Category: Free Essays

Karl Marx was born in the early 19th century in Germany, where he received his degree in law and philosophy. Shortly after completing university, with his ever growing ‘anti-bourgeois sentiment’ (Zott, 2006) he found he could no longer believe in the German education system. He turned to journalism where he developed his radical ideas, ultimately he was forced out of Germany, and he soon enthused onto further developing his studies. Marx met his long life friend Fredrick Engels who both had published significant work that questioned the existing European socio-economic system. Fredrick himself observed firsthand the exploitation of blue collar workers under the ruling class in factories, as his father sent him to represent their family in its textile business. Upon meeting in 1844 both found common ground in one and others studies, they began to develop their intellectual partnership, and they came about writing ‘The Communist Manifesto’ in 1848. Karl Marx is generally considered the prime writer, though some would say it is difficult to underpin where Marx work begins and where Engels work ends.

The political manuscript was written at a time of political upheaval, where they witnessed revolutions, coups and rebellions. Marx was present during the European revolutions of 1848 which started in France. Its 160th anniversary ‘The Communist Manifesto’ is still relevant till this day, Marx and Engels principles and their ideas of capitalism ‘resemble the restless, anxious and competitive world of 20th century global economy’ (Cohan, 2000). Economists and political scientists note how the manifesto ‘recognized the unstoppable wealth-creating power of capitalism, and predicted it would conquer the world, and warned that this inevitable globalization of national economies and cultures would have divisive and painful consequences’ (Zott, 2006) which is indicative of the text’s relevance.

Summary of main ideas

The central premise of ‘The Communist Manifesto’ can be deduced from Marx’s famous generalization ‘The history of all hitherto existing societies is the history of class struggle’ (Marx and Engels,1848) in which essentially Marx is stating that class is the defining feature of the modern industrial society. While the modern society has ‘sprouted from the ruins of feudal society this has not done away with the clash antagonisms.'(Marx and Engels, 1848) Marx is arguing that in the earlier periods society was arranged into complicated class structures such as in medieval times there were ‘feudal lords, vassals, guild-masters, journeymen, apprentices and serfs.’ For Marx, he believed class struggle still exists but in this epoch modern class antagonism has become simplified into two classes, the bourgeoisie as the oppressor and proletariat as the oppressed who are in constant opposition to each other.

The manifesto then goes on to state the characteristics of both classes, which is marked by an exploitative relationship between the bourgeoisie and the proletarians. The bourgeoisie are the product of several revolutions, the owners of the means of production who have gained momentum with the age of exploration. Marx describes the proletarians as ‘a class of labourers, who live only so long as they find work, and who find work only so long as their labour increases capital’ (Marx and Engels,1848) proletarians are essentially reduced to becoming a ‘commodity’. Marx then proceeds to argue that the division of labour has exploited proletarians where they have been stripped of their identity due to the advent of ‘extensive machinery’ and so man ‘becomes an appendage of the machine.’ The workers are powerless to change their circumstance and as the ‘repulsiveness of the work increases, the wage decreases.’ This system of oppression is sustained by institutions such as the education system (which is part of the superstructure) which reinforces ruling class values. For example,

the concept of a hidden curriculum (Black’s Academy, 2010) in educational establishments, whereby everything is designed to prepare students for the future status as a powerless worker. The education institution is designed to benefit the bourgeoisie and uphold the capitalist system, i.e. the hidden curriculum.

Marx then discusses how the development of the industry has increased the proletarians strength, ‘the growing competition among the bourgeois, and the resulting commercial crises, make the wages of the workers ever more fluctuating’ (Marx and Engels 1848). As there’s more of them they are strong enough to unite and voice their struggles over reduced wages. By forming trade unions they stick together to demand to keep up the rate of wages. Marx further argues the larger the union the bigger chance of them changing the system ‘workers are victorious’. Although their struggle for equality doesn’t lie in the short term effect; it lies in the ‘ever-expanding union of the workers.’ However, the bourgeoisie try to split the proletarians so they are not united and cannot revolt, as a revolution is the only way in which their circumstances can be changed. This can be substantiated by the fact that Marx says ‘continually being upset by competition between the workers.’ Marx also describes the process of domination, in that to oppress a class, certain conditions of its ‘slavish’ existence need to exist, and the ‘essential condition for the existence, and for the sway of the bourgeois class, is the formation and augmentation of capital.’ (Marx and Engels, 1848)

Criticisms

The fall of the bourgeoisie ‘and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable’ (Marx and Engels, 1848). Despite Marx and Engels principles and ideas that the proletarians will overthrow the bourgeoisie, a century on and yet workers in the UK and other industrial societies have not eradicate and revolted against capitalism. Ralf Dahrendorf’s studies point out why the Marxist revolution hasn’t come about over the 20th century. In 1959 Dahrendorf pointed out four reasons why.

The first one was ‘The fragmentation of the capitalist class’ (Dahrendorf: 2005) he suggested that previously the means of productions would typically be owned privately by families, now in the 20th century companies and property are greatly owned by stockholders. Secondly, ‘white collar work and a rising standard of living’ (Dahrendorf, 2005) has transformed Marx’s industrial proletariat. ‘Workers in Marx’s time laboured either on farms or in factories’. They had blue collar or manual occupations; lower standing jobs involving mostly physical labour. Today they hold white collar occupation, higher-prestige work involving mostly mental activity for instance job roles of such; sales, management, and bureaucratic organisations. However, they still perform monotonous tasks like the industrial workers in Marx time, but evidence indicates that these workers see their positions higher than those of their grandparents who led blue collars lifestyles. Thirdly, a ‘more extensive worker organisation’ exists in which workers have organisational strengths, which they were deficient in a century ago. They have ‘Trade unions’ where they come together and make demands backed with intimidation of ‘working to rule’ and the relationship between labour and management are usually institutionalised and peaceful. Finally, ‘more extensive legal protections’ have been more supportive to protect workers’ rights and has given workers better access to the courts.

Dahrendorf also states that regardless of ‘persistent stratification, many societies have smoothed out some of capitalisms rough edges-and social conflict today maybe less intense than it was a century ago’. (Dahrendorf, 2005) What’s more, he argues that despite Marx having witnessed the augmentation of the mass press in his time, however he could hardly have predicted what a major impact media forms would have on us. ‘The Growth of music, mass film, and mediated society has allowed us to amuse ourselves to death’ and become media-saturated with entertainment which has led people to lose their critical edge for thinking about the nature of their class positions.’ (Postman, 1986)

Max Weber also criticised some of Marx’s ideas. In particular, he considered Marx’s model of two social classes as too simple. Weber viewed social stratification ‘as a more complex interplay of three district dimensions’ (Weber, 2005) the dimensions being; class, status and power. Marx believed that social status and power derived from economic position therefore he didn’t find any reason to see it as district dimensions of social inequality. Weber opposed, as he recognised that stratification in industrial societies does have characteristically low status uniformity, individuals may have high rank on one dimension of society but a lesser position to another, for example, an bureaucratic official, may have power but in another dimension in society have little wealth.

Analysis

In spite of all the criticisms aimed at Marx and his work, the communist manifesto remains an extremely influential piece of literature and as a foundation for society. His ideas have lent inspiration to revolutions, coups and political systems, but sadly they have not been sustained, for example the collapse of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The USSR was based on a communist system, yet it failed and capitalism moved into the vacuum. (BBC News, 2010)

This then leads me to the Social Identity Theory. Developed in 1979 by Tajfel and Turner, the theory was originally developed in order to understand the psychological analysis of intergroup conflict and discrimination.

In the Social Identity Theory, the self is reflexive in that it can take itself on as an object and can categorize, classify, or name itself in particular ways in relation to other social categories or classifications. This process is called self-categorisation in social identity theory. Through the process of self-categorisation, an identity is formed (Bauman, 2004).

The theory suggests that social categorisations are perceived as fixed tools that sector, organize, and direct the social environment, and as a result many forms of social action can be taken on by the individual. But they do not simply systematise the social world; they also offer a system of direction for self-reference: they generate and label the individual’s place in society. As a result social groups allow their members to withhold an identification of themselves in social terms. These identifications are to very large extent relational and comparative, they define the individual as similar to or different from, as well as, as better or worse than, members of other groups. It is from these definitions that we use the term social identity. With this limited concept of social identity in mind, Tajfel and Turner continue to say our argument is based on the following assumptions; ‘firstly, individuals strive to maintain or enhance their self-esteem: they strive for a positive self concept. Secondly, social groups or categories and membership of them are associated with positive and negative value connotations.’ Hence, social identity may be positive or negative according to the evaluations (which tend to be socially consensual, either within or across groups) of those groups that contribute to an individual’s social identity.

Lastly, the evaluation of one’s own group is determined with reference to specific other groups through social comparisons in terms of value-laden attributes and characteristics. Positively discrepant comparisons between in-group and out-group produce high prestige; negatively discrepant comparisons between in-group and out-group result in low prestige (Tajfel & Turner, 1979).

According to Bauman (2004), ‘A social group is a set of individuals who hold a common social identification or view themselves as members of the same social category.’ Through a social comparison process, persons who are similar to the self are categorized with the self and are labelled the in-group; persons who differ from the self are categorized as out-groups.

The social categories in which individuals place themselves are parts of a structured society and exist only in relation to other contrasting categories (for example, black vs. white); each has more or less power, prestige, status, and so on (Hogg & Abrams, 2008). Further, these authors point out that the social categories precede individuals; Individuals are born into an already structured society. Once in society, people derive their identity or sense of self largely from the social categories to which they belong. Each person, however, over the course of his or her personal history, is a member of a unique combination of social categories; therefore the set of social identities making up that persons self concept is unique.

Human interaction ranges on a spectrum from being purely interpersonal on the one hand to purely intergroup on the other (Hornsey, 2008). A purely interpersonal interaction comprises of the public being totally individual with no consciousness of social categories. A purely intergroup interaction is one in which the public act as representatives of their groups, also when an individual’s characteristics and qualities are besieged by the salience of their group membership. It has been argued that sliding from the interpersonal to the intergroup end of the spectrum results in shifts in how people see themselves and each other. (Hornsey, 2008)

From Tajfel and Turners earlier assumptions, some related theoretical principles can be derived. First and foremost, it is clear that individuals attempt to accomplish or to uphold positive social identity. Secondly, positive social identity is based to a large extent on favourable comparisons that can be made between the in-group and some relevant out-groups. Lastly, when social identity is unsatisfactory, individuals will attempt either to leave their existing group and join a more positive group or make their existing group more positively. The basic assumption, then, is that pressures to evaluate one’s group positively through in-group/out-group comparisons lead social groups to clearly set themselves apart from each other (Tajfel & Turner, 1979)

According to Tajfel and Turner (1979), there are atleast three factors that ought to influence intergroup differences in tangible social situations. They say that first and foremost ‘individuals must have internalised their group membership as an aspect of their self-concept: they must be subjectively identified with the relevant in-group.’

It is not sufficient that others identify themselves as a group, though joint definitions by others can become, in the long run, one of the influential casual factors for a group’s self-definition. They carry on to say that secondly, ‘the social situation must be such as to allow for intergroup comparisons that enable the selection and evaluation of the relevant relational attributes.’ However Tajfel (1959) does state that ‘not all between-group differences have evaluative significance, and those that do vary from group to group.’ For instance, Skin colour is apparently a more salient attribute in the United States than in Hong Kong (Moorland 1969). Lastly, ‘in-groups do not compare themselves with every cognitively available out-group: the out-group must be perceived as a relevant comparison group. Similarity, proximity, and situational salience are among the variables that determine out-group comparability, and pressures toward in-group distinctiveness should increase as a function of this comparability.’ (Tajfel & Turner, 1979) Therefore, a group will only be compared to another group depending on their status within their society and whether or not they are worth any comparison.

One of the responses of the theory was the idea that people have a need for positive social identity which requires them to establish a positively valued distinctiveness for their own group compared to other groups (Turner & Reynolds 2004). This aim for differentiation is to maintain or achieve dominance over an out-group to some extent.

The Social Categorisation theory developed by Turner and colleagues after Tajfel’s death in 1982, the theory grew from early social identity work, returning to the categorisation process that was considered fundamental to the Social Identity Theory. But rather than seeing interpersonal and intergroup activity as opposites, the advocates of the Social Categorisation Theory characterised identity as functioning on different levels of breadth. The critical contribution of self categorisation theory is that it links social categorisation to self conception. ‘The core idea is that we categorise ourselves just as we categorise others, and thus we depersonalise ourselves.’ (Hogg, 2004)

The self categorization began with the insight that Tajfel’s opinion of difference between interpersonal and intergroup performance could be described by a parallel and under-lying distinction between personal and social identity (Turner, 1982). The basic idea was that self perception or self conception varies between personal and social identity and that as one moves from defining self as an individual person to defining self in terms of social identity, group behaviour becomes possible and emerges (Turner & Reynolds, 2004). Therefore, when a shared social identity is psychologically active or significant there is a depersonalisation of self perception such that people’s views of their joint and common similarities are enhanced. Furthermore, a fundamental point of Self-categorization theory which has been central to the analysis of stereotyping and other group phenomena is that when we see ourselves as “we” and “us” in contrast to “I” and “me”, this is common and ordinary self experience in which individuals describe themselves in terms of others who exist outside of the self and is therefore not purely personal Social identity is a combined self, not a “looking-glass” self – it is not an “I” as perceived by the group, but a “we” who are the group and who define ourselves for ourselves.(Turner & Onorato, 1999)

Turner and colleagues (DATE) nominate three different levels of self-categorisation that are important to the self-concept: ‘the subordinate category of the self as human being (or human identity), the intermediate level of the self as a member of a social in-group as defined against other groups of humans (social identity), and the subordinate level of personal self-categorisation based on interpersonal comparisons (personal identity).’ (Turner, 1999)

Hornsey (2008) carries on saying, ‘one of the cornerstones of the Social Categorisation Theory is the notion of depersonalisation. Proponents of the Social Categorisation theory argue that people cognitively represent their social groups in terms of prototypes. When a category becomes salient, people come to see themselves and other category members less as individuals and more as interchangeable exemplars of the group prototype’ (208 book)

The group identity not only describes what it is to be a group member, but also prescribes what kinds of attitudes, emotions and behaviours are appropriate in a given context. The notion of depersonalisation was assumed to underpin a range of group processes such as cohesion, influence, conformity and leadership.

Turner (2005) see’s the categorisation process as the casual driver of power and influence. From this perspective he carries on to say, ’embodying the prototype of the in-group is what maximises influence, influence is the basis of power, and power leads to control over resources.’ This is a reversal of the traditional approach to power, which suggests that control over valuable resources is what defines power, power allows for influence, and mutual influence leads to the formation of psychological groups. (211 book)

Hogg (2000) has elaborated on the role of group distinctiveness in providing social meaning, arguing that, ‘many group processes – including identification, assimilation to norms, and intergroup bias – are partially underpinned by a need to reduce one’s subjective uncertainty about what to say, do, think, and feel.’ (215 book)

Social identity can be a very important aspect of our self-concept. For example, Citrin, Wong and Duff (2001) report a study found that 46 per cent of Americans felt being an American, a social identity, was the most important thing in their life.

