Category: Free Essays

” Htee Ree Muan Ta Hta , Htee Ree La Ta Soung,Yam Ree Ham,Um Ree Dam”, old saying in Pa-Oh language was quoted from former local teacher of Yoke village. It means “Don’t see in advance just by six inches, try to see further tens of thousands distance, same as to do the plow before you eat your meal”. It is also similar to English saying think twice before you act. Hence, prior to testing, the following theories and literature have been reviewed to have better idea and to see whether there is consistency between theory and the real world situation.

Maslow’s Theory of Motivation – Hierarchy of Needs

In 1943, Dr. Abraham Maslow’s article, “A Theory of Human Motivation ” appeared in the Psychological Review, which were further expanded upon in his book: Toward a psychology of well being, Abraham H. Maslow attempted to formulate a needs-based framework of human motivation and based upon his clinical experiences with people, rather than as did the prior psychology theories of his day from authors such as Freud and B.F. Skinner, which were largely theoretical or based upon animal behavior.

The basis of Maslow’s motivation theory is that human beings are motivated by unsatisfied needs, and that certain lower factors need to be satisfied before higher needs can be satisfied. According to Maslow, there are general types of needs (physiological, survival, safety, love, and esteem) that must be satisfied before a person can act unselfishly. He called these needs “deficiency needs.” As long as we are motivated to satisfy these cravings, we are moving towards growth, toward self-actualization. Satisfying needs is healthy, while preventing gratification makes us sick or act evilly.

Maslow’s model indicates that fundamental, lower-order needs like safety and physiological requirements have to be satisfied in order to pursue higher-level motivators along the lines of self-fulfillment. As depicted in the following hierarchical diagram, sometime called ‘Maslow’s Needs Pyramid’ or ‘Maslow’s Needs Triangle’, after a need is satisfied it stops acting as a motivator and the next need one rank higher starts to motivate.

Self-Actualization
Esteem Needs
Social Needs
Safety Needs
Physiological Needs
Source:http://www.envisionsoftware.com/articles/Maslows_Needs_Hierarchy.html#Self_Actualization
2.1.1 Physiological needs

For the most part, physiological needs are obvious – they are the literal requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met (with the exception of clothing, shelter) and sex), the human body simply cannot continue to function. Physiological needs include: Breathing, Homeostasis, Water, Sleep, Sex, Clothing, and Shelter.

2.1.2 Safety needs

With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual’s safety needs take over and dominate their behavior. These needs have to do with people’s yearning for a predictable, orderly world in which injustice and inconsistency are under control, the familiar frequent and the unfamiliar rare. In the world of work, this safety needs manifest themselves in such things as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, and the like. Particularly, physiological and safety needs are reasonably well satisfied in the “First World”. The obvious exceptions, of course, are people outside the mainstream – the poor and the disadvantaged. They still struggle to satisfy the basic physiological and safety needs. They are primarily concerned with survival: obtaining adequate food, clothing, shelter, and seeking justice from the dominant societal groups. Safety and Security needs include: Personal security, financial security, Health and well-being, Safety net against accidents/illness and the adverse impacts

2.1.3 Social needs

After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs is social. This psychological aspect of Maslow’s hierarchy involves emotionally-based relationships in general, such as: Friendship, Intimacy, Having a supportive and communicative family. Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group, such as clubs, office culture, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs (‘safety in numbers’), or small social connections (family members, intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants). They need to love and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. In the absence of these elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and clinical depression. This need for belonging can often overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer pressure; an anorexic, for example, may ignore the need to eat and the security of health for a feeling of control and belonging.

2.1.4 Esteem

All humans have a need to be respected, to have self-esteem, self-respect. Also known as the belonging need, esteem presents the normal human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People need to engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and self-valued, be it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem or an inferiority complex. People with low self-esteem need respect from others. They may seek fame or glory, which again depends on others. It may be noted, however, that many people with low self-esteem will not be able to improve their view of themselves simply by receiving fame, respect, and glory externally, but must first accept themselves internally. Psychological imbalances such as depression can also prevent one from obtaining self-esteem on both levels. Most people have a need for a stable self-respect and self-esteem. Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs, a lower one and a higher one. The lower one is the need for the respect of others, the need for status, recognition, fame, prestige, and attention. The higher one is the need for self-esteem, strength, competence, mastery, self-confidence, independence and freedom. The last one is higher because it rests more on inner competence won through experience. Deprivation of these needs can lead to an inferiority complex, weakness and helplessness. Maslow stresses the dangers associated with self-esteem based on fame and outer recognition instead of inner competence. Healthy self-respect is based on earned respect.

2.1.5 Self-Actualization

The motivation to realize one’s own maximum potential and possibilities is considered to be the master motive or the only real motive, all other motives being its various forms. In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the need for self-actualization is the final need that manifests when lower level needs have been satisfied. Classical Alderrain psychotherapy promotes this level of psychological development, utilizing the foundation of a 12-stage therapeutic model to realistically satisfy the basic needs, leading to an advanced stage of “meta-therapy,” creative living, and self/other/task-actualization. Maslow’s writings are used as inspirational resources.

2.1.6 Self-transcendence

Near the end of his life Maslow revealed that there was a level on the hierarchy that was above self-actualization: self-transcendence. “[Transcenders] may be said to be much more often aware of the realm of Being (B-realm and B-cognition), to be living at the level of Beingaˆ¦ to have unitive consciousness and “plateau experience” (serene and contemplative B-cognitions rather than climactic ones) aˆ¦ and to have or to have had peak experience (mystic, sacral, ecstatic) with illuminations or insights. Maslow later did a study on 12 people he believed possessed the qualities of Self-transcendence. Many of the qualities were guilt for the misfortunes of someone close creativity, humility, intelligence, and divergent thinking. They were mainly loners, had deep relationships, and were very normal on the outside. Maslow estimated that only 2% of the population will ever achieve this level of the hierarchy in their lifetime, and that it was absolutely impossible for a child to possess these traits.

2.2 Maslow’s Theory – Limitations and Criticism

Though Maslow’s hierarchy makes sense intuitively, little evidence supports its strict hierarchy. Actually, recent research challenges the order that the needs are imposed by Maslow’s pyramid. As an example, in some cultures, social needs are placed more fundamentally than any others. Further, Maslow’s hierarchy fails to explain the “starving artist” scenario, in which the aesthetic neglects their physical needs to pursuit of aesthetic or spiritual goals. Additionally, little evidence suggests that people satisfy exclusively one motivating need at a time, other than situations where needs conflict.

2.2.1 ERG Theory of Motivation – Clayton P. Alderfer

In 1969, Clayton Alderfer’s revision of Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, called the ERG Theory appeared in Psychological Review in an article titled “An Empirical Test of a New Theory of Human Need.” Alderfer’s contribution to organizational behavior was dubbed the ERG theory (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth), and was created to align Maslow’s motivation theory more closely with empirical research.

Source http://www.envisionsoftware.com/Management/ERG_Theory

Beyond simply reducing the distinction between overlapping needs, the ERG theory improves upon the following shortcomings of Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy:

Alderfers ERG theory demonstrates that more than one need may motivate at the same time. A lower motivator need not be substantially satisfied before one can move onto higher motivators.

The ERG theory also accounts for differences in need preferences between cultures better than Maslow’s Need Hierarchy; the order of needs can be different for different people. This flexibility accounts for a wider range of observed behaviors. For example, it can explain the “starving artist” who may place growth needs above those of existence.

The ERG theory acknowledges that if a higher-order need is frustrated, an individual may regress to increase the satisfaction of a lower-order need which appears easier to satisfy. This is known as the frustration-regression principle.

2.3 Capability approach

Amartya Sen – Capability Approach clearly shows that there are certain basic capabilities everybody should have access to; Nutrition (Food), Health, Basic Education, Social Connection, Market access, Ability to work .It is a theory of persons and their development in terms of functioning.

(Little 2003: P17-18) state that in normal process of development, capabilities that all humans have the potential to develop and exercises are realized in play, work, education, conversation, family life, friendship, and so on. Lack of good preventive health care may prevent a child from taking part in play of benefiting from an education. Lack of opportunities for employment may harm the development of many. Thus, a series of institutional, social, and family requirements need to be in place for successful development

(David P. Levine & S.Abu Turab Rizvi 2005: P 46-47) state that , when people have chosen a way of life and are pursuing it successfully, their needs are satisfied. Income and commodities are important not for their own sake but because of their absence might retard development. Thus, needs fulfillment is important to extent that it allows for human flourishing and so as free choice is important in the same way.

(Sen 1993 : P 33-39 ) state that , the freedom to lead different types of life is reflected in the person’s capability set .And capability set should be evaluated not only according to the set of real opportunities ( well-being freedom) but also the well – being achievement .(Sen 1993 : P 41 ) pin point in terms of poverty analysis , identifying a minimal combination of basic capabilities can be a good way of setting up the problem of diagnosing and measuring poverty. Since income is not desired for its own sake, any income -based notion of poverty must refer- directly or indirectly to those basic ends which are promoted by income as means. However, as long as minimal capabilities can be achieved by enhancing the income level (given the other personal and social characteristics on which capabilities depend), it will be possible (for the specified personal and social characteristics) to identify the minimally adequate income for reaching the minimally acceptable capability level.

2.4 Income Distribution and Consumption

Furthermore, Smith and Hadded -2000, states that Income opportunity along with food availability defines food security at household level. That’s relevant to Ernst Engel’s Law which in this context is seen as the greater the household food insecurity the greater the share of household food expenditure to total expenditure.

Engel’s Law states that as incomes increases, proportion of income spent on consumption reduces. Engel’s Law can be identified as a fundamental principle of income and consumption theory. Engel’s Law states that as income rises, percentage of income spent on consumption rises slower as compared to rise in income. Engel’s Law; Consumption is described as utilizing a service or product until its economic value is exhausted. It can also be described as aggregate expenditure on personal consumption that manifests itself on buying of goods and services. Expense required is sourced from either savings, income or even from borrowed funds. Consumption denotes that portion of disposable income that is not saved by an individual.

According to Economypedia Websites -“Autonomous consumption is described as consumption quantum that would be present even if a consumer had no source of income at all. A person’s autonomous consumption ascertains his or her real wages or real (Source: http://www.economypedia.com/wiki/index.php?title=Income) income. Examples of autonomous consumption include food, house rent, and electricity. In case, a person’s income suddenly ceases to exist, he or she is compelled to take money from savings to meet these financial obligations. Income is the revenue earned by any individual. Flow of money to any factor of production is termed as income. Income is generated by sale of commodities or services. Returns to labor, enterprise, capital, and land are termed as wage, profit, interest, and rent respectively. Thus, sum of wage, profit, interest and rent is income. In simple terms, income is an opportunity earned from various sources and income provides the ability to consume and avail other services. Income is sometimes used as a macro concept and again income is treated as a constraint. When we talk about consumer theory in economics, income is treated as a budget constraint. Consumer theory is the study of consumer behavior. Here, income is spent on two different goods of different prices. Thus, a basic equation that can be formed as follows:

I = Px . X + Py . Y ,Where I = income from poppy spent on two goods x (basic needs) and y (luxuries or inferior goods) in quantities X and Y at prices Px and Py.

