J. (2013). Early identification and interventions for dyslexia: a contemporary view. Journal of Research in Special Education, 13(1), 7-14

Tannock, R. (2014). DSM-5 changes in diagnostic criteria for specific learning disabilities: What are the implications? International Dyslexia Association Retrieved on 3/10/2015 from: http://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/sites/default/files/IDA_DSM-5%20Changes.pdf

Warnock, M., Norwich, B. and Tersi, L. (2010). Special Educational Needs: A New Look. Second Edition Continuum International Publishing Group: London

This work was produced by one of our professional writers as a learning aid to help you with your studies

Today there are new options for a child to get education. Gone were the days that all children are taught in a four-walled classroom. As years go by, new realizations and discoveries crop up with regards to the dissemination of knowledge. Educational techniques, methods, and strategies have been discovered after experimentations, observations, and studies made by professionals in this field.

With the advanced curriculum, new inventions and innovations to education, there is a need for an alternate way to get these across to children. In addition, the society today has evolved into producing some hindrances for a normal education; hence, parents are afraid to send their kids to a normal school. However, there are still advantages to normal schooling, meaning getting instruction for a classroom.

Home schooling ideas came at a time when the need for reforms and alternatives rose to cater to children who cannot attend a regular school for some reason. Related to distance learning, home schooling has proved to be effective for some and detrimental for knowledge acquisition for some kids. As methodologies are used for this new kind of learning, special skills for home teachers – parents – are needed to fulfil the role of the absent teacher. Home schooling is the new trend in education that is known to be beneficial to students.

Home schooling can categorically be the same as distance learning where both processes of acquiring knowledge entails the student to be situated in their homes, not in a school setting or classroom. In distance learning per se, students may be based in a library, outside the home, or any other places aside from the school or classroom. Otherwise known as home education or home learning, this system is defined as the education of children in the home by parents. History tells us that before the law on compulsory school attendance was mandated, the majority of early education happened within the family. Those who can afford to send their kids to a special school or hire private tutors or governesses experience how other people are teaching it. However, as years progressed up to the present most of the children are sent to school and get a formal education in either a public school or private educational institutions.

In developed and developing countries, home schooling is now an option for parents who do not want to send their children to school but would want them to be educated using a different way away from schools. Parents have their own personal reasons for deciding such. It could be dissatisfaction with school instructions, avoiding the chances of their kids to be bullied or hurt in school that makes parents lead their kids away from schools.

Another reason for non-attendance in school for some children is the distance of the school from their homes as in the case of some rural and mountainous areas. Correspondence schools, distance learning institutes, or umbrella schools may provide instruction in home schooling. The education board should legally approve a set of curriculum.

As aforementioned in the previous page, parent and guardians decide to educate their children home based style for many reasons rather than those already mentioned.

Parents believe children are better educated at home

For religious reasons, parents do not want to mix their children with different beliefs

Some schools have low standard environment or it is not conducive for learning,

Parents don’t want their children to be exposed to the influential (bad) characters of other people: classmates and teachers

Child has special need or disability thus curtailing or making it difficult for him to move about.

Home Schooling

Aside from those mentioned possible reasons, there are still other reasons that are beyond the control of parents or children like the location of the school and the availability of transportation.

There are a lot of misconceptions around home schooling. First, parents think that they have to be professionals like having a Ph.D. to be able to teach their children in a home school setting. There is really no mandated requirement for parents to have a formal education to be able to assist children in home schooling. However, parents or guardians must show their all-out support and willingness to go through the rigors and challenges of home schooling.

Basically, the social impact of home schooling seems to be used by the government education system to stop kids from leaving school. We all know that monetary budget will be lost to them. However, to give some benefits to the doubt, traditional classroom education still brings home some desired effects for the children. On the other hand, not all kids and parents would want home schooling for some reasons aside from academic. Financial status is a significant element to consider as well.

In the end, it is still the decision of the family, particularly the parents and the school-age child whether home schooling is a better alternative. Communication is still the best tool since parents must not force home schooling to their kids. Once pushed down their throats, children would rebel and not perform well.

Taking time to persuade and talk to children would be necessary. Listening to children’s woes and ideas would show them how much you value their education. Still, getting an education is what this is all about. No matter what kind of instruction and the manner of how it is administered, educational instruction must be present. The important thing is the willingness of the children to learn by means that would benefit them, the family, and the society as a whole.

References

Field, M., & Field, C. M. (2007). Home schooling 101: the essential handbook. Nashville, Tenn: B&H Publishing Group.

Mr. And Mrs. Mark Field are self-professed experts on home schooling after all their four children finished school that way. This book is a compilation of the basic information that parents should learn about home schooling. Furthermore, this book shares personal experiences of the couple in the home schooling system that they are recommending to parents.

Guterson, D. (1992). Family matters: why home schooling makes sense. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Guterson discusses the philosophy of home schooling and schooling rather than “how to home school”. Despite the fall back and shortcomings of home schooling, many Americans are now starting to see the benefits of this system. He provides an insightto the realities of home schooling.

Mur, C. (2003). Home schooling. San Diego, Calif: Greenhaven Press.

http://www.lib.msu.edu/harris23/general/atissue.htm

Home schooling has become the newest trend in instruction. Some critics have found this type of instruction can prove detrimental to the normal education of children. Mur attempts to provide a discussion on the pros and cons of home schooling.

Rivero, L. (2008). The homeschooling option: how to decide when it’s right for your family. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Rivero makes interesting insights into the world of homeschooling by identifying options for families. Homeschooling, according to the author, must be a major decision for families since it is the future of the children that are at stake. Making children help in the decision making for home schooling is essential.

Williams, M. E. (2000). Education: opposing viewpoints. San Diego, Calif: Greenhaven Press.

http://groups.google.ca/group/axylecodgacyregiuludi/web/opposing-viewpoints-on-homeschooling

Williams facilitates a discussion on the issues and concerns with regards the prevalence of home schooling, not only in the US but globally. The writer brings the the realities of home schooling as advantages and disadvantages of this education system are presented. Moreover, Williams identifies some ideas that have made home instruction popular today.