Category: Free Essays

Family contribution to social stability

Social stability entails state of completeness, where life is balanced in terms of good wages, lifestyle, amenities, freedom and prosperity. The family as an institution can contribute highly into this state of life through several ways. Programs such as family-life ambassadors can help insert skills into families, in an attempt to cultivate social stability (Wardle, 2002). Other programs such as family-life champions or organized family talks, resource speakers and school family education may assist in instilling vital skills needed in establishing social stability in families. For instance, school family education, may assist parents to acquire reliable skills in family running.

Another way that families have contributed to social stability is by holding religious values with high esteem. As such people are equipped with Godly values which promote social stability by enhancing disciplinary virtues drawn from religious living. For example, an individual positive behavior is enhanced by the religious doctrines or even life virtues. Similarly, family strength and unity is highly upheld. Under British lifestyle, religious based individuals most probably have stable marriages, report low levels of divorce and singlehood (Melin & Blom, 2000). This will instigate marriage satisfaction, hence high marital stability and low poverty levels are witnessed. Morality and sound thinking is highly promoted by religious beliefs, reducing deviant behaviors such as suicide, drug abuse, teenage pregnancies and sexual permissiveness, among others.

A family as an institution in the society provides a reliable home for growing children. It provides shelter, food, clothing and other social needs. When this is done, the possibility of children growing to be undisciplined is low, since they have a place to belong to and have almost everything that they require. For instance, in the case of street children, they will tend to engage in criminal activities such as smuggling and robbery among others, and this may lead to social instability .Such children need to be offered a place to belong to through proper care by possibly adoption procedures. For example, In Britain family stability has reported continuous decline such that children and adults are always faced with fractured or dysfunctional families thus instigating the possibility if having unstable society. About 15% of all babies born in conservative culture in Britain are brought-up with no resident father (Wardle, 2002). In this case, parenting education and relationship programs may assist in social stability .Other approaches may include raising UK’s care incentives in a bid to motivate the child caretakers to positively bring-up the children in socially acceptable ways.

If such positive upbringing fails, the parentless children are likely into various social evils thus destabilizing social stability. In addition, if the government is to support these children a lot of funds may be expended in rehabilitation centers in stead of instituting social development programs beneficial in stabilizing the wellbeing of the entire society. Economically, the wealth of a country is highly dependant on the family, in terms of the human capital (Melin & Blom, 2000). Strength of the economy highly depends on family stability because of the social ethical basis taught through social virtues and values. This way the entire family plays a vital role in stabilizing the society both economically as well as morally or socially.

In conclusion, family cohesiveness and moral strength is a high contributor to social stability. Positive parenting, various education programs at family level, role modeling and social awareness created at family level enhances social stability. A family also contributes to the labor mobility behaviors as a result of its effects on employment levels thus averting social instability associated with unemployment issues.

References

Melin, H & Blom, R. (2000). Streaming towards social stability. Vilnius, Lithuania: Lithuanian Institute of Philosophy and Sociology Press.

Wardle, L. (2002). Fundamental principles of family. London, UK: John-Wiley & Sons Publishers.

This paper will critically reflect on the ideologies of Margaret Thatcher’s New Right and the New Labour Third way in relation to familiy and its perceieved composition. During this period, the state developed a much broader focus of the welfare system by introducing polices in line with the functionalist thinking and attitudes of the day. The functionalists believed that social roles are culturally determined such as the difference in female and male roles – females more suited to caring, nuturing and providing emotional support and the male’s main role was one of being the breadwinner and providing financial support. Embracing these roles led to the smooth running of society (Dunn- Toroosian, 2009, p.76).

The welfare state can be defined as the process in which the Government takes the responsibility in paying for, and in some instances such as public healthcare, directly providing services for the people. Through measures such as unemployment insurance, old-age pensions, and other social-security processes, it further provides the social and economic security of its population (Jones et al, 2007, p.680). In addition, the responsibility of the state is to help families, who need support in bringing up their children, through providing a choice of services which promotes the welfare of children and family members (VSS, 2003, p.2).

The welfare state existed as far back as medieval times when the monasteries in particular looked after and supported the frail and elderly and educated the children. In the 16th century, parishes became legally responsible for looking after the poor and the people of the parish were expected to pay the cost (Bartholomew, 2004, p.29). The Poor Laws (traced back to 1536) were passed by the UK government to provide housing to the poor, homeless or disabled and in the 1800’s many workhouses’ were built to provide shelter, work, food and clothing to the destitute. In 1914 a new code was established which encouraged ‘more generous relief to be given to widows’ but ‘only to those of good habits who would bring up their families correctly’ and that workhouses should be used as a threat to ‘weaker’ women’ as it was already being argued that the welfare system was changing the morals of society (Walsh et al, 2000, p. 35;36).

The birth of the modern welfare state began in 1911 when Lloyd George and Churchill introduced the first compulsary national insurance scheme against unemployment (Bartholomew, 2004, p.51). In 1941 an enquiry was launched which put forward proposals on how to tidy up the state welfare and the Bevridge report was published in 1942. William Bevridge was disappointed in what the welfare state had become and his report focused on full employment continuing within a stable economy where both Conservative and Labour worked within similar ideologies at this time to keep this stability and growth (Harris, 2004, p. 289, Alcock et al, 2004, p. 246). He was a believer of the Keynes theory that suggested there was a need for Government intervention to manage the economy which would solve the problems of unemployment and this approach was adopted by the Labour party (Page, 1999, p.24). His report further outlined defeating the ‘five giants’: want, ignorance, disease, squalor and idleness and his main proposal was that a national security should be universal and be compulsary – ‘everyone would pay a flat-rate contributions to a national insurance scheme. Those who fell ill, became unemployable or reached retirement age would, in return, receive flat-rate payments’ (Bartholomew, 2004, p.57). His report made no special provision for lone parents at all, arguing that the reponsibility of supporting the unmarried mother would be her family’s although the typical family (which was that of a working man, his wife and children) lived almost in an income tax free state. At the time there was a married-couples allowance and tax allowances paid for each child which made the two parent family more likely to succeed (Bartholomew, 2004, p.255). Feminists saw his report as advocating that the womens place should be in the home serving her husband and children (VSS, 2003, p.19) as Beveridge stated that ‘married womens duties was the vital unpaid service which would ensure the adequate continuance of the British race and of the British ideals in the world’ (cited in Lewis et al, 2000, p.32).

The years following the Second World War radically influenced British society – the NHS was formed and various Acts such as the Education Act; Family Allowance Act and the National Assistance Act were introduced and National Insurance for the unemployed was developed (Walsh et al, 2000, p.46). The Labour government helped to create a more state orientated Britain which took place with the purchase of industries by the state however this focus changed when the Conservative government came into power in 1979 and the concentration shifted to privatisation (Burton, 1987, p.26). The Conservatives, led by Margaret Thatcher, faced the burdening situation of the government’s finances, rise in unemployment and NHS budget, and an increase in welfare bills. She proposed major changes in the thinking about social welfare and how it should be administered. In order to considerably reduce the increasing demand on the welfare state, which she believed to be expensive and morally weakening, she shifted the responsibility of welfare from the state to personal, private and voluntary organisations which would be more efficient and effective (Walsh et al, 2000, p.52).

During her period in office, Thatcher was influenced by her belief that the traditional nuclear family was the central force of modern life that contributed to decency, manners, respect for property and law and self-reliance, and was the best atmosphere for raising children (Jones et al, 2007, p.156). The norms and values of society began to break down in the 60’s and 70’s when a more tolerant society began to emerge. Changes to social policies such as divorce legislation (Divorce Reform Act, 1969) and generous welfare benefits were blamed for society and values deteriorating and this had caused an increase in irregular families and household types (Douglas, 1990, p.412). Thatcher and the New Right believed that the only way social problems would end would be if the ‘golden age’ returned in which people lived in conventional family units, women stayed at home, divorce was not considered, benefits for lone parents were low and tax allowance for children were paid out (Douglas, 1999, p.414). They further argued that the traditional values’ of women’s roles and the tradition of marriage was important to hold society together (Jones, 2007, p.156). New Right thinking, although influential in the 80’s during the Thatcher Government is not new and has been around since the 17th and 18th century. The belief was that the government should not intercede in people’s lives and freedom, and that any intervention would cause social problems to become worse rather than improving them. The New Right also differentiated between people who were thought to be deserving of help and welfare services (poor through no fault of their own) and those who were unemployed, lazy and wasted money who should not receive welfare and support (Page et al, 1999, p.23; 78).

Although Thatcher was keen to encourage and maintain the roles and responsibilities of the traditional family unit for personal security, emotional satisfaction and care for family members, it became difficult due to changes in society and law, which allowed women more freedom. Abortions were legalised and the contraceptive pill became available for free. In addition several Acts were introduced which gave women the opportunity to be more equal to men such as the Sex Discrimination Act (1975), Equal Pay Act (1970) and the Equal Opportunities Act (1995). Furthermore the marketization of the economy; deregulation and privatisation of labour markets and spreading owner occupation in an unstable housing market all played their part in the family breakdown and women’s access to, and need for, jobs (Chadwick et al, 2003, p.8). As women’s lives began to change, they moved away from their natural role of housewife and mother as divorce rates climbed and more lone-parent families became the norm. The idea of family responsibility and informal care by the existing family was formally made public but in reality, it became more difficult for family members to support each other. The belief was that the normal nuclear family should be a family of two heterosexual adults, who were married and in a sexual relationship, producing children and instilling traditional moral values in them. Therefore the breakdown of the family and specifically the increase in lone parent families and illegitimacy were recognized as the cause of the increase in crime, unemployment, delinquency, educational underachievement and child poverty (Douglas, 1999, p.412; 413). Charles Murray whose New Right ideas greatly influenced Thatcher and Conservative thinking believed that society in the 1960’s had done nothing to improve the life of the poor but instead had caused it to be worse by creating an ‘underclass’. Despite any evidence, he further argued that the welfare programmes had produced a rise in unemployment, crime and illegitimacy in the American ‘underclass’ and defiantly stated that ‘people were not owed a decent standard of living, it was something they had to work for’ (Page et al, 1999, p.79). Murray particularly blamed the children of lone parent families for social problems as he argued that the lack of both role models would increase their chance of living in poverty, becoming dependent on drugs, alcohol and benefits and therefore would increase the chance of them resorting to crime. He further stated that the welfare state encouraged dependency and a break from traditional values and argued that large benefits led to families not working, but remaining dependant on state benefits (Page et al, 1999, p.304; 78). Thatcher therefore believed that the only way to reduce poverty was by ending the benefit culture, removing this dependency and encouraging self-reliance. She would have preferred mothers not to work, as their responsibility was to be at home to care for and protect their children. More over it would have been desirable if there were no single mothers claiming income support. Dunn – Toroosian (2009, p.74) argues that the terms ‘legitimate and illegitimate referring to children born in or out of wedlock are old fashioned, value laden terms that reflect societies attitude to marriage and childbearing which reinforce the New Right view and the Conservative pro-family movement, derived from Christian morality’.

Thatcher addressed the increase in welfare costs by cutting social expenditure, withdrawing services and introducing a new form of means tested support, which she believed targeted those in real need. She reduced the level of benefits and replaced certain benefits with others, which meant some people lost all or some of their benefits. Furthermore child benefit was not increased in line with inflation. Discretionary payments for people in deprivation were completely removed and the Social Fund introduced to help struggling people was mostly given out in the form of loans and not grants. The effect of these changes left many people and families who were receiving benefits a lot poorer.

It is however argued (Pascall, 2002) that these changes to social policy left women in a stronger position by the end of the Conservative era due to improved access to work and enabled lone mothers to do paid work which made women less dependant within families. Although many of the changes happened more because of the women’s movement than to Thatcherism, Thatcherite policies played a part in the process. However regardless of the woman’s new position, the New Right’s ideology of the nuclear family is not all it is made out to be. Functionalist in particular ignored the potential harmful effects of family life and inequalities of domestic life. Nuclear families are very stereotypical and discriminatory (other family types are not families and therefore inadequate), patriarchal (there is an unequal distribution of power and status as it is male dominant and women are exploited) and not inclusive (gay relationships, reconstituted families, unmarried parents and especially lone parents are all ignored). There was no discussion or argument about whether the nuclear family was the only one that could carry out the vital functions of the family or whether the role of nurturing children could possibly be carried out by other family types such as lone parents or two women/ men. In addition nuclear families, as with all other types of families, can be equally unfavourable especially if there is domestic abuse and violence or child and drug abuse. Women may have gained more rights to be considered equal to men but in most circumstances the man has remained the breadwinner and women were still considered to undertake the emotional role of the domestics, housewife, mother and carer. Women often work part time or flexible hours in order to allow them to continue to fulfil their childcare and household responsibilities (Dunn-Toroosin, 2009, p.63). In addition, because of the changes in the economic, demographic, political and cultural trends in the industrialised world, people’s work and home lives had changed. Although great change had taken place, it seemed that other areas of society such as government, religion and business had not yet caught up with the new reality.