“First, people are often reluctant to change jobs for psychological and institutional reasons (Gujarati 2003). Additionally, income levels are often perpetuated from one generation to another by means of inheritance, cultural background and, more generally, characteristics of the community (Bourguignon and Morrisson 1990; Cooper, Durlauf et al. 1994; Durlauf 1996; Checchi 2000). This allows for intergenerational stability in income, denoting the existence of a positive autocorrelation in inequalities. Cooper (1998), for instance, has pointed out that families from poor communities or wealthy communities tend to exhibit higher intergenerational income stability than families living in middle income communities. Hence, it is often the case that a proportion of the population remains trapped at low and high levels of income for more than one generation. Income persistence is often viewed (i.e. Lane 1971) as an essential characteristic of rewarding achievement and, particularly, of ensuring that the most suitable persons are allocated the most suitable roles. The presence of inequalities in income provides an additional incentive to achievement and innovation which are an integral part of modern society. Some degree of inequality is generally perceived as a necessary constituent of a healthily functioning economy (Champernowne and Cowell 1998, p.14). According to Aghion and Bolton (1992) and Galor and Zeira (1993), the persistence of income inequalities across generations is possible only if capital markets are imperfect.”(Source: www.esri.ie/research/research…/Working_Paper_No._9.pdf)

2.5 Causes of Dualism (Amartya Sen- 1975)

Dualism of labor arises from a number of different causes, and since their implications are quite different, it is necessary to distinguish clearly between the different types of causation;

Laborer’ job preferences. The laborer in question could actually prefer to be in one sector rather than in another e.g., working in peasant agriculture rather than in wage employment in the town. It would be foolish to attribute all such preferences to irrational in having a preference for being one’s own master in one’s farm even at a lower income, rather than working as a’ wage ‘slave in some factory, or indeed in some other farm. What is, however, more easy to argue is the case of avoiding the assumption of stationary taste. Preferences about one’s way of life and location are typically the result of one’s past experience and an initial reluctance to move does not imply a perpetual dislike. The distinction has some bearing on the welfare aspects of employment policy, since the importance that one wishes to attach to the wage gap as a reflection of the laborer’s preferences would tend to depend on the extent to which tastes are expected to vary as a consequence of the movement itself.

Indivisibilities in labor supply. A laborer could prefer to work half time in his farm and half time in a factory, but he may not be able to do this, given the physical problems of location and organizational problems of the factory system. To take up a job in factory he may have to leave his farm altogether or at least for long stretches of time, and the same may be true if accepting a job in say, an irrigation project. The high level of transportation costs, including the monetary and psychological cost of settling in, may persuade the laborer to stick to his firm unless the reward elsewhere is very high. But settled in his own farm the supply price of labor z and the real cost of labor j for hours (or days) of extra effort may be comparatively low.

Loss of share of family income. A movement away from one’s farm may involve the loss of one’s share of the family income. In terms of orthodox economic theory it is possible to split the earnings of the peasant into two parts- one being the reward for labor and the other that for being a joint owner of family resources, in particular the plot of land. But there is a kind of labor theory of value which tends to determine the distributional principles in a peasant society, and the possibility of the ex-peasant working in the town but nevertheless cashing in on the ‘implicit rent ‘ on his share of the land is frequently rather remote. This ‘income aspect’ of employment we distinguished from its ‘production aspect’, the peasant in question may have economic incentive not to move, even when his marginal contribution to the family output is negligible or low. What wage he will accept as minimal compensation depends partly on the extract distribution system in the peasant set-up and partly on his concern for the welfare of the joint family as compared with his own welfare. The greater his concern, the more willing he will move, since his loss of implicit rent is a gain for the others in the joint family.

Labor legislation and union pressure. In many countries there is labor legislation specifying a minimum wage for employment in the organized sector and even if the number of people seeking such jobs far exceeds the number of jobs available, the wage rate will still not decline. The same results is sometimes achieved by unionized labor through wage bargaining. This provides a straightforward institutional explanation of the wage gap between organized and unorganized sectors.

Employers’ incentives for paying high wages. The employer is under certain circumstances; better off by paying wages higher than the minimum at which he can recruit labor. First , the costs of rapid labor turnover can be very high for the firm in terms of work disruption and frequent rearrangements, and the industrialist may have an incentive to offer higher wages and for aiming at a loyal labor force. Since many industrial firms use rather heavily mechanized techniques, the share of labor cost even at a comparatively high wage may be quite low, while the loss from strife and discontent in reducing the effectiveness of the machines may be relatively much higher. Thirdly, higher wages may also have a direct impact on labor productivity through better nutrition and greater ability to work hard. While the first two considerations apply especially to wage labor in the modern industrial sector, this third consideration is thought to be particularly relevant for hired labor within the agricultural sector itself.

2.6 Moral Related Literature

Sen. A. (1987). (On Ethics & Economics P-43) state that to recognize the distinction between ” Agency Aspect and Well-being Aspect” of a person does not require take the view of that person’s success as an agent must be independent, or completely separable from, his success in terms of well- being. Which seem to agree with ERG theory of Aldefur regression and frustration in a way that ” A person may well feel happier and better off as a result of achieving what he wanted to achieve- perhaps for his family , or his community , or his class, or his party, or some other cause. Also it is quite possible that a person’s well-being will go down as a result of frustration if there is some failure to achieve what he wanted to achieve as an agent, even though those achievement are not directly concerned with his well-being.

Sen. A. (1987). (On Ethics & Economics P-80) described “the complex structure of “self-interested behavior” has three distinct and essentially independent features as followed;

Self-centered welfare: A person’s welfare depends only on his or her own consumption (and particular it does not involve any sympathy or antipathy towards others).

Self-welfare goal: A person’s goal is to maximize his or her own welfare , and given uncertainty- the probability- weighted expected value of that welfare ( and in particular, it does not involve directly attaching importance to the welfare of others)/

Self-goal choice: Each act of a choice of a person is guided immediately by the pursuit of one’s own goal (and in particular, it is not restrained or adapted by the recognition of mutual interdependence of respective successes, given other people’s pursuit of their goals).

Sen argued that welfare economics can be substantially enriched by paying more attention to ethics and the study of ethics can also benefit from a closer contact with economics.”

Concerning about rights Sen argues that welfarism must be compromised, if the rights violations are treated as bad things and rights fulfillments as good things. Because welfarism requires that nothing else be intrinsically valued other than utilities. When different elements of utilitarianism are unpacked, it is seen that although a right based moral theory cannot coexist with “welfarism” or ” sum ranking”, it can very well do so with consequentialism.

(William H Shaw 1999 3rd edt.p-19) claims that self interest person has less happiness and less satisfying lives than those whose desires extend beyond themselves and defines as the “Paradox of Hedonism”. In contrary , they are even found having greater satisfaction by living according to moral principle than by devoting life solely to immediate self interest.

“Varian’s idea of fairness has to do with the notion of envy and is therefore known as envy-free justice. Envy free allocation is one in which no one envies the bundle of anyone else. However, two main condemn Varian’s envy-free justice. First, allocation of goods is envy free does not mean that it is appealing on other grounds. For example, one person may be extremely happy with has allocated bundle, whereas another person may be miserable. The happy person will certainly not envy his miserable neighbor. However, it is possible that the miserable neighbor is also not envious. She may find that the happy neighbor’s bundle includes goods that she hates. Second, not all Pareto -optimal allocations are envy free.” (Hal.R.Varian -Microeconomic Modern approach P-568-569)
2.7 Poverty and Opium Related Literature

DavidA.Dufree (1970 P.76) state that “Poverty is both root and offshoot of inadequate schooling, deficient health services, crime and juvenile delinquency, inadequate social security and welfare programs to deal with the problems of broken homes and the penury of so many of the old , indecent housing conditions, civil strife, and high unemployment resulting in the main from slow economic growth.”

” From the acknowledgment that economic necessity often plays a key role in the decision to cultivate illicit crops, there is consensus in the international community that the economic reliance on crop cultivation can only be removed when viable , sustainable income generating activities are available in the legal sector” ( World Drug Report 2000: 143)

In the opium related literature, many reports suggest that the immediate and underlying cause of the poppy cultivation is economic. Most scholars claim that the lack of alternative sources of income for poppy farmers is the main factor. They mention several secondary factors pertinent for the cheroot growers and tobacco farmers. These include degraded soil or adverse climatic conditions for that result in poor yields for tobacco and the other crops they grow. Yet other factors include post-harvest problems for tobacco that could cause the crop to spoil because of improper storage. High transportation costs to take the crop to markets and uncertain market prices are other reasons why farmers decide to grow the opium poppy as a cash crop.

With reference to the annual income comparison between poppy and non poppy village, UNODC 2009-Illicit Crop Monitoring Report found that the opium poppy growers have an average lower cash income than those who do not grow the poppy. One main reason is that when people grow poppy addiction will occur. Usually this starts because the growers take opium as a medicine to reduce pain, relieve cough, treat diarrhea or for some other ailment. In the absence of other medicines the use of opium often continues until addiction takes place. When that happens, and particularly among heads of household who are usually the strongest person in the family, they grow less productive and thus cause the entire household’s income to decline.

After its take over of the country in 1988 Military Government of Myanmar amended the 1974 Nacortics Drug law (BURMA PRESS SUMMARY, The WORKING PEOPLE’S DAILY) Vol.II, No. 4, April 1988 ) as below.

“Section 2: In Section 2 of the 1974 Narcotics Drug Law [NDL], the following shall be substituted for Sub-section A A. Narcotic drugs are defined to be any of the following: i. Poppy plants, coca leaves and cannabis in any form together with any manufactures thereof; ii. Any preparations of poppy plants, coca leaves, or cannabis; iii. Chemicals of properties similar to those of narcotic drugs or chemical compounds of narcotic drugs or other similar materials; iv. Drugs or other materials declared to be narcotic drugs by the Minister responsible by notification from time to time.

Section 3. In Section 2 of the NDL the following sub-section E shall be inserted after sub-section D: E. Drug addicts are defined as persons who consume any one type of narcotic drug without a permit.

Section 4. After Section 6 of the NDL the following section shall be inserted: 6A i. No person may possess any narcotic drug for purposes of sale; ii. Any person infringing this section may be punished by imprisonment for a minimum term of ten years with no upper limit and a fine of up to fifty thousand kyats, or by death. In addition, any narcotic drugs concerned and any goods, materials, implements, vehicles, animals, land and buildings involved will be confiscated for the national treasury.