People often use limited perceptual cues to categorise other people. I.e. what someone looks like, how they speak, what attitudes they express, and how they behave. Generally we first try out categories that are readily accessible to us because we so often use them. According to Hogg and Vaughan (2008), ‘when a categorisation becomes psychologically salient, people’s perception of themselves and others become depersonalised.’ What this means is that people no longer consider themselves or others as unique multidimensional persons but as simple embodiments of the category prototype.

The social identity approach, now one of the most significant theories of group developments and intergroup relations globally, has redefined how we think about group mediated occurrences and has extended its reach well outside the limitations of social psychology. (Hornsey-205)

Social constructionism is a general term sometimes applied to theories that emphasize the socially created nature of social life. Social Constructionism is something that a group in society has constructed, for example brotherhood is a social constructionism. It is something that is created socially but happens because society supports it and encourages it to occur. It is something that has been created at some point, but may be considered a social norm now. It has a label and continues if people continue to talk about and put time into it.

Social constructionism is regularly traced back to the works William Isaac Thomas and the other Chicago sociologists, as well as the phenomenological sociologists and philosophers such as Alfred Schutz. Such approaches emphasize the notion that society is actively and imaginatively produced by human beings. They describe the world as made or invented rather than simply given or taken for granted.

In social theory, constructivists stress the social construction of reality.

This is the philosophically idealist component of constructivism which contrasts with the materialist philosophy of much social science positivism. According to constructivist philosophy, the social world is not a given: it is not something ‘out there’ that exists independent of the thoughts and ideas of the people involved in it. It is not an external reality whose laws can be exposed by scientific research and explained by scientific theory.

(Marshall, 1998)

The political and social world is not part of nature. There are no natural laws of society or economics or politics. History is not a developing external progression that is autonomous of human thought. (Hacking, 1999)

One of these socially accepted norm is racism , although much of society believes that racism does not exist in a modern society whoever there is many circumstances that differ from this and prove that in today’s society there is still many forms of racism and it has become one of these social norms .

Racism is the term used to explain the hostile or negative feelings of one ethnic group towards another and the consequential actions from such attitudes, but sometimes the hostility of one group toward another is expressed and acted upon with a single-mindedness and cruelty that goes far beyond the group centred prejudice that seem to constitute an almost universal human failing. Racism is not just xenophobia, a phrase invented by the ancient Greeks to describe impulsive feelings of hostility to another, xenophobia may be the preliminary point upon which racism can be constructed but it is not the actual thing itself.

Racism has two components power and difference; it originates from a state of mind that regards them as dissimilar from us in ways that are stable and unbridgeable. (Fredrickson, 2002)

In Australia racism is still evident although much of society believes that racism does not exist in a modern society however there is many circumstances that differ from this and prove that in today’s society there is still many forms of racism and it has become one of these social norms. The nature and frequency of Australian racism varies over time and across space: it is not a static phenomenon (Vasta and Castles, 1996)pp. 5, 20

There are many different terms that are currently used to describe racism which include intolerance, ethnocentrism, prejudice, racialism, bigotry and discrimination all to describe racism. (Vasta and Castles, 1996)

The increased exposure of individuals to cultural variation gradually improves individual’s tolerance of a cultural dissimilar to their own. Therefore, the residents of areas that have a strong established cultural diversity may be expected to develop greater admiration of cultural difference, and have a lesser dependence upon cultural similarity if they are exposed to other cultures, the preliminary stages of contact between different cultural groups are likely to involve racisms.

There are a variety of theories that attempt to explain the geographical discrepancy of racisms. These range from the traditional urbanists through neo-Marxist explanations, Social Construction approaches. Social constructionism about race more politically correct than essentialism.

“Existentialism, can form a picture of a self with absolutely no centre, a self that constructs itself by free acts of will. The constructed self must, however accept agonizing responsibility of what which it has constructed, later thought of the self as being constructed in a social matrix .this suggest a genuine distinction in which some constructions of the self are social ,and some are not ,This is called “Social existentialism” and is “worth reviving. One ‘ which sees the self as a social of people , an attitude which is strongly reinforced by cultural background ,This “psychological essentialism ” is proposed , in part ,to explain the prevalence of concepts of race and the ease with which they can be conscripted for racism” (Hacking, 1999)

“Social constructionism is often contrasted with essentialism because it moves away from the ideas of the naturally given or taken for granted and questions the social and historical roots of phenomena Most anti racialist writing denounces essentialist attitudes to race. They may not use the label social construction, much but they are regularly grouped among social constructionist about race.” (Hacking, 1999)

This theory suggests that race is a socially constructed category rather than a natural order. (Jackson and Penrose , 1993) (Vasta and Castles, 1996). These races are constructed in different ways, these way are reliant upon the specific location and the identity of the specific place. Jackson and Penrose stated that ‘place contextualises the construction of race, generating geographically specific ideologies of racism. (Jackson and Penrose , 1993) Place is significant in the construction of ‘race’ and therefore it is imperative in the construction of racism. The precise forces that determine ‘race’ in any location will also strengthen racism. Constructivism has become the dominant approach for geographical study of racisms. (Bonnett, 1996)

A social construction approach should be predominantly positive for unscrambling the geographies of racism. It would definitely be crucial for formulating place-sensitive anti-racism interventions. A constructivist theory of the geographies of racism has both explanatory and policy contributions. Constructivism clearly allows for a more spatially sensitive understanding of the construction of ‘race’ and the development of racisms.

Theorising the causes of spatial variations in racism is not straightforward. Nevertheless,

some of the established theories of racism can be of assistance in understanding the

geographies of racism. There is some evidence of a rural and urban variation in

ethnocentrism. The uneven tolerance of cultural diversity could be explained in part by

the differing experiences and expectations that arise from an urban way of life. As in

Chicago School thinking, the assumption is that the long-term exposure to ‘otherness’

or difference eventually spawns an accommodation, or tolerance, of at least the cultures

that are encountered. This model is confounded, however, by the persistence of racism

against some minority groups. The most remarkable such persistence in the Australian

case is the racism long endured by Indigenous peoples. (Dunn and McDonald, 2001)

Australia is known as a multicultural country with many foreign individuals making Australia their permanent residence. As Australia is a multicultural society the idea of racism is minimal, however this is not the case. The highest form of racism in Australia is that of the indigenous people not only the majority of white society also by the government policies that the leaders that approve these policies.

Since the colonization of Australia the Indigenous population have been disadvantage in all aspects of life. This can be due to many different forms of racism from the white population and the Australian Government that have left Aboriginal people in this disadvantaged state.

Aboriginal people up to the twentieth century were not constitutes as Australian citizens .They had no rights compared the white population ,they were not allowed to owned land or were not about to vote in national elections .It was this that continued to reinforce that the white society was superior to the Indigenous population These racist beliefs restricted the Aboriginal peoples from achieving the same basic rights as white Australians and it was not until the 1960’s that all Aboriginal people around Australia were able to vote in State and federal elections. (Lyons, 2005)

The main form of racism by the Australia Government was the creation of the white Australian policy. The White Australia policy arose from a Commonwealth government objective of creating and maintaining a mono racial Australia, termed “racial integrity”. Although there were other racist policies in the earlier years, by the 1950s, this usually meant only restrictions on immigration.

It was the most significant and lasting policy adopted in 1901, described as providing “an impetus to our national life”. “White Australia” was not some strange abnormality for Australia’s rulers. This policy of institutionalised racism had deep roots in the interests of Australia’s ruling class. (Lyons, 2005)

Racism against Aboriginal people helped open the door to other forms of racism especially for the Chinese immigrants during the gold rushes of the 1850s, they were treated as appalling as the indigenous population they were segregated onto protectorate camps these camps were modelled on previous colonial experience including the protectorate camps that had recently been imposed on the survivors of the “wars of extermination” against Aboriginal people.

(http://www.sa.org.au/component/content/article/126-edition-48/1069-100-years-or-racism-federation-and-the-white-australia-policy)

This Racism towards Aboriginals in Australia is widespread and the effects of racism affect the lives of Indigenous people in their day to day lives. This is due to the continuing effect of White invasion and the dispossession that followed. These effects have resulted in low socio economic status and therefore leading to poor health, higher rates of imprisonment and less job opportunities then the rest of white society within Australia.

(Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission 1991, p. 72)

The level of intolerance differs between cultural groups in Australia. White society from varies backgrounds suffer majority less ethnocentrism or racism compared to other ethnic groups. The groups, who suffer from racism and the relative follow on effects of racism, could therefore be expected to differ in each locality. It can therefore be assumed that racism will differ across space according to the presence of different cultural groups. There are substantive strands of racism running throughout Australian society. (Dunn and McDonald, 2001)

Research into racism in NSW found that results shows there is consistent racism still in Australian society .The results suggest that for the Australians shows that a large majority of respondents in NSW felt that Indigenous Australians were treated over generously by the government names such as dole bludgers have stemmed from this in regards to the Centrelink payments , almost a quarter of those respondents were supportive of calls for the scrapping of multiculturalism, the majority of respondents felt that migrants should learn to live and behave like the mainstream Australians do, therefore returning to racial Government policies of the past , such as assimilation and the white Australia policy .Bureau of Statistics (ABS) (2000)

Although the Past Government policies have excluded the beliefs and the wellbeing for Aboriginal peoples , current Government policies are beginning to bridge the gap between the Indigenous and non indigenous population .These policies included improved policies on health and education , this improved policies are important in lessening the effects of colonisation and the racism felt by the Indigenous population. This policies however has not improved the health socio economic status of the Indigenous population, it is only recently that these policies are inclusive of the cultural beliefs of the indigenous society.

(Dunn and McDonald, 2001)

The effects of racism by Europeans through assimilation, the stolen generation, white Australian policies and other non cultural appropriate policies have been Aboriginal Australian health, education and law have been horrific and destructive to the Indigenous population. The Aborigines peoples face problems in their struggle for equality of opportunity and toleration. Generations of Europeans have attempted to exterminate the Aboriginal Australians or to exclude them the rest of Australian society. The Aboriginal people have showed considerable resistance and cohesion and laws introduced by Europeans has helped to create and preserve the present condition of Aborigines, and changes to that condition depend largely on changes to the law and its administration.

Social construction exists in Australia in the form of racism however there are acts to try and correct some of the socially constructed issues. Apologies to the stolen generation, the possibility of a referendum to recognise the aboriginals as rightful owners of the land are both steps to address the issues that aboriginal people face, however it is still not enough. Racism is feed by those who have fear of others and accept stereotypes as being fact. Unfortunately in order to change a social construction there needs to be a complete change of society and that takes time.

The scientific revolution has been argued over centuries. There are two opposing points of view: one is that the scientific revolution did not happen in the history; the other one is that it has happened. This essay summarized the points of view of the predecessors about the scientific revolution. In the end, this essay provided a holistic interpretation of the scientific revolution from historical aspect, cognitive aspect, theoretical aspect and social aspect.

Keywords

Scientific revolution, concept, theory, view, social, holistic interpretation

Introduction

On the scientific revolution, there are two opposing points of view: one is that the scientific revolution did not happen in the history; the other one is that it has happened. Did it happen or not happen on earth? What are the criteria to judge? Is there any possible to unify the different views on scientific revolution? The definition of the scientific revolution is the key to the above questions. Analysis of the meaning of the scientific revolution can help to make sense of its definition.

Meaning of scientific revolution

Scientific revolution, as the corresponding concept of the social revolution, is the important aˆ‹aˆ‹research area of the philosophy of science and the history of science. American historian of science Thackeray presented the ten central questions of history of science early 80s in the 20th century. The second one is the “scientific revolution”. He said that revolution provided a simple and profound idea which assorted with the concept analysis method of idealism. [1]

Scientific revolution was demarcated from different angles by predecessors. They can be summed up as the following five points of view:

First, the concept shift view. The scientific revolution presented as concept revolution which is the replacement process of the center concept of science. “From the philosophical point of view, the concept is the basic objective way of thinking which reflected the essential attribute of an object. It is abstract and universal.” [2] All scientific knowledge based on of concepts. Each science is a system composed by the concepts which embodied the unity of the beliefs and referents and the unity of the scientific theories and the scientific thinking. Since the core elements of a system determine its structure and function, the replacement of center concept would inevitably lead the revolution in the structure of concept system, which caused the shift of paradigm of scientific theory or the scientific revolution. Lakatos thought that the scientific concepts system was the “hard core” of the scientific research, which is the basic theory and idea of the research program. Once the “hard core” had been refuted and negative, the new “hard core” took place of it. Then the scientific revolution occurred. French historian of science Koyre focused on the change of the science concept field. He thought the change of the concept field that caused the scientific revolution. For example, the “Copernican revolution” is considered the first modern scientific revolution. The “heliocentricism” concept took place of the “geocentricism” concept, while the major structure of concept was changing. The shift of two concepts system of center of the universe, the center state, the relationship between the planet and the center and the order of the location of planets was the scientific revolution which caused by the replacement of central concept of astronomy. The replacement of central concept is the most direct evidence of the change of scientific theory in scientific revolution and is the most profound change in scientific revolution.

Second, the theory shift view. In the 18th century, the Scientific Revolution was generally considered as “each major discontinuity over a certain period of time, as well as the clear break with the past”. [4] In 1773 Lavoisier claimed that his research program would lead to a revolution. In 1790, Fontenelle said the invention of calculus was a revolution in mathematics in the 18th century. At that time, the scientific revolution was rather vague to people’s understanding. As long as the new theory took place of the old theory, that was considered as the scientific revolution and was defined at the theoretical level. This led to two situations: one was a new theory coming up, the old theory still existing and being used with; the second scenario was the old theory being completely replaced by a new theory. In the late 18th century, Bell in “Modern History of Astronomy” pointed that there was the point in terms of the size of the scientific revolution. For large-scale scientific revolution, there were two stages: one was rebel, which destroyed a recognized scientific system; the other was the introduction of a new scientific system to replace the old scientific system. [4] In 20th century, most historians and philosophers of science still thought that the scientific revolution was the major change process of scientific theory. Kuhn thought that the scientific revolution was the process of the paradigm shift caused by the incommensurability of scientific theories. Popper argued that the scientific revolution was the reasonable overthrow of an established theory by a new scientific theory.

