Category: Free Essays

Discuss how childhood has changed since the 19th century. How do concepts from this period continue to influence current attitudes to childhood?

Childhood, the early years of a person’s life, between birth to about 8 years, is also considered most beautiful, most meaningful and most important part of life for a human being. The importance of childhood can be understood by observing the fact that though many scientists have different theories to define the process of human development they all agree on the importance of childhood and experiences in that time having a profound affect on an individual’s life. Many researches have been made on the process of human development and tough there are many proposed theories the actual difference between them is about how complex the relation really is between the stages and not what the stages really are. The differences are intrinsic not extrinsic. They all agree that childhood is a time when a person is moving from concrete to abstract thought.

Man did learn sciences such as astrology, numerology, mathematics etc but the concept of schooling was deficient. People only knew as much as was required to trade and earn a living. A study conducted on child development concluded that in the year 1750 about 33 percent of infants and new born babies were left on doorsteps or social care homes by parents.(Malcolm Watson) Poor children were also made to work in land mines and other industries by their parents to earn a living. Efforts to eradicate child labor have been made over centuries by the responsible government bodies in different countries and social welfare organizations in the world. But it seems that despite the changing perceptions towards childhood, statistical data proves otherwise.

The commencement of specific child development theories and acknowledgment of these theories only date back to some 200 years ago, in the 17th and 18th century. An acclaimed name, in this regard is of Professor Malcolm W. Watson. He researched on Human Development and formed theories that are still studied and followed. Results of his findings emphasized on six major theories by different people in different times.

These theories focus on different stages man goes through from infancy to adulthood. Details of how environment and other factors affect childhood are also underscored.

The theories encompass effects and behavioral changes in man and what we opine about our own selves, be it scientists, researchers or a common man.

Psychodynamic theory-Sigmund Freud(Mack Lemouse from healthguidance.org): This theory says that human psychology can be broken down in to three separate parts. These are namely “the id, the ego and the superego”. Id is the childish part of our personality and its driving force is food, warmth and appreciation and the sexual drive. This side of every being is then balanced by the other two parts i.e. ego and superego. The superego is contradictory to id. It is that part of human personality which enables us to control one self. Through this one acts in a socially acceptable manner. The ego is some where in the middle of these two extremes. Most of our troubles arise from balancing between the id and the superego.

“Oedipus complex” is another very important entity of Freud’s theory. This stage is when the child develops feelings for his opposite sex parents. Boys wish to take place of their father and be the head of the family and act as a husband to their mother but at the same time they respect their father and fear that if they cross limits they will have to bare the consequences.

Psychosocial theory by Erik Erickson: (8 dec, 2010 from wikipedia) He coined the famous phrase “Identity Crisis.” His personality theory had 8 stages from infancy to old age. These were 1. Hope, 2. Will, 3. Purpose, 4. Competence, 5. Fidelity, 6. Love, 7. Caring, 8. Wisdom. Erik was the first to bring forth the notion that development is spread over our entire lives and not just childhood.

Integrated Attachment theory- John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth: This theory originated in the early years of 1950s and was a joint effort by John Bowlby, specialist in child psychiatry and a psychologist, Mary Ainsworth. The concept is based on relationships and connections developed in the yearly years of our life. Also real life issues in a child’s life pertaining to loss and separations with which he had emotional ties are emphasized upon in the theory.

Social Learning theory by Albert Bandura: This theory was a modified version of the traditional learning theories. It says that learning is the same in infants, children, adults and even animals. Albert says that all respond to stimulus.

Cognitive Mediation theory- Lev Vygotsky: Supporting many other major theorists, Vygotsky opines that learning comes first and paves way for development. According to his theory, a child learns through other individuals around him i.e. parents, teachers, siblings and other children. He says that developing thoughts and new skills is based on people in the environment we live in and our interaction with them.

Cognitive developmental theory- Jean Piaget: Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist says that children learn by building their own cognitive worlds. He believed that individual’s go through four stages of understanding. All of these are age related.

Sensorimotor stage: This is from birth to two years of age. In this first stage, infants coordinate the senses of seeing and hearing with physical and motoric experiences to understand. Thus, the name sensorimotor.

Preoperational stage: It goes on from two years of age to seven years. Children at this stage start relating the world and their surroundings with words and images. They go beyond the sensory experiences in this stage.

Concrete Operational Stage: This third stage lasts from 7 years to eleven years. “Children can perform operations, and logical reasoning replaces intuitive thought as long as reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples. For instance, concrete operational thinkers cannot imagine the steps necessary to complete algebraic equation, which is too abstract for thinking at this stage of development.” [(essortment.com)-(2002- pagewise.com)]

Formal Operational Stage: The final stage is from 11 to 15 years. Children move further from concrete thoughts to abstracts and logical thinking. As a part of abstractive thinking they create hypothetical ideal circumstances and then compare their own life with these standards, deducing a satisfactory conclusion.

In a nutshell, childhood is the time when we are understanding simple operations in order to be able to understand and master complex tasks in future. We need to identify the environment around us and use language to make connections to objects and the world in general. If this basic understanding is faulty, the future would certainly hold a lot more surprises, and many of them would be unwelcome. Only when a child fully understands the world around is he really able to grasp abstract concepts and use logic to reach meaningful conclusions in future.

Having now understood what childhood is all about, how a human mind is developing, in stages, to understand the world it is introduced to and how important this part of life is in your life and mine, let us now take a look into how childhood has been different for people in the past century and the present.

Childhood in the 18th century

Compared to

Childhood in the 19th century

To begin with, the treatment of children with utmost care, especially in their earliest years, is a fairly recent notion. Before the 18th century, child mortality rate was so high that people had a lot of children of whom only a few actually survived. Parents could not afford to get too emotionally attached to children until they crossed a threshold age where chances of survival became greater than chances of death. In France, during the 17th century, between 20%-50% of infants died in their first year. (5)

Zelizer, in his book, Pricing The Priceless Child, tells us how in the middle ages, Spanish children when they died could be buried anywhere on the premises, rather like a cat or dog, often, their bodies were sewn together into sacks and put inside common graves.(6). In early Arabian cultures, the birth of a female child was considered a burden, it was mourned upon and in cases the infant was buried alive. Religion played a vital role in controlling erratic human behaviors and in both the east and the west, the religious institution was the first to recognize the rights of children and honorable dealings with them. The following table describes how religion basd institutions have provided childhood care facilities in the African continent.

With time and with the slow but steady spread of education, the world started becoming a different place altogether, especially in respect of the rights of children, and that happened mostly during the 18th and 19th centuries. We have, as the human species, come to realize that childhood is not just a biological phase in life. It holds much more meaning; it gives birth to a social being that embodies the belief system of on an entire populace at a point in time. Parents’ attitudes toward child bearing and rearing have undergone drastic reconstruction in modern times.

In the 19th century children did not have a significant importance. No formal education and learning took place inside homes. Mothers generally did not have the awareness to spend time with their children and nurture them. A father in every home has been the breadwinner since times immemorial but women in the 19th century also joined the earning league. Till the early 19th century children were used to earn a living and a study shows that more than fifty percent of factory workers were children under the age of eleven years in northern parts of the world. They were made to work hard and perform hazardous jobs such as cleaning up narrow chimneys and going down cramped tunnels owing to their small size.

Most historians would agree that children in present day world are much better off than the children in past centuries. But they continue to debate the extent to which childhood has changed since the 19th century and how the adult’s approach to childhood and dealing with children has altered. As such, children in past centuries worked with their parents from a very small age. But it was the industrial revolution of the 19th century which actually caused the inception of child labour. Researchers in the field of human development take one of two stances when explaining early childhood. They hold either an essentialist view (which considers childhood a commonalty that is no different in any part of the world, more a biological state than anything deeper). The other view to childhood, the constructionist view pictures childhood as being different in different cultures and different times. A child in Japan would be fundamentally different than a child in Britain. The children of one country would also be much different at different times. We can just take a look at the children around us and see the difference between our childhood and theirs to grasp the importance of the constructionist view.

Cross cultural differences in childhood and its perception by elders is linked to the societies’ sense of a child’s autonomy. It was considered an a vital aspect of Western cultures (Maccoby & Martin, 1983) but was not so prominent in eastern ones. While western mothers emphasized on teaching their child personal values and their rights at , each part of their lives, Japanese and Pakistani mothers have always emphasized more on differential treatment of elders and good mannerism (Befu, 1986; Hess et al., 1980). The difference, as we see it plainly today, is that Japanese children display greater sensitivity and self discipline while American children are more confident and expressive. However, it has long been a subject of argument between researchers that irrespective of the vast differences in child rearing strategies across many cultures the fundamental importance of parenthood comes out in the form of warmth and acceptance against rejection and neglect (Rohner, 1975, 1986). However whether eastern cultures have been more histile toward the child in the past or western cultures have been more so is a matter of debate. While western cultures have displayed a generally strict attitude toward the childrearing and the lack of acknowledgement to their a child’s own autonomy, eastern cultures on the other hand believe that strictness, control and and even corporal punishment are but ways to shw a child how much a prent cares. While the Chienese may consider American parents less caring for their children’s development of important social virtues, the American parent may consider Chinese as totally autorotarian and irrational (Chao, 1994; Chen et al., 1998). However, another psychological argument presented by

Scientists says that in such collectivistic cultural arrangements as the Chinese, Japanese or Indian, authoritarian and restrictive parenting practices are necessary for maintaining harmoniously stable society (Lau & Cheung, 1987).

Literature on childhood from different cultures across the world have shown two main stream belief systems, the concept of childhood as Dionysian and Apollonian (proposed by Chris Jenks, Childhood Key Concepts, Second Edition). The Dionysian belief, taking from the greek mythological figure Dionysus (Prince of wine, nature and revelry) assumes that every child is born with evil or corruption in its nature imbued in their conscience. The Apollonian child is considers, from nature, the very image of beauty, poetry, sunshine and light. This is the belief that is prevalent today in the 21st century but did not exist in earlier centuries.

While 19th century children were treated rather like animals. The industrial revolutions laid the foundations for the market for low paid child labour. IN textile factories, they worked as many as twelve hours a day. As education crept into the masses the parliament began passing laws to curtail child labour, but the first effective rule, emforced with the help of factory inspectors, came about in 1833. Education was not considered a necessity for every child and the responsibility of the state as late as 1870 and even then the poorest members of society could not afford school fee which were abolished in 1891. Victorian children were used to beatings and in extreme circumstances, poor children were forced to wear a cap which said ‘dunce’ meaning ‘a stupid person’. Children dressed like adults, were supposed to act like adults and were treated in both love and hate as adults. The extent of neglect towards children can be seen by the fact that the first public park for children was build as late as 1859 in the city of Manchester. To us then, the hundreds of complex laws that protect children from evils makes utmost sense. Sexual and physical abuse, pornography, beatings and even simple neglect are considered crimes against childhood. Special laws for the special treatment of children are now in place to ensure that children are treated with delicate care. It seems that parental affection is not much of an instinct but only a reflection of what parents consider to be their duties toward their off spring. (http://www.localhistories.org/19thcenturychildren.html).

It is a fact that parents in our world today can exercise less power over their children than in the past because a part of child rearing is controlled by the state (Donzalot, 1980). However these regulations have been brought into action to curtail the misuse of parental authority over children. Good parents can still be good parents, in fact, outside interference in maters such as family etiquettes, a child’s eating, dressing, sleeping and entertainment habits and the setting of acceptable beahvorial standards is considered a breach of the parents’ right. The state usually only intervenes when it fears that the child is being ill treated or when it believes that the child is not well brought up and would be a danger to those around him or her. John Hood Willams (1990) points out that children’s lives are controlled by their families in quite a array of ways. Their social spaces are strictly defined, their times are set by elders, their clothes and haircut is subject to the parent’s image of decency or acceptability. Parents even provide rules to be followed when eating, walking, talking and even standing in a crowd. Children are the most vulnerable to corporal punishment or all other members in the human society (Gelles 1979).