The Labour Party led by Tony Blair came into power after a landslide victory in 1997 and one of his main agendas was welfare reform. Although he continued with many of the Conservatives themes and stated ‘that the welfare state must offer a hand-up rather than a hand-out'(Page, 1999, p.306), he wanted people on benefits to pull their weight with his ‘rights and responsibilities’ approach. However, in his attempt to break away from Thatherism, the new government adopted the ‘Third Way’ which was about promoting opportunity instead of dependance, with a welfare state providing for the mass of the people, but in new ways to fit the modern world (DSS, 1998b, p.19). Although New Labour accepted that the government had a duty to provide appropriate training and education, Blair wanted certain people receiving benefits (including single parents) to be encouraged into work and training rather than continuing to receive benefits (Page, 1999, p.309). Blair stressed the importance of individuals being socially independent, however he also emphasised the importance and morals of families arguing that ‘the breakup of community in turn is consequent on the breakdown in family life’ (Lavalette et al, 1999, online). Blair promised that his policies would modernise and renew Britain however the ideas that they were based upon were hardly new. He frequently discussed his Christian beliefs and values and how they influenced his policies – New Labour very much wanted to return to ‘family values’ (Lavalette et al, 1999, online). Frank Field (Labour minister for welfare reform, 1998) adopted many of the views of Charles Murray and he again highlighted the role of divorce, family breakdown and illegitimacy as the main contributors of the ‘underclass’ and that welfare should ‘openly reward good behaviour and enhance those roles which the country values’ (cited in Lavalette, 1999, online). Labour used social welfare policy to assert a new moral agenda and similarly to the policies of the New Right focused on the problem of teenage pregnancy, single mothers and the one parent family which resulted in benefits being cut (Page, 1999, p.129). The New Deal (introduced in 1998) was concerned with moving people off benefits into work through better access to training and subsidies being offered to employers who employ young people who had been out of work for six months. Furthermore the New Deal for Lone Parents did not apply to lone parents with younger children and it did not consider how difficult it was for them in actually taking up paid work (Hills, 1998, p.26). The poor working class families were told that they would be held responsible for any crimes their children committed as New Labour focussed on strengthening families and communities and also shaping the ‘institution in which children are brought up, on the basis of enduring values – justice for all, responsibilty from all’ (Chadwick, 2003, p.32). Benefit recipients were told that work is their ‘salvation’, even if it meant working for benefits, and being unemployed was not an option. Another strategy on his agenda was to tackle ‘social exclusion’ – groups of the poor who lacked the income and the opportunities to access social establishments which again included young single mothers. New Labour saw paid work as the best way to improve the position of the socially excluded rather than creating dependancy on welfare payments and services (Page, 1999, p.307). Ironically his agenda led to increasing levels of unemployment and a greater divide between rich and poor. It is a continuation of a number of themes that have been central to British Government policy for the last 30 years and is based on a deeply conservative moral agenda where the poor working class is increasingly identified as a problem that must be forced to accept the values of modern capitalism.

Both New Right and New Labour attitudes and personal belief in how the family does work and should work has significantly impacted and influenced the Governments decision on social policy. However Page (1999, p.15) argues that social policy has always been shaped and influenced by social factors such as gender, class and age. This has in turn had consequences for women in family and public life. The effect of encouraging traditional family structures and the ‘labelling’ of single parents has had both psychological and physical effects on families and such stigma often shapes and overshadows life. There was no evidence that proved the nuclear family was better than other family units or that lone parents were unsuitable yet this influenced policies. Furthermore, it was seen as a life style choice for single parents to be on benefits but benefits offer little chance for lone parents (and/or their children) to get out of the poverty cycle and it needs to be recognised that poverty strips dignity and makes a person powerless.

Although the solution was to blame individuals and therefore change and introduce new policies and benefits, it would have been better to deal with the inequality and the lack of choices faced by some women. Providing more jobs and opportunities with better pay would have enabled women and their families to claw their way out of poverty and their reliance on welfare. Although the increase in capitalism meant progress for women as it enabled them to enter the workforce, they still remained unequal as they continued to bear the burden of the family role. Childcare facilities which could have allowed women to go back to work were scarce due to the lack of Thatcher’s commitment to spend public money on expanding childcare facilities (Douglas, 1999, p.413). Whilst much has been achieved, women are still at a definite disadvantage compared to men and therefore remain economically dependant. The aim of state welfare was to remove divisions in society, political and class inequality however because of the attitudes of the changing political powers which influenced the welfare state, the effect has been to make those divisions more visible: lone parents and the ‘underclass’ who have little choice than to live in impoverished environments where there is overcrowding and crime

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‘It is not possible to separate facts from values in social science research’. Discuss this statement by using empiricist and interpretative approaches
Introduction

The most complicated study in the realm of knowledge is the behaviour of human beings. It is always relative and unpredictable, the thought pattern always moulds with respect to time, space and circumstances. The social structure and embedded traditional fabric guides the human behaviour accordingly (Harris, 2001). So if we are into research we ought to consider the valve system as a major variable. The social science research methods are thus incomplete if we ignore the role of values. It is not possible to separate facts from values in social sciences because of the huge impact factor of the social structure over a phenomenon, for instance doing research in Indian society and ignoring the caste structure; would not bear considerable results. To work in Saudi Arabia it is mandatory to study the Arab traditional way of life and the blend with Islamic fundamentals. The empiricist school follows purely scientific tools of research; which is not influenced by social orders or value systems (Barton, 1999). On the contrary the interpretative school take in to account the value structures; this school is also known as hermeneutic approach (Barton, 1999). The laws of pure science aren’t concerned with the traditional ways of life; they are same in all parts of the world. But on the other hand social sciences such as anthropology, sociology, political science, economics, international relations, psychology involves the study of human behaviour that is not value free (Harris, 2001). In these soft sciences the importance and impacts of social life can’t be ignored out rightly. This is not because the research work is not rigorous or lacks in objectivity or validity but the subject matter is human attitude and behaviour which includes norms and values. Both these norms and values have different forms and manifestations in every particular society. Historically the study was known as humanities because of the mode of inquiry and approach to the methods of discourse towards the realm of knowledge (Harris, 2001).

Explanation

With the development of the subjects of social sciences the need emerged that empiricism must be applied for more effective and problem solving generalizations. The growth patterns in research lead to the development of different variances while following these traditions, the nature of empiricist tradition has been mathematical and value less which is only based on empirical data that is regardless of the fact that there is deviation in human behaviour and circumstances. This deviation may cause disorders in the data which is only reflected through positivist traditions. Therefore, while dealing with human behaviours through this approach it is a far possibility to arrive at a value free theory. Critical theorists have come up the assumptions that there is always a circumstantial reason behind every school of thought, power structure govern the body of knowledge according to its interest needs that cater the policies of powerful in the world where chaos is the only political order (Harris, 2001). The realist school of thought is the greatest justification of status quo for the powerful nations of the world; the liberal school is thought to be coined for the interests of capitalists and their free trade paradigm. The idea of clash of civilization by Samuel P Huntington caters the foreign policy of US in the later decades of 90’s, so as the theory of the End of History by Francis Fukuyama which says that liberal world order is the only solution for the global governance (Ritzger, Smart, 2001).

Thus coming to the definitions of the phenomenon of facts and values, online dictionary implies that the fact can be defined as something that actually exists; reality; truth or something known to exist or to have happened. A fact can be known as the truth known by actual experience or observation; something known to be true. On the other hand values can be defined sociologically as the ideals, customs, institutions of a society toward which the people of the group have an affective regard. These values may be positive, as cleanliness, freedom, or education, or negative, as cruelty, crime, or blasphemy. From the above definitions it can be deduced that value is an ideal and fact is the happening or the practical manifestation of the value. Values are intertwined with facts and give meaning with the help of facts (Harris, 2001). With out values facts are meaningless and vice-versa. Answers regarding the simple facts regarding a river or pollution level in the air can be given through scientific research but when it comes to sociological facts values becomes the guiding principles or the driving force for the facts.

In social sciences behaviouralism brought a fundamental transformation in the thinking process which took turn after the age of reason and enlightenment in between 1600 (Ritzger, Smart, 2001, p371). It started with the study of the natural world and spread to the study of social sciences or soft sciences. People now believe that most of the natural and social phenomenon is under the jurisdiction of science. Social scientists gather data through specialized techniques. These techniques include participant observation, key informants, focus group discussion and sampling. The empirical data includes the evidence which people have felt through their sensory perception. This thing creates confusion among researchers as they cannot employ their senses directly to observe things like intelligence, opinions, attitudes, feelings, emotions, power and authority (Ritzger, Smart, 2001, p371). This thing also creates confusion in the research world and gives birth to debate that it is not possible to separate facts from the values. For instance, the difference between the cure, prevention and ones attitude towards disease is called cancer. In other example the approach would be different while a researcher would measure the attitude towards economic systems applied in different societies.

The German sociologist Weber is the creator for freedom from value decision in the social sciences, an ideal he referred as Werturteilsfreiheit (value-freedom). He says that there is a rational distance; it’s not a matter of quantity, separating the causal premise and empirical generalizations of science from value judgments. It is more of moral, political, and aesthetic first choice. Social scientists keep the two sides, fact and value. Thus it can be argued from the Weber, that this separation is not observed by anyone.

Weber seized that values affect the way in which research is done in the social sciences and that the values are also affected by the research results. Facts can be brought to bear on values, affecting one’s holding of them. On the research side of the human disciplines, evaluations enter into the subject matter. Using understanding explanation that is, the subject’s evaluations seen in relation to the conditions of his or her action, the researcher can hope to sort out the decisive motives of the actor studied. In research, the scrutiny of values permits a discussion between investigators that can clarify the points of view each brings to bear.

Values serve the science by an empirical treatment. Values ultimately come into view, in practical situations the implications of values are judged in particular terms. In addition new values can be revealed and their factual consequences can be judged (Weber, 1949). Value is not determined by any fact for instance and is necessarily free (Weber, 1949). It is free because it is a value (Weber, 1949). And it is because there are a lot of values and they are at odds, and according to Weber these are warring gods in the modern world.

Humans are cultural beings and are caught in the chains of the culture, values, norms and traditions. Both the researcher and the respondent cannot get rid of the cultural implications. Taking the culture as the object social scientists must recognize the prerequisite for a cultural science is as cultural beings, humans take up behaviour to the world and give it meaning and significance. Values permit this. Core cultural values in cultural science change with culture over time (Weber, 1949).

Weber’s idea of value-freedom is of extreme importance that research cannot be conducted in space. Hence the cultural values are enveloped in the cultural facts. Values and facts are interrelated and interdependent. No value in culture is out of context of facts (Weber, 1949). Infact cultural facts give meaning to values and norms. Thus it cannot be separated from the cultural context. Thus this idea gives that Weber is positivist and facts be studied for scientific purposes and only science cannot save the human beings only.

The empirical researcher asks for the objectivity in the research keeping in view the apolitical environment (May, 1993). However the interpretative research looks for the reflection of personal point of view. It infact does not ask for the value freeness, rather it sees the values and meanings fused together (May, 1993).

The empiricist approach tends to say that all the social research is based on the empirical data and evidence. All the knowledge is empirical in nature and intensity. Social research is based on rationale and empirical observations. Social research involves the contact between thoughts and evidence. Ideas help social researchers to give sense to the evidence and the researcher use this evidence to support ideas.

Research has attempts to influence the real world. No laws in social science are parallel to the laws in the natural science; whereas law is a universal generalization about a fact and fact is an observed phenomenon and it means it has been seen, heard or otherwise experienced by researcher (Barton, 1999, p232). Thus the researcher holds a relationship with the society directly. Empirical school is all about data collected through sensory perception and all that. This term was used for certain ancient Greek practitioners of medicine who rejected following to the basic principles, preferring to rely on personal experience and observation. Building further, empiricism became a theory which refers that knowledge arises from experience and evidence gathered using senses (Barton, 1999, p232). Scientifically, the term refers to the gathering of data using only evidence that is observable by the senses or in some cases using calibrated scientific instruments. The investigator tries to describe the interaction between the human senses and the unit being observed. The researcher is expected to adjust tools by applying it to known standard objects and documenting the results before applying it to unknown objects. Thus in short it can be analyzed in empirical school that the facts and values are part and parcel of any culture and society (Couvalis, 1997, p40). Facts give meanings with the help of values and values through facts. Both are pre requisites of each other. When the word scientific comes in vogue than it means that only scientific and systematic methods of inquiry are applied to understand and investigate the social phenomenon that includes interaction among more than two individuals. The values and norms are the guiding principles of this interaction. Values are a set of ethics or standards of behaviour and are held in high esteem and sough-after by a particular society in which a person lives (Couvalis, 1997, p45). Without values, life is confusion, signifying nothing. It is the pre-requisite to be human.

Everything in this world is relative, truth is not truth but it is being made truth, constructed as a truth, thus perceived to be truth, so it is the perception which makes our impression which we except as a truth and the only truth in this time frame is that only the creature is absolute. So facts are actually truths about social world driven under the umbrella of values. Relatively speaking neither Earnest Najel is wrong nor Longino or Karl Marx. But every phenomenon has some critique, which is valid to considerable extent. For this reason not totally disagreeing with any one I would just highlight some angles upon which light could be thrown.

It is not against the use of scientific method to apply to social research, no doubt science has developed a lot it has revolutionized our lives and mechanized as well, here the stress is at, mechanized our lives, when it comes to human thoughts the development means a lot but as man is social animal so his social world tends to be developed the world around him and the world in which he lives. For this reason objectivity of using scientific methods in social fields is sought.