Third, the view shift view. The scientific view is the essence of scientific thought in a certain period of time to guide the scientific development. Shaping thought that the scientific concept revolution of Koyre was the most far-reaching scientific view revolution since ancient Greece when the human mind was completed. [5] American historian of science Cohen argued that the scientific revolution was process of scientific view replacement and process of accepting the new view and discarding the past beliefs. Bernal also believed that many changes in the scientific view composed the scientific revolution. As Kuhn pointed out that every revolution forced the scientific community to overthrow a very popular scientific theory to support a theory incompatible with it. Every time the scientific revolution changed the scientific issues to be discussed, what can be adopted or the standard which defined the rationality. Each time the scientific revolution completely changed the image of science, so that finally world inside which people did the scientific research had fundamentally changed. These changes were always followed with the arguments which determine the characteristics of the scientific revolution. [6] Einstein also thought that in scientific development there was not only the quantitative accumulation, but also the qualitative leap. In his opinion, the scientific revolution presented as the change of the scientific view. For example, in the 17th century the revolution in physics was a bacon-style revolution in the view of mathematical physics. In the 19th century Darwin biological revolution was a revolution in non-mathematical bacon style. Between late 19th early 20th century, the Maxwell revolution, the theory of relativity revolution and quantum mechanics revolution were scientific view revolution which characterized by probability theory. The essential of the plate tectonics revolution was the Earth view revolution, i.e. the activity earth view replaced the old fixed earth view which was the theoretical foundation of the earth structure. The large scale scientific revolution would inevitably lead to changes the scientific view which was the sublimation and the deepening of the theory. Such as Copernicus’s “heliocentric” not only caused the significant changes in astronomical theory, but also changed people’s view to the world from thinking the earth as the center into the sun as the center.

Fourth, the thinking shift view. The so-called thinking is the procedures and methods that people think based on a certain cultural background, knowledge structure, habits and methods such factors. Major changes in the way of thinking embodied not only during the scientific revolution, but also after the revolution in both science and society. Generally, large-scale scientific revolution caused the major change in the ways of thinking. Koyre thought that Newton integrated together the contribution of predecessors and contemporaries such as Copernicus, Kepler, Descartes, Galileo, Huygens, Hook and Wallis. Cohen believes that Newton caused a revolution which was the marking the birth of modern precise science. This was the “Newtonian style”, i.e. the ability to divide the process of precise scientific research into two parts: mathematical reasoning from the imagination structure or system and explaining the real phenomena by using the mathematical results obtained from the reasoning. The “Newtonian style” was the embodiment of the mechanism thinking. He achieved the unification of the movement rule of objects both in space and on the earth by mechanical rule. The representative modern scientific ways of thinking were organism, biological evolutionism and geological evolutionism. British historian Butterfield also pointed out that the first scientific revolution not only overthrew the medieval scientific authority, i.e. the scholasticism overshadowed, but also ended the Aristotle physics. Thus, it lowered the religion level. Because of this revolution, the image of the physical world, the structure of human life and even the features of the people spirit activities in the treatment of non-material science changed. Therefore, the first scientific revolution stood out as the origin of the modern world and the modern spirit. [7] The performance of the scientific revolution was change of the scientific way of thinking which reflected the change in the cognitive model of the scientists.

Fifth, the social shift view. The scientific revolution was the result of the direct impact on social shift. In middle 20th century, by the impact of Marxist view of history, a number of historians of science from Soviet Union and the United Kingdom explained the reasons of the scientific revolution and the early origins of modern science from the perspective of political economy. In their view, the occurrence of Newton revolution was based on the development of new capitalist economy and incensement of commercial practical economic problems. The new system of Newtonian physics was based on the solutions of mining, shipbuilding, gun manufacturing, technical issues such of navigation and mapping. Therefore, the scientific revolution should be carried out on the study of social shift. Needham thought that the reason why China did not produce modern science that time was the social conditions of the feudal society. He pointed out that whoever wanted to interpret why the Chinese community failed to develop modern science was better to explain why the Chinese society failed to develop business and industrial capitalism. [8] Bernal thought that the scientific revolution should be judged by its role and functions in the society. All these views put the scientific revolution on the social context and focused on the social factors and functions of scientific revolution in the social field. Sociology of Scientific Knowledge and feminist historiography of science also advocated the comprehensive view to re-analyze the scientific revolution. In their view, the scientific revolution was more than just an internal matter of science.

Analysis

Each of the above five points of view described the scientific revolution just from one aspect of the shift of the scientific central concept, the scientific theory, the world view, the scientific way of thinking and social sphere respectively. In the history, the understanding to the scientific revolution only stayed in a single layer, ignoring the other levels of the scientific revolution. The scientific revolution had the characters of hierarchy, associativity, foundation, inheritance, breakthrough and relativity. Hierarchy was embodied from the concept system structure to the expansion of the social hierarchy. Associativity was embodied on the non-isolated of science. Foundation was embodied by the prerequisite such as the basic concept, theoretical system and way of thinking. Inheritance and breakthrough embodied that the succession of scientific revolution must be an important breakthrough. In the same field, even study the same object, if there was no inheritance relationship between the two theories or independently developed, such as traditional Chinese medicine and Western medicine, the scientific revolution did not occur. The breakthrough of scientific theory based on inheritance was the premise and necessary conditions of scientific revolution. Breakthrough presented the incommensurability between the new and the old theoretical system. It was the fundamental shift of scientific central concept, theories and view. The breakthrough was the essence of the scientific revolution. Relativity embodied that the scientific revolution was relative to the previous theory.

From the social aspect, the scientific revolution, as a historical phenomenon, certainly would be impacted by the polity, economy and culture; as a major leap in knowledge, each time changed the way people perceive the world; as a social phenomenon, be recognized by the scientific community as the basis and premise of the technological revolution, industrial revolution. Therefore, the occurrence of scientific revolution was decided by historical aspect, cognitive aspect, theoretical aspect and social aspect holistically. This can be interpreted as follow: First, the occurrence of any scientific revolution started from the cognition of the individual scientist to the social cognition. The cognitive model of individual scientist through scientific theoretical system generally was accepted by the community. That was the shift of the way people view the world. For example, the Newton revolution was decided by the Newton’s cognitive model to nature. Because that the basic assumptions and the final results from the mathematical analysis built on the basis of these assumptions were able to match the factors of the real or external world revealed by precise and strict observation and experiments. [4] The occurrence of the scientific revolution being widely recognized by the scientific community and impacting the society at that time was the social conditions of the scientific revolution. Therefore, the process of scientific revolution was the comprehensive reform process of science.

Conclusions

The holistic interpretation of the scientific revolution on one hand can provide a common basis for analysis and interpretation of the intermittent and continuous development of scientific theory to realize dialogue between them; on the other hand can resolve the contradiction between the internal history and the external history of the scientific revolution and achieve a unified view of various scientific revolution. The scientific debate of intermittent and continuous development lasted over the centuries presenting in a variety of forms, from a variety of perspectives and as a variety of theories. Science simplistic Those who in favor of continuous development view simply emphasized on those transplanting and re-interpretation of the existent concept. They thought the development of the concept was the process from the internal logic. Those who in favor of scientific revolution exaggerated difference between the concept of the new system and its predecessor. What is interesting, in the essence of modern science pointed out by those who in favor of continuous development, i.e. the methods and rules of the nature, those who in favor of scientific revolution can find the sudden and rapid shift of the develpment of the methods and rules of nature. This also explaind that the process of scientific development followed the quantitative and qualitative law and reflected the unity of continuous and discontinuous scientific development. The holistic interpretation can not only let the two group analyze the quantitative and qualitative change of scientific development on the same basis to achieve unity, but also more comprehensively analyze and interpret the occurence of scientific revolution by relating with other elements of the world.

The meanings of holistic interpretation are following three points: first, different aspect of view made the role of the scientific revolution different. It is important to address the relationship between primary and secondary aspects. Second, the process of scientific discovery was non-analytical and non-logical, but in terms of the Scientific Revolution was the logical and analytical. Based on the common sense of their occurrence, the general criteria for determining can be provided. Third, each holistic analysis of the scientific revolution had the relative and concrete sense rather than absolute and abstract sense. With the development of social practice, the holistic interpretation of scientific revolution would constantly change.

Literature references

[1] A. Thackray, “A Guide to the Culture of Science, Technology, and Medicine,” A. History of Science, The Free Press, Toronto, 1980.

[2] Y. Dong, Science in generalized context, Science Press, Beijing, 2007.

[3] P.Thagard, Conceptual Changes, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1992.

[4] I.B. Cohen, Newton revolution, Jiangxi Education Press, Nanchang, 1999.

[5] S. Shaping, Scientific revolution, Shanghai Science and Technology Education Press, 2004.

[6] T. Kuhn, The structure of the scientific revolution, Shanghai Science and Technology Education Press, 1980.

[7] H. Butterfield, The origin of the modern science, Huaxia Press, 1988.

[8] J. Needham, The traditional achievement and poverty of Chinese science, Commerce Press, 1982.

My great, great grandfather, Paul Christian Lautrup, a single, caucasian man of 35, migrated from Denmark to the United States. He came from a wealthy family originating in the Danish culture and was educated to become an architect. He was expected to continue in the occupation that his nuclear family had persuaded him to train for in order to be kept in the family will. If he were to move away and not pursue the career that had been expected of him, he would be removed from the family will and lose all his inheritance.

Against his family’s wishes, he chose to leave Denmark to escape their career demands and to pursue his own interest. He moved to the United States in 1880 to follow his dream of becoming an actor. He made Washington DC his home, where he met his wife Delia whom he had 6 sons with. Unfortunately, he did not succeed in becoming an actor and settled for becoming an architect in the US. This is rather ironic, because he ended up moving away from Denmark and losing all his inheritance only to become an architect in another land. (Lautrup, Paul).

Denmark is a small nation nestled within the Scandinavian countries located on the European continent. Denmark, also known as the Kingdom of Denmark, has a tiny population of roughly 5.3 million citizens with only a 69km land border that is shared with Germany; this is the only land connection that Denmark has with Europe through it’s only peninsula and largest region, called Jutland. Also, Denmark’s main realm has 5 major islands, which support most of Denmark’s population, accompanied by 406 minor islands. Only around 90 of the 406 minor islands of Denmark are known to be inhabited. Also, Greenland and the Faroe Islands are part of the Kingdom of Denmark. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

They are both located in the Atlantic Ocean and considered to be autonomous regions within the Kingdom of Denmark; both have very small populations under 100,000 citizens. Copenhagen is the capital of Denmark and is the nation’s largest city. Copenhagen is also the biggest and most modern city in all of Scandinavia. Scandinavia includes the countries of Sweden, Norway and Denmark. Over 70% of Denmark’s population lives in an urban environment, while most of the population consists of people of Danish ethnicity, although there are a growing number of immigrants from Asian and African nations. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

The North Sea is to the west of Denmark and the Baltic Sea is to its east. Denmark is separated by its northern, neighboring, Scandinavian nations of Norway and Sweden by the Kattegat and Skagerrak straits. Sweden, the second closest neighbor to the Danes is cut off from Denmark by only 5km of water named the Oresund strait. Denmark’s climate is humid and chilly during the winter, with an average temperature of 34 degrees F and during the drier, summer months, the temperature averages 72 degrees F. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

Denmark has gently rolling hills with fertile soil that are at a close range to sea level with no true mountains throughout the nation. There are many lakes, rivers, streams and moors, which create an ideal environment for agricultural prospects. There are no extreme changes in climate due to the Gulf Stream that flows up from the south over Denmark’s western borders. Since the land is accessible to the sea, it is a prominent supplier to the ship industry is Northern Europe. Denmark has no point on its land that is more than an hour’s drive from the sea. There are numerous bays and inlets, which creates gainful opportunity for their prosperous shipping industries. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

Some especially important Danish landmarks include: The Tivoli Park, the most popular amusement park in Denmark, Fredericksborg Castle, and The Royal Theater. Hans Christian Andersen, known for his fairytales with relatable moral teachings and Karen Blixen, known for short tales and life memoir are among many famous writers of Danish literature. Soccer is Denmark’s national sport, but sailing, cycling and rowing are also Danish favorites. The national language is Danish, although, many Danes can speak English and/or German at least on elementary levels. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

The Krone is the source of Denmark’s monetary exchange and the Euro has not yet been accepted, due to the nation’s suspicions that switching over to the Euro will have a detrimental effect on their beloved social welfare system, which the citizens of Denmark take great comfort in. Denmark maintains the oldest continual monarchy in Europe and the second oldest in the world. Queen Margrethe II is the current Queen and head of the constitutional monarchy in Denmark. She is only the second queen to rule the monarchy throughout the entire history of Denmark. The Danish community is very proud of their form of government, their royal family and their Dannebrog, which is their national flag. Danes are not a people who are easily insulted, but one way to offend them would be to criticize anything concerning their Dannebrog, royal family or form of government. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

The subsistence strategy relied upon most in Denmark today is information. Higher education, the promotion of environmentally green solutions, literature and the fine arts are all very important to the Danish people. (Bendure, Glena, and Ned Friary) Over 77.3% of the jobs held by Danes are part of the information subsistence strategy through service-related jobs. (CIA – The World Factbook) Since education is paid for by the heavy taxes the Danish people submit to, it is financially obtainable for anyone with high enough scores to continue their education into any of Denmark’s universities. There are 5 universities for the citizens to choose from which include: Copenhagen, Roskilde, Odense, Aaloborg and Arhus Universities. Queene Margrethe II and her son, Crowned Prince Frederik are graduates of the elite Arhus University. Danes also have the option of continuing their education by attending community colleges or vocational technical schools. Some of the occupations that Danes are going to school for include: maritime studies, nursing, physicists, architects, social services, literature, history, religion, photography, teaching or various other information service occupations. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

These jobs all rely on technology and tools such as computers, cameras, high-tech printers, internet connections, satellites, sterilized medical equipment, body-image scanners, reference texts, cell phones, writing utensils, specialized uniforms and printers are just a few examples of the many advanced tools that are necessary for these various fields of information subsistence strategies. For example, a teacher would use tools such as a blackboard, a computer projector, chalk, erasers, videos, books and printers in order to relay information to teach her class a particular subject. Of course, these types of tools and technology are used all over the nation in rural and urban areas, but perhaps slightly more in the densely populated regions. Division of labor can be divided up in a number of ways in regards to the information subsistence strategy.

For example, a dean of a college may oversee that the college professors are following the guidelines for teaching classes from the code of ethics in their employee handbooks. The professors oversee the progress of skills and information learned by his/her students. The students attempt to maintain good grades in their class by completing all their schoolwork to the best of their ability. Division of labor usually depends on the socioeconomic status and education acquired.

However, in Danish society, social caste or social status does not create an obstacle in regards to whom can do what type of career. The citizens have a silent understanding amongst one another that every individual within the nation is important and should not be treated differently whether the citizen is a doctor or a trash man. The opportunity to pursue an information career is equally welcome to men and women; gender does not hinder occupational roles in Danish society. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

The second most important subsistence strategy amongst Danish society is industrialism in which some 20.2% of the population is employed. (CIA – The World Factbook) Some examples of the products manufactured are ships, boats, ceramics, silverware, furniture, chemicals, paper, fish products, dairy products, canned ham, electronics, textiles, concrete, marine engines, radio and communication equipment, toys, glass, pharmaceuticals, agriculture/forestry machinery, electrical products and diesel engines. Most of the industrial facilities that produce these Danish goods are located in more urbanized areas throughout the country. Many of these products require special skills used by laborers that have been trained at either a vocational school or through a type of apprenticeship training program paid for by the Danish government. Particular tools and equipment are necessary for creating these products that can include: pulleys, compressors, mixers, castes, hammers, nails, scissors, ovens, kilns, saws, test tubes, Bunsen burners, beakers, glue, electrical wiring, assembling machines, counting machines, computers, charts, slicing equipment, turbines, converters, nets, sails, anchors, food processors, milking machines and generators. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

For instance, if a plant is producing paper products, large, metal rollers, would need to be used in order to press the paper into the desired thickness. Also, mixers would be used to stir and prepare the paper pulp in order to pour it into the appropriate screening containers. A specialized machine would be necessary to wrap the finished paper product for distribution and sale. Distribution of labor depends on experience, skill level and seniority of the workers involved in the particular industry. Owners of factories and heads of departments oversee the quality and efficiency of production, which is reported from the supervisors. Supervisors organize, direct and monitor manual labor workers in their duties. Manual labor workers attempt to create products at a company-desired rate and quality, while not bearing the responsibility of their overseeing their co-workers.