Section 5. After Section 7 of the NDL the following section 7A shall be inserted: 7A i. No person shall transport any narcotic drug for the purpose of sale. ii. [same as 6A ii]

Section 6. In Section 14 of the NDL, the following shall be substituted for subsection A: A. Habitual users of drugs must register themselves at a time and place to be ordered.

Section 7. In Section 14 of the NDL, the following shall be substituted for subsection B: B. The government may make arrangements at its pleasure for the treatment of habitual users who are registered under subsection A.

Section 8. In Section 14 of the NDL the following Section 14A shall be inserted:14A. Any person either in possession or transporting narcotic drugs named below in excess of the quantities named for each may be presumed to be in possession of or transporting them for purposes of sale within the meaning of subsections 6A and 7A: i. White opium – 3 grams, ii. Morphine – 3 grams, iii. Monacetyl morphine – 3 grams, iv. Intoxicating drugs named in subsections A, B and C in, total or in any mixture of two – 3 grams, v. Green opium or prepared opium or the two together – 100 grams,vi. Cannabis or cannabis resin or the two together – 25 grams, vii. Coca leaves – 100 grams, viii. Cocaine – 3 grams”

In 1949, the PaOh National Liberation Organization .use to strongly against the immoral activity such as gambling and intoxication. On May 1958, the PNLO( PaOh National Liberation Organization exchange arms for democracy in order to rehabilitate and reconstruct economic and social life of the PaOh people. They set poppy eradication policy and took measure on supply reduction by adapting central government narcotics drug law (NDL 1947). In terms of demand reduction, detoxification camp in Narbound village (which located nine miles the south of Capital City Taunggyi )was opened and Kachin herbal medicine was used as treatment and also physical and metal rehabilitation was provided.

The (PNO) Pa-Oh leaders in Hopong and Taunggyi have recognized this situation as a problem facing the people. In response they have drawn up an alternative development plan to reduce addiction and introduce other crops by which the farmers can earn cash income. In this regard, the government also has plans to reduce opium production. In October 2007, for example, the Southern Shan State commander called a meeting in Taunggyi of all the local leaders and representatives of government agencies such as CCDAC and NATALA as well as the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation. The purpose was to introduce his plan to reverse the rapid increase of poppy cultivation in Southern Shan State and among the Pa-Oh in particular.

These and other efforts are referred to as alternative development because they seek to develop alternatives to opium production. In 1998 this concept was approved at a Special Session of the United Nations General Assembly. UNGASS defined it as “a process to prevent and eliminate the illicit cultivation of plant

According to Karl Marx, crime is as a result of the social structures and the economic system that is implemented

Karl Marx is a renowned scholar who came up with different kinds of theories to explain the various situations in the world of sociology and economics. In his school of criminology, he largely focuses on conflict criminology and why things change and the role of society in these changes. He acknowledges that the shift from one society to another is not at all smooth as there are obstacles for example, crime.

According to Marxism, for the different societies in the world, there exist different social classes. These are based on what each group owns and what it is therefore in control of. The conflict was persistent due to the ownership of the means of production which included land, labor and tools. Hence, the conflict was between the owners and the non-owners of the various means of production. As a result, there was a rise of the two social classes; the working class (less powerful) and the ruling class (more powerful).

In a capitalist economic system, the main means of production include factories and machineries. As a result, the owners of these means of production are out to gain all that they can from the implementation of these means of production. However, they still need labor in order to complete the production process. Their main objective is to maximize profits and as such, they result to minimization of the labor costs as much as possible. As a result, the working class is angered by the low wages and is ultimately tired of the exploitation by the persistent means of production owners. Eventually, the working class tends to alienate itself from the overbearing production process. The working class will therefore try anything in its power so as to overthrow the owners who have continuously been exploiting their labor. (Crutchfield, 2000)

In their continuous endeavor to overthrow the dominating ruling class, there is competition among them and things become harder. Karl Marx notes that in due course, the working class realizes that the means of production owners also dominate the political divide. As such, their needs are well catered for in the formation of the laws that govern them. They not only have economic control, but also political control. It is then that the working class realizes that they are trapped in their course for freedom and equality.

The working class therefore becomes vulnerable and results to crime. After all, there is hardly any way out as the owners of means of production have completely dominated the economy. The poor continue to be poor while the rich become richer. Marxist argued that it was only through theorists like them coming out to clearly inform the working class of who their enemies really are that the conflict resolution would advance and eventually the working class would achieve their sole objective of having some form of control. He argued that with the underpinnings of the capitalist system being brought to light, the fall of this system would be hastened and a communist system would be eventually reached. A system where there were no rights to private property and hence, a society free of classes and oppression. (Tibbetts & Hemmens, 2009)

Though he did not largely dwell on deviance, Karl largely mentioned about criminal tendencies. He even ironically mentions that had there been no criminals, then personnel such as judges and the police would have no jobs. Marx largely dwells on the societal pressures in doing wrongs other than the individual motives of being immoral. This is largely supported by some scholars for example, Merton who argues that the problem of alienation is mainly due to the social structure other than social change since the society presents equal goal to be achieved yet there are no equal means of achieving the set out goals and objectives. It therefore becomes a form of survival for the fittest. Deviance therefore, is as a result of incompatibility of what the society expects of the working class and the social structure that is in existence.

It is accepted by all sociologists that for a society to function effectively, there needs to exist some sort of social order. Laws that govern a state should be for the sole interest of the state. However, there seems to emerge a group that is always leading. This could be as a result of the power that they solely possess. The emergence of such a group could be as a result of efficiently and effectively using power. According to Marx, it is also a huge possibility that the group owns the means of production and is hence in control. A good example is the case of British Colonialism Law in East Africa that resulted in the ruling class having complete control over the coffee plantations. As a result crime becomes on the rise as the working class, though wrongfully, fights for its right.

According to the sociologist researchers, it is evident once a group of people have political power, they end embedding all ownership rights of property to themselves and the working class is left at their mercy. As a result, crime rises. Marx was for the idea that means of production should be communally owned in a communist system. As a result, there would be less crime being committed. The only solution to the crime issue is to have a socialist revolution. For example, in Western Europe there is very minimal crime since that part of the world is more socialist as compared to the United States of America. (Marsh & Melville, 2006)

On the issue of crime, Karl Marx’s theory of alienation is also applicable. Over the years, some types of crime have continuously been labeled “working class crime”. The only question that is commonly left out is whether or not there are certain reasons that make these crimes to only be mostly committed by the working class group. Critically looking at it, it becomes clearer that there are certain factors that leave the working class as the sole victims of these crimes. We also note that crimes in the society do vary depending on different elements for example, age.

In case a crime has been committed, it is evident that the judgment passed is highly dependent on the social class that one belongs to. Marxism argued that the final judgment is highly dependent on one’s ability to be represented by a good lawyer. However, it is notably difficult for an individual from the working class group to be able to hire a good lawyer due to the limiting factors such as financial limitations. The same analysis is persistent in terms of the punishment that the offender receives. This leads to bias and inequality.

Therefore, the main causes of criminality are hugely as a result of capitalism. For instance, the huge economic inequalities whereby the powerless (working class) are exploited by the powerful (ruling class). It is also vividly evident that the values imposed by capitalism push the working class to committing crimes. There is also the tendency of laws to imply that working class groups are the more likely wrong doers than the ruling class. As a result, there exists conflict between the working class individuals who also believe that they are enemies yet it is the ruling class who continuously exploit them every other day. (Greenberg, 1993)

The Marxist theories do not at all rely on the available statistics on crime. They insist on the fact they are actually biased and do not at all in a clear way represent the actual distribution of criminality. They also argue that the statistics do not include the crimes of the ruling class because the laws governing such information are hugely biased. They do not allow access to some crimes; those committed by the ruling class are protected.

As a result the Realists have criticized these views by the Marxists. They agree that the official statistics may be inaccurate but they still argue that the dismissal is too readily done. They argue that the statistics would be a huge basis for the explanations of crime and deviance. This therefore is a major weakness of the Marxist theories.

Another major criticism is based on the fact that the Marxist theories do not deal with matters of gender and crime. As such, the theories are viewed to be inconclusive. For instance, in terms of gender, the theories would have dealt with issues on domestic violence. It is more likely that the working class women would be more prone to domestic violence as compared to women of the ruling class. This could be partly because the available incomes do not meet the needs that present themselves and arguments therefore ensue resulting in domestic violence.

Generally, the level of crime is highly propagated by the fact that in our societies there exist classes and as a result there result conflicts between the different classes. The ruling class, which is more powerful, uses law to cover for their evil deeds that go unpunished. On the other hand, the working class is always punished for any crime because they are just mere subjects.

These crimes are majorly as a result of the capitalism system which only dehumanizes the individuals who have hardly any power and are therefore helpless. The only solution to all the suffering so that everyone will feel that they are receiving equal treatments is the capitalism system being scrapped off. This way, crime will be largely decreasing. For as long as people are not treated equally, criminal behavior will never cease since there will always be one group of people that will be being exploited. (Akers, 1999)

There have been suggestions by several scholars on peaceful solutions to criminology. This is such that in place of imprisonment, offenders should be practice of mediation so as to solve the arising problem. There should also be a theory why women commit less crime as compared to men, even in situations where the women are also part of the ruling class.

From the above evaluation, we all anticipate that the findings of the Marxist would be put into practice so as to ensure that there is equality all over the world. This is a free world and no one should be discriminated against just because they are not of a particular social divide. Policy makers in states should carefully choose the best economic system to ensure equality of its people. The interest of the people should always be prioritized. The Marxists’ findings are a basis for a better tomorrow.

Anthony Giddens, a famous writer on society, had developed his thoughts in his books year after year. His book titled, Constitution of Society, written in the year 1986, has leaded him far ahead to achieve his goals. Each of the chapter, in this book; has covered the agency and structure theory and proposes good statements (Giddens, 1986). The author has clearly described what he means with the agency term. He has also given due focus on time and the social actions for space. The discussion on the ways of handling different norms by the people, and the social constraints that exists in the society, are done as well. In addition, he uses empirical research in his book to elaborate further the aspects associated with structure and agency within the society.

The text thus discusses the routine practice, which becomes a social act as a principle of duality for the agency- structure relationship. It aims to understand what the strength areas covered in the text is. Additionally, weaker sections are also given consideration. Thus, the report here discusses about various aspects of relationship that exists between agency and structure. The notion of duality by the author is considered too, with due focus on the book ‘Constitution of Society’, by Giddens. The notion of studies done to relate the two terms is also covered within the scope of this report. Furthermore, the researchers involved to explore the term are also discussed hereon. This helps in understanding the extent to which both the terms are integrated in this society. These all have helped to reach to certain outcomes of the report at the end.