However, 19th century and present day childhood is vastly different. Today’s world is quite different than in the past century. Science and technology have rocketed human understanding of life many times over. Though the industrial revolution laid the foundations of all the progress we have seen in the past two hundred years, the greatest speed in the development of sciences and discovery has been hosted by the past 60 -70 years. Increasingly, the world has accepted that it is a global arena and not one divided by geographical boundaries. Cross cultural knowledge exchange has lead to a different populace which is ready to take on aspects of other societies almost readily. The media and internet have, without a trace of doubt, the greatest importance in the life of the modern child. Children are not only aware of fashion, trends and coursework, they are also aware of their rights and that 911 can save them from a parent’s physical or emotional abuse. At the same time that the present century is a blessing on children, it should also be brought into account that the 20th and 21st centuries have made childhood much more prone to corruption than previous centuries. To begin with, our environment is in a state of alarm, pollution and the green house effect have starting melting glaciers. Sea levels continue to rise and natural calamities have begun to affect humans in ever increasing ways. While countries emphasize on becoming wealthier and more powerful, they continue to expand their industrial and technological horizons but do not place due importance to the physical and mental development of a child. Physical activity (especially sport) for children has become an endangered species while computers and mobile phones have taken their place as a child’s entertainment activity. Life has become fast and so much so that we enjoy and prefer fast food even if it delivers extremely low nutrition value and high cholesterol levels. Drug and sex abuse of children seems to be rising steadily, despite the existing laws to regulate such unacceptable actions. Terrorism, radical thought and the spirit of revolution among youth have made childhood an age where there should actually be more protection and concern from parents and the state.

A child’s cognitive and socioemotional development is therefore at the forefront of modern world’s strategies to rear better children. Cross cultural psychological studies have discovered that there are many ways in which cultural factors help in developing a sound child who would later develop into a socially acceptable person.

The organization of physical and social setup in a surrounding, dictated by culture has a profound affect on the child’s mannerism and activities.

Prevalent social values, customs and norms provide a medium to evaluate his own acceptability or conformity in a society.

Parental beliefs and practices, which have been molded by culture play a mediating role in a child’s understanding of the world in which he/she lives.

Contemporary societies use the schooling system, also built around their own cultural value, to imbed certain levels of acceptability criteria in the minds of children.

(Childhood and Adolescence – Gielen & Roopnarine)

For the broad minded modern child, many pieces of information, the instance of sexual information, is quite important in order to be able to perform in an agreeable way. It has already been shown by research that romantic ideals pave way for women coming to terms with their sexual drives and experiences (Thomson and Scott, 1991). At the same time boys, who hardly share romantic ideals with their parents tend to take on their masculine audacity to deal with love and sexual involvement (Wood 1984). This finally leads to a pattern of married life (seen among the general populace) where women hardly get to the emotional closeness they expect to receive from their husbands (Cancian 1989).

Describe the changes in the family structure since the nineteenth century with reference to appropriate research and the apparent decline of the extended family. Demonstrate knowledge of the diversity of families in contemporary Britain.

In order to answer this question it is necessary to address the assumptions regarding the structure of the family pre and post industrialisation, focussing upon the research of historians and social scientists such as Laslett, Anderson, Young and Willmott.

Sociologist Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) put forth the view that prior to industrialisation families were extended and lived a rural life with democratic gender relations. After industrialisation, society consisted of nuclear families who lived urbanised lives with women financially depended upon men. He describes post-industrial family units as ‘isolated’ as they are not “part of a wider system of kinship relationships” (Haralambos at al, 1995, pg335). He states that the decline of the extended family was due to industrialisation, as the requirements of skilled labour demanded geographical mobility (Abercrombie et al, 1995).

Parsons’ theorizing has since been proven incorrect. The historian Peter Laslett actually found that between 1564 and 1821, only 10 percent of households contained members beyond their immediate family. He states that when couples married it was only a matter of a few years before both their parents died, which implies that there simply not enough members of a family to create an extended unit. He claims “There is no sign of the large, extended co-residential family group giving way to the small, nuclear, conjugal, household of modern industrial society” (Haralambos at al, 1995, pg338).

Michael Anderson’s research also discredits the assumption of the rise of modern nuclear families during industrialisation and the death of the extended family. Anderson conducted an 1851 census of Preston and found that “23 percent of households contained kin other than the nuclear family” (Haralambos at al, 1995, pg339). He stated that the families worked as a support network with Grandparents looking after siblings whilst both parents worked. It also meant support during periods of ill health or unemployment and it produced a lower share of rent paid. It was what Haralmbos et al describe as a “mutual aid organisation” (1995, pg339).

In the 1950’s, Young and Willmott’s study of Bethnal Green found that two out of three couples lived within three miles of their parents. They also discovered that close ties existed between female members of the family such as mother and daughter, with a “constant exchange of services such as washing, shopping and babysitting, between female relatives” (Haralambos at al, 1995, pg341). Young and Willmott described many families as “a combination of families who to some degree form one domestic unit” (Quoted in Haralambos at al, 1995, pg341).

During Willmott and Young’s surveys and historical research, they produced three stages of the family based on their findings. The first stage is Pre-industrial, where the family acted as a ‘unit of production’ with everyone working together, in agriculture for example. This unit is similar to that of Parsons’ pre-industrial family, however it does not appear to be extended. This family structure is still seen in modern society, such as within rural farming areas. The second stage is the Early-industrial family which was extended, and acted as a support network similar to the families studied by Anderson. This is also inclusive of Willmott and Young’s Bethnal Green families in the 1950’s. The third stage is the Symmetrical Family, which is nuclear, home centred, with a shared responsibility concerning housework Willmott went on to carry out research in 1980’s London. He found a nuclear family, which is reliant upon kin for support but is still an independent family unit. This greatly contradicts Parsons’ view of an isolated nuclear family for modern society (Abercrombie et al, 1995, pg304).

Robert and Rhona Rapoport however, state their research illustrates how the family structure is still evolving. Twenty percent of families in 1978 were married parents with one main breadwinner. The number of single-parent households has increased from 2.5 percent in 1961 to 10.1 percent in 1992 (Haralambos at al, 1995, pg348). Many factors could contribute to the cause of such a radical change in family structure. Legislation is one factor, as since the 1960’s it is easier to get a divorce, have an abortion, homosexuality is legal and the contraceptive pill is widely available. Women are much more financially independent, which means financial security is not the only reason for marriage. The fact that people are leaving it later to get married and cohabiting for longer periods suggests a higher expectation of marriage. Burgoyne and Clark found examples of couples in this situation in their study of Sheffield. They state that these individuals often view themselves as ‘pioneers of an alternative lifestyle’ (Quoted in Haralambos at al, 1995, pg347). Returning to the rise of single parenthood, the General Household Survey in 1990 found that their was not only a rise in single mothers who had divorced, but a rise from 16 percent to 34 percent of mothers who had never married (Haralambos at al, 1995, pg348). There are numerous arguments as to why this is the case, Haralmbos et al suggest many by Politicians such as John Selwyn Gummer, Peter Lilley and John Redwood who all stated a concern regarding the welfare state and the possibility of it encouraging single parent families (1995, pg349).

To conclude, changes in family structure since the nineteenth century have been subtle. The assumptions that prior to the Industrial Revolution families were large and lived together as one egalitarian unit has been discredited. Even though it is safe to say that modern society consists of mainly nuclear families and single parent families, these units depend on their extended kin network for support, which live in close proximity.

Bibliography:

Abercrombie, N. and Alan Warde et al. 1995. Contemporary British Society: A New Introduction to Sociology. Second Edition. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Haralambos, M. and Martin Holborn et al, 1995. Sociology Themes and Perspectives. Third Edition. London: Collins Educational.

McRae, S. 1999. Changing Britain Families and Households. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Evaluate the impact changes to the family have in a social and political context

In order to discuss the changes the family as an institution has gone through and the impact that these changes have had, it is necessary to define the ‘family’. The term ‘family’ is often used to mean a nuclear family, for example two parents, usually married with one plus children. This definition however, in no longer relevant to twenty first century Britain. Factors including ageing populations which result in households containing no children; the delay in having children due to the increase in popularity of career minded independent women; single parenthood caused by divorce/separation; single women conceiving; and finally household division, in other words separated parents remarrying or cohabiting with other partners and their children, known as the reconstituted family. Policies are viewed by some as trying to reinforce this ‘normal’ view of the family. Many policy makers made the assumption, as Dean points out “the ‘traditional’ family consisted of a breadwinning husband who could expect to enjoy life-long full-time employment, earning a wage sufficient…to support a dependant wife” (2001:268). They argue that this model never did ‘fit’ society’s reality and as a result, many families who do not fill this mould could have cause to feel estranged from society and its ideology. Kiernan points out that ‘few developments in family life have been quite as dramatic as the recent rises in unmarried cohabitation and having children outside of marriage’ (2002:3). She also states that we should celebrate the family in all its diverse forms and match legislation to support this.

Explain the relationship between family structure and –
Social Issues.

Teenage pregnancies, often portrayed as a socially ‘deviant’ act are currently on the decline. Lisa Aria puts forward reasons why Policy makers are explaining the occurrence of teenage pregnancies. With contraception and abortion readily available, they suggest that early childbearing must caused by low expectations of mothers. In other words due to poor educational opportunities “they see no reason not to get pregnant” (Aria, 2003:200). Aria however, puts a positive spin on this theory when she states that “many young mothers have a weak attachment to the education system or paid work before pregnancy, and mothering, for them, is a meaningful vocation” and that it “should not be read as a sign of immaturity, buts its reverse” (212-213).

State Intervention.

The introduction of the welfare state was originally designed to support a small group of single mothers who were either abandoned or widowed. As Primus and Beeson point out “welfare has evolved to serve mostly families headed by divorce, separated, or never married mothers” (2002:191). The rise of claimants in these categories, and the growth of cohabitation as an alternative to marriage, has caused “policymakers and researchers to question whether welfare and tax policies influence a range of decisions about family, including decisions to marry, have children, or cohabit” (Primus and Beeson, 2002:121). This concern over whether means-tested benefits are subconsciously persuading single parent families is reflected in new legislation. Perhaps in a attempt to distance means-tested benefits from single parent families, Dean remarks on how the government has only just “stopped short of directly compelling mothers to work” (2001:271) with the implementation of compulsory ‘work-focused interviews’ for single parents on income support.

Evaluate the impact of key family legislation on:
Mothers.

The main legislation to effect mothers is related to the National Childcare Strategy put forward in 1998. Jane Lewis points out the aims were “linked to the attack on poverty and social exclusion” and this included subsidised childcare (2003:219). As Dean points out, these policies can be “fuelling personal moral dilemmas” (2001:274) as policy makers are sending out mixed messages. For example, the government proposed that we “place greater responsibility on parents for the behaviour of their children” (Kroll and Barrett, quoted in Dean 2001), however the pressure on parents, especially mothers to become involved with paid employment is persistent. Dean’s qualitative study entitled “Working Parenthood and Parental Responsibility”, found that due to this pressure to find employment encouraged by means-tested benefits such as the Working Tax Credit and the notion of ‘family friendly companies’, cause women to take up employment that is temporary, most often part-time and poorly paid. As Bryson and Marsh point out “recipients of in-work benefits seldom move on to higher paid jobs” (1996:272) and often are unable to dedicate more time and effort into the paid position due to familial responsibilities. Dean does claim however, that some mothers stated that they viewed their “lack of responsibility as a positive advantage in so far that their employment…did not interfere with those commitments that are for them of greater ontological significance” (2001:276).

Fathers.