The third of the most important subsistence strategies used in Denmark consists of agriculture. The main products grown in The Kingdom of Denmark include: sugar beets, barely and wheat, grains, rapeseed, fruits, vegetables and flowers. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary) Agriculture is most commonly practiced by only 2.5% of the population and is normally achieved in rural areas of the country. (CIA – The World Factbook) Training apprenticeship programs and information passed down through family generations are used to teach agricultural methods. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

Some technologies used for agriculture include items such as combines, separating machinery, generators, irrigation systems, planting machinery, tractors, plows, fertilizing distributors, storage units and computers for analyzing crop quantity and quality. Irrigation systems are used to water the large expanse of crops, plows are used to till the land for preparation of planting seeds and computers are used to keep record of seasonal harvest yields and perhaps even profit margins. There are over 60,000 family-owned farms in Denmark (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary) and the division of labor is shared by the family and or corporation that own the farms along with the hired employees who are used for cleaning and fixing equipment, sorting crops, running machinery, irrigation and maintaining the health of the crops.

The family or corporation of the agricultural operation oversees the employees or hires a supervisor(s) to ensure that the agricultural laborers are working efficiently. The supervisors or owners of a farm may calculate the quantity of crop and the value it yields per season. The agricultural land owners or supervisors also may keep track of the laborers improvement or lack of effort on the job. The farm laborers will tend to any manual labor that the agricultural operation needs completed while only having to be responsible for their individual production. The division of labor in agriculture is based mostly on skill, seniority and ownership.

The fourth most important subsistence strategy in Denmark is pastoralism of which is included in the 2.5% of the nation’s population that maintains a career in agriculture. (CIA – The World Factbook) The animal goods raised and produced in the Kingdom of Denmark include: canned ham, butter, cheese, fish oil, fish meal and milk through the use of fish hatcheries and typically family-owned farms. As in the agricultural subsistence strategy, pastoralism is either passed down through families or learned through an apprenticeship training program. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary) Some tools used for pastoralism include: fences, watering/feeding troughs, barns, herding rods, milking machines, slaughtering equipment, medical tools, labels, hoof clippers, lead ropes, halters, hoses, generators, heaters and computers.

Fences are used to keep the livestock confined to a desired location, animals are put in barns to protect them from predators and the occasional harsh outdoor elements and heaters may be used in the barns to keep a sustained temperature that is more suitable for the livestock’s health. As in the agricultural subsistence strategy in Denmark, the division of labor amongst workers in pastoralism is based on skill level, seniority and ownership. For example, the owner of a herd of swine may hire a supervisor or herd manager in order to keep track of the manual laborers and also the efficiency of herd quality, health and maintenance. The owner of the swine operation may calculate yearly profits, upkeep costs and decide what to pay employees based on their skill levels. The employees without management skills, the hired hands or basic herd tenders will be responsible only for the safety, feeding and order of their set group of livestock that they are to have authority over.

Denmark has a centralized political organization and maintains a constitutional monarchy as a political model. A constitutional monarchy can only be led by offspring of the current king or queen after he or she is deceased. It is a requirement for the king or queen of Denmark to be a member of the national church. A single-chamber parliamentary runs hand-in-hand with the constitutional monarchy. The prime minister, currently known as Lars Lokke Rasmussen, leads Denmark’s political organization with the indirect support of all 179 parliament members and direct assistance from the cabinet ministers who lead numerous political departments throughout the nation. Voting age in Denmark is 18 and all parliament members are elected for a term of 4 years, unless state minister forces a new election before the 4 years is completed. It is the duty of the members of parliament to come to consensus on decisions to enact or not enact new legislation and the duty of the prime minister to carry the decision to action, however new legislation cannot be enacted fully until Queen Margrethe II writes her finalizing signature on it. There are typically around 12 political parties that make up the single-chamber parliamentary system of the Danes. The top 2 of these major political parties consist of Social Democrats and Liberals-a right-of-centre part. Social Democrats seem to be the most popular considering the fact that they are tied heavily to the belief that all Danish citizens should be granted security by maintaining the comforts of social-welfare programs, but of course, these are safety features only made possible by very high taxes to the Danish people. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

The royal constitutional monarchy headed by Queen Margrethe II has control of the executive powers, while legislative powers are for the most part, granted to the parliament and judicial powers are carried out by the courts of Denmark. Denmark’s military branches include: a home guard, an air force, a navy and a national rescue corps. Military members are usually enlisted for 4 months to a year of service. During war times, the Danish military acquires 58,000 members, but during peace times, there are roughly fifteen thousand participating members. The Danish military ranks are usually based on mandatory enrollment in order to be ready when an emergency arises.

Denmark’s police force has about 10,000 law enforcement officers who are known for their more civilized, calmer approaches to domestic disputes by using advanced communication skills and maintaining close, positive relationships with the overall communities they work in. (HOG, ERLING, and HELLE JOHANNESSEN)

One form of internal political control in Denmark is the enforcement of laws through the judiciary court systems. Although, crime in Denmark is very low and it is not normal for a Dane to even consider breaking the basic laws of the land. An example of externalized political control would be the decision of the Danish Parliament to not accept the Euro as Denmark’s new currency, even though Denmark is a member of the European Union. Internalized political responsibilities of Denmark’s parliament involve the maintenance of social welfare programs that protect all Danish citizens regardless of socioeconomic status. The externalized responsibility of the parliament consists of maintaining peaceful political connections with the European Union and other nations in regards to preserving a secure way of life for its citizens and also keeping a cohesive relationship with national allies for added protection. After all, Denmark is a very small nation and it would be beneficial to preserve as much peace with as many nations as possible. (Bendure, Glena, and Ned Friary)

The economic system of Denmark is based on negative reciprocity due to the use of capitalism throughout the nation. Capitalism is used by the Danes to generate profit through sales of products from private businesses and corporations to customers. Redistribution is also used throughout the Danish culture in the form of health care and educational needs. Danish pay high taxes that allow them to enjoy the freedoms of free health care and education of any type. This allows the Danish citizens to give and take as they need, for example, all citizens are taxed regardless of how much income they generate, but it is possible that not all of them will use the free education opportunities or the free health care services during their lifetimes. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

Market exchange is also used through capitalism in Denmark in regards to having the freedom to set up a private business and gain profit from it without limit, which is a prime example of capitalistic market exchange. Denmark uses both socialism and capitalism, but the predominant economic system would have to be capitalism. This is true, because Danes are free to pursue their own interests through careers that will allow them to generate profit without limit to the individual. Although, socialism is prevalent in the way Denmark controls and maintains social welfare for the citizens in order to provide free and easily accessible, equal-quality health care and education to all Danish citizens regardless of social or economic status, gender, religion or ethnicity. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

The primary economic sector, which involves extraction of resources form the land, also known as mainly agriculture in Denmark, makes up 2.5% Danish employment. (CIA – The World Factbook) A few of Denmark’s exports consist of canned ham, butter, cheeses, beer and processed fish products of which are brought forth through agriculture, pastoralism and industry. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary) The nation’s secondary economic sector, which involves processing of goods, also known as industry makes up 20.2% of the Danish workforce. (CIA – The World Factbook) Denmark manufactures machinery, chemicals, furniture, electronics of which are exported all over the world. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary) The tertiary economic sector, which involves services, makes up 77.3% of the working Danish population. (CIA – The World Factbook)

A few of Denmark’s popular service industry jobs are found in the fields of architecture, nursing, teaching, physics, environmental science, literature and social sciences. Denmark enjoys the highest Gross Domestic Product in Europe and maintains one of the highest standards of living for its citizens compared to all nations in the world. Unemployment is very low and over half the country is employed with the reassurance that health care and education will not be a challenge to pay for. Denmark relies heavily on the income from its exports and puts a great deal of value on maintaining its social welfare programs. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

Denmark’s most common religious organization is Evangelical Lutheran, of which over 90% of Danish citizens belong to. Evangelical Lutheran is a denomination that is part of a national church, supported by the state called the Danish People’s Church. Only about 5% of Danish people actually attend church weekly; most Danes only participate in church services during important religious holidays such as Christmas or Easter. Evangelical Lutheranism is a monotheistic religion, which means that they worship only one god. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

Other religious organizations that exist in Denmark consist of Catholicism, Judaism and Islam, which also practice monotheism. Also, a small percentage practice forms of religious organizations such as Buddhism, Sikhism and Hinduism, which promote polytheism, the worship of many gods. It is ironic that the overall Danish society does not have a strong faith in the god or gods of their religious choice, yet at birth most of the country is automatically enrolled as a member of the national church, also known as the Danish People’s Church. Their enrollment is expected unless they belong to a religion other than Evangelical Lutheran. It is a requirement that the current king or queen of Denmark be a member of the Evangelical Lutheran religious organization. (HOG, ERLING, and HELLE JOHANNESSEN)

Danish churches are typically located in close proximity to all Danish towns and are encompassed by graveyards. Evangelical Lutheran religious organizations have sermons and worship in churches on Sundays. Their ceremonies include a minister, a servant, an organist and a cantor. Evangelical Lutheran important ritualistic ceremonies include: weddings, confirmations, funerals and baptisms. It is expected that most Danish churches have fairly low attendance rates during Sunday services. (HOG, ERLING, and HELLE JOHANNESSEN)

Throughout the Danish social organization, monogamy, the practice of marriage to single spouse, is the most accepted and nationally predominant form of union. Marriage is important in regards to the most common form of religion in Denmark, Evangelical Lutheranism, yet because Danes are not known for being highly involved in the practices of their religious organizations, there is a loose view on marriage and when it should be chosen, if at all. It is common for a Dane to cohabitate for years, have offspring and not be married until many years after. Therefore, it is not uncommon for Danish households to have illegitimate children born outside of wedlock. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

If Danes do decide to marry, it is usually not until they are in their very late twenties or early thirties. Danes do not participate in arranged marriages, an event where parents choose a marriage partner for offspring, instead, single Danes choose their own marriage partners through the anthropological term love match. Endogamy, marriage created within one’s own organized cultural group, is practiced in Denmark as well as exogamy, marriage outside one’s own organized cultural group. Most often, Danes marry other Danes of their own ethnicity, yet those who choose to marry outside of Denmark or one’s ethnicity is not condemned within the Danish societal organization. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

Post-marital residence, pertaining to where a bride and groom reside after their marriage ceremony, only pertains to the Danish societal organization in the sense that marriage partners typically practice neolocal forms. A neolocal form of post-marital residence can be defined as the event of taking residence in a home that is set apart from the married couple’s families. Other forms of post-marital residence, such as patrilocal, the act of a married couple living close to or with the married male’s family of his father, or matrilocal, the practice of both marriage partners residing with or in close proximity to the married female’s family of her mother, are not commonly practiced. Marriage in modern Denmark societal organization, is not required, nor is it a high priority. (HOG, ERLING, and HELLE JOHANNESSEN)

Therefore, post-marital residence is not of great importance, It is only on a neolocal sense, considering that Danes learn to be very independent at a very early age, while maintaining a close-knit family on an emotional level. The most important family type for Danes is the nuclear families containing dependent children, a wife and a husband. Even though the idea of marriage in the Danish societal organization is very loose and laid-back, out of all couples living together in Denmark, most of them are in fact married. Extended family, consisting of aunts, uncles, cousins, grandparents and other individuals with marriage or blood relating them, are also important, but not as high a priority as the nuclear family. Most Danish nuclear families are small, having two or less dependant offspring. Privacy is valued greatly by Danes, especially when it comes to the nuclear family’s home. It is rare for a Danish family to invite a guest to their home whom they have not known for a great while. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

Each of the nuclear family members generally has their own private room in the home along with the rooms for meeting, such as the kitchen and larger family rooms. In Denmark’s societal organization, descent is traced by using a lineage, which is used by connecting all ancestors back to a single, original ancestor. Descent in Denmark is traced in this way, because last names are important links to ancestry. Although last names are taken from the male within a married couple, patrilineal descent, tracing only by acknowledging male individuals as ancestors, is not used, because all genders are included when tracing Danish ancestry. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

When referring to kin, relatives connected by marriage or blood, Danish citizens value ties with both the mother’s and the father’s side of the family, which is called bilateral kinship. Bilateral kinship is important for Danes, because both nuclear and extended family, regardless of mother or father’s side, builds a cohesive unit of strength emotionally, sometimes financially and offers support that is not commonly expected outside of family ties. National polls and summaries do not generally include information in regards to socio-economic classes, instead Denmark’s citizens are divided up into 5 social layers. These social layers consist of subcategories within each layer. (HOG, ERLING, and HELLE JOHANNESSEN)

The first social layer consists of corporate owners, employees of the educational system and anyone that has over 50 workers. The second social layer involves academically professional owners of businesses, agricultural owners with at least 4 employees and corporate owners that have over 6 workers. The third social layer includes small business owners, individuals with employment that calls for special skills and agricultural owners with a limit of 3 workers. The fourth social layer is made up of employees containing academic training, owners of small plots of land and experienced employees. The fifth social layer consists of employees with no special skills or experience. (HOG, ERLING, and HELLE JOHANNESSEN)

Denmark, as a social organization, is very tolerant of other people’s ways of perceiving life and is considered to be outgoing and well-educated. Danes are very accepting of homosexual marriage and equality of the sexes. Denmark was the first European nation to allow for legal gay marriages within its borders offering homosexuals the majority of rights granted to straight married couples. Danes are very conscientious when it comes to preserving a clean, toxic-free environment. (Bendure, Glenda, and Ned Friary)

A recent news article summarizes a protest put on by Greenpeace activists at the Environment Ministry in Denmark. This article was used for this research paper, because Danes are very involved in environmental policies in regards to keeping the planet as clean and sustainable as possible. The article was personally interesting, because Denmark is one of the most environmentally conscious nations on the planet and I was curious to see how they react to the disposing of harmful waste products. The Greenpeace activists were protesting the transport of a poisonous pollutant called HCB from an Australian company named Orica. The Kommunekemi in Nyborg, Denmark is one of a small number of companies in the world that is able to incinerate the hazardous carcinogen, HCB. The Greenpeace activists argued that hazardous waste materials should be incinerated closer to the point to which they are processed. This is just one of many examples of the Danish culture’s desire for a cleaner and greener planet. (“Greenpeace Goes Aloft to Protest Transport from Down Under”)

Danes are also known to love their most famous amusement park, Tivoli. This amusement park is located in Copenhagen and is the most popular attraction in Denmark. The park was built in 1914 and maintains a decor and cuisine that is based on the historical, traditional Danish culture of the time the park first opened. Some Danes pay the park’s entry cost just to eat at a few of the thirty-seven restaurants within the park. The park has roller coasters, games, gardens and various amusements and entertainment. (“Copenhagen, Denmark”)

Danish people are in love with the concept of social gatherings combined with eating and the two almost always go hand-in-hand. It is customary for a Danish household to always have tea, chocolates, pastries and cheese just in case guests arrive unexpectedly. Their meals often consist of three or more courses and it is considered a crime to oneself to not savor and take time to enjoy one’s meal. Danes love rich, whole foods of which often include broiled or marinated fish, thick and creamy cheeses, hearty breads, substantial gravies and delectable deserts.