Discussion

Agency and structure have been termed as indispensible parts in the social context. These terms are required to relate at one or the other instance. Agency is termed as the capability of individuals to generate wide variety of powers in causal term, while the structure is the set of rules and regulations existing within the society (Frohlich et al., 2001). The relationship between these two instances is yet to explore. Some of the researchers stand in the point, that the two terms inter- relate in themselves, while others consider these as different terms.

There does not exist, any discussion of relationship between structure and agency in real terms (Macintyre, 1997; Frohlich et al., 2002) according to some of the researchers. While others state that, these structure and agency are considered as co- dependent and recursive in nature (Nussbaum and Sen, 1993; Sen, 1992). This clearly demonstrates how conflicting the terms are in social context. There is no generalized thought in this arena, instead complete satisfaction and dissatisfaction is noted for the question at hand. This needs to be further explored to understand the concepts associated with the terms. There are different contexts, which integrates the agency and structure. Structural forces are the main determinants for the relationship between agency and structure (Williams, 2003). Thus, the structural forces shall be considered in discussion to understand the concept associated with the terms. This might also help in exploring the text by Giddens in a better manner. Although, in his writings, the discussion of structural forces is missed, he has attempted to use time and geography as basic parameters in his studies.

There are number of authors who studied about the relationship of agency and structure (Musolf, 2003; Callinicos, 2004), however the work done by Giddens is important to note in his books such as Constitution of the Society (1986). Most of the writers believed that agency and structure are different terms; however, Giddens consider them as similar. Giddens consider these two as different ways to look one thing. Researchers contribute to routine activities, i.e. those that take place in a similar manner for continuation. Routine activities are considered as social for the organization, as these activities occur in regular fashion. This regular fashion further becomes the set of rules for the society. These rules act as the social orders for an organization.

Giddens also consider that time and space results into organizing us in a better manner. Time and place are being considered as important aspects not only for the agency but also for the structure of society. The author considers the time as an aspect, which affects the routine practices. Proper time management is helpful in attaining good routine activities. Thus, author lays focus on right use of time to obtain maximum outcomes. In case one wishes to generate results, there is the need to perform with dual nature. The collaborated approach of using structure and agency is required at such instances. This would entail proper use of time management technique to minimize the wastage of social time. The author thus lays importance on the time. Time is the aspect that demonstrates routine activities. Time is an indispensible part for one’s life. He considers people to utilize properly the daily schedule, to make optimal use of time. In case one does not use time in a proper manner, it might result in losses of one’s routine plan.

Giddens also discussed about the consequences attached with improper use of time management. In case, one does not use the time in a proper manner, it affects the routine activities of an individual. However, if one wishes to work on his knowledge, he can act well in this arena. This affects the agency structure by the mismatch that generates due to lack of control on structure concerned of an entity.

For the society to develop with its full potential, it shall discuss the relation between structure and agency (Hay and Wincott, 1998). This shall not be ignored. Giddens had worked to elaborate the point further. However, his writings were not able to describe clearly the point due to lack of clarity in his thought process. His attempt to contribute to agency structure relationship was though worth noting, but for a new reader, it becomes a point of confusion. Giddens, in his book named as Constitution of Society, had not given any clear definition of the terms considered in his writings. The content seems tough to be understood by a reader who has not gone through the previous writings of the author. Thus, it necessitates the basic concept to be clarified, before going through the book.

The relation between agency and structure is always at perennial (6). It is not a one-time process. The author thus attempted to describe the relationship considering the time-geography too. This was in line with the time management of the author. This demonstrates the importance of time, and its relation to the geographic unit. The ways geographical parameters change with time are also discussed. Additionally, the variation of structure and agency with different time and geographic locations is considered in the study as well.

This relationship between agency and structure is also well studied by researchers such as Rothstein and Hall (1993), Thelen, and Steinmo (1992). This is the reason, many researchers attempted to explore the relationship. However, the complexity associated with them in social context has acted as a hurdle to describe the two characteristics. Giddens further followed the tradition in his writings. He was unable to thoroughly explore the relationship between the two terms. The agency and structure were not thoroughly discussed in his writings. The discussion on duality of these terms was there though; the basic concepts associated with them were not described. Thus, on looking other side of the coin, we can see that the book of Giddens lacks in clearly describing the duality and social practice concept. It does not describe the ways in which practices are constituted, the way in which it relates social system etc. The book also misses practice concept, which is important to attain sustainable analysis. Thus, the book is tough to understand for someone, who has not read previous books of the author. It directly summarizes the duality structure for understanding the agency- structure relationship. This way, he created a sort of confusion situation in the minds of readers who have not read his previous writings. For an individual to understand the text by Giddens it becomes mandatory to understand the basic concepts associated with the topic; else, it would become tough for them to understand the discussion done in his writings. The authors lacks in discussing the reason, why people want certain things. It just discusses the wants of people. The subject here is constituted in a social manner. There is also the discussion laid that wants arise from the needs, which are related to ontological security. The theory discusses the way individuals can achieve proper results using the agents.

Thus, the concept of agency- structure relationship has always been a tough task. It is with not only Giddens, but also the researchers such as Dahlgren and Whitehead (1991) had failed to establish a relationship between these two characteristics of society in the daily life of the world. There is thus the need to understand the basic concepts in hand. The social context, with reference to time is to be understood at initial stages. This would help in creating a framework for the point at hand, and the integration of these two characteristics of society will be done in a better manner. The research in today’s life is exploring further the structure and relationship and the behavioural pattern (Williams, 1995). These further explorations are expected to help the society in analyzing these duality and routine practices in the right manner. There would be lack of clarity, and the outcomes will be with a stronger research background. Thus, the main point of confusion exists to know the relationship between structure and agency (Gerhardt, 1979), which if explored by the researchers, can lead to attain certain outcomes, which would help us in further understanding the concept at hand. This would entail the need to use proper time management techniques. The weak background of Giddens shall not be over- focused, but shall be given an opportunity of further exploration using the basic concepts at hand, to reach to the outcomes. This would help us to attain the results at a greater pace, and with clear outcomes, which does not have conflicting situations, as at present.

Conclusion

On considering the notion of duality and the social practice of relationship between agency and structure, we have come up with some important findings. We can interpret that the writings of Giddens are quite conflicting at certain instances. These act as the constraining and enabling at the same time. At certain instances, Giddens talk about the practical aspect of life. He considers time as real and factual to work out on the life. However, at other instances assumptions are encouraged by the author. This raises the problem of lack of clarity in his thought process. Additionally, the complexity involved with the writings of Giddens, enforce one to go through the basic concepts, prior to reading the text under review.

Thus, there was a mixed approach obtained. At some instances, it was noted that the structure and agency are well integrated with each other, while at others there was noted the lack of control and dependency of one characteristic on the other. This mixed approach has resulted in further elaboration of the associated concepts, which would help in understanding the point. Else, it would be tough to understand this text in hand, with lack of control over the text and lack of clarity by the author. The basic concepts can however be of great help in understanding the concept at hand, and the associated relationship. Thus, overall the text was a good collection of data, but lacks clarity and mandates the reader to go through basic concepts, prior to going through the text at hand. This way, one would be able to understand the associated characteristics in a better manner.

How can we explain gender segregation and what are its consequences? Relate your answer to theories and empirical evidence.

Gender segregation has been explained by a number of theories (Blackburn et al., 2002, p.513). The notion that the occupational structure work tends to be segregated on gender lines has been understood as significant not because it is just a description of a context, but rather it receives attention on account of the lower pay that female-dominated occupations tend to receive (Miller et al. 2004, p.522). Discerning a significant cause, or a prime mover, behind the prevalence of gender segregation has proved difficult (Tomlinson, 2009, p.349). The relationship between agency and structure is hotly debated in the ways in which it has an effect upon gender segregation (Blackburn et al., 2002, p.529). These issues will be considered as follows. First, rational choice and human capital theories will be considered. Second, the patriarchal theoretical contribution will be examined and the consequences that occur as the result of gender segregation. Finally, the extent to which the attempt to discern a monocausal explanation for this phenomenon is erroneous will be considered with the consideration that the phenomena inherent in gender segregation are too complex to be explained by a single argument in all cases.

Rational choice theories have significant drawbacks in explaining gender segregation (Gonas and Karlsson, 2006, p.4). In the first place, this theoretical contribution tends to ascribe a significant amount of agency to the individual (Blackburn et al. 2002, p.522). This therefore reduces the effect of structure upon the effect (Gonas and Karlsson, 2006, p.4). It is assumed in rational choice theories from the outset that people will act in a way that will best serve their interests, and this means there is an argument that by spending time on domestic work, women are thus prevented in investing in human capital. This holds some significant drawbacks as an explanation. In the first place, women tend to lead against men in education (Connolly, 2008, p.249). The number of women attending university now exceeds the number of men (Miller et al., 2004, p.7). Upon achieving adulthood, therefore, there is a greater level of human capital that has tended to be invested in women than exists in men at the same stage of entering work. At the very least there is a limited amount that can be held to have a significant effect upon the occupations (Tomlinson et al., 2009, p. 351).

Furthermore, the rational choice theory would suggest that there is rationalism for all aspects of human behaviour and if not, then the theory is changed in order to fit the phenomenon. Not all individuals will enter into professions that would provide the highest payment or the greatest chances of renumeration (Radford, 1998, p.64). There may be gender differences in this type of occupation, which might result from the prevalence of female role models in some types of occupations and males in others, resulting in the notion of the type of occupations that might be considered attractive (Simpson, 2004, p.351). The notion that individuals have agency do not mean that they will go for what can be considered the most ‘rational’ course of action as many different views exist as to what might be considered the benefit of different jobs (Blackburn et al., 523). The human capital argument would seem to be the most limited of the explanatory theses in many ways as it suggests that people are rewarded for their previous investment into their own education and training – and there does not seem to be a consistent difference between the sexes that can bear out this argument (Miller et al., 2004, p.29).

These objections to the rational choice argument do not suggest that there is no logical place for this argument in the debate (Miller et al., 2004, p.30). In particular, there might be a different notion of the relationship between the individual and the structures that affect occupational segregation (Blackburn et al., 2002, p.523). This can be seen in the argument of gender stereotypes prevailing in different occupations. The prevalence of gender segregation in occupations results in a class of jobs that is then subject to societal stereotypes (Miller et al., 2004, p. 27). Segregation occurs and then this becomes embodied within the stereotypes and the cultural norms and expectations that then create a circular argument that results in reinforcing the process of segregation (Miller et al., 2004, p.27). This would suggest an implicit influence of the individual’s perceptions of certain types of jobs and the roles that are inherent in different jobs, which would then result in the impression that certain jobs are differently desirable on the basis of gender (Tomlinson et al., 2009, p.351). This is an important aspect that is considered by a number of arguments in the field, and is supported by the notion of the relationship between gender and society as an interaction rather than one being imposed upon the other. Blackburn et al. (2002, p.526) point out that although adult female participation in the labour force has indeed become easier, we should not expect this to have immediately resulted in a sudden and abrupt change in the occupational structure. The prevalence of occupational segregation would seem an apt question to ask in a number of generations, but since the societal changes are relatively recent, there is a strong case to be made that the process is fluid, and is progressing in a direction that would suggest it would ultimately diminish.