But prior to check whether there is any similarities between natural science and social phenomenon, for using them simultaneously they must be identical in subject matter, in terms of application and generalisation. Are the patterns to the theories similar in these respects? Social science is based on rules while natural science is based on laws. Social theory need to be reduced to natural theory.

Replicating a social phenomenon for the sake of experimental study might be possible in some cases but not in all cases, thus behavioural, cultural, and the normative order could make difference. Anatol Francis said that the difference between animal and human being is like literature and lying. Scientific approach has been very rigid as far as the conclusion are concerned either right or wrong while on the other side it not the same case.

Social scientific thesis is not compatible and universal, that is not applicable every where and could not be tested or verified universally as values very society to society and same as the facts. Science approach cannot give you perceptions. It can tell a person what s/he can do, not what s/he should do. Put another way, treating the ideas as a coherent system of thought, science can point out to an actor what is possible within his or her value system, and what would be contradictory to that value system.

Social constructivists urge that understanding the production of scientific knowledge required looking at all the factors causally relevant to the acceptance of a scientific idea, not just at those the researcher thinks should be relevant. Science is thought to be the knowledge of elites. Authoritative explanation of knowledge makes difference, while tradition also plays its part in your knowledge system.

Problems of social policy are not based on purely technical considerations of specific ends, but involve disputes about the normative standards of value which lie in the domain of general cultural values. This conflict over general cultural values does not occur solely between ‘class interests’ but between general views on life and the universe as well. The non-scientific world information is accepted on trust, so in science, knowledge grows by depending on the testimony of others. What are the implications of accepting this fact for our conceptions of the reliability of scientific knowledge? Until recently, apart from a few anomalous figures like Caroline Herschel, Barbara Mcclintock, and Marie Curie, the sciences were a male preserve.

Feminists turned to Marxist models of social relations and developed versions of standpoint theory, which holds that the beliefs held by a group reflect the social interests of that group. As a consequence, the scientific theories accepted in a context marked by divisions of power such as gender will reflect the interests of those in power. Alternative theoretical perspectives can be expected from those systematically excluded from power. (Rose 1983; Haraway 1978). Objective science must distinguish between value judgments and empirical knowledge, and try to see factual truths. However, value-judgments of the practical interest of the scientist will always be significant in determining the focus of attention of analytical activity.

Interpretative social sciences go back to the German sociologist Max Weber and another German philosopher Wilhem Diltey. This is related to the word hermeneutics that originated in the nineteenth century. This employs that making the obscure plain. This thing refers that true meanings are rarely simple or obvious on the surface. One absorbs that scanning through the complete text. In this method the researcher uses participant observation and field research method. The interpretative researcher lives for year among the respondents to collect data. This is the organized analysis of the social actions through direct and detailed observation of the people in the natural world. The goal of the social research is to deep down understand the social life and discover how people construct meanings in the natural setting. The basic aim of the interpretative social science research is to discover social reality.

Conclusion

All the social sciences studies and researches are conducted to find out the meaning and truths behind the values. All the facts give explanations to the prevailing values in short. The purpose of the research is to give scientific explanation to the facts and to dig out the universal laws about human behaviour (Weber, 1949). It is not the motive to separate values from the facts. As I have previously mentioned that both are interlocked. In our society the correlation of values with daily life holds a cliche. The above debate can be concluded that values and facts are interlinked and phenomenon and concepts which give meaning while combined (Barton, 1999, p232). All research is empirical in nature and holds roots in the society that is composed of human beings. Research is an ongoing, evolving, moving process. The current knowledge and paradigms are not perfect. The only aim is construct scientific laws about human behaviour and when the word behaviour is used, the term values automatically jumps in. facts in any cultural, societal and communal reflection explains the values and norms of that particular society. Social scientists gather and explain data accordingly.

Thus it can be concluded that generally established objectivity and subjectivity or simply reality versus values that is applicable to individual cultures only. In their own conclusion, the authors state that it will be the theory of argumentation that will help develop what pure logic could not, the “justification of the possibility of a human community in the sphere of action when this justification cannot be based on a reality of objective truth.” (Bizzel and Herzberg, 2001, p. 1377)

Bibliography

Barton, E. (1999). Review of Strategies for Empirical Research in Writing. Journal of Business and Technical Communication, 13, 2, p. 232.
Bizzel, P. and Herzberg, B. (Eds.) (2001). The Rhetorical Tradition. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins.
Caws, Peter (1972). An Immense Density of Systematicities. The Archeology of Knowledge. By Michel Foucault. Translated by A. M. Sheridan Smith. http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/comm/steen/cogweb/Abstracts/Foucault.html (retrieved 11/23/08)
Chalmers, A (1999). What is this thing called Science? Open University Press. p19-26, 27-58.
Couvalis, G. (1997). The philosophy of Science. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. p36-61.
Harris, M. (2001). The Rise of Anthropological Theory. AltaMira Press.
Kuhn, T. (1962). The structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Ladyman, J. (2002).Understanding the Philosophy of Science. New York: Routledge. p93-123.
MacNealy, M.S. (1999). Overview of Empirical Methodology. In Strategies for Empirical Research in Writing. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
May, T. (1993). Social Research: Issues, Methods and Process, Buckhingham: Open University Press. p27-41.
Neuman, W Lawrence, Social Research Methods, Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches , University of Wisconsin at Whitewater.
Ritzger, G & Smart, B. (2001). Handbook of Social Theory. London: SAGE. p371-385.
Weber, Max. 1949. Max Weber on the Methodology of the Social Sciences. Trans. and eds. Edward A. Shils and Henry A. Finch. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.

This argument has facts about the cruel abuse of animals. The research was informative and disappointing all at once. It includes opinions of others and cases that have happened in the past years. The research was gathered y reading articles, newspapers, and search engines such as Google and New York Times. One main difficulty while writing this essay was having to read about the horrible truth of different types of animal cruelty. The easiest thing about writing this essay was researching because animal cruelty is a common argument.

Animal Cruelty

Animals are being used for useless products that we can live without. Many animals die due to different types of crucial testing. They suffer by going through several procedures. The goal is not to patch up ailing people but to use the human tissues in place of mice, dogs or other lab animals for testing new drugs, cosmetics and other products (New York Times, nd). With the donation of human cells, animal testing will be reduced. This way is safer & can be both suited for animals and humans. “Different types of animal cruelty have been around for many years. Laws relating to animal cruelty vary from state to state. As of 2009, about forty-six states have some felony provisions in their anti-cruelty and/or animal fighting laws (Wisch, 2005). As time passes and new things are being invented, people seem to loose interest in their pets. Even though people use animals for their testing/experiments, there are other ways to get a solution to something.

Scientist and many others, find it easier and safer to test on animals than to test on other possible sources. They test products such as makeup, and cologne. They also use animal fur for designer clothing & other types of fashion. “Innocent animal rights movement had a bible; it is Singer’s 1975 book, Animal Liberation” (New York Times, Jan. 15, pg 30). Singer calls many of the attitudes human beings have toward other animal’s speciesism, a concept which can be found throughout history (Gargaro, 1991). Humans are just like animals as far as feeling pain.

Many animals are killed each year for food. More than a thousand animals are killed and shipped to groceries stores to be bought. Slaughtering of cows, pigs, and other animals, happen everyday because consumers keep purchasing meat. Animals on today’s factory farms are kept in crowded, filthy enclosures and denied everything natural and enjoyable to them. Most of them have no legal protection from cruelty that would be illegal if it were inflicted on dogs or cats. There are some fruits or vegetables that can give the same protein as meat. The Humane Slaughter Act requires that animals be rendered unconscious with one swift application of a stunning device before slaughter. Animals in slaughterhouses predict the worse when they smell the stench hear the sounds and often see the slaughter of those before them. As the animals struggle to cooperate with the human workers who are pressured to keep the lines moving quickly, often react abusively towards the animals. Numerous cases of deliberate cruelty have been reported of workers who take sadistic pleasure from shooting the eyes out of cattle, striking them in the head, and electrically shocking them in sensitive areas of their bodies. The animals’ central nervous and endocrine systems are no different between humans. To minimize costs, animals are crowded and must live in each other’s excrement. “They are exposed to extreme weather conditions in the open trucks. Shipping fever, which can be fatal, is common in cattle transported long distances to the feedlots, the stockyards and then the slaughterhouse” (Compassionate Action Institute, nd).

Animal cruelty can be either neglecting or simply failing at taking care of an animal. No matter the position of the animal, the victim can suffer terribly. People with emotional problems harm the animals in different ways. Neglect is not giving an animal the right care it should be given. Animals who die of neglect suffer twice as much as animals, who die of mistreatment. Scientist can do horrible things to animals that other people can’t do legally, but every state has some protection for pets like dogs and cats. There are different cases in animal cruelty, for example cockfighting and dog fighting. Animal cruelty has not gone away. In Brea, California, 85 children, from kindergarten through 12th grade, witnessed a cow being slaughtered at Carbon Canyon Christian School, according to PETA Action Alerts. They got to experience the cruel act instead of reading it in books. “Chances are if an animal is being abused and there is a child in that household, then the child is also being abused. Chances are that a child abusing an animal can grow up to be someone who commits other violent crimes. Studies also found that a history of animal abuse was found in 25% of male criminals, 30% of convicted child molesters, 36% of domestic violence cases and 46% of homicide cases” (The National Animal Abuse Registry, nd). Vegetarians examine the animals that are abused ad rig its perpetrators to court.

People engage in animal cruelty, everywhere throughout the world. There are many reasons why people mistreat animals, some individuals act on sadistic desires; others neglect them and eat them without caring. Animals are used as dummies because people think they aren’t harming anyone by doing so. In the past few years, organizations and caring human beings have been using the internet to spread facts of animal cruelty, a great plan considering animal abuse will only continue until enough people come face-to-face with the unbarring truth. To fight this many scientists, authors, lawyers, and politicians have valued their time and money to save suffering animals. Thanks to the individuals who gathered animal cruelty facts, people are now noticing the suffering ad mistreatment they undergo.

The incredible gift of medicine would not be possible without animal testing. Those who believe that using animals for testing think that it’s better to have them endure the product first for safe purposes. The things that make people believe that animal testing is wrong are that they believe that what the scientists do is with bad intensions. Scientists don’t do it with bad intensions they do it because it might save lives or cure an illness. For example, if scientists test a new drug that they think will cure a disease they can test it on an animal to see if their theory is right and if it is, they can use it on humans who have that disease. Animal testing is used in many different ways, but mainly to prevent harm from being brought upon humans. Animal testing is used in several areas of research drug testing, and the testing of cosmetics. Research investigates many topics including memory, social behavior, evolution, genetics, and how animals develop normally and abnormally. Drug testing is used to test pharmaceutical drugs on animals before the drugs are exposed to the public for use. Cosmetic testing includes the final testing of a product or their ingredients either individually or combined. This testing is the most controversial and is banned in Europe (n.a, 2007). In the history of animal testing, many good things have come from it. The US Foundation for Biomedical Research says that “animal research has played a vital role in virtually every major medical advance of the last century – for both human and animal health.” Animal drug testing on penicillin, organ transplants, was used in the creation of a vaccine for polio. There are some misconceptions about animal testing. “Many people believe that dogs, cats, and monkeys are the main animals used in research, but in fact, about 90 percent of animals used are rats and mice. Only .1 percent of animals used are primates, and only .4 percent are cats and dogs. People also believe that stray animals are picked up off the street and thrown into labs for testing. Not only is that not done, but it is also illegal” (William Hamblin, 2007). In the past 20 years the number of animals tested on has been cut in half.

Few topics are more hair-raising than the controversy over fur. Celebrities use fur as a sense of fashion. An “undercover expert” at Intelligent Life points out, “it is eco-hogwash to boast that something is better because it is made from natural or renewable fibers.” (Caitlin Dickson, 2011). “The truth is that the meat and leather trades are economically intertwined, and all the environmental issues that come with raising cattle for meat-such as habitat loss, emissions of greenhouse gases and resource use, not to mention the overuse of antibiotics-also apply to leather. So an alternative option is to look for skins that have a positive impact on habitat and wild-animal numbers.” (Caitlin Dickson, 2011). A fur coat is a great way to keep warm. No matter what occasion, fur is always in style. Many top international designers are using fur in their collections. Fur is a fiber that lasts for many years. Fur is biodegradable and a renewable resource. Fur can be worn for all occasions. Furs can be used for any season. The fur trade is a proud North American heritage. Strict government controls ensure that trade is okay as longest on endangered are used. The fur trade is a responsible, and well-regulated. Animal cruelties can also be fighting of animals. The ASPCA is wiping out animal fighters and saving thousands of animals from the horrors of abuse. Animal fighting is a contest in which people force animals to fight for entertainment. In some instances, they will use weak animals as bait to train the other stronger animals. In organized dog fighting cases, two dogs are put into a ring or pit to fight until one can not continue or dies. Street dog fighting cases occur in many city locations. In cockfighting handlers attach a razor or gaff to each rooster’s leg and put them into a ring to fight to the death. Cockfighting is considered family entertainment. Organized animal fighting is usually secretive and very difficult for law enforcement to find. Accordingly, it is rare for investigators to find a fight in progress. Animal fighting activities relate to crimes such as gambling, drug dealing, weapons offenses and money laundering. Stealing of pets to fight them is also a crime. In organized animal fighting cases, there are usually a large number of animals who must be catalogued as evidence, provided with medical treatment, and sheltered during the pendency of the court case. Furthermore, security precautions may be necessary at the shelter because animals considered to be from “champion bloodlines” are in danger of being stolen. “Man’s best friend” may fight to the death in dogfights, often with a lot of money in stake. Dogfighters sometimes kill the losing dogs, and even winning dogs may die from their wounds. Drugs, guns, and even murders are discovered in dogfights. Street dog fighting, however, is on the rise in urban areas. Neighborhood pit bull owners seek status or bragging rights of fights in back alleys or basements. They are making inroads into street dog fighting, too. All fighting dogs suffer, whether in the pit or out. Although they are pack animals, they get immune to fighting more dogs and live lives on chains or locked in cages.