Hot tea is often served with milk and honey and it is customary to leave the last bit of food in a main communal dish when eating. This is a symbolic action of politeness to show that nobody is selfish or rushed during the meal. The Danish culture is known for being one of the happiest cultures on earth. They are generally friendly, warm and open to communication with strangers. Recently, Denmark has incorporated many American concepts, products, stores and fast-food conveniences into their societal organization. Unfortunately, they are also gaining a few of the health problems that are associated with the introduction of American culture into their nation. However, despite the Dane’s cultural borrowing, they still have a strong sense of uniqueness through a proud society that shows compassion for its citizens and welcomes visitors. (Waldron, Julie)

Views towards age-gap relationships should not be viewed through stereotypical eyes; instead they should be viewed with an open mind, for they are more than what you see.

Age-gap relationships have been around since the dawn of human life. Historically age-gap relationships have been between an older male and younger female, and many cultures arranged marriages with this pattern. Age-gap relationships are not socially constructed, but have evolved. They are also seen often in nature. Stereotypes and negative opinions are heard often in media, by friends and by family. Many famous celebrities, royalty, and rock stars have been in age-gap relationships.

In many cultures, arranged marriages have been between a young girl and an older man, this could have been to prevent marriage outside of the culture, to increase political power, for livestock, or to resolve inter political issues. Doing this helped to increase the number of the community members, because a young girl could produce many more children than an older woman. Older men had more resources to support the girl and her offspring than a young boy. By arranging the marriages in this way the parents were insuring a greater number of surviving grandchildren to pass on their genes, wealth, legacy and land.

At an evolutionary stand point age-gap relationships should be more common as well as less criticized. “.. men are predisposed to produce as many offspring as possible, to increase the probability that their genes will be passes onaˆ¦aˆ¦women prefer a mate who has adequate resources, or the potential to obtain resources,aˆ¦.”(Banks and Arnold 2001) By learning to seek these qualities we have subconsciously insured the survival of the human race. This evolutionary process is not much different from the way animals use to choose their mates. “Mate preferences may have evolved, rather than being socially constructed” (Banks and Arnold 2001), therefore age-gaps should be considered the social norm, and similar age relationships should be considered abnormal.

Age-gap relationships have a rollercoaster history, where they were once accepted, then they weren’t, and now they are becoming accepted once again. Women older relationships however are still considered taboo, but that doesn’t mean they should be discriminated more. Age-gap relationships whether female older or male older should be looked at as a regular relationship. The same challenges and problems should be considered when the relationship itself is being evaluated. Criticism of age gap relationships is similar in the way which different races and gay couples are criticized, people look at what is on the outside and not at what they really are. There is an old adage “Don’t judge a book by its cover” and I feel that more people should follow this, not only when dealing with age-gap relationships but when dealing with all situations in which it is not as it appears.

There are many different stereotypes put towards age-gap relationships. Such as: “The younger partner is either looking for a parental figure or is in it solely for monetary gain, and the older partner is only after youth and physical attributes” (Anisman-Reiner 2008). Sadly these stereotypes are true in some situations, but it does not mean that every age-gap relationship is like that. The relationship in question should be examined first, then the age of the partners. Many relationships that were healthy and actually had love in them, were broken up due to constant harassment from family, friends, and even strangers.

Criticism that age-gap relationships receive are based on extreme instances. The older partner will get dirty looks and be called a cradle robber or be accused of cheating on their spouse (which other than the younger partner doesn’t exist). Other things people say are: “what could you possibly have to talk about,” “can they even keep up with you physically” or “they are holding you back from experiencing your youth” this usually causes stress for the couple. These are not always true but it causes the couple to focus on what people say about them, instead of other things in their relationship. It’s possible for couples with large age gaps to be able to have common interests, as well as have the same amount of physical activity. For example a 45 year old man can play a game of tennis at the same level as a woman in her 20’s, or both could be into classic rock or horror movies. It is true that sometimes when you enter an age-gap relationship you are risking losing some life experiences, but you can create new ones that neither of you have had. That way the older partner is not repeating life experiences, and they younger partner is gaining life experiences. Either way age-gap couples get around these obstacles and have healthy lasting relationships.

Many people will admit that they have been in an age-gap relationship or they know someone has. These relationships are becoming increasingly common nowadays and yet they still receive criticism. “Although men and women report a preference for and openness to age gaps in their own relationships, they typically disapprove of age gaps in others’ relationships.” (Lehmiller and Agnew 2008) Why would you be willing to consider something for yourself, but then tell your friend that they shouldn’t do it? If it is because you know you could handle it and your friend couldn’t, what makes you think you know your friends capabilities better than they do? Better yet if your friend doesn’t know herself, then what makes you think you know your own self? These are questions you should ask yourself before you make the decision to discriminate against others being in age-gap relationships. My grandmother and her husband were 25 years apart and yet they did not receive criticism, but when I entered into a relationship with a 14 year age difference she made a big deal about it. Sadly this occurs often to people by their family and friends.

We are all born with an incest avoidance instinct, sometimes depending on your upbringing it could go away, but normally we tend to react to what we see before we have a chance to think about it. “A difference in age of 15 years and greater would mean that a couple could, in terms of age be parent and child and so we suggest that social opposition to these age-differences will be greater, because people would wish to avoid the suggestion of incest” (Banks and Arnold 2001). Due to the appearance of the couple we instantly think that the older partner could be the younger partner’s parent. Because of this instinct we become so focused on the difference in age that we don’t notice anything else about the relationship.

Parents are often worried that when and if their young son or daughter enters into a age-gap relationship, that the older partner will exploit them for sex and not truly love them, or that the partner is closer in age to themselves than their child. I feel that though the parents mean well, they should evaluate the relationship and get to know the older partner before being so quick to judge, and find out if it is healthy for their son or daughter. “Let he who is without sin cast the first stone” (John 8:7).

Due to the different rates at which boys and girls mature, age-gap relationships could even be considered ideal to insure the survival of a relationship. “It’s possible for two people at different ages – even with a 20 or 30 year age gap – to be equally “mature,” however you define the term.”(Anisman-Reiner 2008) Everyone growing up has heard that girls mature faster than boys, and it makes sense that this would make it easier for age-gap relationships to work and last. It also answers why many similar-age relationships (especially high school relationships) don’t last. As you get older the age-gap in the relationship matters less, because both partners are maturing.

Many famous couples both present and throughout history were involved in age-gap relationships. The gaps range from less to one year to more than thirty years. Billy Joel and Katie Lee had thirty-two years between them, and Tom Cruise and Katie Holmes have sixteen years between them. These are people we idolize, we watch on television, on movies, and whose music we listen to. One day the media will pick them for cutest couple and then the next day they criticize them, and we just go along with it, instead of using our own minds. The criticism increases more if the woman is the older partner, and they have been labeled by the media as cougars. Such as Demi Moore and Ashton Kutcher (15 years difference), they receive tons of criticism and yet remain happily married, so far for 5 years. It is not only in present times that age-gap relationships exist, they have been around for centuries. Cleopatra and Julius Caesar had more than 30 years between them when their romance began. Another couple would be Frank E. Butler and Annie Oakley who had 22 years between them.

During my personal experience in an age-gap relationship I have been lucky to have friends and family to support me, well most of my family. We do get dirty looks in public even though my boyfriend doesn’t look that much older than me and definitely doesn’t act older than me. If we just focused on what other people thought of us, we wouldn’t last. Together we have accomplished so much, and continue to climb mountains! I guarantee that if we did not receive the support we have, we would not have made it. You should not discourage an age-gap relationship unless you know for an absolute fact that it would be damaging to one or both parties, you may find that age-gap relationships are a wonderful positive experience.

In conclusion age-gap relationships are criticized, stereotyped, and put down. Even though they are becoming more common, have been around for centuries, occur in nature, and have proven to have lower divorce rates. Society should look at the relationship, not the ages of the people, and maybe more of these relationships would succeed. Age-gap relationships are just like normal relationships and should, according to evolution, be the social norm though due to social influences this is not the case. Nobody likes to be picked-on especially for something that makes them happy, so we should follow the golden rule “Do onto others as you would have them do unto you.”

Age-gap relationships should be looked at for what they are, not what they seem.

Racism is the belief that a certain race is superior otherwise inferior to another, and that an individual’s social and moral feature are programmed by his inborn biological uniqueness. Racial separatism is the idea that diverse races should stay segregated as well as apart from each another. Racism might be defined as the hate of one individual by another because of skin shade, language, traditions, place of birth otherwise any reason that supposedly reveal the basic personality of that person.

A current news story wherein racism plays a part is the story of a teenage schoolgirl who was detained by police for racism subsequent to refusing to sit with a collection of Asian students for the reason that a number of of them did not talk English.

Codie Stott’s relatives claim she was enforced to expend three-and-a-half hours in a law enforcement cell after she was reported by her educators. The 14-year-old – who was free without charge supposed it had been an easy matter of commonsensical and blamed the school as well as police of an exaggerated reaction. The event happened in the similar local education power where a ten-year-old schoolboy was prosecuted prior this year for referring to schoolfriend racist names in the playing field, a progress branded by a adjudicator as political rightness gone crazy. Codie was in attendance in a GCSE science class in Harrop Fold High School within Worsley, Greater Manchester; at what time the incident occurred.

The youngster was not in the school the day before owing to a hospital scheduled time and had not been present at the start of a project, so the educator allocated her a cluster to sit with. Codie said the teacher asked her to sit with five Asian pupils and only one can speak English, consequently she had to let know that solitary what to carry out so she could give details in their language. A grievance was made to a law enforcement officer based permanent at the school, plus more than a week after the event on September 26 she was referred to Swinton law enforcement station furthermore placed under arrest.

Miss Stott is alienated from Codie as well as her 18-year-old brother. Ashley’s father stays with her spouse Keith Seanor, a 36-year-old wire layer, in Walkden. Educate insiders recognize that no less than three of the students Codie declined to sit with had lately arrived in this state and spoke modest English. Nevertheless they say her remarks after that raised more concerns, for instance allegedly referring to fellow students as “blacks” – something she disagreed yesterday. The school is at the present investigating precisely what happened previous to deciding what act – if any – to take in opposition to Codie.

Causes of Prejudice by Vincent N. Parrillo examine the psychological sources of prejudice in addition to the sociological sources of prejudice. Parrillo talked about the sociologist Talcott Parsons who recommended that both the family plus the occupational arrangement may create anxieties and insecurities that make frustration. According to this situation family structure somehow contributed to Codie’s racism as her biological family was separated (Parrillo 9).The family as well as occupational structures might be a basis to an individual to redirect whatsoever fury they have towards others. Sociological theories intended for the causes of unfairness in the selection are grouped as socialization, economic competition, plus social norms. Parrillo utter that in the socialization procedure, people study the “values, approach, beliefs, in addition to perceptions of their traditions or subculture. Kids, being with no trouble swayed since they’re taught to abide by their parents, frequently take on the beliefs plus ideas of their parents devoid of inquiring concerning these principles. The attitude of a child’s parents as well becomes the child’s beliefs. In Codie’s situation she was influenced by her parent’s belief that is why she refused to be grouped with the Asian students. A lot of viewpoints that populace discover from their parents as well as from others in society might be stereotypes. On the other hand, many citizens don’t recognize this, as people are so familiar to hearing these typecast (Parrillo 55).

Economic competition: This viewpoint is based on the faith that when people sense as though their safety is being threatened, populace are more aggressive as well as unfriendly. Just like the school girl she felt that she would not be secure that is why she refused to comply wither teacher. Parrillo states that when there is a turn down in job availability, unenthusiastic stereotyping, chauvinism, and discrimination raise. Parrillo says that Donald Young identified out that, all through U.S. history, in times of lofty unemployment, as well as thus powerful job competition…

In his paper, “Causes of Prejudice,” Vincent N. Parrillo note down that psychological as well as sociological factors endorse prejudiced attitudes plus behaviors. Parrillo divide psychological factors to frustration, self-justification, and personality; and the

Sociological factors to socialization, economic competition, and social norms (Parrillo).

Social Norms: According to Parrillo, social norms generate the usually shared rules stating what is as well as is not proper behavior. In Codie’s situation social norm misguided her to improper behavior, which was discriminating the Asian students. A straight relationship is there between the stage of conventionality to society’s norms as well as the amount of the prejudice (Parrillo 559).

A number of philosophers disagree that we are not so a huge deal rational beings as we are rationalizing creatures. We need encouragement that the things we do as well as the lives we live are good, that high-quality reasons for our actions live. If we might persuade ourselves that an additional group is inferior, morally wrong, or dangerous, we might feel justified in discriminating next to its members, enchaining them, otherwise even killing them (Parrillo 507). That is exactly what Codie’s parents and teachers ought to have done in order to solve this racism case. Parrillo demonstrates to us that self justification is one thing everyone is good at in addition to when one is able to justify their measures they can become very unsafe.

Works Cited

Ellsworth et al. The American journal of sociology. University of Chicago Press, 1980.

Ernest, Cashmore, and James, Jennings, Racism: essential readings. SAGE, 2001

Joe R. Feagin, Racist America: roots, current realities, and future reparations. Routledge, 2000

Teun Adrianus van Dijk, Racism and the press. Taylor & Francis, 1991.

Ukrainian Congress Committee of America. The Ukrainian quarterly.Ukrainian Congress Committee of America, 1983.

Twycross Zoo is located in the village of Twycross in Leicestershire. Most of the population are within an hour of Twycross Zoo, approx 9 million.

History of the zoo:

The Zoo was founded in 1962 by Molly Badham and Nathalie Evans. Molly Badham, who kept animals from a young age, owned a pet shop in her home town, along with Nathalie Evans who also had a pet shop in the same time. The two women went on to share a flat along with two chimpanzees. Their collections of animals grew, and they went on to buy a large plot of land with stables, farm buildings etc. Molly Badham then went on to become an expert in the care of primates in captivity, and now the zoo has grown to have one of the largest numbers of primates. Molly and Nathalie set up a charity called the ‘East midlands zoological society’ and the animal collection and zoo premises were donated to them in 1962.

Size of organisation:

The zoo attracts around 500,000 visitors a year. The zoo employs around 120 full time staff, and also employee seasonal staff for more help around the seasonal times.