The patriarchal explanation of gender segregation rests upon the notion that women are implicitly or explicitly given to consider that their nature is the domestic sphere (Blackburn et al., 2002, p.521). This can therefore result in several consequences. In the first place it can result in a structural relationship that means women are given less consideration for the more lucrative occupations (Tomlinson et al., 2009, p.355). It is the implicit consideration of the employer that female employees will not be as reliable as males in the long term and will ultimately result in long periods being taken off work, thus reducing their perceived value in the view of the employer (Radford, 1998, p.64). This element of a patriarchal structure and the way in which it affects the way individual employers function in society is given short shrift by Blackburn et al. (2002) among others, but it is certainly an element that has not fully been considered by them. First, this explanation depends upon the fact that the higher paid an occupation, the more likely it is that the employer is looking for a long-term commitment (Browne, 2006, p.2). The idea that women of a child-bearing age hold the potential to avoid making that commitment for the long term, and also result in some disruption through the provision of substitute work and the payment of maternity leave may well reduce the potential value of a female employee in such a situation (Miller, 2004, p.56). Secondly, the inability to maintain a consistent presence in an employment context that, if lucrative, may well be competitive, could also result in the reduced potential of the female employee to maintain an effective presence (Browne, 2006, p.3). This would suggest there is a strong potential for the selection theory that suggests that there is an element of biological determinism in a number of jobs, which is a view that was stated by Sir Alan Sugar (Sparrow, 2009).

Nevertheless, the view put forward by Blackburn et al., (2002) must be considered as rooted in the correct interpretation of the evidence. Women are not necessarily pushed towards lower paid occupations that will not ‘mind’ if they are absent through child-bearing; indeed it is such occupations that might have problems with the provision of cover or the cost of maternity leave (England, 2005, p.266). Although we might consider that such biological determinism has potential as an argument and even is one that holds the occasional declaration of support in ‘big’ business, it is important to note that it does not explain gender segregation as a prime mover (England, 2005, p.267). ‘Arguments of patriarchal exploitation tend to be based on a selected rewriting of history and an interpretation of the past from a contemporary perspective’ (Blackburn et al., 2002, p.522). It can be argued that it would be difficult to obtain explicit admission of the motivation for denying certain occupations to women, and therefore any argument that suggests that evidence needs to be supplied would seem to be an unfair reading of the evidence, but even the evidence that can be discerned does not support this element of a gender determinism caused by a patriarchal structure of society (Miller et al., 2004, p.32). It is, of course, easy to see patriarchalism in every element of society, and although this theory may have much to offer as one element of the issue, it is not enough to explain the prevalence of gender segregation (Blackburn et al., 2002, p.529).

A particular objection to this line of argument is in the element to which the agency is assumed as not being exercised by the women in question (England, 2005, p.265). This argument, of course, reaches the nub of the problem by the fact that on the one side, the idea that women are being forced into a course of action would seem absurd; but on the other, the notion that occupational structure is wholly a product of decisions made on a rational basis to be equally odd. Hakim’s preference theory represented a method by which the rational choice and human capital theories could be combined into one interactive theory (Blackburn et al., 2002, p.522). Biological determinism is not ignored in this theoretical contribution, and from the perspective above it would appear that it may not be possible to entirely disregard the existence of this as a factor in affecting women’s life chances as is often assumed. Most counter-arguments to this point of view resting on the notion that it represents the full explanation for the phenomenon (Miller et al., 2004, p.32). Therefore, in contrast to Blackburn et al.’s (2002, p.523) disparagement for the thesis, it can be seen as a relatively useful concept. It is correct to suggest that individuals are not entirely autonomous and social context has an effect on life chances and in this department, Hakim’s thesis is limited (Radford, 1998, p.64). However, it is not effective to suggest that because it does not take full account of the influence of social structure, the entire theory can be discounted.

The main difficulty that appears to exist within the theories that attempt to explain gender segregation is that they all purport to be monocausal explanations of the phenomenon. This means that they can all individually be discounted, as is done by Blackburn et al. (2002), who find it easy to suggest that one theory is not effective on account of not being structural enough and considering that individuals are all autonomous beings when in fact their chances are empirically demonstrated to result from the social situation. It is also not an especially effective argument to demonstrate that any theories that place too much emphasis upon the structural features of the phenomenon run the risk of illustrating individuals as essentially following predefined destinies and are unable to reflect any control over their own options (Miller et al., 2004, p.32). It is problematic that many theories can be simply discounted through the use of effective evidence, or claims that such evidence cannot be found and therefore the theoretical contribution rests upon a naive presumption that such a phenomenon exists. Any attempts to synthesise the different theoretical contributions together would hold a significant problem in being prone to objections from two different perspectives. This is apparently the situation that occurs with reference to Blackburn et al.’s (2002, p.523) consideration of Hakim’s preference theory, which attempts to knit together the human capital argument with the rational choice consideration; the weakness of the explanations is demonstrated by the fact that they do not take proper account of the power and choices of the employers (Blackburn et al., 2002, p.525).

This would suggest that the main difficulty in analyzing this situation lies in the consideration that there is a monocausal explanation for the phenomenon, or at least the knitting together of several broad causes into one theoretical viewpoint. Monocausal explanations are logically reductive, as it is considered pertinent for us to understand different phenomena by the methodology of reduction to several broad areas, but it also would appear to be a limitation in that it attempts to suggest that there are basic elements to the argument to which a phenomenon can be reduced. In the first place, it is posited that the views of occupation are the same, and indeed the same between the genders (Blackburn et al., 2002, p.529). This might not be the case: occupations can be viewed as a vocation, or simply as a job. There might be a tenuous difference between the genders in the ways in which such occupations are viewed that might have a marginal effect upon any survey of attitudinal differences (Miller, 2004, p.65). This would allow this particular cause to be discounted in terms of it not providing an explanatory aspect to the debate. (England, 2005, p.265) However, it need not be the case that such a variable needs to explain the whole of the variation that is observed, but simply some of it. Other variables, such as the gender preference theory may also explain other aspects of it – but not all. When faced with a complex phenomenon of which there are many variables, some empirical and some qualitative, that contribute to the way in which this phenomenon interacts, it would seem remiss to attempt to reduce it to a theory that simplifies the notion. Occupational segregation is a significant element in a society, and perhaps there are as many explanations as there are views of occupation.

A result of gender segregation in occupations is the resultant uneven economic conditions that are suffered by different men and women. However, as has been suggested by Blackburn et al. (2002, p.519), we only know that women’s jobs are worth less because they are paid less, and they are paid less because they are worth less. This produces a circular argument: gender segregation does not necessarily result in uneven economic conditions per se. Different preferences between different genders for different occupations would not result in an unequal economic condition should each occupation be valued in society by the same criteria which would result in economic pay (Charles and Grusky, 2004, p.4). Furthermore, the different economic recompense offered to each occupation is not necessarily posited on the gender preferences of a role. A female dominated occupation is not necessarily considered to be of lower value because it is a female dominated occupation; the gender segregation may often come after the occupation is created rather than before. Restaurant work or service work, for example, was traditionally considered lower value work in contexts before it became an occupation that was dominated by women (Westword, 1988, p.51). The consequence of uneven economic conditions experienced by men and women according to different occupations does not strictly result from gender segregation as a structural influence. Different occupations do not result in different economic conditions unless there is an underlying cause that results in women’s choice of occupations that do not receive the highest recompense (Westwood, 1988, p.51).

The process of gender segregation would appear to be an ongoing process. It would seem impossible to suggest that it should not occur on account of the fact that there is no segregation in other areas of society, as it appears there is still an overall lag in women in terms of skills and training (Miller, 2004, p.iii). We can therefore only begin to judge the causes and effects of occupational segregation when we have the potential for two groups of people who are equal in all other ways except for gender. At this point we would have to discount the effect of socialization, which may have resulted in differential impressions of the type of jobs that each individual is likely to hold according to gender (Miller, 2004, p.51). If there is gender segregation in the society’s occupations during the socialization of the individuals, then there is likely to be gender segregation in the occupations that then develop. The notion of certain occupations drawing upon different skills that are more likely to be held by different gender groups may also be pertinent (England, 2005, p.271). The notion of intergroup theory may be relevant through its demonstration that common work and positions in an organizational hierarchy may result in certain gender-specific attributes being related to that group. (Miller et al., 2004, p.32). Nevertheless, this theory is not borne out by the evidence, even though it is limited in its evidential base.

Our explanations of gender segregation therefore would most effectively take the position that societal change of this nature is not necessarily immediate. If individuals are given agency, a revolution is not immediate but gradual as the notion of an occupational group that demonstrates a limited level of gender segregation becomes normalized (Miller et al., 2004, p.29). Likewise the structures in society may be altered in an explicit legislative sense, but the culture that exists within certain occupations may take some time to become normalized (Blackburn et al., 2002, p.529). As a result, the questions that should be asked of this context are not simply the notion of why gender segregation has not occurred yet, but the extent to which it should be expected to have occurred. In particular, alarm bells should not be ringing at the presence of occupational segregation, but at the notion that it is not proceeding effectively in the direction of more limited segregation. Likewise, it should not be presumed that occupational segregation can be represented as a negative aspect in itself, it is the accompanying problems of low pay and poor conditions for female-dominated work that is actually the issue; occupational segregation is no the issue if the two varieties of work are valued in the same way (Gonas and Karlsson, 2006, p.5). Progress towards a lower level of inequality on account of gender in occupations appears to be proceeding in a relatively effective way, and therefore the results of occupational segregation are being slowly diminished. In the long term, therefore, it seems likely it will ultimately cease to be a problem.

Pick any rural area that you are familiar with. Describe its socio economic background including approximate broadband penetration. Describe occupations that are existing there, demographics and geographies lay out including major buildings and geographical locations.

What are rural areas? According to an online source, the definition of rural areas is areas that are largely isolated in an open country with low population density. Many people often have a misconception between the terms “countryside” and “rural areas”. Countryside is often referred to rural areas that are open. Areas such as forest, wetlands and others that have low population density are associated with rural areas. However the definition between the terms countryside, rural and urban areas differ from one country to another. In Malaysia’s early days, urban areas often equated to gazetted administration districts with a population of 1000 or more inhabitants where most of its economy are mainly professional-based. Most of the people living in urban areas work as

Figure : Malaysia – Rural Populationdoctors, lawyers, engineers and others. However, this definition is no longer applicable in today’s world. In Malaysia, the economy of the rural areas on the other hand is mainly agricultural-based. Most of the settlers are smallholder operators in agricultural sector and labourers. The smallholder agricultural sector includes oil palm plantation, rubber plantation, fishermen, and estate workers, just to name a few. From Figure : Malaysia – Rural Population graph, it can be seen that there are many rural settlers in the 90’s. However, according to World Bank statistics, it is reported that in the year 2008 itself, the population of rural settlers was 8007029.29 people. From the graph itself, it can be seen that after the year 2000, the rural populations start to decrease. One of the reasons that cause the reduction of rural population is the migration of rural settlers to urban areas.