Whether any emotional problems, any animal should not be brutally beat. Neglect is a major impact o animals ad ca suffer terribly from it..

All states have animal cruelty laws, and most of them treat some forms of abuse as felonies. Farmers and researchers can do cruel things to animals that other people can’t do legally, but all states have some protection for pets like dogs and cats. Animal neglect is the failure to provide care required for an animal to be successful. At first glance, cases may not seem as bad, but severe neglect can mean long periods of suffering, resulting to injury or death. Large amounts of neglect can affect hundreds of animals

The Animal Legal Defense Fund maintains a database of criminal animal cruelty cases in the U.S. reported to our organization. In the last ten years, over 30% of cases that we have tracked involve animal neglect (n.a, 2010).

Although animals can be used for finding a cure, shelter, or even making money, it’s wrong to abuse of them for personal needs. They are a big part in our lives and do not need to be abused for no reason. They are the victims.

The literature examined throughout this paper assumes that there are many contributing factors that can lead to poverty in the United States of America. The factors include but are not limited to increased immigration rates, the lack of education, illicit drug use, and family composition (i.e. single parent homes). Additionally the literature presented demonstrates the relevance of the previously mentioned areas while highlighting specific examples. In conducting research on this particular issue many scholars shared contradicting views on what truly influences poverty in the U.S. This may be contributed to the many factors including the areas in which the research was conducted and varying backgrounds. Thus my research question is “What critical components contribute to the rising poverty levels in America?” In answering this scrupulous question I will focus on factors including immigration, level of education and family composition. Poverty is an issue that affects us all because research indicates that increased poverty levels are proportional to increased crime rates, number of students that drop out of school, and lack of job opportunities. Uncovering the critical components that contribute to the rising poverty levels in American will allow individuals to find solutions to this growing issue.

Abstract
Introduction

Many individuals believe that poverty is only found in third world countries, but contrary to popular belief it exists in “wealthy” countries as well. Poverty occurs when individuals are unable to satisfy their basic needs, which leads to a depravation of food, shelter, money, and clothing. Scholars suggest that factors including increased immigration rates, illicit drug use, varying levels of education and family composition play a major role in the rising levels of poverty in America. Poverty is an issue that affects us all, research indicates that increased poverty levels are proportional to increased crime rates, number of students that drop out of school, and lack of job opportunities. Likewise increased levels of poverty also tend to have a negative effect on our communities. For example rising poverty levels forces property rates decrease. Furthermore, the issues surrounding poverty are a great concern to many individuals living in the “land of prosperity”, because there are a large percentage of individuals that are living below the nation’s current poverty line. This is a very troubling fact, thus my research question is; what critical components contribute to the increase levels of poverty in America? In looking at potential causes of poverty, one can begin to formulate solutions that would ultimately help decrease the national poverty rate. Through examining various data, the previously mentioned research question would shed light on what factors truly contribute to poverty in the United States. To conduct my research I will visit certain cities that have high poverty rates. While in those cities I will stay in low income housing, also referred to as section eight, and intermingle with the residents. By staying in community with those that are affected by poverty I will be able to interact with many of them on a personal level through participant observation. Researching the many components of poverty is important, because we are products of our community, as a result we should know what negatively affects it so that we build on improvements.

Literature Review

People living in poverty tend to be in clustered neighborhoods rather than being evenly distributed across a geographic area. [1] Alemayehu Bishaw suggests that measuring this concentration of poverty is important, because researchers have found that living in areas with many other poor people places burdens on low-income families beyond what the families’ own individual circumstances would dictate. This article, using a combination of statistical data shows the distribution of individuals living in poverty based on level of education, race/ethnicity, living environment, and marital status. This report deeply analyzes demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of census tracts, to determine what truly influences poverty.

The persistence of poverty and economic inequality around the world has led many economists to question the model of an individual’s self-determination when it comes to living in poverty. [2] In Poverty Traps authors Samuel Bowels, Steven Durlauf, and Karla Hoff, propose that there are many conditions that may trap individuals, groups, and entire economies in poverty. In using history and theories Bowels, Durlauf, and Hoff suggest that those born into poverty have it in their power to get out of poverty. This book argues that there are many conditions that can influence poverty such; as an individual’s level of education, and ones living and socioeconomic environment. The authors propose that poverty informs much political debate while making a correlation between social and political institutions, beginning with corruption and not limited to social customs such as kin systems.

Throughout the 21st/ century, poverty advocates and activists continuously propose that political mobilization is an effective mechanism to combat poverty in many western democracies, specifically the United States. [3] The Politics of Poverty: Left Political Institutions, the Welfare State and Poverty, investigates the impact of left political institution on a nation’s amount of poverty. Brady argues that, given the longstanding contention that left political institutions reduce social inequality, it is plausible that left mobilization potentially could contribute to poverty reduction. Through various research methods, it is suggested that the strength of left political systems has a significant and powerfully negative impact on poverty. While welfare remains a crucial determinant of poverty, left political institutions are crucial to the explanations of poverty from a historical viewpoint

A question often asked is “Can the wealthiest nation in the world do nothing to combat the steadily rising numbers of Americans living in poverty, or the millions close to living in poverty?” [4] Poverty in America, using various methods examines and explains why poverty is growing, while illustrating steps that can be taken to prevent it. John Edwards, Marion Crain, and Arne Kalleberg Edwards, Crain, and Kalleberg recognize that in order to eliminate an issue, one must first, figure out what is causing the issue. In doing this, the authors give an adequate definition of poverty and many of the factors that contribute to the rising poverty levels. Additionally, Poverty in America discusses the repercussions that rising poverty levels are having on various ethnic groups. In conducting research, the authors uncovered that there is a disproportionate number of African-Americans and Hispanic families living below the poverty line. They propose that this is due to wealth inequalities and the growing income gap between the rich and the poor.

In the United States, with the exception of those on Social Security, the only way for most individuals to avoid poverty is to work. [5] Ron Haskins the author of Combating Poverty: Understanding New Challenges for Families, using empirical data and research methods provides various poverty trends over the course of history. By doing such, Haskins suggests that the conditions within the United States virtually ensure high poverty rates because of the factors that influence poverty. Those factors including the declining of work rates, stagnant wages, family composition, inferior education, and the increase number of immigrants. Haskins suggests that the conditions in the U.S. ensure high poverty rates because the factors that influence poverty remain very strong. Furthermore, Haskins deeply analyzes each individual cause and sheds light on them through data, charts and graphs.

Over the course of history the United States has experienced a rising standard of living, with the Gross Domestic Product per capita on a constant rise. [6] Hilary Hoynes, Marianne Page, and Ann Stevens, using exploratory research methods examines the trends in individual poverty rates. Poverty in America: Trends and Explanations examines’ the rise and fall of various social economic groups that are in poverty. Likewise, this source takes into account many of the components that are used when measuring the various levels and causes of poverty such as levels of education, overpopulation and job opportunities. Throughout this text the authors present charts and graphs to show the change in data over a certain period of time. Hoynes, Page, and Stevens provide a fundamental contribution to understanding poverty as a whole.

What does it mean to be poor? This is a questioned posed be John Iceland in Poverty in America: A Handbook. While most people would be hard-pressed to give a precise answer, many feel that poverty is easily recognized when one sees it. [7] For example, a news story accompanied with images of malnourished children in an areas surrounded by filth can vividly display poverty. Iceland suggests that as one moves away from the obvious examples, it becomes more difficult to distinguish what people mean when using the word poor. In using a concise, accessible format the author produces an inclusive picture of the state of poverty in America. Additionally, Poverty in America: A Handbook shows how poverty has changed significantly over time. Likewise, Iceland adequately shows how poverty is both measured and understood, and how public policies have wrestled with poverty as a political issue, and an economic reality. Furthermore, in looking at conventional theories, Iceland asks the tough questions like: Is poverty unavoidable, and Are people more likely to live in poverty based on their race, class, and/or gender?

There are many competing theories about the causes of poverty in the United States with a great deal of empirical evidence to justify support for each. [8] The Cause of Poverty Cultural vs. Structural, suggests that there are many different factors that contribute to poverty, while arguing that poverty is largely the result of social and behavioral deficiencies in individuals that make them less economically viable within a conservative society. Gregory Jordan proposes that the debate is divided among theorist and policymakers on whether the causes of poverty are cultural and behavioral or structural and economic. This article briefly examines the theoretical arguments behind both, while providing an analysis to determine the empirical relevancy of each. Additionally, this debate is popular across political party lines with republicans supporting the cultural and behavioral side and democrats leaning more toward the structural and economic causes.

To a majority of Americans, illicit drug use and poverty go hand in hand. [9] Robert Kaesnter suggests that poverty is concentrated in inner-city neighborhoods that are often times known for high rates of drug use. Similarly, the homeless population primarily found in cities consists of a proportion of drug users. Kaestner argues that the public has a significant amount of evidence that links drug use to poverty. Using empirical data researchers are able to propose that drug use, although not the only factor, can lead to poverty. Likewise based on society’s willingness to pay for and support antidrug programs, it appears that there is a widespread belief that drug use causes many negative social and economic outcomes including poverty. Additionally this article includes tables that support its main argument.

The proportion of U.S. residents born in another country has increased significantly in recent years. [10] Immigration and poverty in the United States, highlights that international immigration accounted for over a quarter of the net population growth from 2000-2007.Using various research techniques, Steven Raphael and Eugene Smolensky suggests that immigration can affect the United States poverty rate in two ways. The first way is that immigrants tend to live in highly concentrated areas, where the level of formal education is low. Secondly, it is proposed that immigrants tend to work for lower wages and do not earn an annual salary. By not working for a steady salary immigrants are more likely not to have a consistent paycheck, thus forcing many of them to live in poverty. The authors argue that the combination of increased poverty among immigrants and a higher ratio of immigrants to the total population add to the national poverty rate.

Buried in the Census report are startling figures revealing that the collapse of marriage is creating a poverty crisis. [11] The Poverty Solution: Marriage or Bust, proposes that a long-term root cause of poverty in the United States of America is unwed childbearing. Through various research methods Robert Rector illustrates that single-mother families are five times more likely to live in poverty than married couples with children. Consequently, nearly 70 percent of poor families in America are headed by single parents. Additionally Rector highlights that the unwed birthrate has increased by 22 percent since 2002. Overall, this article suggests that because the rate of single mothers has risen, so has the number of individuals living in poverty.

Over the past 25 years significant structural changes have occurred in the United States that have influenced poverty, making current-day poverty different in some ways from poverty just a few decades ago. [12] Causes of Poverty illustrates structural changes include transformations in our economic structure such as the shift from manufacturing employment to service sector employment. Amy Rynell suggests that structural changes include but are not limited to the changes in the economic structure, diseases, welfare reform, immigration, and the increase number of individuals being incarcerated. Rynell, through rigorous econometric and statistical methods presents data based on the various causes of poverty, while showing that certain components affect various populations in different ways.

America is always projected as a world superpower and a developed nation. While the term poverty may conjure images of destitute people living in dreadful conditions, this term assumes a new dimension when we speak of poverty in the U.S. [13] Causes of Poverty in America suggests that although America is the land of dreams, it does not differ from the rest of the world. Often time’s people associate poverty with third world countries, Ashwini K. Sule argues that this is far from the truth. Sule proposes that just as there are different definitions of poverty, the causes of poverty are also different. Furthermore, this article suggests that poverty is caused by a plethora of factors including unemployment, lack of education, the breakdown of family systems and the lack of willpower. Contrary to popular belief, the “effects” of poverty could very well be the causes of poverty.

The Census Bureau conducts a national census every ten years that includes the America Community Survey (ACS); this survey includes a section that deals strictly with poverty. How to Define Poverty? Let Us the Ways discloses that according to the U.S. Census Bureau there are millions of people are living in poverty. [14] Louis Uchitelle, using various research methods actively defines poverty. In defining poverty, it is suggested that there is no single definition that can accurately characterize all of the components that go into poverty. This is mainly because there are numerous types of poverty. Although there is no one definition that defines poverty, Uchitelle proposes, that poverty in its most general terms is the lack of freedom to have or to obtain the basic needs of life. This article suggests that instead of trying to form a single definition, it is important to examine poverty from a holistic viewpoint.