Nature of the work done:

The zoos main aim is a sanctuary for the animals that they keep there. Also, conservation, education and research that is done within the zoo. The zoo does a lot of things for the animals. They do captive breeding.

The captive breeding programme

At Twycross zoo there are many animals that are threatened with extinction. The main reason for extinction is usually because of the human population, and zoos and organisations who try to help these animals have been working together for years to try prevent animals from going extinct and making organisations, helping zoo’s and captive breeding centres etc to make sure that these animals don’t go extinct by doing things such as the captive breeding programme, they also need to keep the zoo population. There are many species of land vertebrates that will soon need to be cared for by humans if they are not able to breed well in the wild. By working with other organisations and captive breeding centres etc they can help to breed animals quicker than if they were in the wild or troubled areas etc. An example of this is the Amur Leopard that they have bought to Twycross zoo to breed the animal and make sure that it doesn’t go extinct.

The zoo also does research at the zoo for animals. The zoo has a strong research department and support many projects every year. The zoo promotes research, especially if it benefits animal welfare and the conservation at the zoo. Most of the researchers that Twycross zoo recruit are studying the animals that the zoo have because they have the largest collection of primate species of any zoo in the world, apart from countries like Japan.

The zoo research behaviour, nutrition etc to help and look after the animals at the zoo to the best that they can, finding new ways to give the animals the nutrition that they need and new ways to make sure that the behaviour of the animals is good, and if it isn’t finding new ways to make sure the animals are happy and well looked after. Also, the methods of feeding the animals and the food that they feed them are very closely researched as every animal has a carefully regulated diet and this needs to be obtained.

The zoo also contributes to campaigns; this is a good thing to do for them because it shows that the zoo is interested in things that are happening and things that are related to the zoo.

They also maintain animal welfare and this is very important for the animals because the research done for animal welfare is focusing on the body, the heart rate etc to examine how the animal is coping with its environment and food etc.

The zoo focuses on enrichment for the animals also. The reason the zoo do enrichment is to make sure that the animals are happy and occupied with the things that the zoo provide for them to play with and do etc. They do this for many reasons, such as to make sure animals perform natural behaviours, animals are more active, animals have more control over their lives, and environment is more interesting to animals and public and to avoid development of stereotypical behaviour. They keep there eye on the animals daily and write down the notes on the animals for each day.

Twycross zoo has a professional education department. They teach the public that visit the zoo all of the things that they would like to know about the zoo. They also teach schools and universities. They do this by giving group talks and answering individual questions asked by the public that visit the zoo. When a school or university visits the zoo, they can arrange a talk with a member of staff at the zoo and they tell you everything about the zoo that you need to know.

The areas of science used in the organisation (biology, chemistry, physics)

At Twycross zoo, there are different sections; the zoo is split up into different areas. This means that in all of the different sections, there are different parts of science that is used.

Biology is used in the zoo because part of biology is the study of plants. There are plants and trees everywhere around the zoo. They need to understand the plants they put into enclosures incase it is harmful to any of the animals. Also, plants that the animals can eat need to be researched incase they harm the animal in any way. The zoo keepers would use this to make the enclosures and around the zoo look a bit better, also

Zoology is one of the branches of biology that looks into the structure, function, behaviour, and evolution of animals. To learn about animal behaviour and how the animals behave and show if the animals are happy with their environment and are eating the correct food with the specific minerals, vitamins in etc. The animal keepers, vets, researchers and zoo owners are most likely to use this part of science.

The zoo could also use biochemistry, for example the vet; if they have a sample to send to a laboratory this could be used.

The zoo would also use building biology, as this is the study of indoor living environment they would need to use this bit of science to make sure that the building requirements for the enclosures are up to standard and suitable for each and every animal. The estates part of the employees would use this part of science.

The zoo would use conservation biology a lot around the zoo because it is the study of restoration of the natural environment, wildlife, vegetation, preservation and protection. These are some of the main aims of the zoo, making sure that they are being environmentally friendly and finding new ways to restore the natural environment. Conservationist at the zoo would defiantly use this part of science, so would the zoo keepers and the maintenance employees too.

Ethology is the study of animal behavior; this is used a lot in zoos because they study the animal’s behavior to make sure that they are happy with the environment and their enclosure etc. They also study the animal’s behavior to make sure that they are healthy and being looked after well.

The zoo also use chemistry, this is another use of science used in the zoo.

They use chemistry to understand what medicines to give to the animals. Also, the use of cleaning fluids needs to be researched and studied to make sure that it wont affect the animals at all and can clean it properly also. Also, cooking in the cafes and restaurants need to use chemistry with cooking also, to make sure that it is cooked properly and the correct temperatures and ingredients.

Physics is used a lot around the zoo because there are a lot of buildings and enclosures, so the physics has to be good and up to standards to make sure that it is suitable and safe for the animals, visitors and employees to work, live and look in.

Skills used by employees which are science related:

At Twycross zoo there is a lot of science used in the organisation.

In Administration science is used in:

Personal decisions
Business decisions
Finance
ICT
Animal databases
Records

The skills and qualifications for these are:

GCSE’s
Business administration
Computer Science
The director of administration is a vet.

The animal team are very important in the zoo, they care for the animals. The science used is listed:

Keeping animal records
Feeding and cleaning
Caring for animals (medication etc)
Designing enclosures and enrichment
The qualifications used are:
Related degrees
Animal management
NVQ, GNVO Diploma, HND
Veterinary health studies

Experience

Estates also use science in the zoo. They help to maintain that the zoo is up to standards and build new things to make the zoo a better place for the animals, workers and visitors.

The jobs that done are:

Gardening
Building enclosures
Maintenance
Electrical
The qualifications needed for this are:
Trades
Horticulture

Education is a big part of the zoo, and the zoo do there best to make sure that visitors and workers etc are educated properly and understand the history, reason etc of the zoo.

The jobs to do with education are:

Teaching
Campaigns
Signage and Interpretation
Outreach
Research

The qualifications needed for this are:

GCSE’s
A Levels
Relevant degrees
Teaching
Experience

There are also other staffs that work at the zoo. These aren’t as important as the animal keepers etc. These include:

Food and Beverage
Gift shop workers
Visitor services

The qualifications are:

GCSE’s
A Levels
Experience
Examples of a range of jobs used in the organisation and the roles and responsibilities of those employees, you should also identify any scientific qualifications required for the jobs / how science is used

Job
Role
Responsibilities
Qualifications needed
How science is used
Education Officer

An education officer supports the education department, provides high standard services for groups of students and children visiting the zoo.

– Preparation of talks for groups of students.

– Delivering talks

– Keeping education buildings tidy

– Marketing the zoo’s education services

– Graduate in a zoo – related subject

– Preferably PGCE qualified

– Experience in teaching

– Excellent presentation skills

Science is used in this because you have to know all about the animals so you can teach people about them.

Catering manager

To ensure that the catering department delivers a cost effective service to the zoo.

– Motivate and manage staff

– Recruitment, training, development

– Maintain health, safety, hygiene

– Experience in budget setting and management

– Experienced in managing

– IT Literate

Biology is used for cooking.

Ranger

Being a key member of the team offering each member of the public their first impression of the zoo. Communicating with the public and welcoming them.

– Working on a few areas of visitor services.

– Help with car parking, gift aid, pay booth, information centre.

-Litter picking, cleaning etc.

– Good customer care skills, polite, friendly, helpful.

– Punctual

Qualifications aren’t essential.

Science isn’t really that important in this job, but you will need to know about the animals if the visitors ask anything.

Animal keeper (Grade 1)

To assist with the animal keeping on their section, so that it is carried out to the standards on a day-to-day basis.

Animals:

-Prepare and distribute food and water correctly.

-Know the animals, check, observe them.

Enclosures:

-Keep to standards of hygiene, cleanness.

-Maintain security

Staff:

– Assist with training

– Know the animals dietary requirements

– Follows the zoo’s health and safety instructions

– Had training and experience

Science is used because you need to know everything about the animals, what they eat and understand and identify their behaviour etc.

Gardener & Maintenance operative

To assist in the upkeep and planting of the zoo’s grounds and displays. Also, assist with the general maintenance.

-Mowing lawns

-Digging ground

-Planting

-General maintenance of grounds display

– Driving transport

-Physically fit, active

– Work experience as a labourer or gardener

Science isn’t really used with this job.

Vet

To help the zoo with the everyday care of animals. Be on hand to assist anything that they are needed for. Treat the animals when needed.

– Always on hand to help when there is a problem

– Care and look after the animals to make sure they are healthy.

– If they need treating to treat them in the correct way.

– Vaccinations etc.

-Biology ‘A’ Level, as well as one or two from Physics, Chemistry and Maths.

– Grades at ‘A’ Level, two A’s and a B, or, in some cases, three A’s

– Alternatively, a distinction in BTEC Diploma in Animal Science.

-Biology

Example of how changing scientific ideas affect the processes used within the company.

When scientific things are changed that are to do with the zoo, the zoo have to adapt to the changes and make sure that they are up to date with all of the latest ideas and changes within science, like better equipment and materials etc.

Things have to change in the zoo when scientific ideas change. The ethics of the zoo has changed along the years as there are more scientific ideas being founded, from exhibition to now it is education and conservation.

The enclosure designs also change with scientific ideas also. Before new materials were developed, the zoo enclosures were wired fences with not much to play with and not that great security, also it wasn’t very nice for the animals as they felt like they were trapped in cages and visitors weren’t happy to see the animals in cages, so they had to change how they were designed with scientific ideas. Now there are thick glass walls around the animal’s enclosure, this is better for the animal because they don’t feel as caged in and it is easier for visitors to view the animals and it is a more natural and earthly place for the animals to live in. They also have changed the materials in the zoos so that the animals are a lot safer with what they are living in and playing with etc. For example, the playground equipment that the gorilla’s have used to be unsafe and unsteady with the materials that were used before, and they may not even have had anything to play on because it was unsafe and they didn’t have the correct materials. Now, they have strong wood play equipment that is safe for the animal to sit and play on.

There are a lot of changes of how the staffs work with day to day work due to the research that is done. They do different things to what they did before new research and scientific research was done.

Also, the zoo is a lot more environmentally friendly than it used to be because of the world changing because of scientific things that are happening in the world, they join up with everyone else with recycling and re-using things.

How ICT is used in the company:

ICT is used in the zoo because they have to do some work with ICT and computers to understand their animals and keep records on them etc.

The zoo has to keep records on every single animal to make sure that nothing goes wrong and they are not fed or gave medication twice for example. They have to keep animal records on everything about the animal and what they eat, how they need to be given it. Also, with the active breeding programme they have to make sure that they put into records about the animals breeding. The zoo do this because if anything went wrong with the zoo or there are new staff being employed, and if the zoo goes under new management etc they have under records everything about the animals and what is going on with them, this is to make sure that they have proof of what they are doing and have done.

They also have staff records at the zoo to see the record on staff, so that other staff and managers etc can see what is going on and the comments or qualifications etc are up to standards and that they are doing their job properly and they don’t have any records on the CRB.

The zoo also does the pay roll using ICT. This is easier so they have all of the pay rolls and records on the computer and don’t get confused with them. Also, it is easier to print off and get all of the pay roll’s right for every staff worker. The zoo also uses ICT for pay rolls are that it is easy to update and change.

The zoo has partnership with many other zoos in the world, so they used ICT to communicate with other zoos for research, help or to do with the animals. This is easier, and much cheaper to keep in contact with them over the internet, emails etc than phone calling abroad into other countries which will cost a lot more. Also, the zoo has a website so they need to keep that up to date and running.

Rules and regulations that the company has to adhere to:

Twycross zoo has several rules and regulations that they have to stick to and go along with. Every company has rules and regulations that they must stick to and keep in line with the law, if they don’t they are breaking the law and could in fact have their company shut down.

There is a lot of rules and regulations for Twycross zoo as they have to stick to them strictly to make sure that the animals are as safe as they can be in their home, and also that the visitors and staff are safe.

The zoo has to stick to the rules and regulations of the ‘The Provision of Services Regulations.’ There are lots of different parts to this that the zoo has to stick to, the part of the provision they have to stick to is called the Secretary of state’s standards of modern zoo practice.

The provision of food and water regulation states that the food must be presented in an appropriate manner, it must be of nutritive value, good quantity and quality. That the animals must have fresh, clean drinking water and it must be available to them at all times. It also states that supplies of food and drink should be kept and prepared under hygienic conditions.

The provision of a suitable environment states that the temperature, ventilation, lighting and noise levels in the enclosures must be suitable for an animal. That the animals in outdoor enclosures must be provided with shelter. Also, that the enclosures and barriers must be in good condition and not be any harm to animals, for example they must not have barriers where the animal could get out, or get hurt or stuck in it.

Provision of animal health care states that the zoo has to do routine observation, which means that the animals should be checked at least twice a day by the person that is in charge of that section on that day, and that if they are any cause for concerned they need to be checked by a proper professional immediately. They also have to keep a daily record on that animal.

It also states that they have to check the enclosures closely also. They must be a size and design and suitable for the animal to live in. Also, they must not put animals that don’t get on or are not the same species into the same enclosure. Keepers must also check the plants and trees in the enclosures to make sure they cannot injure the animal in any way at all. Also, there must be a distance between the barriers and enclosures, and also a distance between the visitors in case of the spread of disease.

The provision of opportunity to express most normal behaviour states that the animals should always be allowed the opportunity to express the behaviour that they would like to do and in any way that they would like to, which is suitable.

The provision of protection from fear and distress states that animals must be handled and looked after by qualified and experienced staff, it must be done with care to make sure that the animals are protected. It also states that animals must under any circumstances be provoked for the benefit of the public. If the animal was to interact in a stressful way, they must not be approached or looked at closely. If the animal is pregnant with young children, they should be put in a quiet area to minimise stress.

The secretary of state’s standards of modern zoo practice also covers a lot more things that are to do with the zoo. It covers transportation, so that the zoo has to ensure that when the animals are being transported they are always safe and looked after properly and not getting aggravated. It also ensures that the zoo has a lot of public safety and that they make sure they stick to the rules to keep everybody safe. Also, they have to ensure that staff has training and are fully qualified and experienced with doing what they are doing and ready for things that could happen.

What are risk assessments? Who creates them and how are they used:

A risk assessment is a careful examination of what in your company could cause harm to people or animals. They are used in all businesses and organisations and are there to predict and limit the hazards that could happen in your workplace or in Twycross zoos place the home of animals. With risk assessments you can see whether you have taken enough precautions and predictions to make sure that the company is trying its hardest to make sure staff, visitors and animals are protected the best that they can. All zoo’s and wildlife parks legally have to perform risk assessments. They are made by the selected persons that have been asked to make a risk assessment. For example, they could ask the zoo keeper to make one as they know the things that could go wrong and work with the animals, public, and other staff and also in the enclosures so they can predict what could happen. A higher member of staff could also make the risk assessments to what they think could go wrong, or the more predictable risk assessments that they know.

10&11 – Lost them, need doing again. ??
What kite marks are and what they represent:

The Kitemark symbolises quality and safety to people and also businesses, it is a registered trademark of the British standards institution. It is a mark of excellent assurance and visible evidence that the product conforms to certain guidelines; also it shows that the product or business has gone through testing to make sure it is appropriate for the purpose.