Dean summarizes his research on working parenthood by stating, “men (should) have the same incentives as women to combine employment and parental responsibilities” (2001:283). In 2005, the government announced the proposals of a plan to extend Paternity allowance as a manoeuvre in this direction. As Susan Smillie (2005) states in the Guardian, “fathers could receive up to three months’ statutory paternity pay if their partner returns to work after six months”, on top of the two weeks paid leave known as Statutory Paternity Leave. This is a move in the right direction from a father’s perspective. While this would suit many career-minded women who earn more than their partners do, many mothers would perhaps not be so willing to leave their four/five month old baby with their partner if this was a first child. It has been noted by Dean however, that further developments in maternity allowances could seek to disadvantage women in the workplace if they are not matched by paternity allowances for men, as “employers might otherwise become increasingly reluctant to engage women” (2001:282).

Children.

The Child Support Act (1991) is another major legislation that has affected families and their wellbeing. This legislation affects fathers and mothers, however it is the child(ren) at the centre. The aim of the Child Support Act is to recover ‘maintenance’ from the father, which is then paid to the mother. The Family Law Reform Act (1987) and The Children’s Act (1989) make a clear link between “a father’s obligation to make a financial contribution for his children’s care and his right to have contact with them” (Burghes, Clarke and Cronin, 1997). However, as Bagilhole points out, where the Child Support Agency retrieved money from “absentee fathers…it did not benefit many lone mothers and their children because if they were dependent on benefits the child support they received was deducted pound for pound from income support” (1997:124).

Analyse the effect of the media on family values and family structures.

William Douglas has outlined the representation of the family and the values it promotes in his study cited in Television Families. He states that Post-War television portrayed a family consisting of women who were sexual but predominantly domestic. May (quoted in Douglas) points out that “motherhood was the ultimate fulfilment of female sexuality” (1988:140). Douglas states that this could have influenced the rebellion against familial constraints in the 1960’s as after the war there were numerous women in work, which did not coincide with the family ideology portrayed in the media. He states that the domestic roles within the household portrayed in contemporary television with regard to chores and child rearing, are more equally weighted that in prior decades. Women are usually portrayed as being in paid employment and that spouses are more openly intimate. He does state however, that unlike modern society, divorce is rare as “spouses simply do not divorce, even when relational and/or economic stress appears acute” (2003:112). He states that the ideology present in contemporary media has altered dramatically from the past as it now emphasises “personal ambition and achievement rather than family life and family relations” (2003:134).

Works Cited:

Aria, L. (2003) ‘Low Expectations, Sexual Attitudes and Knowledge: Explaining Teenage Pregnancy and Fertility in English Communities’, The Sociological Review, vol. 51, May, pp.199-215.

Bagilhole, B. (1997) Equal Opportunities and Social Policy, Essex: Longman Ltd.

Dean, H. (2001) ‘Working Parenthood and Parental Obligation’, Critical Social Policy, vol. 21, pp 267-286.

Douglas, W. (2003) Television Families: Is There Something Wrong with Suburbia, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.

Kiernan, K. (2002) ‘Cohabitation in Western Europe: Trends, Issues, and Implications’, in Booth, A. and Crouter, A (ed.) Just Living Together: Implications of Cohabitation on Families Children, and Social Policy, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.

Lewis, J. (2003) ‘Developing Early Years Childcare in England, 1997-2002: The Choices for (Working) Mothers’, Social Policy and Administration, vol. 37, June, pp 219-238.

Primus, W. and Beeson, J (2002) ‘Safety Net Programs, Marriage and Cohabitation’ in Booth, A. and Crouter, A (ed.) Just Living Together: Implications of Cohabitation on Families Children, and Social Policy, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.

Smillie, S. (2005) ‘Paternity Leave’, The Guardian, 19 October.

Internet Resources:

Burghes, L., Clarke, L., Cronin, N. (1997) Fathers and Fatherhood in Britain.

www.jrf.org.uk/knowledge/findings/socialpolicy/sp120.asp

Unknown Author, An Introduction on Social Policy: Welfare and Society.

http://www2.rgu.ac.uk/publicpolicy/introduction/society.htm

How has British identity and attitude changed since the 1950s?
Introduction

Many people find it difficult to cope with changes in people’s attitudes and identity, particularly since the 1950s. They struggle with the direction in which society appears to be going. The expanding nature of contemporary society means that there are more opportunities for people, this coupled with an expansion in skills and a less authoritarian attitude in the workplace gives people greater individual freedom. However, the continuing changes that have taken place in society over the last fifty years requires that people develop a greater adaptability in regards to their personal identities their attitude towards self and society. They need to be ready to move along with the rate of change and this requires a corresponding change in how they understand themselves. Thus, for Giddens (1991), the self is an ongoing project whereby identity is made and remade to meet the conditions of modern life.

This paper will look at how British identity and attitude have changed since the 1950s. There will be a brief look at what life was like in nineteen fifties and how identity was understood. This will then be compared to attitudes and identity today to highlight the changes.

1950s Britain

Post-war Britain was quite different to today. In the early 1950s there was still a good deal of war damage which led the Government to introduce massive building programmes to ensure adequate housing for the population. Immediately after the war the welfare state was set up. The funding of this was based on the notion that the (predominantly male) workforce would continue to have full employment, which led the Government to claim that it would be able to look after its citizens from the cradle to the grave. They were overly idealistic in their views and in the last fifty years Britain has witnessed massive changes in both welfare and employment work and welfare. Attitudes have changed towards family structures and this, along with other cultural changes, has had corresponding implications for peoples’ identities.

In the years following the Second World War people felt that they were secure in their employment. In industry working class men were conditioned to the view that if they worked hard then they would have a job for life, even though they may not have earned a lot of money (Giddens, 2001). This is no longer the case however, and is one of the many reasons that there are now so many women in the workforce (Abbott and Wallace, 1997).

In 1950s Britain society was clearly class ridden and people did not often move from one class to another. The class into which a person was born therefore was very often the one in which they stayed and this had implications for their life chances in other areas. People did not have the choices that they have nowadays few women went out to work and it was the father’s responsibility to go out and earn money to support his family (Walby, 1986).

In the years since the nineteen fifties the face of Britain has altered. There have been massive changes in employment patterns and this has, in many cases, led to changing roles in society which has had further implications for people’s sense of identity. Post-War immigration along with rapid social and technological change has brought with it n increasing focus on contemporary racialised and ethnicised identities. This mixing of new identities along with older ones, and the introduction of new cultural forms contributes to the sense of uncertainty that many people feel is a feature of modern life (Hall, 1992).

British Identity

The concept of identity is extremely important in sociological thinking, furthermore, constructions of identity are also closely linked to culture and people’s identities are reflected in the cultures and sub-cultures to which they belong (Willis, 1967).Smith (1991) claims that in Britain in the 1950s there was a fairly homogenous cultural, aristocratic sense of Britishness, which dated back to the sixteenth century. The British nation state, therefore was, essentially, seen as English with elements taken from Wales and Scotland. Langlands (1999) maintains that:

As it is true of all national identities, the meanings and saliency attached to Englishness are fluid and have varied considerably; it has at some times drawn upon Celtic sources; and at other times it has been conflated with Britishness (the myth of our island race for instance) (Langlands, 1999:60).

The Arts Council was established in 1947. This was an attempt to bring art to as many people as possible. Ballet, Opera and the theatre were publicity and held up as models of British cultural life. During the 1950s collectivist policies were pursued which resulted in cultural stability. Cultural heritage is of great importance. (the National Heritage site tells us) it is also crucial to the construction of identities and to social behaviour (Turnpenny, 2004). These policies which promoted what were seen as ‘high’ culture were stable until the late nineteen sixties and seventies. The growing number of immigrants was changing the way Britain looked and the way it had to find new understandings of itself By the 1970s things had changed and opinions on the far left held all cultural values as a reflection of the interests of white middle class males (Abbott and Wallace, 1997)..

In the nineteen eighties the market principles of Margaret Thatcher’s Government meant that art had to justify its continued existence on the basis of its marketability. In 1986 the cultural policy advisors to the Greater London Council wrote:

In an age when we know longer expect to find a single all- encompassing truth, the best strategies for survival often involve creating alternative, exclusive realms, which reject dominant modes (Mulgan and Worpole, 1986:32)

When New Labour came to power in the 1990s it took over elements of the left and the right in an attempt to promote a more diverse and inclusive view of culture and cultural heritage (Pearce, 2000). Pearce contends that:

Cultural heritage is something that can be inherited, which enables the inheritors to enter into their rightful states and be their true selves (Pearce, 2000:59).

This cultural heritage consists of artefacts, practices, objects and cultural spaces which people recognise as part of their cultural heritage. Turnpenny (2004) maintains that this heritage relates to all aspects of a nation’s life. Current cultural policy concentrates on buildings or monument, making heritage very tightly defined and denying wider cultural interpretation (Turnpenny, ibid).

Social practices which are a source of group identity have been omitted from Government legislation on cultural heritage yet they traditional, and cultural significance and should therefore be considered as part of our cultural heritage (Jones, 1996). Turnpenny (2004) argues that this is oppressive as it does not take into account community values and the communities’ perceptions of their cultural heritage and it thus contributes to social exclusion. Current cultural policy, in its neglect of the intangible, separates fact from value. In doing so it imposes a form of national identity that does not truly reflect the identity of community groups in Britain.

Changes in society affect social structures which in turn affect people’s identities in myriad ways. Because identities are no longer fixed, but as Bradley (1996) has argued are fractured, they are a source of continuing uncertainty. This uncertainty leads to further changes in the social structure. Contemporary people’s identities are unsettled because the changes mentioned above tend to cross ethnic boundaries. For example the changing role of women and their greater inclusion in the labour market has affected not only women’s and men’s identities, it has also led to changes in family structures.

Changing Attitudes and the Family

Over the last fifty years, Britain has witnessed changes in marriage, household, and family forms that would not have been thought possible prior to the Second World War (Giddens, 2001). The rise in the divorce rate and the number of single parent families, has largely been blamed on the 1960s rise of the feminist movement. There has also been a growth in the rate of women who have children but have not married (Social Trends, 2000). Attitudes have changed considerably in this regard and it is rare to hear of the lonely old spinster. People do not think that women who don’t want to marry are in some way strange.

Parsons (1955) argued that (what has been called)the traditional family serves two major purposes that are common to societies, the primary socialisation of children into the norms and values of society, and the stabilisation of adult personalities. For Parsons the institution of the family provided the mutual love and support needed by individuals in order for them to be fit enough to take their places in society (Giddens, 2001).

In 1997 when Blair’s Government came to power the above ideology of the family that had existed in Britain for almost a century was breaking down and unemployment was continuing to rise. Death, divorce, and the rise in the number of single parent families meant that the traditional ideal of the male breadwinner and the female carer/homemaker were becoming less common (Giddens, 2001). Single mothers (although not a strong favorite) were no longer seen as shamed women, as they might have been in the nineteen fifties. The concerns of the Welfare State were with the traditional, nuclear family where the man was the breadwinner and the woman cared for the home and children. It was not therefore, set up to deal with single parent households. In this way changing family structures result in an increase in other social problems, particularly poverty (Giddens, 2001). Traditional family structures are no longer the norm in the UK and this has led to a change of attitudes towards those who do not live in the traditional nuclear family that Parsons described. However, this leads to other social problems because the state system is not equipped to deal with either the increased burden on the benefits system or in making the employment and childcare systems more equitable.

Conclusion

British identities and attitudes have changed considerably since the 1950s. This is largely as a result of changing employment patterns, cultural policy, mass immigration, and changes in family structures.

Human behaviour is based on guidelines that are shared by a group and in order for that group/society to function effectively the guidelines must apply to all its members. Thus culture is learned and shared and without it members of a society would be unable to communicate effectively and chaos would result (Giddens, 2001). This is why attitudes have had to change in Britain and this has had corresponding effects on how people understand both their Britishness and their identities.