Poverty is increasing tremendously across many groups, from the suburban families to the very poor families. More workers are becoming discouraged and are giving up on the job market. [15] CBS News suggests that this issue can be attributed to the fact that the United States is considered to have a weak economy and fraying government. Because of the weak economy, the unemployment rate has significantly increased. Using various data tables and charts, this article shows that the official poverty rate will increase to 15.7 percent. This percentage is the highest the poverty rate has been since 1965. Poverty is spreading at record levels because of the lack of employment opportunities due to the fragile structure of the economy. It is also suggested that changes in the economy including outsourcing, immigration, and globalization have pushed the median household income lower.

Research Design

Poverty is a major issue within the U.S. today. Economical, political, social, and cultural factors all contribute to poverty. The United States Census Bureau defines poverty as an “economic condition in which people have an insufficient income and amount of resources to obtain basic needs such as housing, clothing, food, and health care.” [16] Poverty is generally separated into two sections, those being absolute poverty and relative poverty. Absolute or extreme poverty is a circumstance in which individuals are unable to pay the prices of basic necessities needed to survive. Secondly, relative poverty suggests that people may be able to obtain basic needs but are unable to maintain the living conditions that are deemed normal. Relative poverty usually focuses on comparing ones income to those in the rest of the society. The most frequent measure of poverty in America is the poverty threshold which is set by the U.S. government. This measure identifies poverty as a lack of those goods and services frequently taken for granted by individuals living in a conventional society. [17] The official threshold is typically adjusted for inflation to better fit society.

As suggested by the literature review presented in the previous section, there are many components to consider when discussing what influences poverty in America. The literature at hand proposes that immigration, varying education levels, and family composition play a major role in increasing poverty rates. This section will discuss how the previously mentioned components negatively affect poverty rates in the U.S. through key examples. To conduct my research I will begin by going to areas that I frequently visit, that are stricken by poverty in Atlanta, New York, and California. In these cities I will live in low income housing most commonly known as section eight and intermingle with the residents. By staying in community with those that are affected by poverty I will be able to interact with many of them on a personal level through a participant observation. A participant observation is when a researcher actively participates in the daily life of the people under study while observing things that happen, listening to what is said and questioning people, over some length of time. [18] My goal is that the individuals under study would hopefully feel that they could trust me and in turn be open to answering any questions that I might have in regards to their living situation. In doing this I will observe on a first hand bases some of the factors that influence poverty in these areas by taking various polls based on individuals varying education levels, and family composition. Additionally, the cities under observation have very high immigration rates as a result I will be able to examine the affects immigration has on the rising poverty levels in America.

Immigration

Most studies of poverty conducted within the United States have usually focused on how widespread economic trends and social welfare affects the number of individuals living in poverty. Very few scholars have conducted research on the influence immigration has on the growing poverty levels in America. In gathering my research I propose that immigration increases the poverty rates by suggesting that newly arrived immigrants are on average poorer than U.S. citizens. When conducting my research I will first explore the effect immigrants have on the nations’ tax base. Additionally, I plan to focus on the impact immigration has on the poor already in America. Due to rising unemployment rates, low incomes, and the change in taxes, those living in poverty pay very little in taxes. Similarly, although many immigrants work when they arrive to the states they tend to receive payment “under the table”, thus they escape paying taxes. Furthermore, when looking at the programs designed to assist the less fortunate, many of them depend mainly on government assistance. Many individuals that are eligible to receive the services offered live below the poverty line. Because immigration adds to the number of individuals needing assistance, the funding needed to support welfare programs increase. This phenomenon suggests that if the U.S. continues to aid immigrants, we will not have the resources that are needed to help American citizens.

Education

Over the Thanksgiving holiday I had the opportunity to visit various communities in the greater Atlanta area where individuals are living below the U.S. poverty line. While visiting the communities I was able to talk to some of the residents about their educational background, and I quickly realized that many of the residents did not have a high school diploma or GED. The information gathered supports the idea that the impact of education on poverty can be assessed by examining how receiving a degree of higher learning can potentially enable individuals to obtain a better standard of living. Education plays a role in obtaining jobs, thus individuals that do not receive an adequate education are unable to provide for their families. With the job market in the U.S. being very competitive it is imperative to have an education. In today’s society there are individuals that have multiple college degrees, and they still find themselves struggling to make ends meet. A person that does not receive an education is more likely not to receive a desirable income that would ultimately allow them to obtain all of the basic necessities needed to survive. Consequently, those without an education bring their family into a never ending cycle of poverty. This is not to say that those without an education will automatically live poverty, but it does place individuals at a higher risk of living below the poverty level. Although lack of education influences poverty, poverty itself can have a negative effect on children trying to attain an education.

Family Composition

Over the course of history the family composition in America has changed drastically. No longer is the two parent household considered the norm. In fact in today’s society single parent households are rapidly increasing. Growing up in a single parent home, most of my life, I know that it can be extremely difficult for a single parent to provide the basic necessities for his/her family. Changes in family composition can be considered a major influence on the growing poverty rates in the U.S. Recognizing this, in visiting different communities over the Thanksgiving break I was able to observe on first hand bases the factors that contribute to the changes in family composition. For example divorce has the ability to cause great inconsistency in a household’s income. Consequently divorce takes away from the economic well being of custodial parents and their children. This is mainly due to the fact that men tend to have a higher earning power then women. Thus, after a divorce women and children experience a significant financial decline as a result forcing them to live below the poverty lines. Similarly, single parent households can be tied to poverty because they normally have only one potential earner. When there is only one adult earner in the household, fewer hours are worked and fewer hours are available to be worked due to childcare responsibilities. Although the family composition can contribute to poverty levels, many single parent households are forced to live in poverty despite their efforts.

I have been asked to reassess a case study on Isaac Barlow and Zac Barlow. In my assessment I shall include aspects that influenced the brothers self concept. Also, I shall include an outline how these factors can influence the growth of their self esteem. Finally, I shall include an explanation on how these factors can influence the development of their self concept.

(P3) State factors that influence an individual’s self-concept and give a clear and full account of the factors that might have influenced the brother’s self-concept.

I shall state the factors that influence an individual’s self-concept and I will give a clear and full account of the factors that might have influenced the brother’s self-concept. Factors that can influence an individuals self-concept are education, media, appearance, culture, abuse, relationships, gender, income and age.

Education: Education can influence an individual’s self-concept by having supportive teaching staff who continues to encourage a student to keep up the good work. Also, another factor that can influence an individual’s self-concept is the lack of employment due to having a poor education. Education can impact on a person’s self-esteem if they cannot get into employment and the person will get a negative self-image and low self-esteem.

Media: Media can influence an individual’s self-concept through provision of educational sources such as, promoting enrolment on academic courses and information on current situation happening in our society. A further reason that can influence an individual’s self-concept is displaying of images of models or celebrities being underweight. For example, pictures of Victoria Beckham and Nicole Richie.

Appearance: Appearance can affect an individual’s self-concept both constructively and harmfully. For example, appearance constructive influence will be pictures displayed by sports encouraging individual’s to keep up a healthy lifestyle. Further to point, appearance can have a negative influence on a person’s life through advertising photos of underweight models and this can influence young women to try to seem very thin.

Culture: Culture is a belief that you have or self values. This can influence our self concept if we do not endorse other individual’s culture. Example req. Also, this can be the way you were brought up by your parents or a guardian.

Abuse: There are different types of abuse; they are physical, emotional, neglect and sexual. These or any type of abuse can be detrimental to a person, however, abuse can influence a person if they have been neglected and they will develop a low self esteem. In addition, a person has been neglected may feel socially excluded and may suffer from mental health conditions.

Relationships: Relationship can influence an individual’s self concept if you do not have a supportive family, peers. This will may lead the individual to have a negative self concept with socialisation. Furthermore, having high expectations can also have a negative self concept of an individual, additionally if the person has been compared to other peer groups or siblings can have a negative influence.

Gender: Gender is characterised by being a man or woman. This categorisation can influence a person’s self-concept of stereotyping job roles for both genders. For example, men should play football and women should stay at home and cook the meals also take care of the children. Finally, I believe that these factors may influence an individual’s self-concept everyone should be treated equally regardless of their gender.

Income: Income can influence individual self concept if they do not have enough income they may be despair that they cannot afford to live a normal life. For example, with insufficient low income a person cannot maintain their lifestyle factors, such as paying their rent, afford heating facilities within their home plus have a balance diet.

Age: It can be said that self-concept can fluctuate throughout different life stages, for example…. Also, age can influence a person’s self concept during childhood and adolescent development. Through comprehending his ideal self receiving peer pressure.

Self concept is the way an individual visualise them self. For example, self concept can be very influential in the way we see our self; by receiving critical comments by peers or family member, which can cause low self esteem. Self concept is made up of factors such as self image, ideal self and self esteem.

Haworth et al (2010) suggests that there are numerous factors that can affect your self- concept. They are age, education, media, appearance, culture, abuse, relationships, gender, and income. These factors are also known as socioeconomic factors.

(M2) Outline how factors can influence the development of an individual’s self-concept, or Outline how the factors that influenced the brothers’ self-concept.

(D1) Describe how the factors influenced the brother’s self-concept.
Factors that influenced Zac Barlow self-concept

Age: During Zacs infancy years he was unable to distinguish what gender he was. During Zacs childhood years he was able to distinguish his family. During he was able to identify that he was a student and what year he was in school and able to identify his likes and dislikes. He was able to tell who is friends were and express his emotions. During adolescent life stage he was able to compare himself with others and express his relationship with peers. Also, he was able to describe his beliefs and acknowledge what is right from what is wrong. During his adulthood life stage he should become more confident within his personal relationship and establish himself within a particular career.

Appearance: Zacs appearance seems to have been influence negatively, because he was not interested in sports. This may have impacted on him because within the norms males are expected to do physical activities. Also, this will have an impact on his self esteem, although his self image might be different on what others think about him. He may not feel attracted to form any relationship with the opposite sex at school because of his appearance. Moreover, his self concept may decrease due to how others perceive him. He had a very thin physique which might be an influence from the media. He may be affected by his appearance. His appearance may affect by how he attires or carries himself and called gay; he may feel within his ideal self that he is gay. Also, hearing negative words all the time can make him believe whatever they mimic him and this will lead to negative social interaction with his peers.

Media: The media may have an impact on how he feels about himself. Media may impact on his appearance. May has impacted the way he feels about himself or may have an impact on his image which may encourage him to keep his body built. Contribute to self concept development; social, academic, emotional physical may impact on his appearance which is his ideal self. Media can also provide positive educational opportunities which can help to develop a person’s academic growth.

Culture: He believes he was the norm. In the western culture boys meant to be masculine and girls meant to be feminine. His culture can be influenced by his family also by his peers. He did not have a girlfriend at school plus how he was brought up might impact on his self esteem.

Gender: He was male. He meant to have masculine physiques. He faces gender stereotype because he was not taking part in sport activity at school. Because of his gender stereotype it decreases his academic performance at school. At a certain age people can identify or chose which group to follow so he hangs out with older boys.

Education: He was influenced by his parents to study because he did not have a choice. He was influenced by teachers, peers and parents to study. May start to compare himself with his peers including siblings. Receiving additional support from the school could help to develop his self concept. Being compared to other pupils or siblings can affect his views on himself. Been teased Zac may feel unwanted and be ashamed of who he is as a person and as a part of that he would have a low self esteem which he may possibly continue through to adulthood. This may also affect his relationships and employment prospects.

Constant teasing can affect Zac overall mood and that is why he was unsociable. Because of this he may lose interest in sports activities and was able to build a relationship with older boys. He will also develop mental health issues such as depression and anxiety. He may feel reluctant to try and build relationships with his peers. Being teased can also has a significant consequence on his academic performance, reason being, he has been teased and this will make him divert from paying attention on his studies. This will have a result on his academic study by not making it into six forms or college.

Also because he has been teased he did not want to take part in certain lessons. There is no indication of how long the teasing took place but there was speculations of Zac being bullied by his peers. Additionally, if he have been bullied this will show signs that his teasing was going on for a while then potentially lead to bullying.

Furthermore, this will allow Zac to be in fear and have a negative self-concept about himself or have a negative self-image, self-esteem, self-value and ideal self. These mental scars can affect Zac in both past and present conduct and decrease his chance of academic and psychological hardship throughout school and into adulthood.

Income: He was raised in a middle class family. So his parents had enough money to live an above normal lifestyle. Having brought up in a middle class family, would mean that some of his needs were financially. Also, been used to a lot of money during his development he may be used to materialistic things. He may influence to steal because he cannot afford his lifestyle needs which can have a negative self image.

Relationship: There are different types of relationships, which are family, mutual, ect. He did not have a good relationship with his peers because they taunted him. He did not have good relationship with school staff as he always gets into trouble at school He may introvert his social behaviour. He did not have a good relationship with his parents as he has been neglected and he would not speak to them. He did not have good social interaction with any of his peers family and staff at school. He develops relationship with older boys as they share similar value this will strengthen his self concept and extrovert his social conduct.

Abuse: He was verbally abused by peers which will have an emotional impact on his self esteem. He was neglected by his parents, for example, his emotional needs were neglected. He may be abuse by the older boys which influenced him to smoke because he was vulnerable. He may be stereotyped because of his role of his gender, for instance, males meant to be muscular and females were meant to be gorgeous.