For the business or product in question to gain a kite mark they have to go through several stages of testing to make sure that the product or business is a 100% safe for the consumer or visitor to feel safe in using the product or attending the business. The Kitemark is trusted and recognised by more than 88% of the population and of those who recognised the Kitemark claimed that products with a Kitemark were 93% safer and 91% felt that it would be better quality and purpose.

Around the zoo there are many products and places that will have the Kitemark symbol on it. For example, there should be a Kitemark on most of the glass windows you see around the zoo, or even on a fire extinguisher in the enclosures, or in the zoo shop it will have it on near enough ever souvenir that you can buy in there.

Kitemarks are important to customers because they feel like they have trust in knowing that the product or place that they are buying or visiting has been tested and is of the highest safety and qualify that it can be. They have trust in the product or business because it is well known and they know that it takes work to have a Kitemark so the product or business must be safe enough.

Impacts on the local community:
The demands made on transport and communications systems:

The zoo affects the local community, with people visiting the zoo daily the visitors and also the staff have to go through the local village to get to Twycross zoo. At peak season, there are many more visitors than other times of the year and this is going to cause more cars and coaches etc visiting the zoo. This could cause some hassle in the community as the roads aren’t big enough for big coaches and lots of traffic to go through and build up, so traffic problems on the way to the zoo can cause a major problem for the community.

Also, with so much traffic going through the local village there is going to be a lot more pollution and noise than the community are used to.

The zoo has made some changes so that they are putting less stress on the community. They have changed the entrance to get the traffic off the roads quicker and the majority queuing is on the campus of Twycross zoo.

Waste management:

Twycross zoo produce a lot of waste daily. They are trying their best to reduce their footprint as much as they can.

They are reducing their contribution to waste landfill by recycling as much as they can, and also trying to reduce the waste that they produce with things that aren’t needed. For example, most of the paper that the zoo uses is shredded and used as animal bedding. This is a good idea because you are not wasting paper and re-using it with something that is essential to the animals.

With the animal waste, the animals produce near enough 800 tonnes of poo a day! This means that they have a lot of poo to get rid of and they have to do it environmentally. They have invested in an in-vessel composting system. It works by putting the poo, shredded paper, straw, sawdust and garden waste into the machine, and it grinds the compost down and heats it up to 60 degrees. The reason for heating the compost is to get rid of all of the bacteria and germs. It generates sterilized compost in around 15 days.

They are also doing their best to reduce the electricity that they need by using as many energy efficient products as they can. For example, using energy saving light bulbs.

They are also reducing the effect they have on the water system by creating their own environmentally friendly water filtration system.

Here is a flow chart that describes what the zoo does with their animal waste:

Economy:

Twycross zoo also helps the economy by providing jobs for people that need work and that is helping society by producing more jobs so that less people are unemployed.

Also, that the shops around the zoo could benefit from Twycross zoo being in the village that is in because visitors could go into the local village and buy things from the shops which is more profit and customers for the shop.

Community involvement:

The zoo does a pretty good job of involving the community in what they do. They do this by holding events organised and held by the zoo itself to involve the community. Also, they do talks and educate the community in what they do at the zoo and everything that they would like to know to involve them a lot more.

You can join the zoo as a member, this will give you certain advantages to the zoo for example you can get cheaper entry.

Also, you can adopt an animal at the zoo. This can be a fun thing to do for children and involve the public in with the animals and the zoo.

Energy consumption:

The zoo tries their best to reduce the amount of energy that they consume.

They do this by using energy efficient appliances such as energy efficient light bulbs and heating. They also have under floor heating and this saves energy because less heat is being wasted and also they are more efficient than radiators.

Also, with the new buildings that are being built they make sure that they build them with more energy efficient things in their building. For example they put more insulation and under floor heating in the new buildings to try and save as much energy as they can.

The zoo also now use glass in the enclosures instead of cages. This is a great way to keep heat and energy in as is keep more heat in than a cage.

The establishment of casinos in American cities induces moral and economic debates. Due to the profit gambling establishments create, casinos have been able to grow and prosper. Gambling has become a huge industry in the United States with total income of over 78 billion in 2004 (Ernest P. Goss, 2000). Las Vegas by itself in 2005 took in over eleven billion dollars (Ernest P. Goss, 2000). However, despite casino’s overwhelming profit margin, the social costs of having a casino affect both those who gamble and those who do not (cite). A careful, accurate analysis of the effects of gambling and casinos reveals that gambling casinos cause real harm both to the individual gamblers and the communities they reside in. As states, cities, and counties need for tax dollars increases, government departments seek to gain approval for the placement of gambling facilities in their communities. Gambling facilities are often allowed in order to bring in more revenue by taxing gambling activities. However when one looks at the true cost of gambling this method of increasing tax revenue leads to severe long term harm to the communities and individuals who live close to these casinos.

Based on the best available numbers and analyses, the costs of gambling far exceed the benefits by a factor of more than 3:1 (Gardner, 2005). That is for every dollar of tax revenue three dollars have to be spent to address the harmful externalities caused by gambling. The social costs are tragic. Areas where casinos are built see an increase in crime, suicide, divorce and bankruptcy rates. These casino communities also observe an increase in employment costs, illness, social service cost and family cost. Casinos also hurt the local economy by taking discretionary dollars away from the local restaurants, bowling alleys and other amenities. Thus communities with casinos see either a net loss of jobs in the local community or just simply no increase in jobs at all (Gardner, 2005).

In many ways gambling casinos can be viewed and the gambling that occurs in casinos can seen as small black holes on the geographical landscape of America. These black holes exert tremendous social and economic effect within fifty miles of its location. Their negative effect on the surrounding community increases with proximity. Within this fifty mile radius of the casinos the highest rates of economic loss, bankruptcy, divorce, suicide and crime are found.

By looking at just one individual case we can see the personal tragedy as well as the huge social cost of gambling. Take the case of Riva Wilkinson, based on information made public, she had a gambling problem. Her gambling problem escalated with her beginning to steal money from her job, in order to place bets at a black jack casino in Prior Lake. Eventually it became known that she stole upwards of 410,000 dollars in as little as twelve months (Kearney, 2005). In addition to the monetary cost of this theft one has to add in the social cost of discovering and prosecuting her. Over 1,000 man hours put in by FBI agents, local police and accountants were spent in this discovery and prosecution (Kearney, 2005). “These services cost the public over 100,000 dollars (Kearney, 2005).” As we can see from the Wilkinson case, social costs from casinos fall hard on even those who do not gamble. Gambling is associated with a plethora of crimes ranging from violent to property crimes. These violent crimes include aggravated assault, robbery, rape and murder. Property crimes include larceny burglary and auto theft (Gardner, 2005).

In addition gambling is connected with so called victimless crimes including check forgery, tax fraud, tax evasion, selling drugs, and prostitution (Edington, 1999). Gambling also has been linked to organized crime (Ernest P. Goss, 2000). Many Casinos have been identified as businesses under direct control by the mob. For example “the Illinois Gambling Board concluded that the top officials of a proposed river boat casino were controlled by the mob and most of the casinos investors had links to mob figures (Kearney, 2005). Federal Court documents and South Carolina corporate records show a link between Aouth Carolina’s video gambling industry and a Pittsburgh organized-crime rating (Eadington, 1999). These mob connections although more difficult to quantify are mentioned often mentioned in courtrooms and newspapers in America (Volberg, 2007). These crimes caused by gambling invariably lead to large quantities of resources being spent. Expenditures include extra costs for policing, capturing, imprisoning and rehabilitating of these criminals (Kearney, 2005). Businesses in the communities where casinos are located incur significant business and employment costs. These expenditures which are paid for by tax paying citizens and employers, these expenditures are lost worker efficiency causing reduced performance, lost time working due to extended lunch breaks, arriving late, and leaving early due to gambling. In addition embezzlement and the taking of unnecessary sick days can be attributed to gambling (Gardner, 2005). Between 21 and 36 percent of compulsive gamblers in rehabilitation state that they have lost a job due to gambling (Volberg, 2007).

The National Gambling Impact Study Commision found that counties with casino gambling had an average of an 8% higher crime rate than that of counties that did not have casinos (NGISC, 1999). These crime rate increases occur gradually after the third year of the casino’s operation. (NGISC, 1999) “We conclude that casinos increase property crime and violent crime, with the exception of murder, and that the effect on crime increases over time.” (NGISC, 1999) The authors describe of the report describe it as “the most exhaustive study of casinos and crime to date, both in terms of number of counties we studied and the timer period analyzed.” (NGISC, 1999) The study compared crime statistics of all 3,000 U.S. counties in the United States from 1977 to 1996, observing the differences in crime rates before and after casinos opened. Some interesting facts derived from the report state that in five years after the casino opened, robberies were up 136%, aggravated assaults were up 91%, auto theft 78%, burglary 50%, larceny 38% and rape 21%. These increases were attributed to the casinos (NGISC, 1999). Alarmingly some crimes increase immediately after a casino’s construction, robbery, DUIs and domestic violence increase 9% on average the year a casino is built. (NGISC, 1999)

In examining the external or hidden costs associated with compulsive gamblers we discover the average cost to society if an additional compulsive gambler were to be added to the population. This information can provides us with a cost figure for our society. Another way to examine these hidden costs is to look directly at the symptoms gambling causes. Symptoms such as crime, suicide, and bankruptcy (Eadington, 1999; Walker, 2008). According to a study done in 1999 the average cost to society of an additional compulsive gambler is almost $3,000 (Eadington, 1999).

(Lorenz, Valerie D, 1997)

Gambling also incurs social costs because it is a Directly Unproductive Profitseeking (DUP 136) activity (Walker, Douglas; 2001). A DUP is an activity that produces nothing of social value while removing resources from productive activity. Although gambling may be personally rewarding they are to the gambler, the gambling activity is a waste and a drain on the community resources. This DUP activity of gambling also incurs opportunity costs in the sense that the time the person spent gambling could have been spent performing productive activities (Walker, Douglas; 2001). For example a professional poker player who does not gamble for enjoyment but rather gambles for a living engages in DUP activity and reduces national income by the amount of his potential productive output during those hours spent gambling. Nobel prize winning economist, Paul Samuelson, described DUP gambling as the following.

“There is, however a substantial economic case to be made against gambling aˆ¦. It involves simply sterile transfers of money or goods between individuals, creating no new money or goods. Although it creates no output, gambling does nevertheless absorb time and resources. When pursued beyond the limits of recreation, where the main purpose after all is to “kill” time, gambling subtracts from the national income (Walker, Douglas; 2001).”

An unnamed source has said that gambling is nothing more than an agreement by a group of individuals to steal each others money. Gambling of course causes personal bankruptcy and these bankruptcies impose social costs by diverting resources to lawsuits, legal costs and bill collection costs (Gardner, 2005). Research and evidence involving casinos and bankruptcy is ongoing. The evidence for the connection between bankruptcies and casinos is provided by a wide variety of sources ranging from different geographical areas and a number of formal studies. In 1994 casinos opened in Baton Rouge Lousianna (Lorenz, Valerie D, 1997). After the opening of the casinos the Baton Rouge Crisis and Intervention center subsequently that gambling related incoming calls jumped from 39 in 1993 to 1,375 in 1995 (Lorenz, Valerie D, 1998). At the same time personal bankruptcy rose 53 percent in the first half of 1996 compared to a year prior. Bankruptcy lawyers stated gambling was the major factor. Also in 1994 Kansas City opened its first casinos, by 1996 bankruptcies were on the rise in Kansas City (Lorenz, Valerie D, 1998). The officials at Kansas City Bankruptcy court normally reported one person a year due to gambling. The Kansas City Bankruptcy court would later report seeing twenty people a month because of gambling related issues (Lorenz, Valerie D, 1998).

(Walker, 2008).

In Wisconsin in 1996 an AP report showed that “People in eastern Wisconsin were seeking bankruptcy at a pace 25 percent greater than a year before gambling had been made legal (McGowan, 2008).” According to the AP report one in ten bankruptcies in this Wisconsin area were linked to gambling debts, more than double the rate of past years (Gardner, 2005). A 1995 study in Minneapolis found that in 105 filers for bankruptcy the average gambling loss was 22 thousand dollars (Walker, 2008). “A 1998 study found that in the 298 U.S. counties which had legalized gambling within their borders reported a 1996 bankruptcy gambling rate that was 18% higher than the filings of counties with no gambling (Walker, 2008).” The SMR Research Corporation located in Hackettstown, New Jersey found that 2.5 to ten percent of all bankruptcy filings in the United States have a gambling component (Grinols, 2004).

Gambling also tragically increases the rate of suicide. Studies of problem and pathological gamblers report that they both contemplate and commit suicide at a rate higher than the general public (Gardner, 2005). Studies report that 15 to 25 percent of gamblers who have admitted to having a gambling problem, have attempted suicide rates that are five to ten times the average of the general population. Of these gamblers, 12-18 percent have made potentially lethal suicide attempts, and almost 50 percent have made plans to kill themselves and more than 65 percent think about suicide (Gardner, 2005). The full extent that gambling has on suicide rates in the United States, is definitely a question that needs further research.

The stress that gambling causes individuals can lead to a number of stress-related illnesses such as chronic headaches, anxiety, moodiness, irritability, intestinal disorder, asthma, cognitive distortions, and cardiovascular disorders. Many of the costs of sickness are borne by the gambler, but these illnesses also lead to real resource costs that the local community must bear in the form of treatment costs (Grinols,2005). “The extreme financial stress and employment difficulties associated with problem and pathological gambling can lead to unemployment and require periods in which government assistance is needed (Grinols,2005).”

Social service costs include therapy and treatment costs, as well as unemployment insurance costs, Medicaid, energy assistance costs in some states, and the cost of other social services such as welfare and food stamps (McGowan, 2008;Grinols, 2004). “Other social costs include the family cost caused by gambling such as the cost of divorce, separation spousal abuse and child neglect (Grinols, 2004).” Many of the spouses and children of pathological gamblers are physically and verbally abused (Grinols, 2004).

There are many examples that show the personal tragedies that gambling can cause and the difficulties that the local communities have in dealing with them. The following is just a few of these events. In 1999 Mississippi Gulf Coast banking officials were looking for the best combination of security measures to deal with an increase in bank robberies (Walker, 2008). “Harrison, Hancock, Jackson and Stone counties (on the Mississippi Gulf Coast) reported only two bank robberies in 1990 and in 1991 (Walker, 2008).”While since that time such burglaries have soared to over thirty such thefts in 1997. The Montreal Quebec reported in 1999 that the rate of gambling related suicide had more than doubled in one year. According to their report 15 people all men had killed themselves because of gambling problems this figure is up from six in 1998 and two in 1994(Walker, 2008). Interestingly 1994 was when Quebec introduced legalized casinos. The above are just a few stories of the harm gambling causes.

Another way to judge the effect casino gambling has on the near-by communities, is the use of statistical analysis. In 2003 the amount that compulsive gamblers cost society was above $10,000 (adjusted for inflation) whereas in 1990 each compulsive gambler cost society almost $2,400 (Grinols, 2004). Compulsive gambling is a recognized disorder and is part of the DSM-IV of the American Psychiatric Association (Volberg, 2007).