Bibliography

Abbott, P. and Wallace, C. 1997. An Introduction to Sociology: Feminist Perspectives. London, Routledge.

Bradley, H. 1997. Fractured Identities: Changing Patterns of Inequality. Cambridge, Polity Press.

Cohen, R. 1996 “The poverty trap” Community Care; 1 Aug 96, p.26-7

Crowe, G. and Hardey,M.1992. “Diversity and ambiguity among lone-parent households in modern Britain”. In Marsh, C. and Arber, S. (Eds.) 1992. Families and Households: Divisions and Change. London: Macmillan. Giddens, A. 2001. (4^th ed). Sociology. Cambridge, Polity Press.

Giddens, A. 1991 Modernity and Self Identity Cambridge, Polity Press

Hall, S. and Gleben, B. eds. (1992) Formations of Modernity. Cambridge, Polity Press in association with the Open University Press.

Pearce, S. M. 2000 ‘The Making of Cultural Heritage’, In Values and Heritage Conservation, edited by E. Avrami, R. Mason and M. de la Torre. Los Angeles: Getty Conservation Institute (2000) 59–64.

Parsons, T. and Bales, R. 1955. Family, Socialisation, and Interaction Process. Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press

Smith, A. 1991 National Identity Harmondsworth, Penguin

Social Trends 30 2000. General Household Survey in Giddens, A. 2001. (4^th ed). Sociology. Cambridge, Polity Press.p.181

Turnpenny, M 2004 “Cultural Heritage, an ill defined concept? A call for joined-up policy” International Journal of Heritage Studies 10 (3) July 2004 pp. 295-307

Walby, S. 1986. Patriarchy at Work. Cambridge: Polity.

Though out history there have always been groups of people who do not feel that they are being adequately represented in modern governments, and women are one of them. Many women have experienced issues regarding whether or not their voices and opinions being heard and truly acted upon by people in political offices. As modern society continues to develop, things are beginning to become more apparent regarding the influence and ideas women have to offer in society and especially politics. Many women feel that there are not enough legislative powers adequately representing them and their voices. Men, because of their gender majority in politics, have the primary decision making when it comes to passing laws, which possibly affects more lives than they realize. There becomes a question if their views and decisions are based on their thoughts and opinions or those of whom they are supposed to be representing. When discussing such “sensitive” issues as abortion, which clearly relates to decisions that should also be made by women because of their immediate relation to the subject have minimal say if any because of the unequal representation. Even though America chooses to encourage other countries to build themselves around American values, America herself seems to be falling behind the times. Yet in this male controlled political system that America has chosen to adopt, there seems to be very little change in the ability to sufficiently represent women. This problem can be resolved through more women becoming involved in the political process.

Do women have a chance to overcome being head in charge. It has been said during the time when men were the bread maker and women were to be the homemakers. Women have been trying to wear the pants for centuries, whether it is as successful, career or in politics. It has always been debate about whether or not women are capable of succeeding in doing jobs that men have been doing for quite some time. There are many women now in the work force doing jobs that at one time were considered “male” only types of careers, jobs such as: police officers, fireman, and construction workers, even in politics. Hilary Clinton, who ran for the President of the United States, is a perfect example of modern women in the political arena. Even though she did not win the presidential race she still made her way to the White House; she is now the United States Secretary of State. Many people throughout the United States feel that she will do well with this position. My question is: What makes it hard for women to get the qualifying job that men hold and why is there a difference in the pay. Can a woman do the job better and get the job done equally? These are questions that many people in today’s society feel need to be answered.

Equality in the work place has been an issue for as long as men and women have worked together. Men and women work equally hard and get just as much accomplished as the other. Since the work is equal, the pay should be equal as well. It is seen by many that companies in the United States should be required to pay all employees equally and fairly. Obviously, pay should depend on position. If a woman works as a receptionist, she should not expect the same pay as a man in charge of system security. However, if a man and woman are in the same position, they should be paid the same. There are some jobs that women do better than men and vice versa. Companies need to realize that men and women work equally hard for their money. Often times, women work harder just to prove their equality. Instead of looking at gender, companies should look only at qualifications and how well the employee does the job. Women now are beginning to become corporate executives in businesses, and popular in the field of medicine and law. Women have tried hard to push themselves forward in society to create a balanced and harmonious economy and so far it has been successful. Barriers of all kinds have been broken, well, all except a few, mainly in politics.

Politicsaˆ¦when one stops and thinks of the word “politics” what naturally comes to mind? Our founding fathers, Presidents George Washington, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson; the popular political figures of today, President Bill Clinton, George W. Bush and Al Gore; and now we can think of Hilary Clinton. Is society to blame for this misconception that women do not hold important roles in government and participate in making important decisions for our country? Not really, people just don’t hear or read about women in politics as often as they do about men. As most people learn throughout elementary and junior high or middle school, our nation first formed government in 1776 when Thomas Jefferson first drafted our constitution. During this time women did not have a role in government, nor would they for the next one hundred and eight years, until a woman would try to run for office. “In 1884, Belva Ann Lockwood – the first woman to try a case before the United States Supreme Court – ran for Presidency” (Arenofsky 14). Well, to no surprise she lost, but her groundbreaking campaign made it possible and easier for Jeannette Rankin, thirty-three years later, to run and become elected to Congress for the state of Montana. However, even with this groundbreaking experience, women were still looked down upon for their lack of experience. It wasn’t until 1920 when women’s suffrage ended and the nineteenth amendment to the constitution, granting women the right to vote, and those women were formally introduced into politics. However, even with voting privileges, women were still looked at as weak feeble creatures. The lack of confidence and the inability to be seen as strong-minded females who were not afraid to voice their opinion hurt the female gender immensely. It wasn’t until “Eleanor Roosevelt, wife of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, crisscrossed the country speaking about social problems and serving as the quintessential role model for the politically active female” that women began to witness how to present themselves with confidence (Arenofsky 14). Finally, with women’s confidence on the rise and their new understanding and attitudes toward government, women were starting to attain a higher status in the political arena. The big break for women came from the decision by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who in 1933 appointed Frances Perkins to the cabinet as Secretary of labor (Gurirab, T., & Cayetano, P. (2010).

However, in some magical, mysterious way, women are managing themselves quite nicely. Let’s face it, there are far more white-collared, wealthy men in the United States, and in the world for that matter, than there are women. Even with women having highly paid corporate executive jobs, women still make far less than that of their male counterparts. For women, this is one of the major issues as to why government is lacking female participation. The most valid explanation for this problem is that the government controls the financial gains of women to limit their power. Looking at the facts, women make up fifty-two percent of our nation’s population, strange how such a big percentage of population has little representation. The thought of a government developed by males and dominated by females just does not sit well with the vast majority of higher male authority. Therefore, in order to make sure that women do not dominate, without being boldly direct about it, income levels are tampered with. It may sound bizarre, but in Lyn Kathlene’s Studying the New Voice of Women in Politics, she gives some very valid evidence that shows how women are paid in comparison to men in the same high white-collared jobs. The results are quite shocking. Kathlene shows that women are out-paid by men by nearly forty-percent for the same amount of work and jobs! The responsibilities of taking care of their home and loved ones and the lack of funds, the fight for women’s dominance in government will never prevail. Does this mean American’s should just sit back and forget about the women before them who fought hard for their right to vote, to be heard, and have equality in government?

Social class, status, and power are predetermined by one’s gender. Within today’s patriarchal society, men simply possess greater power than women, “and enjoy greater access to what is valued by the social group.” (Gurirab, T., & Cayetano, P. (2010). Patriarchal thought produces male dominance, and authority within multiple areas, including politics. Throughout history, governments have designed laws to maintain such divisions of power, resulting in the oppression of women. “Patriarchal power relations construct sexual differences as political differences by giving legal form to the belief that women, because of their sex, are fit only to serve as wives and mothers.” (Gurirab, T., & Cayetano, P. (2010). One must question how women can achieve greater influence within the male political arena if they are not viewed as equal? How are determined women attempting to change their position within society, regarding politics? Multiple changes have been made throughout history regarding the place of women in society, but are they leading towards equality? The main goal of the women’s movement was basic citizenship rights for women. For decades, many of the first women’s groups strived for their civil and political rights as women. Their central focus was the right to vote, and the right to run for office. The purpose was to claim a role in democratic politics. Many believed that in order to attain political goals, the right to vote was vital. Women assumed that once the right to vote was granted, equality in the eyes of males was soon to follow, along with their new influence within politics.

Decades full of protests for women’s rights created several political gains, as well as improvements in their status; however, inequality remained. Women’s beliefs that political rights would lead to equal opportunity, were overshadowed by the reality that their inequality resulted in their lack of influence within politics. Multiple policies and laws may have been created or changed in an attempt to improve women’s role in society, but economic dependence, and physical reliance on men continued as issues. Women remained underrepresented within politics, holding fewer than twenty percent of federal, and provincial elected offices in the United States. Eliminating women from political positions hindered their ability to become a valid influence within the political arena. Unequal pay, workplace harassment, and discrimination continued to plague women in the work force. Many believe that the variance between wages is due to the fact that forty-one percent of women are employed in part-time or temporary positions; however, those employed in full-time positions only earn seventy-three percent of what male employees make. Women occupy only twenty-two percent of the country’s highest paying jobs, but hold sixty-eight percent of the lowest paying jobs. With the lack of women in high profile positions, and the belief that women are not as valuable as men, they continue to provide no bearing on the political aspects of society.

Women continue to receive less in our patriarchal society. “Women have less political power, fewer economic resources, less security, and lower status that do men.” (Gurirab, T., & Cayetano, P. (2010). This continues regardless of decades dedicated to movements for women’s rights, and lobbying for policies designed to alter women’s status in society. For those women who are poor, immigrant, Native, or disabled, they find themselves even more inferior than other women. Therefore, the question remains, are women equal? Simply stated, they are not equal. Women continue to fight for liberal democratic political power. Their gender continues to play a role in how society will view them, as well as their position. For centuries, power has been allotted to men, which continues to this day. Few women possess great political power due to the difficulties of obtaining customary equality within society.

In a world where men rule, how is a woman able to gain great authority, and step into the political spot light? In a society where women are viewed as insignificant, how are they to influence political decision makers? The law has granted women a voice within politics; however, it remains weak and inaudible. In order for women to increase their influence in politics, they must first become equal with men. Until then, they will be viewed as inferior; therefore, not requiring influence in politics. Gradually women are gaining more power, and prestige in society. Soon, the number in high-paying jobs will increase, creating a less economically dependent gender. As women strive for these changes, men, especially politicians, will be forced to take notice. As power for women intensifies, so will their influence in politics. As the voice for women’s rights grows, so will their equality; therefore, leveling out the playing field in the political arena for both men, and women. Society needs to realize that this is ‘the dawn of a new century’ and the role of the female should indeed be reevaluated. Women are equal to men, and should have the same opportunities as men. Women follow rules and are fair too. Women can cooperate with the government. Women can make good choices, and effective speeches. Most people say, “Well what about their kids?” Think about it. Men are responsible for their kids just as much as women are. A woman won’t run president if she has 3 year olds and needs to stay with them. She’ll run when she gets older because her kids will be older. I hope people will change their minds and give them a chance, because they’re there to do their jobs. I hope that one day I can live to see a woman president.

Cell phones: How have they changed us socially?

Cell Phone is a device through which people can call anyone and they can receive anyone’s call through a geographical area. It can also perform various functions such as Internet browsing, playing music and many more.

Can anyone believe right now that there was a time when cell phones didn’t exist? Cell Phones have changed their identity from luxury good to a necessity. This study hence examined how usage of cell phones has impacted people’s life thereby changing their attitude and their behavior.