I have been asked to reassess a case study on Isaac Barlow and Zac Barlow. In my assessment I shall include aspects that influenced the brothers self concept. Also, I shall include an outline how these factors can influence the growth of their self esteem. Finally, I shall include an explanation on how these factors can influence the development of their self concept.

(P3) State factors that influence an individual’s self-concept and give a clear and full account of the factors that might have influenced the brother’s self-concept.

I shall state the factors that influence an individual’s self-concept and I will give a clear and full account of the factors that might have influenced the brother’s self-concept. Factors that can influence an individuals self-concept are education, media, appearance, culture, abuse, relationships, gender, income and age.

Education: Education can influence an individual’s self-concept by having supportive teaching staff who continues to encourage a student to keep up the good work. Also, another factor that can influence an individual’s self-concept is the lack of employment due to having a poor education. Education can impact on a person’s self-esteem if they cannot get into employment and the person will get a negative self-image and low self-esteem.

Media: Media can influence an individual’s self-concept through provision of educational sources such as, promoting enrolment on academic courses and information on current situation happening in our society. A further reason that can influence an individual’s self-concept is displaying of images of models or celebrities being underweight. For example, pictures of Victoria Beckham and Nicole Richie.

Appearance: Appearance can affect an individual’s self-concept both constructively and harmfully. For example, appearance constructive influence will be pictures displayed by sports encouraging individual’s to keep up a healthy lifestyle. Further to point, appearance can have a negative influence on a person’s life through advertising photos of underweight models and this can influence young women to try to seem very thin.

Culture: Culture is a belief that you have or self values. This can influence our self concept if we do not endorse other individual’s culture. Cultural diversity can have a positive influence if we embrace the differences of others, but if differences are used to discriminate against others, its harmful. Example req. Also, this can be the way you were brought up by your parents or a guardian.

Abuse: There are different types of abuse; they are physical, emotional, neglect and sexual. These or any type of abuse can be detrimental to a person, however, abuse can influence a person if they have been neglected and they will develop a low self esteem. In addition, a person has been neglected may feel socially excluded and may suffer from mental health conditions.

Relationships: Relationship can influence an individual’s self concept if you do not have a supportive family, peers. This will may lead the individual to have a negative self concept with socialisation. Furthermore, having high expectations can also have a negative self concept of an individual, additionally if the person has been compared to other peer groups or siblings can have a negative influence.

Gender: Gender is characterised by being a man or woman. This categorisation can influence a person’s self-concept of stereotyping job roles for both genders. For example, men should play football and women should stay at home and cook the meals also take care of the children. Finally, I believe that these factors may influence an individual’s self-concept everyone should be treated equally regardless of their gender.

Income: Income can influence individual self concept if they do not have enough income they may be despair that they cannot afford to live a normal life. For example, with insufficient low income a person cannot maintain their lifestyle factors, such as paying their rent, afford heating facilities within their home plus have a balance diet.

Age: It can be said that self-concept can fluctuate throughout different life stages, for example…. Also, age can influence a person’s self concept during childhood and adolescent development. Through comprehending his ideal self receiving peer pressure.

Self concept is the way an individual visualise them self. For example, self concept can be very influential in the way we see our self; by receiving critical comments by peers or family member, which can cause low self esteem. Self concept is made up of factors such as self image, ideal self and self esteem.

Haworth et al (2010) suggests that there are numerous factors that can affect your self- concept. They are age, education, media, appearance, culture, abuse, relationships, gender, and income. These factors are also known as socioeconomic factors.

(M2) Outline how factors can influence the development of an individual’s self-concept, or Outline how the factors that influenced the brothers’ self-concept.

(D1) Describe how the factors influenced the brother’s self-concept.
Factors that influenced Zac Barlow self-concept

Age: During Zacs infancy years he was unable to distinguish what gender he was. During Zacs childhood years he was able to distinguish his family. During he was able to identify that he was a student and what year he was in school and able to identify his likes and dislikes. He was able to tell who is friends were and express his emotions. During adolescent life stage he was able to compare himself with others and express his relationship with peers. Also, he was able to describe his beliefs and acknowledge what is right from what is wrong. During his adulthood life stage he should become more confident within his personal relationship and establish himself within a particular career.

Appearance: Zacs appearance seems to have been influence negatively, because he was not interested in sports. This may have impacted on him because within the norms males are expected to do physical activities. Also, this will have an impact on his self esteem, although his self image might be different on what others think about him. He may not feel attracted to form any relationship with the opposite sex at school because of his appearance. Moreover, his self concept may decrease due to how others perceive him. He had a very thin physique which might be an influence from the media. He may be affected by his appearance. His appearance may affect by how he attires or carries himself and called gay; he may feel within his ideal self that he is gay. Also, hearing negative words all the time can make him believe whatever they mimic him and this will lead to negative social interaction with his peers.

Media: The media may have an impact on how he feels about himself. Media may impact on his appearance. May has impacted the way he feels about himself or may have an impact on his image which may encourage him to keep his body built. Contribute to self concept development; social, academic, emotional physical may impact on his appearance which is his ideal self. Media can also provide positive educational opportunities which can help to develop a person’s academic growth.

Culture: He believes he was the norm. In the western culture boys meant to be masculine and girls meant to be feminine. His culture can be influenced by his family also by his peers. He did not have a girlfriend at school plus how he was brought up might impact on his self esteem.

Gender: He was male. He meant to have masculine physiques. He faces gender stereotype because he was not taking part in sport activity at school. Because of his gender stereotype it decreases his academic performance at school. At a certain age people can identify or chose which group to follow so he hangs out with older boys.

Education: He was influenced by his parents to study because he did not have a choice. He was influenced by teachers, peers and parents to study. May start to compare himself with his peers including siblings. Receiving additional support from the school could help to develop his self concept. Being compared to other pupils or siblings can affect his views on himself. Been teased Zac may feel unwanted and be ashamed of who he is as a person and as a part of that he would have a low self esteem which he may possibly continue through to adulthood. This may also affect his relationships and employment prospects.

Constant teasing can affect Zac overall mood and that is why he was unsociable. Because of this he may lose interest in sports activities and was able to build a relationship with older boys. He will also develop mental health issues such as depression and anxiety. He may feel reluctant to try and build relationships with his peers. Being teased can also has a significant consequence on his academic performance, reason being, he has been teased and this will make him divert from paying attention on his studies. This will have a result on his academic study by not making it into six forms or college.

Also because he has been teased he did not want to take part in certain lessons. There is no indication of how long the teasing took place but there was speculations of Zac being bullied by his peers. Additionally, if he have been bullied this will show signs that his teasing was going on for a while then potentially lead to bullying.

Furthermore, this will allow Zac to be in fear and have a negative self-concept about himself or have a negative self-image, self-esteem, self-value and ideal self. These mental scars can affect Zac in both past and present conduct and decrease his chance of academic and psychological hardship throughout school and into adulthood.

Income: He was raised in a middle class family. So his parents had enough money to live an above normal lifestyle. Having brought up in a middle class family, would mean that some of his needs were financially. Also, been used to a lot of money during his development he may be used to materialistic things. He may influence to steal because he cannot afford his lifestyle needs which can have a negative self image.

Relationship: There are different types of relationships, which are family, mutual, ect. He did not have a good relationship with his peers because they taunted him. He did not have good relationship with school staff as he always gets into trouble at school He may introvert his social behaviour. He did not have a good relationship with his parents as he has been neglected and he would not speak to them. He did not have good social interaction with any of his peers family and staff at school. He develops relationship with older boys as they share similar value this will strengthen his self concept and extrovert his social conduct.

Abuse: He was verbally abused by peers which will have an emotional impact on his self esteem. He was neglected by his parents, for example, his emotional needs were neglected. He may be abuse by the older boys which influenced him to smoke because he was vulnerable. He may be stereotyped because of his role of his gender, for instance, males meant to be muscular and females were meant to be gorgeous.

Factors that influence Isaac Barlow self-concept

Age: Isaac self-concept changes throughout his life.

Age: He is the eldest of his siblings.

Appearance:
Media:
Culture:
Gender:
Education:
Income:
Relationship:
Abuse:

Self-image: this is how a person thinks about or see them self.

Ideal self: this is what you would like to be

Self-esteem: this is how you value yourself.

Conclusion

A report by Garavan, Winder and McGee (2001) Health and Social Services for Older People, Consulting Older People on Health and Social Services: A Survey of Use, Experiences and Needs concluded within its findings that older women viewed that they had a low quality of life.

Stuart-Hamilton (2000) states that an element within the ageing concept is that men for varying reasons die at a greater rate than women after the age of 70 and that therefore it could be concluded that the ageing experience could be a longer process for women.

The elderly population in Ireland is increasing in that according to Connell & Pringle (2004) the projected population of older women in 2021 is expected to be between 375,000 and 389,000 which would indicate a rise of over 50 per cent from that in 2002.

“Ageing can be defined as the process of progressive change in the biological, psychological and social structure of individuals aˆ¦aged 60 or over” (Stein and Moritz, 1999;4).

According to Greenstein (2006) social research is abstract in general in that the concepts are not easily measured because of the subjectivity of the topics and that a way of gaining a vague measure within the research is to ask the participants their level of satisfaction or dis-satisfaction in relation to the sub-themes.

Ageing has a direct biological decline and because of this quality of life has been regarded to be directly linked by the health of the person versus ill-health. But health being defined by the World Health Organisation cited in (Bond and Corner, 2004:2) ” as a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing” have resulted in the concept that quality of life is much more complex and varied depending on other factors rather than being traditionally associated solely with health (Bond and Corner, 2004).

Definition of Quality of Life

Quality of life is not scientifically measureable in that it is very subjective to the individual depending on their experiences of ageing and that the terms well-being and life satisfaction are often used as a means of gaining an insight into the degree a person views that they are experiencing quality of life (Vincent, Phillipson and Downs, 2006).

Research has shown that quality of life is subjective to the person, Abrams (1973) cited in (Bond and Corner, 2004:4) defines quality of life “as the degree of satisfaction or dissatisfaction felt by people with various aspects of their lives”.

This literature review will act as a base for a thesis that will explore the views of older women in Cavan as to the factors that contribute to quality of life.

The definition of what is quality of life is not easily determined and many authors offer different domains as the priority but in fact the priority will be subjective to what the individual older person measures as the most important aspect to them (Nay and Garratt, 2009).

There has been much focus on what is quality of life in recent years in terms of social policies that have in turn directed service provision and providing care that is impacting positively on a person’s quality of life according to Vincent et al (2006).

Quality of life according to Nay and Garratt (2009) typically measures general health, physical, cognitive, sexual and emotional functioning while also measuring the happiness of the person but it is subjective to the person in that what one person views as important may differ from another person. Factors such as employment, social networks, social activities, self-identity, financial security and cognitive and physical function are considered to impact on quality of life (Renwick et al (2003) cited in Nay and Garratt, 2009).

Also that quality of life in relation to older people is often used as an assessment measure of whether a service is supporting the needs of its clients in that it is not just a measure of quantity of life but that the life has quality within it so that the outcomes of supports or services are impacting positively on quality of life (Nay and Garratt, 2009).

That measurement of quality of life is sometimes measured within one domain such as general health while others measure cover several domains. But in general the largest measurement of quality of life is the concept that it is directly connected to the health of the person and their satisfaction regarding their health (Nay and Garratt, 2009). Therefore “Health Related Quality of Life” is a term that is often used by service providers as a directive for their care provision (Nay and Garratt, 2009:352).

Focusing quality of life within the domains of general health can create what is called the “disability paradox” in that older people rather than viewing their decline in health as an indicator of low quality of life that the expectation of inevitable physical and health decline has resulted in other factors such as social networks and their overall well-being as the domains used to measure their view of quality of life and that it is presumptuous to view that general health is the sole measure of quality of life (Carr and Higginson, (2001) cited in Nay and Garratt, 2009:353).

According to Vincent et al (2006) people will view health, social networks and standard of living as important factors within their lives but that the importance of the factors will vary as the person proceeds along their life course.

Research sources have shown the complexity in defining the key factors within quality of life and the initial reading by the researcher highlighted that the many elements could be loosely grouped within three sub-themes in relation to quality of life: (1) physical factors – general health and physical mobility, (2) economic factors – income, and standard of living and (3) social structure factors – social networks, cultural environment but further reading has emphasised that even though these concepts are applicable that expanding them further will allow greater exploration and description.

In that according to Stuart-Hamilton (2000) that focusing on a narrow of domains could result in some domains appearing more important within the research than they possibly are.

That domains such as health, income, and environment have an impact on a person’s life satisfaction in general and are all inter-related but that the personality of the person will also impact on the how they measure their life satisfaction (Stuart-Hamilton, 2000).

Walker (2005) suggests that as quality of life has no distinct key factors that most research focuses on health, environment, employment and relationships. That the environment has within it the physical, social, cultural and economic elements that can either enhance or reduce quality of life. Health has within it general health and the physical, mental and emotional health of the person. Employment covers income and can be related to the wealth of the person.

The key concepts with regard to quality of life as suggested by Hughes (1990) cited in Bond and Corner (2004) are:

(1) Physical environmental factors which include quality of accommodation, access to public services such as shops, transport and other public services such as libraries and other leisure outlets.