Since decades ago, the main occupations of the rural settlers in Peninsular Malaysia are fishing or farming. Most of these settlers live in villages which are often known as kampongs. These villages consist of houses that are built on stilts with wooden or bamboo walls and floors, and thatched palm roofs. However, just as urban areas, there are higher income earners too in these villages. Higher income earners are often to live in houses that have either tin or tile roofs. Since the main occupation of these villages is farming, most of the rural settlers grow rice. Thus, rice will be their staple food. In Malaysia, most of the rural settlers are farmers due to the ideal climate and environment in Malaysia throughout the year that allows paddy to be planted. Besides paddy cultivating, fresh vegetables plantation and fishing in nearby streams or rivers are part of their daily chores. Raising rubber trees for rubber collection is carried out to increase the family income. Those living along the coast will earn their living through fishing. In Sabah and Sarawak, the rural settlers differ from Peninsular Malaysia. In the western of Malaysia, most of the people live in isolated villages. They preferred to stay together in a large long house that can accommodate lots of families. Their daily chores include raising vegetables, hunting, fishing and gathering edible plants in the jungles. In most rural villages whether in Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah or Sarawak, there will a few shops that will be operated by Chinese merchants. These shops will sell items that rural settlers could not produce. They include coffee, milks, utensils and others. However, in Sabah and Sarawak, some Chinese peddlers are willing to travel to the isolated villages by boat. Once they reached the isolated villages, they will exchange their goods with the forest products that the rural settlers have. Most of the rural settlers live in poverty. There are many factors that drive poverty among the rural settlers. One of the factors is multidimensional in nature ranging from social to economic factors. One of the researchers, Ungku Aziz (1964) stated that poverty is usually associated with lack infrastructures, low income, low productivity and unemployment. In conclusion, poverty in rural areas is due to lack of infrastructure development, welfare programmes and agricultural development.

Figure 1: Jengka Triangle LocationUntil today, in Malaysia there are many rural areas that are scattered around. In this write up, the rural area that is picked is FELDA Jengka. FELDA Jengka or Bandar Pusat Jengka is located in the state of Pahang, Peniinsular Malaysia as shown in Figure 1. Bandar Pusat Jengka is one of the major cities and is located in the centre of the triangle Jengka which is also known as Felda Jengka. Bandar Pusat Jengka is under the supervision and administration of FELDA. It is located near to Gunung Senyum Recreational Forest which serves as a tourist destination. Gunung Senyum is believed that since Mesolithic era, there are human settlements in this area. Next to Gunung Senyum is Gunung Puyuh which consists of 18 caves. FELDA stands for Federal Land Development Authority which is established in 1st July 1956 by the Malaysian Government to handle the resettlement of rural poor to much more developed areas. FELDA provide the initial models to the rural settlers to start their career in farming. This scheme is only applicable to ethnic Malays. Currently, according to a study carried out, FELDA is one of the world’s largest plantation owners. FELDA has about 811140 hectares of oil palms across Peninsular Malaysia.

The location of Jengka Triangle or FELDA Jengka where 25 settlements are found in this Triangle.

Figure 1: Location of Jengka Triangle Development Area http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/ccgi/archives/HASH9312.dir/80636e01.gif

Figure 2: Jengka Triangle Development Area

Jengka was first found in the year 1967 and today its population is reaching almost 300 thousand people. Jengka is located in between three regions namely Temerloh, Maran and Jerantut. This small town obtained its name from a nearby river called Sungai Jengka. According to some residents there, this river obtained its name from a story where a woman by the named Yang Jangka who drowned in this river. The Lembaga Kemajuan Wilayah Jengka (LKWJ) administered this town from the year 1967 to 1997. Then from 1997 until today, Jengka is administered by Majlis Daerah Maran (MDM). Bandar Pusat Jengka got its name from Jengka town. Jengka town originally is a settlement that specially built for workers who work in Kilang Syarikat Jengka Sdn. Bhd. (SJSB) in 1969. Kilang Syarikat Jengka Sdn. Bhd. (SJSB) is a subsidiary of the Pahang State Government.

Jengka settlers came from all over Malaysia since 1986. They are the poor people who have the living standard of below poverty level. According to a study done, the majority of the FELDA Jengka settlers’ ancestors are mostly deployed from the northern states such as Perak, Perlis, Kedah and Penang. However, there are some who came from eastern states and southern states such as Kelantan, Melaka, and Selangor, just to name a few. This will leads to a blend of different cultures and traditions as different settlers from different states will try to preserve their ancestry customs and culture. Besides the majority Malays settlers, there are also Chinese and Indians settlers. Table 1 shows the breakdown of the Jengka settlers by state origin. It can be seen that most of the settlers are from the state of Pahang itself.

Table 1: Jengka Settlers by state of origin

Today under the administration of FELDA, in Bandar Pusat Jengka itself, there are about 25 FELDA settlements. They include FELDA Anggerik Jengka 1, FELDA Cempaka Jengka 2, FELDA Dahlia Jengka 3, FELDA Kemboja Jengka 4, FELDA Kekwa Jengka 5, FELDA Keembong Jengka 6, FELDA Kenanga Jengka 7, FELDA Kesidang Jengka 8, FELDA Kesumba Jengka 9, FELDA Mawar Jengka 10, FELDA Melati Jengka 11, FELDA Melor Jengka 12, FELDA Puteri Malu Jengka 13, FELDA Raya Jengka 14, FELDA Semarak Jengka 15,FELDA Sena Jengka 16, FELDA Seri Pagi Jengka 17, FELDA Seroja Jengka 18, FELDA Siantan Jengka 19, FELDA Tanjung Jengka 20 ,FELDA Teratai Jengka 21, FELDA Terkis Jengka 22, FELDA Tonkin Jengka 23, FELDA Jengka 24, and FELDA Jengka 25. These FELDA settlements are located a few kilometres away from each others. In each settlement there are about 300 to 500 of settlers occupying.

Each of the male settlers is known as “Peneroka FELDA” and their wives are known as “Penerokawati”. The wives of the settlers are under the supervision of a manager that is appointed by the FELDA. For example in FELDA Jengka 25, there are about 152 families living in this settlement. FELDA Jengka 25 opened its door in the year 1986. The years before that, which is in between the year 1983 and 1984, development and deployment in FELDA Jengka 25 begin. In this settlement, farming land is divided into two categories which are Level 002 and Level 004. Level 002 consists of 95 people and Level 004 consists of 57 people. Level 003 do not have any settlers. The main occupations of the FELDA settlers are mainly agriculture based as more than half of the populations in FELDA Jengka are involved in agricultural activities. Table 2 shows the distribution of settlers in the FELDA Jengka Triangle according to scheme. From Table 2, it can be seen that FELDA Jengka settlers are mainly involve in oil plantation and rubber. Thus, it can be concluded that in Jengka Triangle the main crops are oil palm and rubber.

FELDA Jengka 24 is one of the 25 settlements in FELDA Jengka. It is found that up to year 2008, the population of this settlement is about 5000 people. Most of the settlers are involved in small businesses through the Small and Medium Enterprise (SME) which was established few years back. Most of the older generations that settle in this settlement are involved in land cultivating, and working in farms and orchards. The younger generations have further their studies at the tie tertiary level in other states. Some of the younger generations seek jobs in big cities like Kuala Lumpur. As stated in the beginning of the writing, plantation sector is the source of income for most settlers in Jengka Triangle. Most of the settlers in FELDA Jengka 24 and also others settlements in the Jengka Triangle regions are involved in oil palm plantation. Besides involving in oil palm plantation, the settlers are brave enough to take the risk of investing in agarwood tree plantation. Agarwood is said to be one of the most expensive and good quality plant product. It is said that this plants required eight months to reap and a total of five years are needed for the trees to be cut. All the settlers work very closely with FELDA in this sector. Mature oil palms will be collected by the settlers and will be transported to FELDA’s Oil Palm Processing Plant to be processed. FELDA play an important role in ensuring that the settlers will be paid for their hard work. Besides, it is also found that there is an average of 13 shops per scheme. Most of the shops sell basic necessities such as rice, sugar, canned food and others. There are also shops that operate as coffee shops that sell various types of cakes, drinks and noodles. Sundry shops and coffee shops are commonly found in the settlements. Besides, sundry shops and coffee shops, there are shops that repair motors, hardware shops, bookshops and others. Recently, a youth from FELDA Jengka involved in aquaculture field. Leech farming has been initiated by Mohd Khairul Nizam Che Anuar and his friends. They will rear leeches in canvas containers and after 60 days, they will sell these leeches at the price of RM200 per kilogram. These leeches will be processed into leech oil.

Table 2: Distribution of Jengka Settlers based on the scheme

In Bandar Pusat Jengka, there are about eight schools, two colleges and a university. The Government realized that education is really important in shaping the future of the younger generations. Besides, in Malaysia’s constitution, every citizens of Malaysia have the right to obtain a proper education. Thus, schools such as Sekolah Kebangsaan Jengka Pusat, Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Jengka Pusat, Maahad As-Sultan Ahmad Shah Ad-Dini, Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Jengka 6 and others were built. FELDA too provides monetary support for the settlers’ children who are furthering their studies to tertiary level. Besides, the Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM) Cawangan Pahang – Kampus Bandar Jengka was built so that standard of living of the settlers in Bandar Pusat Jengka can be improved. The Government have been developed Bandar Pusat Jengka by introducing new facilities to accommodate the needs of the people living in Bandar Pusat Jengka. The Government realized that new facilities should be built in rural areas like Bandar Pusat Jengka to ensure that the rural settlers are not left behind in the country’s development. Bandar Pusat Jengka has been given many public facilities. They include Jengka Hospitals, Masjid Sultan Ahmad Shah, Bandar Jengka, public library, bus terminal Nadi Kota Bandar Pusat Jengka and Urban Community Polyclinic Jengka. Besides these facilities, the Government too have bring some of the Government agencies such as , Islamic Council and the Office of Customs Pahang , police station, Fire and Rescue Department , National Registration Department, Department of Road Transport, Office of National Energy and Office of the NSW Department of Water Supply to this area so that the rural settlers need not need to travel to the nearest town some 40 kilometres away to make a visit to any of these agencies. In addition to that, the Government too built some sports facilities such as golf courses, sports complex and mini stadium to allow the rural settlers to involve themselves in sports. Financial institutions such as Maybank, Bank Rakyat, Tabung Haji and Affin Bank just to name a few have established in Bandar Pusat Jengka. These financial institutions provide facilities such as loans, financial management and others to help the rural settlers to increase their crops production. The welfare and safety of the settlers in each settlement in FELDA Jengka is well taken care of by the Scheme Development and Security Committee (JKKR) which is formed under FELDA entrusted. The Scheme Development and Security Committee (JKKR) will uphold a high responsibility in giving co-operations and help to the settlers so that the settlers will be able to progress further which is part of the government’s aspirations.