Technology over the past few years has boomed a lot. People nowadays are very much addicted to their mobile phones and that’s affecting their relationship with their friends, family and their closed ones.

Remembering that people used letters to get messages back and forth from one person to another. Thereby we added cell phones to our society knowingly or unknowingly.

In the beginning telephones were just a mean to contact people whether they were at home when we called or not. Then was the evolution of cell phones. With them we can make and receive calls or send and receive messages in almost any part of the world. Usage of cell phones has subsequently increased in the past decade as it’s lot convenient to message anyone through cellphones rather than sending that person a handwritten note which takes time as well. Year into year cellphones are getting a lot of innovation from one level to the other. Manufacturers keeps on making cell phones that are way better than the old ones. High level of competition even gave a boom and high amount of innovation to this industry.

Each And Everyone Is Connected: Around two decades ago if you didn’t answer anyone’s phone call then the most likely reason is that you were not at home but now if you don’t pick up anyone’s phone call then you must be ignoring that person or screening your phone calls or there may be number of other reasons. Cell phones have obviously changed us socially as it’s very easy to connect with anyone we want and that too instantly.

Innovations keep on happening in the world in which we live. But it’s upon us how we treat those innovations, positively or negatively. However most of them are double edged and bring with them positives as well as negatives. Cell phones are no different in this case as it brings both the cases alongside. There are many benefits, which emerged with the existence of cell phones, which made life easier and better for the humans. Some of these include increase in knowledge with the help of mobile Internet, better communication with the help of its mobility. There are various negative impacts of cell phones that include death due to talking on cell phones while driving and addiction towards it.

Positive Changes in the Society due to Cell Phones:

One of the most innovative items of the previous century was telephone and it revolutionized the meaning of the word communication. Earlier than that people used to trust on cumbersome processes to transmit data and information, which was very slow, and it was ineffective as well. If one wanted to send messages urgently it was not possible and other consequences, which gave a boost for inventing something, which was reliable, fast and effective. Therefore it gave a rise for the invention of Telephone. With the invention of telephone people can communicate with each other irrespective of the distance. Telephones exist as they are globally accepted as a mode of communication and because of its uniformity as well. Addition to this, telephones opened up the room for further innovations as well.

With Cellphones came the most important invention of modern era, which was Internet. The Internet is a great tool as it allows anyone to find information on any of the imaginable topic in seconds. The Internet allows us to purchase or sell any product anywhere across the globe. It has really changed us socially as nowadays we shop through Internet rather than going to any mall and purchasing the products because we find that to be convenient as well. E-Banking and money transfer could be done with the help of cell phones. As we know, it used to take time and money during the period of traditional mail, which is not the case now as it has been replaced by e-mail. Internet helps us to communicate orally and can make video calls as well, which are cheaper than telephone calls. People can transact business anywhere in the world with the help of cell phones. Students can study for their exams even when they don’t have books with the help of e-books available and by other means as well. People can conveniently send their money even when they cannot go to banks and cannot use computers; it is possible with the help of cell phones. It allowed many innovations and it even changed the way people interact in schooling, business and when they communicate personally. We need to deeply examine the advantages we receive from cell phones, which makes our life better.

Social Networking is even possible with the help of cell phones; with the help of it people can interact with one another and can create new bonds. There are different kind of people in the world including shy, anti social and various others. Cell phones have many features, which allow shy people to interact with someone on Internet without hesitation and increase their confidence. This way boosts their confidence up and then they can interact with the people outside and meet new people. Moreover no person should feel himself as he is out of the community, social networks with the help of cell phone clears it off. Everyone has the right to talk through any means and they can feel like they are a part of the community. This increases the amount of happiness amongst the people and depressing thoughts about suicides and various negative thoughts stay far away. Some people would suggest that increasing amount of technology might reduce the personal interactions but the case is quite different as people can meet new people with the help of cell phones and it makes social relations stronger. Portability of cell phones even added to the cause, as two people can talk anywhere through the device no matter what the location is.

Security could even be enhanced with the help of cell phones since it is not easy to cut down the communication, which is the case with landlines. Parents could communicate with their children under any situations whether there’s an emergency or the other, with the help of it they can get a swift response and escalation of the situation could be prevented. When the Burglars attack the houses can raise the alarm but since they couldn’t control the mobile networks cellphones could come handy during that time. Due to easy acquisition and no maintenance almost each and every house has a cell phone through which they can call ambulance under health crisis and lives can be saved. Adding to this, fire cases could be prevented with calling fire fighters thereby saving the lives and someone’s property.

Once computers were used for doing research and other work but now they are used for playing games, Facebook, twitter, online shopping and various other things. Virtually one can do whatever he wants to or buy anything that he wants to with the help of computer. Cell Phones have now became computers on the tips of your hands.

One can use many applications through their cell phones, which are very useful for each and every individual. Nowadays one can watch live cricket matches on their cell phones so people don’t tend to watch sitting in a group which really hampers the social relations. Instead of meeting one another nowadays people video chat amongst them through various applications termed Skype, Face Time and various other applications. Applications like Whatsapp, Snapchat, Viber and many more applications has been very helpful to the people who use these through their cell phones and it makes the social relations between people more strong.

Negative effects of Cell phone usage:

Here are some of the tweets:

@Mackin__Hangin: But im out tho somebody snitched at work so now we cant have cell phones on the sales floor smh.

@AnotherHollyDay: The awesome power if cell phones: when you need toilet paper so you text someone to bring you a roll. #whycellphoneswereinvented

@DangerrrNick: Cell phones let me be in people’s pockets at all times.

@sophianguyen_: Yesyes cell phones in class :’)

All the above tweets suggests that nowadays people rely too much and too heavily on their cell phones. As we see the first and the last tweet are the ones, which are really sad. First off the employees should not be on their cell phones while they are working, as it’s a sign of disrespect towards the customers. It is the case for the last tweet; Students should not be using their cell phones anyways or getting happy about it. Secondly, there is less verbal communication between friends. E.g.: The person cannot yell at his friend who is near him rather he’ll text him for the toilet paper, #whycellphoneswereinvented was not the reason why cell phones were invented but it was for useful reasons. Even the third tweet is pretty much sad, for the beginning there shouldn’t be a thought process and thereafter cell phones shouldn’t be in one’s pocket all the time.

Desperation at its heights:

How do these things work srsly. #smart #gloves #phone #finger #touch #fashion #knit #hand #simple friction I know but what from?!

The above photograph depicts those hand gloves that were specially designed to use cell phones during cold. These gloves were specifically designed to use the touchscreen through the tips with the help of some magical frictional technology. It more apparent that people are dependent on their phones to that point where they cannot choose between having frozen fingers or texting their friends about how cold it is today. It is quite evident that society feels to be connected at all the times and they can go to a far extent for it as well. Desperation is at its finest point. The above photograph proves that how cell phone gives us new ideas to create that kind of technology through which we are always connected.

The above-mentioned source helps to specify my topic as it shows the eagerness of the people to use cell phones by any means of technology even when it’s cold. This source is interesting because it proves that people do not even know about the technology they use it because it works. This research is obviously related to those people who live in cold regions.

Forbes:

The Forbes article gives us very shocking data that says worldwide 3 billion people have mobile service. Just in the U.S around 84% of people have a mobile service. In 2012 around 51% of people said it would be very difficult to give up their cell phones. But in 2002 only 38% of people said it would be difficult. This source takes me to a direction that says maybe cell phones are much of a good thing. However, some businessmen such as Mehtani says, “His Phone has not made him happier but has improved his business.” This source is connected to those people with mobile phones who spend much of their time, even businessmen that smart phones have really helped too.

Psychology Today:

This Psychology today article is a study at Baylor and Seton Hall Universities, researchers studied cell phone and text messaging among college aged women and men. College students are the maximum users and most addicted. On an average they send and receive about 109 text messages per day. Ironically there are heavy numbers of chances for social isolation when most of your social life is connected through a cell phone. This information from Psychology today is very sad. However, with this source it helps to take me into a direction where I can really focus on the negatives with cell phone use.

Other Bad Sides:

Cell phones are also used for kidnapping and blackmailing, capturing blue films or explicit content. There are times when children most importantly youngsters ignore food, parents, relations while texting or sending a message which drastically affects their personal life. On the other hand there are many health issues, which affects the children and they become the direct target. Cell Phones popularity, demand and less security has made them best target for the attackers.

Cell phones and Tablets gives users access to e-mail’s, the Internet, GPS Navigation and many more applications but cell phone security has not been up to the mark as it was in computers. High security measures such as Firewall, antivirus and encryption are not present in cell phones and OS of mobile are not as frequently updated as that of computers. Socially as well hackers hack the account thereby sending unwanted messages through our account and then reputation getting spoilt.

Most people nowadays cannot function without having their cell phone with them. If a person leaves or forgets his cell phone at home they usually feel “naked” without it. A cell phone does not only take over learning environments and social events but they are also accused of brain cancer. Cell Phones have gone from just being a means to talk, incase of emergencies or questions to causing fatal car accidents due to people sending a text message with the content ‘LOL’. In todays society with texting and cell phone games, people rarely every spend quality family time anymore, and many accidents and problems are caused because of Cell Phones.

If one is more engaged in his cell phone most of the time then sooner or later he will become less socially active and start losing on his relations. Recent advancements in communication technology have enabled billions of people to connect over great distances using mobile phones, yet little is known about how the frequent presence of these devices in social settings influences face-to-face interactions.

Studies show that homework is interrupted and children become distracted when they receive notifications of a new chat messages, texts, or emails.

Studies have shown that it makes it tough for students who rely so deeply on knowledge to truly converse to adults in person because they don’t quite develop all of the vital skills to grasp or even onset a face-to-face conversation. Though, these skills are a critical instrument in the workforce. If you desire a elevated paying, stable job, or perhaps even to be confessed to a university, you have to have good face-to-face contact skills. If you lack these specific skills you most probable won’t even make it across the interview.

Research from www.accuconference.com states that in 2012:

•53% of adults owns a smartphone.

•42% of people has utilized their phone for entertainment after they are bored.

•51% of users utilized their cell phone at least after to receive information.

•27% said they had concern acting something because they did not have their phone.

•29% turns off their phones to seize a break from their digital existence at night.

Conclusion:

We have come to a society that is completely reliant on our knowledge to converse alongside others. It’s nearly impossible for us to uphold our communal existence lacking employing a little sort of modern-day knowledge to communicate.

This article is not to say that mobile phones ought to be barred due to their countless negative aspects. It depends on us whether we use this knowledge for our progress and prosperity or for our destruction. No mistrust, mobile phone is the best change of this period but people ought to use it in a positive sense.

As long as people have gotten romantically involved with one another, there has been conflict within those relationships. Some people argue that conflict is bad for the relationship and will ultimately lead to the demise of that relationship. Others argue that the conflict is good for the relationship and will help it to flourish. Conflict can be both positive and negative for a relationship. It can both help and hinder the relationship. No matter what stage the relationship is in and whether or not the relationship is being helped or hurt, conflict is always happening in different contexts. Conflict is also caused by numerous reasons. These reasons include a lack of interpersonal communication skills, low levels of trust, physical abuse, an individual’s past history in relationships, and many others.

Not many people in the world can say that they have had a 100% successful romantic relationship. Looking at the high divorce rate in the United States can prove this. However, there are those couples that have remained together for numerous years. As I am sure that conflict played a big part in ending a large number of relationships, I am also sure that the successful relationships have had their fair share of conflict and have even been helped by that conflict. In this paper, I have constructed nine propositions relating conflict to certain behaviors within romantic relationships. Each one will be defined, summarized, and supported according to the available research.

P1- Women that have been abused in the past are more likely to remain in an abusive relationship.