(2) Social environmental factors which include family members, social networks, the level of support obtainable from family and social networks and the levels of leisure activities that the person is involved in.

(3) Socio-economic factors which include the general standard of living, the income available to the person and other means of wealth.

(4) Cultural factors which include the age, class, gender and religious leaning of the person.

(5) Health factors which include general health, mental well-being of the person and physical mobility.

(6) Personality factors which include whether the person is an optimist or pessimist, will all impact on the subjectivity by the person on their measure of life satisfaction.

(7) Autonomy factors which include the degree that a person has the capability to make their own decisions.

(8) Satisfaction subjective to the individual – the level of satisfaction over all the areas of their life that they judge as important.

There is no definitive on what factors contribute to quality of life, therefore (Arnold (1991); McDowell & Newell (1996) cited in Nay and Garratt 2009:355) suggest that the measurement of quality of life should include

“objective indices such as economic circumstances and housing, those that measure subjective aspects such as morale, happiness and life satisfaction and those that contain both objective and subjective components, such as health related quality of life”

But according to Bond and Corner (2004) the subjective and objective aspects are interrelated an illustration of this being in that the objective element of health related quality of life could be subjectively not important to the older person who as of yet has not experienced any health issues that they view as impacting on their quality of life.

There is a view according to Stuart-Hamilton (2000) within society that the busier the life of an older person the more quality of life that they have. That the subjective measure of life satisfaction can be directly linked to the activities that an older person participates in that give a meaning to their life can be directly linked to one of the theories of ageing – Activity Theory (Bond and Corner, 2004). That an indicator of life satisfaction can be the degree that an older person maintains activities within their community, in that the more activities indicate higher levels of life satisfaction. Bond and Corner (2004) disagree and agree with elements of this theory in that they state that although social networks and activities can maintain and support physical and mental health such as reducing depression that ageing has a biological element that can impact on health and reduces an older persons social network as confidantes become ill or eventually die and that it is wrong to expect an older person to engage in levels of activities to the degree that they did when they were much younger. Stuart-Hamilton (2000) suggests the concept that engaging in activities for the sake of them does not allow the older person the ability to make their own choices and that within the provision of services for older people that by assuming that any activity is better than none could be directly linked to the application of Disengagement theory whereby it is believed that the older person accepts that death is eventual and therefore prepares for death by choosing to dis-engage from society and that also it has a function of reinforcing the expected process of ageing in Western Society.

Personality:

And its link to health:

One element within a person’s personality is that it will relate to their choices with regard to their lifestyle such as diet, exercise all which can aid the life expectancy of a person but what if the person’s personality has within it a negative outlook will this impact on how they view the ageing process and the biological decline and that rather than trying to improve their physical well-being by a healthier lifestyle that they approach death and illness as unavoidable and then reduce their activities and disengage from society (Stuart-Hamilton, 2000).

Link between psychological well-being and personality and health:

Research has shown a link between physical well-being and mental well-being in that according to Whitbourne (1987) cited in Stuart-Hamilton (2000) people that exercised and had levels of what they measured as physical well-being had a general feeling of overall well-being but therefore could it be said that people that have a poor physical well-being are more less satisfied with life (Stuart-Hamilton, 2000).

Personality:

Preference for lifestyle link:

That the personality of a person whether they are an introvert or extrovert will also impact on the lifestyle they choose in that if they are an introvert it will probably follow that as they are older that they will not seek out social activities (Stuart-Hamilton, 2000).

Disengagement theory Cumming and Henry, (1961) as cited in Stuart-Hamilton, (2000) suggest that as people get older that they automatically start to disengage from society in degrees as if in preparation for death and this is also supported by society in that the structures have come to expect this disengagement. This disengagement according to Stuart-Hamilton (2000) can be as a result of many factors such as illness, loss of family members, low income that does not provide for activities and also their personality type in that what if they are introvert or extrovert and that disengagement theory has been criticised for the overall image that older people are cutting ties with society in preparation for inevitable death. According to Maddox (1970) cited in Stuart-Hamilton, (2000) this disengagement may simply be a an aspect of the person’s personality and that it is not an element of ageing at all. Merriman (1984) cited in Stuart-Hamilton (2000) also criticises disengagement theory and states that ageing policies within many countries encourage that older people have an high profile within their community.

Activity theory was proposed as a way of combating disengagement theory according to Stuart-Hamilton (2000) in that it was proposed that the more activities that an older person engaged in the better their life satisfaction. But this does not allow for choices for the older person and what if their personality is such that enforced activities is wrong (Stuart-Hamilton, 2000).

Issues related to measuring Quality of Life

There are issues relating to the measurement of quality of life in that the domains are both subjective and objective. The “objective indices, such as economic circumstances and housing; those that measure purely subjective aspects, such as morale, happiness, and life satisfaction; and those that contain both objective and subjective components, such as Health Related Quality of Life measures” (Arnold, (1991) cited in Nay and Garratt, 2009:355).

Vincent et al (2006) agrees that there are both objective and subjective domains but unlike Nay and Garratt (2009) attributes social factors within the objective domains by stating that the number of social networks that a person has is objectively measureable but that the quality of these social networks is a subjective element. Likewise Vincent et al (2006) states that health although measureable in terms of whether an illness was present and therefore objectively measureable that the domain is also subjective in that the importance of health to quality of life will depend on what the individual views health to be.

The view by Vincent et al (2006) that the meaning of what is health is subjectively defined by the individual is illustrated by the “disability paradox” as per (Carr and Higginson, (2001) cited in Nay and Garratt, 2009:353). In that older people rather than viewing their decline in health as an indicator of low quality of life in that the expectation of inevitable physical and health decline have resulted in other factors such as social networks as the domains used to measure their view of quality of life and that it is therefore presumptuous to view that general health is the sole measure of quality of life (Nay and Garratt, 2009). Anderson & Bury (1988) cited in Vincent et al (2006) state that people can adjust to illness and develop coping skills so that the illness no longer factors as a significant domain to the person and this would therefore affect the measurement of health within quality of life research. Health and physical functioning as an objective measure in the domains of quality of life are mentioned continually and can in its simplest form according to Nay and Garratt (2009) be that if a person has a condition or range of illnesses be considered to have a low quality of life. But what if the adjustments suggested by Anderson & Bury (1988) cited in Vincent et al (2006) were accommodations such as medication or lifestyle changes and were to adjust how the illness impacts on the person could it then be considered that although the health status remains the same but that the accommodations have resulted in the meaning of what is health to not be defined by illness or physical functioning. Therefore in relation to this research the aim is to explore the subjectivity of what the participant views as health and if any accommodations have impacted on the meaning of what is health.

Economic factors such as standard of living are objectively measured according to Nay and Garratt (2009) in that income can be an indicator of a standard of living but according to Vincent et al (2006) this objective measure has to be balanced by the subjective measure of what is the expectation of a standard of living and according to Stuart Hamilton (2000) will be directly linked to past experiences of standard of living in that if a person has in the past had a particular standard of living the subjective measure will be linked to whether the same standard of living was expected by the person or not. Therefore in relation to this research with regard to economic factors as a domain within quality of life previous standard of living and expectations of standard of living as an older person and direct experience will be explored.

According to Vincent et al (2006) quality of life has no scientific measurement that can define the exact objective degree of quality of life because there are so many variations of what is quality of life. That the experience of life may support or contradict what the objective measure describes as quality of life.

Qualitative and Quantitative Methods:

Quantitative methods are often the means of gaining information regarding what is quality of life but using quantitative methods will not allow for the subjectivity of individual experiences and their views on quality of life. That using structured questionnaires still conform to the researcher’s view of quality of life and does not allow for the exploration of the views of the older person. That these approaches do not allow for the “symbolic nature and meaning of life to the individual (Vincent et al, 2006:158). Taking the view that as the person proceeds along the life course that their view of life will remain the same.

Stuart Hamilton (2000) suggests that the life course?????

Another challenge in relation to measuring quality of life and with particular reference to older people is that there can be such differences between each person in that as they age the experience in relation to physical, social, emotional, sexual and cognitive functioning is not as homogenous an experience and that these differing experiences will impact on what factors are key to quality of life (Stewart et al (1996) cited in Nay and Garratt, 2009).

The setting that the older person lives within will impact greatly on the factors that are viewed as contributors to quality of life in that if a person is living within a residential unit that this group orientated setting will have different routines and rules in comparison to an older person living within community in general, and that for those within a residential setting that research has shown that “dignity, self-determination and participation and accommodation of resident needs” were considered to be the factors that impacted on quality of life (Nay and Garratt, 2009:357).

That measurement of quality of life needs to consider the domains that are considered contributors within quality of life and that how the research is conducted in that the way that questions are asked can create a bias. As already stated biological decline is a natural aspect of ageing therefore if an indicator of quality of life were to be considered the level of physical functioning it would be inappropriate to ask the participant if they were physically able to do as much and for as long as they used to when they were younger and that this would not be a realistic indicator of quality of life according to Nay and Garratt, (2009).

Measurement tools are World Health Organisation Quality of Life Instrument (whoqol) (Skevington et al 2004), cited in Nay and Garratt, 2009.

Conclusion

This literature review has explored the concept of quality of life and that the factors that are considered to contribute to quality of life are varied and can contain subjective and objective components and that older people in order to measure quality of life should not be viewed as a homogenous group.

Social values and cultural practices are both elements of culture. Social values provide a general outline for human behaviour i.e. they define what is morally correct e.g. right or wrong and what is desirable e.g. good or bad. Values are the abstract standards that define ideal principles in societies or groups (Anderson, Taylor, 2007). Culture is the way of life of a society or group of people defined by their behaviors and meaning. Culture includes values, beliefs, morals, customs, habits and language among others (Anderson, Taylor, 2007). Cultural practices are human behaviours and thoughts that are passed down by generation to generation based on these cultural beliefs (Carr, Neitzel, 1995). These practices are learned directly e.g. parent to child and indirectly through imitation and observation (Anderson, Taylor, 2007). Social values and cultural practices are instilled in people from a young age and this determines how they react to concepts of equality, justice and fairness.

Social inequality refers to the ways in which socially defined categories of people are positioned differently in society in regards to accessing social ‘goods’ like employment, other forms of income, having access to education, health care, political representation and societal participation (Ceelbas, 2010). These forms of social inequality are shaped by various factors including geographical location, distribution of wealth, income and social status. Structural inequalities operate in any society and the main inequalities are based on class, age, ethnicity and gender (Holmes, Hughes, Julian, 2007).

Class

Social stratification refers to “the hierarchal arrangement of social classes, castes, and strata within a society” (Inc. Icon Group, 2008 p.209). Class refers to socio economic status (SES) which is an individuals or groups position in a hierarchal social structure and where they are placed depends on their occupation, education, wealth, income and residence. There are four main classes of people. They are the upper class, middle class, working class and the underclass. The upper class refer to the property owners and entrepreneurs, the middle class refer to the workers whose social position is determined through professional qualifications, the working class refers to workers who exchange their labour for wages and the underclass are the poor people living in poverty (Graetz, MacAllister, 1994).

Wealth and income are key determinants of class. Money can gain access to power, status, high education, better employment opportunities which result in high incomes. Wealth can provide a better lifestyle including access to health care which would create a high standard of living and a longer, more enjoyable life. People in lower classes are forced to struggle through life, suffer discriminations and have a poor quality of life.

Inequalities affect men and women, different religious, ethnic or racial groups and people from different backgrounds. Depending on their location in the class structure will determine whether they will be better or worse off in society (Graetz, MacAllister, 1994).

CULTURAL PRACTICES VALUES??
Age

Ageism is the “discrimination or the holding of irrational and prejudicial views about individuals or groups, based on their age. It involves stereotypical assumptions about a person’s or groups physical or mental capacities and is often associated with derogatory language” (Marshall G, 1998, p.1). There is discrimination against the aged in the workplace, health care system, nursing homes and it is reflected in senior abuse (Gutman, Spencer, 2010). There are estimates between 1-3 million people over 65 in the United States alone that have been mistreated, exploited or injured by someone they know or trust to protect and care for them (Gutman, Spencer, 2010). Even capitalism exploits the elderly through pharmaceuticals. When the aged are forced to withdraw from the workforce this can result in them separating themselves from society and even preparing for death. The elderly do not get treated fairly and they are often denied their basic human rights including health care.

Social forces and the media create ageism by shaping negative attitudes towards older people and the aging process. Youth, beauty and health are highly valued in culture and the aged represent the opposite. They are linked to poor health and death. By putting distance between the aged it alleviates the fear of dying (Ventrell, 2002). Institutions also help create ageism by devaluing older workers and ignoring treatable aging problems by medical practitioners and in nursing homes. There is also a lack of attention to cruelty towards the elderly which results in low reporting and a lack of policy changes (Gutman, Spencer, 2010).

Ethnicity

“Ethnicity is the cultural background of a group of people who share a common ancestry” (Holmes, Hughes, Julian, 2007, p. 144). These members identify with each other through cultures including a shared religion and a common language. The concept of ‘ethnicity’ perpetuates inequality for people who are considered different from the dominant group. Individual racism involves the negative attitudes a person has against all members of a racial or ethnic group. They often resort to name calling, derogatory remarks or acts of violence.