“Pathological gamblers are identified by a number of characteristics, including repeated failures to resist the urge to gamble; loss of control over their gambling, personal lives, and employment; reliance on others to relieve a desperate financial situation caused by gambling; and the committing of illegal acts to finance gambling. Problem gamblers have similar problems, but to a lesser degree (McGowan, 2008).”

Frequently these different types of gamblers are mentioned together as “problem and pathological gamblers (Kearney, 2005).” Scientific research in the medical field has revealed that gambling influences the brain in much the same way addictive drugs influence the brain. Additionally in the same way that a portion of the population is more susceptible to the influence of drugs, a portion of the population is susceptible to addictive gambling (Albanese J, 1996).

As discussed above a comprehensive cost benefit analysis reveals that true cost of introducing a casino to a region is greater than 3:1 (Gardner, 2005). Which means it costs three dollars for every dollar gained in tax revenue. In light of this casinos are a horribly ineffective way to raise taxes. Building casinos today will bankrupt communities in the future. Casinos are much more costly than simply instituting a tax. If we assume that these cost benefit numbers were somehow skewed are exaggerated by a factor of 3 casinos would still prove to a useless mechanism to generate money (Volberg, 2007).

In a National Gambling impact Study commission discovered that the close you live to a casino the more likely you are to become a compulsive gambler. A person living within fifty miles of a casino has a 1.2% chance of becoming a compulsive gambler, comparatively a person living between 51 and 250 miles away has a .5% chance of becoming a compulsive gambler (NGISC, 1999) . A 200 mile increase in distance from a casino more than halves one’s chances of becoming a compulsive gambler. (NGISC, 1999)

The national gambling impact study commission also reported that families who live close to a casino spend roughly $500 every year per adult on gambling (Near being defined as within three miles of the casino) (NGISC, 1999). Additionally those families that live between three and one hundred miles away spend $340 per year per adult, a decrease of 32% (NGISC, 1999).

Prior to 1990 most of the country in America had no legalized casinos (Albanese J, 1996). The question put to local communities and society at large is whether they would be better off without legalized casino gambling. The evidence clearly indicates that these communities would in fact be better off without casinos by a wide margin. In simple terms for every dollar spent on casinos, three are required to clean up the casinos externalities (Gardner, 2005).

EXTRAS

Reviewjournal.com

Problem gambling among Southern Nevadans has a social cost conservatively pegged at between $300 million to $450 million a year, a new report being released this week says.

The cost also is about equal to the total estimated gaming taxes paid by casino operators in Southern Nevada, he said.

The actual cost could be fairly estimated as high as $900 million a year “had very conservative assumptions not been made in preparing the report,” said Las Vegas professor and casino gambling expert Bill Thompson, a co-author of the study.

Estimates of the number of pathological gamblers in Southern Nevada ranged from 20,000 to almost 40,000.

The research showed the annual social cost of each pathological gambler in treatment programs is $19,085.

The highest annual single cost per individual in treatment programs involves bankruptcy debt losses and civil court costs of $10,000.

The employment costs in terms of missed work, productivity losses, forced terminations and unemployment compensation is more than $6,000 per compulsive gambler.

The criminal justice cost (theft, arrests, trials, incarceration and probation) is almost $2,500. The cost of treatment and social services is $500.

“That’s the government’s and the casinos’ dirty little secret. They have claimed they create benefits without costs,” he said.

“For those who have a problem with gambling, it’s a different story. Even at 2 percent or 5 percent of the population, it’s a problem we have to take seriously,” Stewart said.

“The National Gambling Impact Study Commission concluded the annual cost of problem gambling is $5 billion to $6 billion nationwide,” he said.

The report also excludes the costs of family dysfunction, divorce, children being without families, suicide and attempted suicide. That also could be a serious omission because the suicide rates among compulsive gamblers are the highest of any addicted group and six times the rates among alcoholics.

“The Swampscott conference in 1965 highlighted a growing need for psychologists to be political activists and agents of social change – this conference is considered the birthplace of community psychology” (Barry, 2008). The ultimate aim of community psychology is to enhance the quality of life through collaborative research and action. Community psychology consists of three dominant perspectives – namely, the ecological perspective, the social constructionist perspective and the critical perspective. Community psychologists use these perspectives to structure research and formulate interventions. Community psychology focuses much attention on health and creating interventions to alleviate health concerns. Health, is not just physical well being, but is a state of complete physical and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” (Petee & Asch, 1949)

As the discussions progresses, the three perspectives will be explored in detail, the case study Deadly Cells: The struggle of HIV positive prisoners will then be utilized to contextualise the three perspectives in formulating HIV/AIDS health interventions within prisons. Before we dive into the complexities that underlie these interventions it is important to have an accurate understanding of the three perspectives that are considered to be the foundation of community psychology interventions.

Urie Bronfrenbrenner was the first to propose the ecological model based on a nested level of analysis. Bronfrenbrenner asserted that the individual does not exist as a static entity but is at the core of various levels of analysis that are all in constant interaction with each other – thus an individuals behaviour does not exist in a vacuum and is influenced by the environment. The levels of influence include: the microsystem (refers to interpersonal relations), the mesosystem (refers to interaction among the systems that the individual is involved in), the exosystem (this involves the larger social system) and the macrosystem (refers to cultural and religious beliefs). “James Kelly evolved Bronfenbrenner’s theory by shifting the focus from the individual and the levels of analysis to develop an understanding of how human communities function” (Kelly, 1966, p. 537). Kelly highlighted four important principles that govern the behavior of individuals in different contexts. The four principles are as follows: adaptation (individuals need to adapt to the demands of change); succession (acknowledges the history (values, culture etc.) of a context – history helps understand the present); cycling of resources (this is the identification and utilization of the resources available within a context – the central aim being, to focus on the strengths of the particular context and its constituents) and interdependence (change is directly proportional to the other systems, thus change in one part of the system may cause negative or positive effects in other parts of the system). The ecological perspective helps stress that systems are not static entities, thus effective interventions can only be achieved by adopting a holistic stance.

“Social constructionism are sociological theories of knowledge that consider how social phenomena or objects of consciousness develop in social contexts” (Daniel, 1998, p. 126).Therefore, our world has been constructed, through social interactions within our environment Social constructionism has many underlying principles that help accurately understand this theoretical paradigm.

Social constructionism is anti-naturalism, which according to Bruner states that: “It is culture not biology that shapes the human mind that gives meaning to action by situating its underlying intentional states in an interpretive system” (Gergen, 1999, p. 27).This point illustrates that there is a danger involved if we treat individuals and societies as mere objects, to probe and study (as in biology), agency and interaction need to be considered. Secondly, is the use of language. Language is not just a means of communication, but a complex tool of symbolic representation that we utilize to construct our social reality, to define roles, formulate traditions and develop unique systems of representation.

Closely tied to language is the third principle of ‘meaning’. Food is food because we have socially constructed it as an edible substance within our culture – we gave it meaning (e.g.: the stomach of the sheep is a delicacy in Indian culture, however in Western culture it may be incomprehensible to eat). Fourth is power, power is closely tied to the notion of discourse (“Refers to how people operationalize language within a culture” (Freedman & Combs, 1996).The various discourses of a particular culture dominate the culture, and knowledge of such discourses create a sense of power. Power and discourse is utilized to normalize individuals within a culture. Each and every culture contains a grand narrative which can be defined as the dominant, overarching ideology that exists within a culture. Grand narratives are sustained and constructed through the use of guiding metaphors, which refers to the selective use of language to actualize our realities. The fifth principle is that there is no single truth. This can be illustrated by the speech entitled ‘The Danger of a single story’, delivered by famous Nigerian author Chimamande Adichie. In her speech Adichie speaks of her childhood and the books that she read which were chiefly British and American. These books influenced her overall view of the world to such an extent that when she began writing (at 7 years old), all her characters were predominantly white and lived in their white world. It is important to note that she developed a single story of the world devoid of her African heritage. Her unilateral views were confirmed when she entered university and her American roommate was awestruck, that she, a Nigerian girl could speak fluent English. As her roommates view of Africa was nothing but poverty and war – a single story of Africa. Coupled with the ‘single story’ notion is the issue of power. “Power is the ability not just to tell a story of another person, but to make it the definitive story of that person” (Adichie, 2002). It is evident that a single story robs all the colour of any painting. “The consequence of a single story is it robs people of dignity and emphasizes how we are different than how we are similar” (Adichie, 2002). The above illustration illuminates the notion that there are multiple sides to any story ,however what may be the most important side is the underlying dynamics that are absent from sight. From the above discussion on social constructionism it is clear that this perspective by no means objectifies reality, but subjectifies experiences, interactions and social construction within a particular context.

“Critical psychology can be understood as a metadiscipline that urges the discipline of psychology to critically evaluate its moral and political implications” (Painter & Terre Blanche, 2006, p. 215) Critical psychology places importance on challenging the dominant values of mainstream psychology. Critical psychology points out that the roles of professionals (e.g. politicians, psychologists etc.) are not value free roles and the values of professionals need consideration. Therefore, it is evident that critical psychology poses a much needed criticism of mainstream psychology. Critical psychology and mainstream psychology differ in the following aspects: Traditional psychology attributes problems to particular individuals and their contribution to the emergence of a problem ,conversely critical psychology identifies a problem within a particular system and the existing power differentials, secondly, mainstream psychology emphasizes individualism and capitalist values, critical psychology challenges this view, asserting that this view stunts the search for self-actualization and the final aspect is power. Power according to mainstream psychology is attained through professional training and knowledge, however critical psychology asserts that power should be shared and not exist within individuals. Critical psychology highlights that power can either empower or marginalize individuals and all interventions do not benefit all individuals. Thus from the above discussion it is clear that critical psychology is a coupling of the previous two perspectives with ultimate goal of freedom and empowerment.

Now that a clear understanding of the three perspectives community psychologists utilize in formulating interventions has been developed, it will be used to contextualise the case study : ‘Deadly Cells: The struggle of HIV positive prisoners’

The article Deadly cells, illustrate the plight of HIV positive prisoners in a South African prison (Westville). The article states that infected inmates were denied access to anti-retroviral treatment (ARVs) – robbed of their human right of access to appropriate healthcare. The Department of Correction when notified of the issue responded by stating that prisoners need their identification documents (which they did not have) and that there was limited access to hospitals that would treat the prisoners. After much contention the matter reached the courts. Due to the harsh conditions (rape, unprotected sex, overcrowding, gang life etc.) in prisons, infection of the disease was exacerbated. In 2006, after much deliberation the government agreed to provide ARV treatment, however this conclusion does nothing to curb the problem of the rapid increase of HIV/AIDS victims in prisons.

The above case study will now be contextualised with the use of the three perspectives discussed earlier and interventions will be suggested to alleviate the problem.

A community psychologist working from an ecological perspective will define the prisoner’s perception of their environment, analyse the characteristics of the environment and then adopt a transactional analysis of how the perceptions and external characteristics interact to produce the problem – a holistic systemic view. The researcher will spend time at the prison in a participatory manner, engaging collaboratively with the prisoners to understand their problem on various levels. The ecological intervention will promote participation and instil the belief that the affected can indeed effect change. An example of an appropriate ecological intervention to alleviate the problem of HIV/AIDS at the Westville prison includes the following: first and foremost the prisoners need to be made aware of their rights and the laws that protect their health; this can be done by running education programs. The prison staff (officers, wardens etc.) need to play a proactive role in the prevention of rape, discrimination and the alleviation of gang fights in the prisons, this can be achieved through training programs for the staff. The issue of overcrowding within the prison needs to be referred to the authorities or community based organisations (CBOs) in order to create awareness and mass media attention. The prison authorities need to provide lubricants and condoms to prisoners – teaching them to be proactive. Pressure should be put on the Department of Health for ARVs and in-house HIV/AIDS care centres by creating media attention. Lastly, an external officer needs to monitor that the interventions are in place (by weekly visits). The above suggestions emphasise that the problem is not just a health issue and in order to alleviate the problem a holistic, nested stance needs to be adopted.

The social constructionist perspective differs from the ecological model as the values of the participants are central to the formation of an intervention. A researcher working from the social constructionist perspective will work closely with prisoners, in order to understand their subjective experiences, through qualitative methodologies. The researcher will search to uncover the prisoner’s discourses, utilisation of language and their grand narratives in relation to the causation and treatment of HIV/AIDS. Once a contextually specific view has been developed the researcher will begin to build a context specific intervention. An example of an intervention that may alleviate the problem at the Westville prison includes the following: A researcher may begin by conducting focus group interviews with the prisoners to gain an empathic understanding of the plight of the prisoners. Once a clear understanding of the problem (rape, overcrowding and the lack of proper healthcare) has been developed, the researcher will then collaboratively formulate possible solutions to the problem with the prisoners. Possible solutions may include: a prisoner awareness programme carried out by the prisoners, practicing safe sex, alleviating gang violence and rape through creating awareness and reporting incidences and by involving CBOs- thus taking responsibility for their own health. The lack of medical treatment can be alleviated by forming a campaign that emphasises the disabled healthcare rights of the prisoners, the ultimate aim being to gain media attention, ultimately government fulfilment of the laws that protect prisoners. The social constructionist view places importance on the value structure within a context, once these structures have been unwrapped, they can solve the problem by building new structures that are proactive – thus the answer may lie within discourses or narratives.

The critical perspective differs as it is an integration of the above two paradigms with the ultimate goal of freedom and empowerment. Critical psychology like social constructionism values the subjective experiences of the prisoners and therefore, can be considered to be value-driven. A key goal of critical psychology is to transform the problem and therefore, has political connotations. The aim of the researcher begins with a transformative stance, understanding the plight of the prisoners and to empower and liberate them to action, by enlightening them on the possible solutions. An example of an intervention to alleviate the problem at the Westville prison includes: “Participation Action Research (PAR) is a collaborative approach, with research aimed at social change, researcher and participants are partners and communication is central to successful intervention” (McTaggart, 1997). PAR is an activist approach. The prisoners could form a mass demonstration (protest) and form alliances with CBOs that can create awareness outside the prisons, thus jointly accessing media attention. Once attention is attained the CBOS can appeal to the relevant legal authorities and international organisations such as the United Nations and the World Health Organisation – ultimately this would push the government to act. Therefore, it can be seen that the critical approach emphasises transformation and activism.

From the above discussion it can be deduced that community psychology is a multidimensional field that employs the use of various perspectives namely, ecological (a holistic systemic view), social (value-driven, constructed reality) and the critical perspective (a critical, activist view). Each perspective sheds new theoretical light on the plight of the Westville prisoners all emphasising the need for stronger health systems, a need for coordination and cooperation between authorities, CBOs, prisoners and prison staff and a limited exercising of rights related to healthcare and laws protecting the well-being of prisoners. Therefore it can be concluded that community psychology with the utilization of the three perspectives can help the marginalized prisoners break free from the stigma that prisoners have dissolved their rights to healthcare.