Unfortunately, thousands of women are abused everyday in the United States. This abuse can be physical, verbal, or psychological. Women, by nature, seem to hold a higher sense of personal worth when involved in a relationship. From birth, women are taught by society to conform to certain expectations and definitions of what it means to be a female. Growing up, women always here phrases such as “That’s not lady like” or “You should be treated like a lady”. What does it mean to be a lady? According to most societies, it means that women are the weaker sex and are always in need of a man to take care of them. Men are taught, from birth, what it means to be a man. This definition is usually one of dominance and control. This is shown in phrases such as “I am the man of the house”.

When a woman is abused earlier in life she is trained in that frame of mind that women are the conformists and men are the dictators. “Violence by men is a major component of the larger social hierarchy of gender.” (Woods, 1999, p. 481). The abuse in these relationships usually instills feelings of inferiority, which goes along with their societal learning from childhood. Not only does this abuse give feelings of inferiority but also feelings of shame which lead to a sense of obligation to conserve the relationship to the best of her ability. According to a study done by K.M.Landenburger (1988), most women in these instances gave up on themselves before they gave up on their partners. If giving up on themselves, the logical conclusion is that they will eventually see the abuse as a social norm and will expect that in future relationships, thus repeating the cycle over and over again.

P2- Women who have had more sexual partners increase their likelihood of abuse in a romantic relationship.

Again, in this proposition, abuse is defined as physical, verbal, or psychological. As in any situation, the more exposure that a person has to a certain element, the more risk is involved pertaining to that element. In this case, women who have more sexual partners are exposing themselves to a greater risk factor of being intimate with that one that will engage in some sort of abusive behavior. With the increased exposure to a number of intimate partners, there comes a decreased sense of control for the women involved in these relationships. (Neufeld, McNamara, Ertl, 1999). When a person loses their sense of control, they become vulnerable and susceptible to incidence of abuse.

According to the Abusive Behavior Inventory, (Shephard and Campbell, 1992 shown in Neufield, McNamara, Ertl 1999) the instance of abuse with a high number of partners went up significannot

ly in all aspects of the definition. However it seemed that the highest level of abuse occurred psychologically. The ABI also indicated that 5% of undergraduate females had over seven sexual partners in a six-month period. This group showed the highest incidence of abuse within those relationships. It seems to me that any people who expose themselves to a high number such as this are going to put themselves in a situation where the abuse would be expected, to an outside observer.

P3- High levels of insecurity cause high levels of dependency on romantic relationships.

Dependency is defined as the reliance of an individual on another person for the satisfaction of his/her needs. (Attridge, Berscheid, & Sprecher, 1998). In this case, insecurity can be defined as relational meaning a person will have doubts and uncertainties about the relationship that he/she is in. Insecurity is a sign that a person is lacking a perceived need in their life. Insecurity would then be the counterpart of dependency as w person would be lacking something therefore depending on something else. This is explained as “Theory views the degree to which a person is dependent on a specific relationship as a function, not only of the number and importance of the needs the relationship currently satisfies for the individual, but also as a function of the extent to which those needs cannot be satisfied by alternative means.” (Attridge, Berscheid, & Sprecher, 1998, p. 33). When a person believes both that a relationship fills specific needs and that there are a lack of alternatives to fulfilling those needs a greater level of dependence is going to occur.

Different factors that may lead to insecurity include the appearance of another person that the partner appears to have an attraction to, or a perceived lack of interest from the partner. Whatever the cause for the insecurity, it seems to always lead to a further dependence on that relationship. The reason for this is a fear of losing the relationship, therefore resulting in a further need for the counterpart to preserve the relationship.

P4- Women are more likely than men to want a higher level of closeness in a romantic relationship.

Closeness in any relationship is important in order for the relationship to flourish. I believe that most people involved in romantic relationships feel this way and desire that closeness. However, it is my contention that women perceive that closeness as playing a much bigger role than men do. As previously stated in Proposition 1, men and women are taught different things about gender roles from the time they are born. Women are “supposed” to be the caretakers of the relationships and men are “supposed” to be the hunter and gatherers that are independent and don’t need to always have that closeness. (Feeney, 1999).

In regards to closeness in romantic relationships, the partner that is more likely to initiate conversation about issues affecting the relationship is more likely to be the one who puts more value on closeness. In contrast, the partner who puts less value on closeness is more likely to avoid these conversations. In a study done by Judith Feeney, 37 out of 72 couples that were interviewed revealed that there was a difference of opinion when it came to the issues of closeness and distance. This doesn’t necessarily show that these women felt that the closeness factor was more important than the men did. As one man interviewed stated:

“She didn’t seem to really want me to much of a part of her life. Because of that, because I hate being neglected, I tended to react by neglecting her. Like I was trying to find faults within her so I could make myself feel better. I was always trying to find faults with her.” (cf. Feeney, 1999).

This man clearly felt that closeness was more important to the relationship than his female counterpart. Despite this man’s view on closeness, 26 out of the 37 that reported different ideas about closeness and distance, said that the female in the relationship held a higher view of importance on closeness than the man did in their romantic relationship.

P5- People with a high level of distrust in their partner’s feelings towards them, are more likely to have unstable romantic relationships.

All relationships need to be based on trust if they are going to succeed. If you don’t trust the partner you are with or vice-versa, then that relationship will never have the strong foundation that relationships need in order to succeed. Distrust in a partner’s feelings will form an emotional barrier between the two participants that are involved with each other. This barrier will eventually become the main focus of the relationship thereby halting all opportunities to focus on other aspects of that relationship. (Simpson, Grich, & Ickes, 1999). For example, if a man distrusts his significannot

other, he may always ask if she is happy, or if anything is bothering her. She always says that she is happy and nothing is wrong, but she doesn’t understand why he keeps asking. This eventually becomes more than an annoyance to her and she finally starts telling him to stop asking. The man then thinks that she is mad and has further distrust in her feelings. This whole scenario demonstrates how the focus shifts from the relationship to his constant distrust in her feelings.

P6- People with low self-esteem are more likely to experience feelings of jealousy in romantic relationships.

Jealousy is one of the most powerful and dangerous feelings when dealing with conflict within romantic relationships. (Guerrero, 1998). Jealousy can cause depression, distrust, and /or anger, all of which are very harmful to relationships. When one person in a relationship has a low level of self-esteem, that person has feelings of inadequacy about him/herself in some aspect of his life. The inadequacies that the person feels causes him/her to feel like his partner can get something from someone or something else that he/she can’t give. (Guerrero, 1998). Therefore, when the partner shows interest in something else (e.g. another potential mate, a job, or a new found friend), the other half of that relationship is consumed with threatening feelings that his partner is getting something, that he/she perceives as something that he/she can’t give, from a source outside of their relationship. These feelings will cause conflict within him/her as well as within the relationship.

Because one person in the relationship has low self-esteem, he/she believes that he needs the relationship but his/her partner doesn’t necessarily need him/her. (Attridge, Berscheid, & Sprecher, 1998). This will also cause the person to feel threatened when he/she thinks that there is a potential threat to that “security blanket”. This threat will be shown in the form of jealousy.

P7- Men who are controlling to their partners are more likely to become physically abusive.

In many romantic relationships, one of the partners feels the need to be controlling. They usually do this by “restricting their partners social interactions, monitoring their activities, and reducing their decision-making power”. (Ehrensaft & Vivian, 1999, p. 251). Men, by nature, have the need to feel that they are always in control. This is especially evident in romantic relationships. Some men however take it to the extreme. They feel the need to watch and control their partners every move. Sometimes this controlling behavior can turn into violent behavior. If a man, who is controlling, feels like he is losing that control, he will many times move to more extreme measures to gain that control back. A survey done on battered women showed that most women reported their partner to be controlling and restrictive before the physical abuse began. Furthermore, most battering men reported that before they became physically abusive to their intimate partners, they made “excessive attempts to limit the independence, decision making power, and social networks of their partner, in some cases they even felt entitled to control them”. (Ehrensaft & Vivian, 1999, p. 253).

P8- Couples that express empathy in conflict are more likely to develop a stable romantic relationship.

When in conflict it is always important to express empathy in order for the conflict to be constructive. Empathy can be explained as having a basic understanding of what the other person is thinking and feeling. Empathy, in my opinion, is one of the key ingredients to having successful communication. It is seen as being so important in romantic relationships that people have developed empathy-training workshops for people involved in romantic relationships. Many scholars have reported that the two main components of empathy are listening and suspending one’s own thoughts and feelings. (Long, Angera, Carter, Nakamoto, & Kalso, 1999). Both of these components are essential to developing and maintaining a stable and healthy romantic relationship.

Listening can be explained as a conscious attempt to listen to all information that a partner is trying to communicate to their counterpart. If one partner never listens to the other, it is impossible to know and understand what the other person is thinking or feeling unless that person is a mind reader. Without that willingness to listen it is therefor impossible to be empathic.

Suspending one’s own thoughts and feelings is of equal importance. “A person cannot shown any signs of empathy if that person is overly focused upon his/her self.” (Long, Angera, Carter, Nakamoto, & Kalso, 1999, p. 236). For example if a woman is expressing her concerns to her male partner about his lack of interest in going to the ballet, it is impossible for the man to be empathic if he is only focused on how much he hates the ballet. This then leads to conflict. However, if the man understands her wants and puts his aside, it will show empathy and promote better levels of communication. This will in turn result in a more stable relationship. This can also work in the exact opposite context where the woman understands how much the man dislikes the ballet and puts her feelings aside. This to will develop better communication practice.

P9- Men are more likely to withdraw from a serious discussion in a romantic relationship than women are.

Men are always said to be the ones in the relationship who want to avoid conflict. This is why I believe that men are more likely to avoid serious discussions about the relationship with their partner. Most of the time when there is a conflict between a couple that is romantically involved with each other, it is the sign that there is a problem in some aspect of the relationship. Most men learn throughout life to be problem solvers. This comes to be a problem if the conflict or “serious discussion” involves a problem that the man is unable to solve. If this is the case, the man is more likely to withdraw from that “serious discussion” than the woman is. (Vogel, Wester, & Heesacker, 1999).

This male withdraw pattern can also be explained by the fact that women are many times seen as having less control in a relationship and are therefore looking to change it. This has to start by discussing the relationship. Males on the other hand are many times seen as having more control in the relationship and therefore less open to the idea of change. This starts by withdrawing from the discussion about the relationship. (Vogel, Wester, Heesacker, 1999).

As you can see, conflict happens in all aspects of romantic relationships. Like I stated earlier in this paper, sometimes it is helpful such as the use of empathy. It is also sometimes hurtful as in the case where a more controlling male is more likely to become physically abusive. However, whether it is good or bad, it is unavoidable. In these nine propositions I have shown a small fraction of a small percent of the different contexts that conflicts can occur in romantic relationships. Whether or not you agree with my propositions, the main goal of this was to study them. As there will always be romantic relationships in existence, there will also be conflict within those relationships. If other conflicts are studied, it is conceivable that methods can be developed to make all conflicts within romantic relationships positive that will result in positive outcomes.

Prostitution is listed among the crimes some refer to as victimless or consensual crimes, but research shows that may not be the true picture of prostitution. Before proceeding, we need to define prostitution. Despite of the fact that, prostitution being known as the oldest profession in the history of mankind. The workable definition has proven elusive. From a dictionary we learn that prostitution is the ‘act or practice of engaging in sexual intercourse for money’. But a prostitute cannot simply be a woman who sells her body, since ‘that was the norm of the society that women will get marriage in order to accomplish home and better life style. Promiscuity has been proposed as another candidate. Medieval canon lawyer Johannes Teutonicus suggested that a woman who had sex with more than 23,000 men should be classified as a prostitute, although, furthermore he says that sexual intercourse with 40 to 60 opposite gender would also be called prostitute. However, promiscuity itself does not turn a woman into a prostitute. Although a vast majority of prostitutes are promiscuous, most people would agree that sleeping around does not amount to prostitution. Hence I define prostitution as systematic sexual violence and oppression against female.