In the recent Budget, the Government has allocated a huge amount of allocation to develop the rural areas around Malaysia. This is to ensure that the settlers in the rural areas will be able to obtain adequate facilities. It can be seen that in most rural areas, most of the residents are able to enjoy electricity and water supply in their homes. Currently the one of the Government inspirations is to connect the rural areas with the urban areas. In order to achieve this, penetration of broadband should be introduced to rural areas. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in the Centre Line Community (CBC) is introduced to FELDA Jengka 23 and 25 in April 2010. This main aim of this facility is to help the younger generations in the rural settlement to be ICT literacy and to fill their leisure time. By having internet facility in the rural settlements, the younger generations will be able to communicate with the outside world as bridging between the rural and urban community could be formed. This will able to widen their knowledge. CBC was introduced to rural settlements due to the inspiration from the Government to ensure that all Malaysians have knowledge about the internet and are able to connect to the world. Besides, this will bring changes to the mentality of the FELDA younger generations settlers. According to CBC FELDA Jengka 23 Manager, Mohd Shahrir Md Yusof, he said that this facility is a joint venture project between the Government with Suruhanjaya Komunikasi Dan Multimedia Malaysia (SKMM) and Telekom Malaysia. Broadband penetration in rural areas such as FELDA Jengka has brought changes to the living standard of the settlers. With the internet facility at Centre Line Community (CBC), the settlers are able to save time, money and energy. Moreover, their daily activities such as paying monthly utility bills, business online payment (money transfer), communicate with outstation family members and products ordering by consumers; just to name a few will be easier to be carried out. With this broadband penetration in FELDA Jengka, the settlers need not need to travel more than 40 kilometres to the nearest town such as Termerloh to carry out their activities. Currently in FELDA Jengka 23 itself, the Government and other organizations have allocated 20 units of computers. The settlers are able to use the facility from 9am to 6pm throughout the week. Besides, the CBC too provides basic computer classes to educate the settlers on the operations of the computer and some of the programmes. According to Mohd Shahrir, there is a high respond from the settlers on this facility where the average users of the facility are more than 100 settlers per day. Besides FELDA Jengka 23, other settlements such as FELDA Jengka 24 too are equipped with the broadband facility. In FELDA Jengka 24, the CBC is located together with the Rural Clinic. According to Khairul Nizam Che Anuar or Along who is a youth living in FELDA Jengka 24, he said that he usually visit the CBC to surf the internet and to learn more about leech farming. CBC too can surf as a place where the settlers are able to meet up and communicate with other settlers. Thus, this will leads to a better bonding between the settlers. In FELDA Jengka 24, there are only two computers, a scanner and printer.

In conclusion

During the mid 1900s, China’s population was growing at an alarming rate, increasing by at least 2 or more percent each year (Potts 2006:361). Estimated to reach 1.3 billion by the year 2000, Chinese government officials were worried that such extreme growth would serve to harm the potential for future economic growth. Even maintaining acceptable living standards was becoming difficult, with much of the population living in poverty. It was clear that action had to be taken in order to rapidly slow the growth at which China’s population was expanding. Fertility rates-the average number of children born per woman-needed to drastically decrease so that China would be able to develop as a country able to have influence on a world scale. The One-Child Policy was created and put into action in 1979 in an attempt to limit the number of offspring that families could produce. The majority of families were restricted to bearing only one child, reducing the size of each subsequent generation. Attempts to abide by these laws has led to many potential children being aborted, and many others being put up for adoption. Further impacting the fates of these children is China’s long standing traditional preference for boys. Many female children have been selectively aborted or put up for adoption, so that families can have another chance at producing a son. The One-Child Policy has been the determinant of two very significant parts of my family. At four years old, my cousin Emma was born. When I was five, she joined our family. Four years later, Darci arrived. Neither girl was born into a Canadian family, nor do they bear any physical resemblances to their parents. Both adopted by my aunt and uncle as infants, my cousins became part of our family as a result of China’s one-child policy. The majority of others in their adoptive groups are also girls. In my paper, I am going to explore the consequences of China’s One-Child policy, especially focusing on gender roles, and how the policy has impacted the way in which individuals of different genders are valued and treated. I will analyze the effects that the policy has had based on familial desires, economical incentives, and educational goals. Finally, I will comment on how the policy must be adapted if China wishes to maintain control over its population, both in terms of growth and citizen compliance.

Family

Traditionally, Chinese culture has followed a very patriarchal structure. As in most countries, males were more valued than females and took on the responsibilities of providing for his family. Women were submissive to the men in the household, and when a marriage occurred, it was the bride’s duty to leave her birth family in order to become a part of her new husband’s (Deutsch 2006:367). In 1979, and even today, many families are of the mindset that a son is more valuable to them than a daughter. Allowed only one offspring, a son is often the more desirable choice for households (ibid:367). There are a few reasons for this. Especially in China, the male’s ability to carry on the family name is a major factor. As many women take on their husband’s last name upon marriage, her maiden name ceases to be a part of her, in practical usage. If a family is allowed to have multiple children, one daughter does not necessarily mean that the family lineage will be discontinued. There is always the possibility for a new son to be born, able to represent the family name his entire life. However, when this option is taken away, many couples feel increased pressure to bear a son on the first try. The development of ultrasound technology in recent years allows couples to learn the gender of their child before it is born. Although this can be an advantage in many ways, knowledge of a female daughter means that there is an opportunity to abort the pregnancy before its advanced stages. While I am not going to comment on the moral issues associated with the abortion itself, frequent abortions of female fetuses has led to a severe imbalance of girls and boys. This will be discussed in more detail later.

Economics

There is also an economical incentive to take into account here. No different from many other places, males tend to earn higher salaries than females and obtain jobs in more skilled and demanding work placements. While this was not an effect created by the One-Child Policy, the differences in employment between men and women began to increase around the same time as the policy was enacted. Economic reforms introduced in the 1970s gave greater independence to businesses in regards to their labour and operations policies. Rather than a goal of equal labour, businesses were now allowed to make the majority of their hiring decisions and assign what they felt were appropriate wage rates for their employees (Wang and Cai 2008:442). This only served to increase the value differential between males and females. Overall wages gradually increased over time, with males eventually taking over many of the top sector jobs and earning higher wages. A study done (ibid:444) determined that even though women make up a larger percentage of the lower three job sectors, it is still men that are taking home the greater amount. For whatever reason, whether it is for educational reasons or pure gender role discrimination, employers have a clear tendency to prefer male workers over female employees. This gender preference has translated itself into an effect on the One-Child Policy, where families desire sons more heavily than daughters. As the parents of the first generation of One-Child offspring move into retirement age, they will have only one child on whom to rely for financial support. As opposed to previous generations, in which the burden of caring for one’s parents could be split between multiple siblings, One-Child adults are faced with the burden of caring for parents individually. Granted, with fewer children to bring up, the cost of parenting is lower which allows for greater saving, however China’s lack of a substantial pension plan makes it difficult for Chinese citizens to save enough to support themselves entirely throughout retirement (Potts 2006: 361). Nor do children have the option of defecting care of their parents to a third party: Article 21 of the Marriage Law of the People’s Republic of China (1980) specifically renders children with “the duty to support and assist their parents”. This forces only children to bear both the fiscal and social responsibilities of caring for their elderly parents. While it is not ludicrous to ask a child to care for a parent, the One-Child Policy simply intensifies this responsibility, especially if the child is not in substantial financial situation for only him or herself. A daughter, hurt with the plausibility of a lower paying workplace, is more likely to have a harder time supporting her parents than a son would, more able to obtain a financially lucrative position.

For these reasons, among others, Chinese couples often weight the value of a son as higher than that of a daughter. However, the higher value placed on male children causes many potential daughters to be aborted, abandoned as infants, or put up for adoption (Martinez 2008:86). Since the one child policy was enacted in 1979, there has been a gradual, but significant, increase in the ratio of males to females, with approximately 33 million more boys than girls under 20 reported in the 2005 census (Nature 2009:1). The shortage of women available to wed leaves many potential grooms unable to find matches, affecting the lives of many Chinese citizens. The One-Child Policy negatively affects Chinese society in this manner, as well as intensifying gender stereotypes that have been persistent in the history of the Chinese people. On the other hand, couples that do end up bearing only one daughter tend to internalize an alternate set of perceptions than those with a single son.

Education

Despite the frequent prejudices held against females in China, daughters brought up in an only child environment often receive certain advantages. In families of multiple children, with both girls and boys, girls were often treated as lesser family members. With largely predetermined plans, most women did not maintain a prominent position in their birth families through most of their adult life. Instead they would commit themselves to their husband’s lives, integrating themselves into his family and adopting their new roles as wives and daughters-in-law. These temporary statuses often ‘devalued’ daughters in the eyes of their birth families and therefore they were often denied certain opportunities and privileges than their male counterparts (Deutsch 2008:368). Although this specific mindset may be mostly outdated today, statistics show that women still tend to receive less education than men. The Chinese census taken in the year 2000 reflected a difference of approximately 1.1 years of schooling between the sexes (Cai and Wang 2008:443). However, couples that raise only one female child have only one child to rely on during their old age. As lesser schooling often leads to a lesser wage, and given the likelihood of females to earn a lower wage no matter what, parents of single daughters are more likely to invest more time and effort into their education than they might otherwise. Though still not expected to receive a higher level of education than boys, surveys taken in the late 1990s and early 2000s indicated a strong desire for equal education of both sexes (Cai and Wang 2008:443). There is a possibility that this could just be the reflection of the evolution of gender perceptions, though it is very likely that in China at the very least, the One-Child Policy had some effect on this new mentality. As touched upon earlier, the Policy forces elderly parents to rely on a single child for support in their old age. Having the option of relying solely on a female child with a lesser degree of education points towards a less lucrative financial future. A parent’s desire for a more stable financial future may lead to the provision of a higher degree of education for his or her only daughter. Further adding onto the instability of a parent’s retirement well being is the fear of losing a daughter to the family of her husband. Without the possibility of additional children to depend on, parents of only daughters are less willing to give up their only child to the household of another family, and therefore tend to value self-sufficiency and education more, promoting increased gender equality. From this perspective, China’s One-Child Policy creates both negative and positive effects.