Institutional racism refers to discriminatory acts and policies that prevent groups from equally accessing resources such as education, health, employment and housing (Zastrow, Kirst-Ashman, 2009). Some of these acts and policies are illegal and others are not. Macro systems policies are formed by institutional values and these policies occur in communities and organisations. Institutional discrimination is built into the structure that forms society. It is the prejudicial treatment in organisations based on policies or behaviours and is demonstrated on how these macro systems treat certain people (Zastrow, Kirst-Ashman, 2009).

Inequalities of ethnic groups can be seen in everyday community life. In non-white groups, unemployment is higher, the infant mortality rate is higher, they have a poorer life expectancy and their achievements in education are less than whites (Zastrow, Kirst-Ashman, 2009). There are many inequalities found in the education system towards ethnic groups. Schools in white neighbourhoods have highly trained teachers and better facilities than those of minority groups. Due to either a high unemployment rate or discrimination of ethnic groups in the workplace, these families struggle to provide financially for their families. As a result of this they are unable to provide for extra expenses like class trips, clothing, supplies and transportation which prevent their children from being fully involved in the education process (Zastrow, Kirst-Ashman, 2009).

A major factor affecting health inequalities in minority groups is their socioeconomic status. Education and employment barriers lead to financial instability and if they cannot afford proper health care they will have a low quality of life and a shorter life expectancy. Their ability to access health care services and a willingness to obtain treatments can have an impact on their health. Other inequalities can occur from religious beliefs, language barriers, their environment, their lifestyle and genetic issues (Bhopal, 2007).

The stereotyping, which is fed by prejudice, continues to shape the housing outcomes for ethnic minorities. The inaction of administration workers, the effect of policies in housing agencies and the national processes condoned by the state all reinforce inequalities (Somerville, Steele, 2002). Ethnic groups continue to be regularly excluded from accessing resources to improve poverty and living conditions.

The criminal justice system is supposed to be non-discriminatory and fair. The name justice in itself implies fairness but institutional racism is still evident in this macro system. In the United States for example (Zastrow, Kirst-Ashman, 2009), African Americans make up 12 per cent of the population but they make up half of the prison population. They also receive harsher sentences than whites and half of the people sentenced to death are African American (Zastrow, Kirst-Ashman, 2009). Police are more likely to respond harshly to offenses committed by minority groups or lower income people than middle or upper class white groups. Minority groups and poorer class people are less likely to afford bail so are forced to remain in jail which can lead their families and people who rely on them into poverty. They cannot financially afford a good defense and they are more likely to be found guilty (Zastrow, Kirst-Ashman, 2009).

There have been conflicting views on immigration and the effects that migrants have on the economy so much so it has swayed immigration policies. The reasons for them are that they take the low paying jobs where there are labour shortages thus stimulating the economy through the taxes they pay (Zastrow, Kirst-Ashman, 2009).The other view people have is that they believe the immigrants are a burden on the economy, reap public benefits and take jobs way from the citizens (Zastrow, Kirst-Ashman, 2009). There are also fears of terrorism since the September 11 attacks.

Gender

“Gender is the division of people into two categories, ‘men’ and ‘women’. Through interaction with caretakers, socialisation in childhood, peer pressure in adolescence, and gendered work and family roles, women and men are socially constructed to be different in behaviour, attitudes, and emotions” (Borgatta, Montgomery, 2000, p. 1057).

From a young age, boys will be treated in ways to form masculinity and girls will be handled in ways to form femininity. Gender stereotypes are reinforced and influenced through agencies like the family, peers, schools and the media (Holmes, Hughes, Julian, 2007). Stereotypic behaviour is learned by individuals through the culture of these influences. Gender roles are the expected behaviour from males and females and this helps sustain gender stereotypes which in turn create perceptions which lead to inequalities (Crespi I, 2010). Gender roles, patriarchy, sexism and discrimination contribute to gender inequality and these inequalities take place in all social institutions including the workplace and at home. The relationship between patriarchy and gender has been crucial to the subordinate position of women. Patriarchy is a social system where men have power over younger men, women and children. This power rests in the public and private spheres (Holmes, Hughes, Julian, 2007).

The role of women traditionally has been to nurture and stay at home to look after the children and the men were seen as the ‘breadwinners’ going off to work to earn an income. Segregation from society, no opportunities to make their own money, fewer opportunities for education and at times domestic violence all contributed to the oppression of women. Even though there are more women in the workforce, due to gender roles, they still shoulder the responsibility of a ‘second shift’ when it comes to maintaining the domestic sphere (W. W. Norton & Company, 2005).

It is a basic human right to be free from gender inequality in the workplace but the fight for equal opportunities, equal pay and fair treatment is a constant justice battle for women.

Women in the workforce face inequalities of pay compared to men, less prestigious positions, sexist attitudes and discrimination. Even women that are successful in the corporate world face discrimination on the ‘proper roles’ of women according to cultural beliefs (W. W. Norton & Company, 2005). The ‘glass ceiling’ refers to barriers that hinder promotion of women and minorities into higher ranks of management (Anderson, Taylor, 2005).

The media contributes to gender inequalities by their portrayal of men and women in films, television and magazines. Men are shown to be active and aggressive. They are not shown to do housework or care for children. Women are portrayed as being dominated by the man and are seen as helpless. They are seen as the carers and are told how to please men and look attractive for them.

Conclusion

Social positions and disadvantages are determined by influences such as class, status and power as well as demographic attributes such as age, ethnicity and gender. Ageism is one of the most pervasive prejudices in society and is considered as being a denial of basic human rights. Social forces and the media help create beliefs and attitudes that discriminate against the elderly. Stereotyping and prejudices continue to create inequalities in ethnic groups. Discriminations can result in poor opportunities for education, poor financial stability, which has an effect on their health, and a low standard of living. Gender is created from birth by gender socialisation. Gender stereotypes are reinforced and influenced through agencies like the family, peers, schools and the media.

The imbalances of wealth, power and prestige that exist is ironic as people continuously preach their cultural commitment to values of equality and justice. Unfortunately, systems worldwide are setup to enhance the interests of the people that reside at the top of the stratification system.

In society today, how does a city’s heterogeneity and growth of its population help to generate a new and distinctive city life? This essay explores the argument that social change in the city is a result of the growth of its population and its heterogeneity. This essay would also examine the impact of urban growth on cities. I will first introduce the sociological definitions of social change and urbanization then, I will be discussing perspectives of some sociological ‘thinkers’ towards city life. Subsequently, I shall examine the impact of heterogeneity and growth of population in a city by citing prevalent examples. In conclusion, I shall summarize the impact of urban growth on cities and its prevalence on city-dwellers in our society today.

Social change in the city and urbanisation

Social change refers to the transformation of culture and social institutions over time. (Macionis & Plummer, 2005) Social change is diverse and multiple with different social outcomes affecting different groups of people. Thus, different groups of people experience social changes differently. For example, the poor may not be able to benefit from the introduction of electricity as they do not have access to such resources due to their financial status. (Jordan & Pile, 2002)

Urbanisation basically refers to the social process whereby cities become bigger and more concentrated with the migration of people; or in other words, a process in which a place becomes a ‘city’. (Abercrombie, Hill, & Turner, 2005)

From these definitions, we can clearly see the close relationship between urbanization and social change; in which social change occurs when urbanization takes place. To illustrate this, let us look at football in the 1900s. Back then, anyone associated with football were considered violent and thuggish due to some unruly behaviour of supporters during matches, which has even contributed to some scenes of violence (i.e. Liverpool team supporters ‘attacked’ Juventus team supporters in the 1980s). As a result, football had a very negative public image and people associated with the game could not even wear their jerseys out for fear of being ‘labelled’ or ‘looked at differently’. However, the football scene today has evolved due to the influx of people from diverse backgrounds. Soccer players today are idolized and considered as celebrities to even ‘endorse’ popular products (for example, Adidas, Nike, etc). Young boys are also influenced by football as it is viewed as a sport to show off their ‘masculinity’. (Audiovisual materialxxx,?? ) This shows a social transformation and shift in the mindsets of people as urbanization takes place.

Some sociological ‘thinkers’ accounts on city life

There were three eye-witnesses to account for social change, namely, Georg Simmel, Louis Wirth and Robert Park.

Georg Simmel observed how urban life shapes people’s attitudes and behaviour. His observation of Berlin, particularly of people’s changing consciousness noted a ‘metropolitan personality’ among city-dwellers. He noted that people kept their distance with each other due to the money economy evident in the city, however, people also became tolerant and even more sophisticated as a result of urbanization, hence, the ‘metropolitan personality’. (Jordan & Pile, 2002)

Louis Wirth reasoned that large dense, heterogeneous populations created a distinctive new way of city life characterized by impersonality, self-interest and tolerance of people’s differences, thus, urbanities become ‘cultural hybrids’. He also acknowledged that urban life may not always be harmonious it could also be antagonistic and conflictual. (Macionis & Plummer, 2005)

Robert Park on the other hand, viewed cities as a site to facilitate greater social freedom, which could also lead to potential social disorders. (Jordan & Pile, 2002)

Impact of heterogeneity and growth of population in a city

Heterogeneity or the ‘mixing’ up of people and growth of population has impacted the city life both positively and negatively.

For instance, if we were to examine the history of Josephine Baker, the African-American dancer whose career took her from St Louis, to New York, to Paris ; we could see different variations of social mobility through the different places, and also, that class improvement is not rigid. One’s life chances and quality of life in a city can improve the same way Baker’s did. Baker grew up in poverty and harsh living conditions and faced racial discrimination however she eventually became a popular celebrity as she left her country for work. (Jordan & Pile, 2002)

This example clearly illustrates Simmel’s, Wirth’s, and Park’s theory of urbanization that cities are intense sites of social change which offers possibilities for social mobility by interfering with clear-cut social stratification.

In Simmel’s observation, we realize that the blase attitude of people in the city has enabled Baker to climb up the social ladder. In Wirth’s theory, we can see that Baker was socially accepted due to the urbanites tolerance of people’s differences. Through Park, we could clearly relate that social mobility was possible in the city due to social freedom that existed.

Friedrich Engels and Harvey Zorbaugh on the other hand, observed city life through the lens of Manchester (1845) and Chicago (1929) respectively.

Engels zoomed into the physical space of the city and noted the city as being crowded, disorganized, dirty and smelly. He felt that the interrelationship between the bourgeoisies and the proletariats created class conflicts within cities. Zorbaugh on the other hand, examined how diverse groups of people come together and live. He viewed city life as cosmopolitan, hybrid and confused. He also observed that the urban-dwellers were ‘many-tongued’, or were able to speak several languages due to the immigration of people from diverse backgrounds into the city. On the other hand, he also noted that family life in the city was broken and disorganized due to the influx of individuals from diverse backgrounds in the city. (Jordan & Pile, 2002) From this, it is clear that both Engels and Zorbaugh emphasized that it was “hard to see” in cities, possibly due to the heterogeneity and size and density of the population, which in turn leads us back to the works of Wirth.

Hence, heterogeneity and the growth of population in a city have resulted in many positive and negative impacts. Baker’s story shows how small-scale ‘micro’ change has large-scale ‘macro’ angles in society (especially on one’s social freedom); showing a positive impact. It also shows a negative aspect to it, especially through the portrayal of Baker’s childhood, as the whites ‘attacked’ the blacks as they tried to get away. Engels and Zorbaugh’s account, describes both positive and negative impacts of urban growth in cities.

Conclusion : City-dweller’s in today’s societies

Cities are viewed as sites of social change, which carries both positive and negative aspects to it. Heterogeneity and growth of a city’s population contribute to that “urban, city life” that we are experiencing today. We should also bear in mind that, this ‘mixing’ up of migrants in a city can lead to fierce and even violent antagonisms. For instance, in Singapore, between Singapore’s People’s Action Party (PAP) government and some, mainly foreign critics, who created some criticism that policies made by the government are “innately hostile, unwarranted and based on preconceived ideas rather than the actual situation”, there are also some endemic misunderstandings concerning the “banning” of chewing gum. The practice of chewing gum is not actually illegal, only importing it for sale is illegal. (Diane & Milne, 2002). This shows a negative aspect of heterogeneity.

In addition, a city allows chances of social mobility for people to move up the social hierarchy. For instance, in Singapore, marriage to a person belonging to another race or religion or caste seems to be socially accepted these days. In 2006, the proportion of Indian men who marry outside their race was at 36%, and for Malay men and Chinese women at 22.5% and 7.6% respectively. Intermarriage is viewed as an evidence for integration, which occurs in a city like Singapore, and it also, shows a narrowing of social distance between the different ethnic groups in Singapore. It is also evident that “we’re quite racially blind. It’s the mothers who sometimes insist that the brides be from the same race”. (Tan, 2010) This clearly shows that Simmel’s perception of a ‘metropolitan personality’ is dying out in cities like Singapore, however, it also agrees with Park’s and Wirth’s observations that urban life may not always be harmonious, and that eventually people’s lives are still guided by social division and inequality.

Personally, as an urbanite myself, I can see that the city that facilitates social freedom, though at times, people’s lives are still guided by social division and inequality to a certain degree. I can also conclude that the impact of urbanization results in social change which is heterogeneous, diverse and multi-faceted as discussed in this essay. Simply put, social change may be experienced differently by different people, within a single city.

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