Selected national and international research projects and various programs by women have been initiated to address the health burden of violence against women. Such projects have especially focused on the health consequences to women of battering or domestic violence, rape and sexual assault, child sexual abuse and incest, and female genital mutilation (See, for example, World Bank Discussion Papers 255, Violence Against Women: the Hidden Health Burden). In depicting the health effects of such forms of violence against women, these projects attempt to make the violence, harm and human rights violation to women visible. However, a consideration of the dire health consequences of prostitution demonstrates that prostitution not only gravely impairs women’s health but it is obviously violence against women. The health consequences to women from prostitution are the same injuries and infections suffered by women who are subjected to other forms of violence. The physical health consequences include: injury (bruises, broken bones, black eyes, concussions). A 1994 study conducted with 68 women in Minneapolis/St.Paul who had been prostituted for at least six months found that 50% of those women had been physically assaulted by their purchasers, and a third of those experienced purchaser assaults at least several times a year. 23% of those assaulted were beaten severely enough to have broken bones. Furthermore, 90% of the women in this study had experienced violence in their personal relationships resulting in miscarriage, stabbing, loss of consciousness, and head injuries (Parriott, Health Experiences of Twin Cities Women Used in Prostitution).

Prostitution is physically harmful to women. STDs (including HIV/AIDS, chlamydia, gonorrhea, herpes, human papilloma virus, and syphilis) are alarmingly high among women in prostitution. Only 15 % of the women in the Minneapolis/St. Paul study had never contracted one of the STDs, not including AIDS, most injurious to health (chlamydia, syphilis, gonorrheal, herpes). General gynecological problems, but in particular chronic pelvic pain and pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), plague women in prostitution. The Minneapolis/St. Paul study reported that 31% of the women interviewed had experienced at least one episode of PID which accounts for most of the serious illness associated with STD infection. Among these women, there was also a high incidence of positive pap smears, several times greater than the Minnesota Department of Health’s cervical cancer screening program for low and middle income women. More STD episodes can increase the risk of cervical cancer. Another physical effect of prostitution is unwanted pregnancy and miscarriage. Other health effects include irritable bowel syndrome, as well as partial and permanent disability. The emotional health consequences of prostitution include severe trauma, stress, depression, anxiety, self-medication through alcohol and drug abuse; and eating disorders. Almost all the women in the Minneapolis/St. Paul study categorized themselves as chemically-addicted. Crack cocaine and alcohol were used most frequently. Ultimately, women in prostitution are also at special risk for self-mutilation, suicide and homicide. 46% of the women in the Minneapolis/St. Paul study had attempted suicide, and 19% had tried to harm themselves physically in different ways, for example, in another survey of 55 victims/survivors of prostitution who used the services of the Council for Prostitution Alternative in Portland, Oregon, 78% were victims of rape by pimps and male buyers an average of 49 times a year; 84% were the victims of aggravated assault and were thus horribly beaten, often requiring emergency room attention and hospitalization; 53% were victims of sexual abuse and torture; and 27% were mutilated (Documentation available from the Council for Prostitution Alternatives).

In developing countries, it has also been estimated that “70 percent of female infertility is caused by sexually transmitted diseases that can be traced back to their husbands or partners (Jodi L. Jacobson, The Other Epidemic, p. 10). Among women in rural Africa, female infertility is widespread from husbands or partners who migrate to urban areas, buy commercial sex, and bring home infection and sexually transmitted diseases. Women in prostitution industries have been blamed for this epidemic of STDs when in reality, studies confirm that it is men who buy sex in the process of migration who carry the disease from one prostitute woman to another and ultimately back to their wives and girlfriends. The movement of abandoned or rejected ‘barren’ women to urban prostitution has been documented in Niger, Uganda, and the Central African Republic. Numerous studies in Africa and Asia by the World Bank and a number of international research organizations have found that divorced or separated women comprise the great majority of prostitutes or ‘semi’ prostitutes’ (Jacobson, p. 13). Thus, a major health effect of the mass male consumption of commercial sex and the expansion of sex industries in developing countries is not only a rampant increase in sexually transmitted diseases but an exponential increase in infertility. The further effects of this vicious cycle insure that a whole new segment of women who are abandoned by their husbands due to infertility, are propelled into prostitution for survival. In both developing and industrialized country contexts, current campaigns to control the spread of HIV/AIDS by advocating “safe sex” for women in prostitution fail to address the blatant inequities between women who are bought for sex and the men who pay for it. Any AIDS strategy based on negotiating condom use between the purchaser of sex and the woman who must supply it assumes symmetry of power that does not even exist between women and men in many personal consensual relationships. If AIDS programs are serious about eradicating AIDS, they must challenge the sex industry.

Women in prostitution are targeted as the problem instead of making the sex industry problematic and challenging the mass male consumption of women and children in commercial sex. This is institutionalized when governments and NGOs argue for the medicalization of prostitution when they propose laws on prostitution which subject women to periodic medical check-ups. It is stated that women in the sex industry would be better protected if they submitted, or were required to submit, to health and especially STD screening. The way in which sex industries are responsible for the widespread health problems of women and children is mystified with proposals to implement health checks of women in the industry. No proposals have been forthcoming, from those who would propose both mandatory and voluntary medical surveillance for women in the sex industry, to medically monitor the men who would purchase sex. The same is true with current attempts to medicalize prostitution. No action will stabilize the sex industry more than legitimating prostitution through the health care system. If medical personnel are called upon to monitor women in prostitution, as part of occupational health safety, we will have no hope of eradicating the industry. Furthermore, from a health perspective alone, it is inconceivable that medicalization of women in the industry will reduce infection and injury without concomitant medicalization of the male buyers. Thus medicalization, which is rightly viewed as a consumer protection act for men rather than as a real protection for women, ultimately protects neither women nor men.

As with other forms of violence against women eradicating the health burden of prostitution entails addressing but going beyond its health effects. To address the health consequences of prostitution, the international human rights community must understand that prostitution harms women and that in addition to needing health services; women must be provided with the economic, social and psychological means to leave prostitution. Until prostitution is accepted as violence against women and a violation of women’s human rights, the health consequences of prostitution cannot be addressed adequately. Conversely, until the health burden of prostitution is made visible, the violence of prostitution will remain hidden. Once Victor Hugo quotes stated in is novel;

“We say that slavery has vanished from European civilization, but this is not true. Slavery still exists, but now it applies only to women and its name is prostitution.”

Domestic abuse also referred to as asspousal abuse happens where in a marriage or an intimate relationship one partner tries to take control and dominate over the other. Where physical violence is involved, such domestic abuse is called domestic violence. An abuser uses intimidation, shame, fear and guilt to wear the other down so that the abused can be kept under the thumb. Abusers may threaten, hurt you and even those around you. There is no discrimination in domestic violence and thus it may happen among same-sex partners and heterosexual couples. Moreover, domestic violence may happen irrespective of our ethnic backgrounds, age and economic backgrounds. Women appear to be the common victims but in modern day society, men are also falling victims especially emotionally and verbally.

Different approaches have been used by theorists to show that there are specific characteristics associated with individuals who abuse their partners. These approaches have shown that such abusive characters have inability to cope with stress, possess low self-esteem, they have desire to have control and power over others, once had social support isolation, are dependent on their victims, feelings of jealousy and they may also have some psychological and mental disorders. This indicates that there are different risk factors of domestic violence from economic to biological ones.

Thesis: irrespective of what causes a particular domestic violence incident be it economical or biological, domestic violence is a social problem that affects our quality of life. This is an abusive behavior which is never acceptable and it doesn’t matter whether it comes from a woman or a man, an adult or a teenager. Every one of us deserves to be safe, respected and above all valued.

Ideas (risk factors)

Idea #1:

There appears to be a statistical correlation between domestic violence and substance abuse. Several studies on domestic violence indicate that there are high rates of substance abuse by perpetrators. Regular use of alcohol is documented as one of the leading risk factors in intimate partner abuse. There is evidence that drug and alcohol addiction and domestic violence are things that usually occur together. This indicates that most families where there is a parent who abuses alcohol or any other drugs have high rates of domestic violence.

There are several statistical evidences that show substance abuse increases the risk of domestic violence in homes. For example, around 87% of program directors in the field of domestic violence assert that intimate partner violence increases in a family where both partners are drugs or alcohol addicts. The U.S. Departments of Justice in its records show that around 61% of domestic violence offenders are addicts of alcohol or any other types of drugs. Moreover, a study conducted by the same Department in 2002 on murders in U.S. families indicated that more than half of those accused of murder of their intimate partners had abused alcohol and other drugs at the time of the murder. This is enough statistical evidence linking alcohol abuse and other drugs to domestic violence (Schechter, 2000).

People who abuse alcohol and especially men argue that they normally engage in domestic violence because at that time they were under the influence of alcohol. In some other instances, those batterers living with women who abuse alcohol or drugs justify their domestic violence as one of the best ways in which they can control their spouses the moment they come home drunk. In such instances, risks associated are high because the woman who is being battered may not have control to seek help since she is not sober. Studies on domestic violence in U.S. population shows that in cases where the man is the batterer and frequently abuses drugs and alcohol, such men have the tendency to rid themselves of the violence responsibility by stating that they did so since they were under the influence of alcohol (Kenneth and Elizabeth, 2000).

Substance abuse not only affects the intimate partner in the household but also the children. Children brought up in such a family experience more sexual, emotional and physical abuse than those in non-substance abusing families. Surveys conducted by National Committee to Prevent Child Abuse shows that around 80% of cases of child abuse are associated with parents who abuse drugs and alcohol. This problem may be translated into the later life stages of such children and thus reports indicate that there is high probability that they also abuse alcohol and other drugs and also result in the same domestic violence (Jeffrey and Abigail, 2007).

Idea #2: a major piece to battering of wives is rooted in most cultures especially in the African traditional society. Most men who batter their wives have rigid rules and views on their gender roles. Most batterers have sexist attitudes towards their intimate partners and this has been a consistent cultural issue causing domestic violence. Majority of our societies have trained men in a way that they see women in objectified and disrespectful ways. This makes most men to see their intimate partners as their possession. It was not long ago when in most cultures, women were always considered as properties of men. This is an attitude that actually still lives in the culture of United States. Today, only several years have passed since most states in the U.S. changed their laws regarding rape that occurs among married couples. There before, the laws in most states stated that a man could not be convicted in jail because of raping his wife. This is an implication that this woman was the property of her husband. Thus men in such cultures could do anything with the wife and the only thing that was required of her was just to cooperate. Even if such laws have been changed today, there are still churches where ceremonies are performed for the wife to rake oath that she is going to honor, love and obey her husband.

In most cultures, when a woman gets married, she has to take the name of her husband. The main idea here is that it becomes simpler than to add middle names or even to hyphenate names. This follows from the fact that in marriage and in all societies, a woman has to leave her father’s house and join the husband in his house. There is no time women belonged to themselves but they only belonged to their husband or father. This is what represented the woman’s last name. We can liken this to African slaves who would always take the name of their master or the slave holder. Even in matters of political choices, women started voting the other day and they were taken as individuals who could not take any stand on political matters. The underlying theme is that the general attitudes men have towards women affect people’s willingness to hurt them physically.

Emerging African literature on different causal theories shows there is power of norms and tradition in African cultures that explain the widespread domestic violence incidence. There are so many African societies which see that as a direct connection and as a result they argue that wife battering is normal in African traditions. According to Randall (2003), this is a proposition that is supported by several authors who have conducted several interviews. One such good example is the interview from the Social Welfare Office of Ibadan, Nigeria. This is a region where even police officers remind women who come to report that they have been battered by their husband that Yoruba culture allows its men to beat their women. There are however other indirect cultural explanations of some concepts such as polygamy impact, male promiscuity acceptance, uneven power distribution in traditional African marriages, power of extended families on a married couple and the bride price institution as underlying causes for wives abuse. Payment of bride price to the wife’s parents after marriage makes it even more difficult to leave their battering husbands unless the amount paid is willingly returned by the families of origin.

According to Randall (2003), domestic violence studies conducted in Zimbabwe involving interviews on twenty-five male abusers and seventy-five female victims of domestic violence in Shona-speaking community showed that cultural factors are a major cause for domestic violence. In this study, it was reported that most domestic quarrels emerged out of jealousy and money. A good example is in the Shona community where quarrels between a husband and his wife emerge because the wife has asked for money. This is taken as a challenge on the traditional absolute male control of the household on family finances. There is also a similar dynamic in domestic violence which is initiated by jealousy. Even if male promiscuity in Africa is traditionally accepted, the sexuality of the females is zealously controlled by the family or the husband. Not only in African traditional societies but also in other earlier civilized ones in Americas, Asia and Europe where a wife may be seen as challenging the husband’s prerogatives and authority the moment she demands explanations on his extramarital involvements. In most cases violence erupts if the wife asks her husband where he has been and with whom or in other cases showing threat for addition of other wives. Addition of multiple wives is today seen as a big threat to economic survival for the first wife, the children and a source for HIV/AIDs scourge and thus wives may be tempted to question their husbands. But this questioning is seen as a challenge to the traditional man’s rights and a threat to the culturally prescribed position and this automatically provokes violence.

Idea #3: absolute poverty is considered one of the fundamental basis of domestic violence against women in most households (Inter-American Development Bank, Biehl and Morrison, 1999). Relative violence may also play a role though complementary in generating domestic violence since such families have difficulties in attaining “standards of consumption” apart from food and this may be a potential source of violence.

Studies have shown that there is a positive correlation between domestic violence and poverty. One of the common opinions is based on the fact that poverty comes with frustrations which normally may tend to unleash violent behavior. There are numerous aggravating problems for this and they include high consumption of alcohol, low schooling levels, poor living conditions, few entertainment opportunities, poor jobs and failure to improve conditions of living, large family burden and lack of adequate basic services in life (Rachel, 2000). These are potential circumstances that might predispose marginalized and poor family members to result to domestic violence. The major domestic violence in such cases occurs between the husband (provider) and his wife who takes over the management of the household. On the man’s side, source of conflict is the deficit to materially provide for the household while on the side of the woman; the source may be her inability to manage the little they have which is always “never enough.” In such a standpoint, domestic violence has come as a result of poverty in the household.

According to Schechter (2000), there were so many studies on domestic violence among low-income that were conducted in the 1990s when most families lost guarantee on income supports. The results were pervasive. After low-income people in Chicago were examined, the studies found that 25% of low-income non-recipients and 33% of welfare recipients experienced “severe aggression” in their adulthood via their partners. There were also results that 8% of non-recipients and 19% of recipients experienced serious aggression within the previous twelve months. The same studies found that in Worcester, Massachusetts low-income and homeless mothers reported 32% positive cases of physical violence within the previous two years. Moreover, a study by the National Family Violence Survey showed that domestic violence on women who have annual income less than $10,000 were 3.5 times likely if compared to those who had more than $40,000 annual salary.

Counterargument

There must be a misconception that domestic violence is caused by substance abuse, cultural factors or even poverty. The fact is that equal numbers of drunken and sober men are equally violent. Where studies have been conducted on this they have not been able to explain in detail why almost 80% of heavy and binge drinkers never abuse their partners be it the wife or the husband. Alcohol or any other stimulant substances are used by men so that they can use them as the excuses or the permissions for them to act violently. Many stop taking alcohol and they still continue being violent. Also not every child who grows up in a violent home will grow up to become a violent adult in his/her home. Domestic violence is a choice. Sometimes people react violently because they have been provoked by others and this may act just as the normal self-defense.

Refutation

By the time one gets provoked, its because he/she has in one way or the other tried to exert control over his/her partner. It is a fact that irrespective of whether the domestic violence resulted after one was provoked either due to poverty frustrations and pressures, cultural beliefs or substance abuse it has adverse effects on our victims. Children brought up in such backgrounds may develop low self-esteem and long term effects that may haunt them later in their lives. It is possible to find such children having dismal academic performances. Others have been sexually, emotionally and physically assaulted and all of us need respect, love and to be valued.

Conclusion

Domestic violence is live in our modern society. Women appear to be the most affected since gender inequality ahs always been there. Until the 70s women who were battered had no places to report or to seek support ands especially those who were sexually assaulted. There were few shelters for victims of domestic violence like hospitals, civil and criminal courts, law enforcement and other social service agencies. But today, there seems to be numerous community-based violence programs that provide array of quality services. These include safety planning, transportation, crisis counseling and intervention, legal advocacy, children’s services and housing and relocation services among others. In order to minimize domestic violence cases there are many programs engaging in continuous advocacy efforts and this may include collaboration with community service workers, development of public awareness campaigns and being active for political lobbying efforts that improve safety for children and victims. With such efforts, we may help to minimize adverse effects on victims.

This study will examine the causes, incidence, and solutions involved in preventing and analyzing domestic violence. By observing data from across America, one can realize the growing problem of domestic violence, which has involves great majority of males victimizing women. By realizing the causes of poverty and a lack of education, the issue of domestic violence can be dissected in this sociological phenomenon. By observing a great reliance on educating men and women in psychological and therapeutic strategies, as well as learning how to eradicate poverty, domestic violence can be diminished within the United States.

The problem of domestic violence is a serious issue within American society, which has staggering affects on the economy and the well being of spousal relationships. In this regard, many studies have been done to discover the reality of domestic violence, such as the one’s committed between a man and a woman. The American Institute of Domestic Violence states these facts in a study done in 2004:

1.85-95% of all domestic violence victims are female.

2.Over 500,00 women are stalked by an intimate partner each year.

3.5.3 million women are abused each year.

4.1,232 women are killed each year by an intimate partner.

5. Domestic violence is the leading cause of injury to women.

6.Women are more likely to be attacked by someone they know rather than by a stranger

(The Human Factor, 2005, para.3).

The fact that nearly 90% of women are the victims of domestic violence tells us a great deal about the role of male aggression in these violent acts. The problem of female victimization is extensive through the statistics, as 5 million women suffer from male violence, and are targeted by a male that has been romantically involved with them. These incidental numbers rand percentages reveal a staggering population of women that are being attacked and sometimes killed by men. In this manner, one can realize the numbers and the problematic role of patriarchal aggression within American society in domestic violence.

The causal psychology of domestic violence between men and women involved in marital or non-marital relationships relies on the victim’s ignorance. As the aggressive male tends to feel that he has the right to abuse the woman, so does the women feel that she does not deserve any better treatment from her abuser. This form of pathology involves a conditioning element, which psychologists explain as possible causes for this form of domestic abuse. The most abundant issues involving this form of abusive relationship is explained through economics and education levels:

1.Both males and females with disabilities are at increased risk of abuse due to reliance on their caregiver.

2.Many victims are pregnant.

3.Women from families with annual incomes below $10,000 are at increased risk for intimate violence.

4.Conversely, wives whose educational or occupational level is high relative to their husbands are at greater risk for abuse than those in marriages without such differences.

5.The abuser is typically an underachiever who has obtained lower occupational status than expected given the abuser’s education

(Burnett, 2006, para.45).

In this regard, the causal factors indicate that the psychological pathology of domestic abuse relies on the income level and educational capacity of the abuser and the victim. This tells some of the facts that relate to many of the couples involved in these relationships, and why depression from poverty and the inability to get a decent education helps add to stress levels. Furthermore, the pressure of being pregnant and the difficulties of having low incomes may also be a factor in why these types of women are targeted. Also, the theory of adult attachment may be a viable explanation to help describes the causes that economic and psychological stress place on the abuser and victim:

Adult attachment theory describes the ways romantic partners respond during times of distress, separation, or interpersonal conflict (see Pietromonaco & Barrett, 2000). Attachment-related cognitive schema provide default reactions to difficult situations (Bowlby, 1982) and predict whether adults prefer to cope independently, seek support from romantic partners, or combine these approaches. In unhealthy attachment styles, coping responses may include misperceptions of relational cues and difficulties regulating affect (Gormley, 2005, para.6).

This provides some of the psychological factors that poverty and stress have within the background of the domestic abuse that may be occurring within male/female relationships. The result of the habitual tolerance and the ignorance that is partaken by both men and women should be understood within this format. A lack of education in relationships and the tendency of both parties in the relationship rely on dysfunctional approaches to stress and communication, resulting in the violence that relies on the aggression of the male.

Solutions to this problem would clearly indicate that education and poverty are serious factors in regards to how people handle stress. In many ways, it is the psychological education of both men and women that must be addressed when dealing with social issues of this gravity. The use of therapy for abused women has become a priority for many state and private counselors that have used the law and psychological training to help women defend against abuse:

Advocates that empower and assist victims to well-being are concerned above all for the safety of the victim and her children. Safety is a basic human need, and a fundamental right in any human relationship. Domestic and sexual violence are violations of that primary need for safety and security. Because a victim’s greatest risk for harm occurs at the point in which she takes steps to end the abuse, every interaction and intervention must consider her safety and her assessment of the situation (Koch, 2001, p.102).

This solution helps to promote the education needed by the victim, since she is most likely to the be the brunt of the violence. By taking an approach to the female component of the abuse, the woman can learn to see the signs of abuse and learn to empower herself through education. With psychological tools given by an occupational therapist, one can realize how prevention can help the woman the erroneous judgments that she may have been taught by her own parents or past abusive spouse. This can help the woman to make the right choice with an informed opinion as to how she may want to proceed with the relationship. In some cases, resolutions can be found by learning to educate both the abusive male and the woman in educating themselves in coping skills in their relationship. However, it is the woman that gets precedence under law in regards to the abuse, since she is usually the physically or mentality abused person in the conflict.

One solution for men may be the same education afforded to women. In the case of understanding familial backgrounds and behavioral patterns in psychology, the research indicates that abuse is taught though generational standards of aggression and even alcoholism that underlie many of the domestic violence issues in today’s society:

These findings provide new information regarding the relative impact and interrelationship between previously separately identified risk factors for the development of problems with alcohol and aggression. Moreover, the multigenerational span of time encompassed by this only partially retrospective study offers a life course perspective on the transmission of risk that has been only segmentally examined in prior work. The model indicates how early childhood experiences of the parents, involving grandparental aggression against the parents as children, as well as the grandparents’ own alcoholism and marital aggression, affected the development of the parents’ antisocial behavior, which in turn was linked to their adulthood outcomes of alcoholism and marital aggression, as well as their aggression toward their own offspring (Fuller, 2003, para.27).

These important factors in research make it extremely liable that men may also use psychology to help better educate (through coping skills) in breaking patterns of aggression. The instances of being taught violence toward women is a familial and generational problem that is instilled within boys at a young age. The use of a therapist can help to alleviate some of the issues of coping with anger and rage, which they have also been made a victim of in their understanding of spousal relationships. These psychological factors, in collusion with discovering effective modes of gaining employment, can help the abusive male recover and learn to change old habits that were vented upon the victimized partner in the relationship.

In conclusion, the incidental statistics, causal, and solution based research on domestic violence has been evaluated in this study. The increasing number of women being killed and victimized by men must be taken seriously in an effort to dissolve rising rates of abuse. By realizing the damaging cycles of multi-generational violence that occurs in both the female victim and the male abuser, the premise of psychology can help to bring about greater educational modes of healing in preventing future abuse. In this manner both men and women can learn to use newer and healthier coping skills that affect them due to economic disparity or a lack of education. In this manner, domestic violence is a problematic issue in American society, and it must be understood and researched to help prevent further abuse.