The Future of the Policy

Numerous times in recent years, spokespeople for the National Population and Family Planning Commission of China have stated that the current family planning policy will not be revoked within the near future (Family Planning 2009:1). As a country with an estimated 1.3 billion people at the close of 2010, an efficient tactic for preventing overexpansion is a necessary component of national policy. The One-Child policy is still considered to be of the utmost importance for maintaining effective population control. However, as it currently exists, it is vital that a re-evaluation and revision of the policy take place. A 2009 survey indicated a desire for the allowance of second children by approximately 78% of the population (Family Planning 2010:1). As China’s population continues to grow, it will be increasingly difficult to ensure that the policy is followed properly. Already, the policy has become harder to enforce, as the independence and wealth of the Chinese people continues to escalate (Hesketh, Lu and Xing 2005:17). The development of the country is such that the One-Child policy may not be practically feasible very shortly. An adaptation is necessary in order to upkeep the efficiency of the policy. In fact, those responsible for the policy seem to have already become aware of this. In 2002, while no major changes were made to its fundamentals elements, specific aspects of the policy were softened gently. Influenced by rising tensions between the Chinese government and its people, the strict quotas based around reproduction were done away with and couples no longer need to obtain permission to have their child (ibid:21). This was a positive step towards the future long-term continuation of the policy.

In addition to the concerns of enforcement, there are other worrying issues surrounding the policy. As mentioned earlier, the insufficient numbers of females below 20 years of age is alarming. By the year 2020, it is estimated that the difference between men and women of marriageable age will be dangerously close to the 24 million mark. Authorities from within the Population Association of China are foreshadowing a spike in the sex industry of China, including the trafficking and solicitation of prostitution and pornography (Mcleod 2010:17). This severe imbalance poses an issue that must be addressed, so as to avoid continued long term damage to Chinese citizens and society. As the disproportion increases, it will become all the more necessary for the Chinese to review their Family Planning Policy and patch up the holes that are creating these issues.

Conclusion

Out of all the countries in the world, China is home to the greatest number of people. Shanghai, one of its most prominent cities, recently hit a landmark population of 23 million people (CNNGO 2011:4). Its population is showing no sign of slowing down naturally any time soon. China’s rapid expansion makes a policy designated to control population a necessary element of governance. All the same, the current program working towards this goal is causing its own issues. Looking purely at the numbers, the One-Child Policy is working admirably, no doubt one of the reasons for why those in charge are hesitant to retract it. It is estimated that an astounding 250 to 300 million births have been prevented via this policy (Hesketh et al 2005:6). However, now the issues is not so much how many people make up the total population, but what people comprise it. The desire for sons has left many daughters unborn, abandoned, or put up for adoption as infants. This policy is the reason that I have two of my cousins, both girls adopted from China at a very young age, as part of my family. Through analyzing the effect that the One-Child Policy has had in the past 30 years, it is clear that in order to continue to be successful in the future, something must be done to re-balance the male-female demographic, as well as change the perception that many have of females as being less valuable than males. While an important part of Chinese government, the One-Child Policy must be adapted if it wishes to remain effective.

The essay is a critical analysis from a sociological point of view of the book ain’t No Making it, third edition by Jay McLeod and published in 2008. The author divided the book into three distinct parts; part one The Hallway Hangers and the Brothers as Teenagers, part two Eight Years Later; Low income, Low income and the last part Ain’t No makin’ It. Through the eyes of the two groups used by McLeod, the brothers (black minority boys) and the Hallways (white boys) we are able to clearly see what transpires in an American societal setting.

The two groups lived and studied in the same conditions but each has varied expectations and aspiration, this is on the basis of their race. The Brothers viewed an open society as the way life should be lived and held the opinion that the difficulties they are going through is due to racism their ancestors underwent. For this reason, they try as much as possible to engage in socially acceptable manners. This group does have high expectation as well as aspiration. On the other hand, the Hallways do not accept the same achievement ideology held by the Brothers. The individuals in this group have lost hope, do drugs, drop from school plus engaging in a myriad of other activities deemed illegal. From the author, the two groups did not get themselves out of poverty. The reason I bet is that there are numerous barriers in the society that blocked their quest of getting themselves out of poverty. It is worth noting that a number of other concepts from sociological point of view clearly emerge. These include social conflict, poverty, gender and racial inequality, males as role model, political power, defeatism, education and society/elites and generational mobility (McLeod 17).

Social conflict

From social conflict theory which argues that human beings as well as groups in a given society do at any given time have varied amount of both material and non material resources. For this reason, those deemed wealthy or rich and more powerful exploit the less privileged. Another theory that will be analyzed along the social conflict one is Bourdieu social reproductive theory which asserts that those kids born by working class parents will automatically end up finding better jobs.

It is evident that the Brothers did acknowledge that the difficulties in life they are facing at present are nothing but as a result of the serious racial discrimination their fore fathers went through. A typical example of social conflict is in the field of education in the book. Those kids from lower class families are treated in a manner by the teachers that suggest they (students) are less competent. Thus they are placed in a lower track as they lack opportunities to develop their language. In this category, these students are only trained to later in life take blue color jobs while those from affluent families are trained to take white color jobs. Additionally, the two kinds of school, public and private provide us with a clear distinction between where kids from wealthy and poor background attend school (McLeod 287). On the same note, students from less privileged families are disadvantaged by their manners, the way they talk, dress and deemed not to be fit and valued in the education systems

Social conflict also arise when the Hallways view their skin as being discriminated against by the American affirmative action which aim at providing equal opportunities to all Americans. They are of the opinion that the black are favored due to their skin color and the whit boys even curse their color. Frankie said, “Well I look today, and if anyone should had a chance to make it, it’s fuckin’, it’s black people. They got a chance to make it. Cuz there’s fucking quotas to be filled.” (McLeod 187)

It is from this perspective that the two groups hold varied achievement ideology. It is apparent that despite their hardship, the Brothers see themselves as individuals who will beat all odds and make it in life through education and taking part in constructive activities. On the other hand, the Hallways have no hopes of making it in life and are under defeatism. One thing seems apparent, that structural barriers block both the Brothers and the Hallways from getting out of poverty. From a close examination of events, it is in my view that hard work do pay while other factors such as race, sex among others are just secondary or play very minimal role in future success of individuals.

Gender and racial inequality

Gender and racial inequality is a concept that refers to unfair treatment of an individual because of his sex/gender and his/her race or skin color. In the book, the author through his well thought and painted characters bring out clearly discrimination in terms of race. From the view point of the Hallways, lacking male role model brings to their mind some aspect of gender inequality. They Lack the guidance as well as the opportunity to learn from them, and for that matter, they do not deem their mothers and elder sisters as being in a position to provide them the guidance they need in life. Lack of male role model have renders these guys (Hallways) to be hopeless in life and when asked what they will be in the next twenty, years, their response is amazing, they say they will be in jail or even dead (McLeod 341).

The issue of racism has been facing Americans from as long as human race came into being and started migrating to America. From the onset of the book, the Brothers claim that they are in their difficult situation as a result of how unfair their forefathers were treated. This resulted to them (forefathers) being denied equal employment and education opportunities. The Brothers are brave enough to come out of this narrow kind of thinking to fight very hard so as to reclaim their status thanks to numerous reforms such as affirmative actions and equal employment opportunities. On the other hand, the Hallways despite the fact that they are white which would translate to being in a better position to get better education and jobs are in more anguish just like their black counter parts. They assert that the black are favored as they have taken all jobs due to the government policies, Hallways further claim that they see their skin color as working a against them, for this reason they are practicing racism as they do not see eye to eye with the blacks. Contrary to this, the Brothers upon seeing an element of racism just work away from it (McLeod 442).

Generational mobility

Generational mobility a concept used to describe how a given human generation finds their ways to the next social class has is evident in McLeod book. Historically, human race have struggled to make their live better by doing all things possible within their reach. One is the quest to climb the social ladder. Varied school of thought exist that try to justify how this is attained. There are those who hold that one’s family background dictates how far an individual will rise in societal stratification. On the other hand, achievement ideologists strongly believe that all these societal aspects such as sex, race, family background are secondary and play no or minimal role in dictating how one generation will rise from one level to another. What is important is the desire and hard work of doing so.

Both the Brothers and the Hallways are brought from impoverished family background. One group, the Brothers, the black minority in America society despite being brought up in a disadvantaged society; they are painted as individuals who are highly optimistic and work very hard to attain their dreams and desires. They engage themselves in activities that are in line with positive living as well as in line with the country’s law. They work very work very hard in school in order to attain better grades. It is worth noting that despite the fact that their parents were oppressed previously and did not get the opportunities to attend school, they against all odd support their kids in all ways possible. However, the Brothers failed to achieve their desired success and blame themselves for this failure (McLeod 271). On the other hand, the Hallways were demoralized by their self defeat and found themselves indulging in drugs, dropping from school. They blame all other individuals in the society for instance schools, parents, the community the society and every one around them but forget to see what role they have played in making their lives the way it is. It is for holding the idea of defeatism, pessimists and disregarding achievement ideology that the Hallways did not achieve any mobility that could have helped them and the coming generation to move up the ladder. From my point of view, for any future human generation to realize mobility, the present generation need not to focus on what was done wrong but to make improvement on what was done wrong.

From my analysis, there is no one better social theory that can adequately explain sociological aspects in any societal settings. Due to the fact that all sociological concepts and perspective are closely linked to one another, ascribing one to be of more importance in my opinion is not being rational and sound enough in trying to address these effects.

Poverty

The author has laid an emphasis on the issue of poverty in the society. In the book ain’t no making it, excellent insights I to lives of teenage boys who live in a low income neighborhood Clarendon Heights where the reader is forced to reconsider ones notions and perceptions of poverty as well as its causes in the society. The book looks at the American ideology on achievement and puts into question its effect son the society. The book goes to justify the fact that people are not poor simply because they are lazy but rather as a result of numerous structural barriers in the society that traps them into the vicious cycle of poverty. It goes ahead to show how the social structure and the way the society is close-minded and the especially the upper and the middle class people who view that those who occupy the lesser social standing the lazy ones. The 11 year old Freddie is self-defeated despite growing in America perceived as a nation of dreams because he feels trapped in such position by the inherited poverty. The poverty handed down from earlier generations especially from their uneducated parent greatly impacted on the work, school and even shattered or limited their dreams and ambitions (MacLeod, 447).

Defeatism

The author mentions in his book about the hallway hangers which is predominantly whites and spend great deal of their time hanging in a specific hallway section of the housing project. This peer group is self-destructing and self defeating as its members poses a very narrow view of their futures being destined with expectations. They don’t see any glimpse of hope and are very pessimistic of their future endeavors. On the other hand is the very optimistic per group the brother who despite their low income current life they detrimentally held the American dream close to their hearts. The hallway hungers have been isolated from the society and they feel bitter about it as they are the minority group. The alienation as a result of poverty has made them give up in a life and that they have dully accepted. The hallways hangers then engage themselves in criminal activities, alcoholics and become junkies who are addicted to losing. Way down the line they still don’t realize any upward social mobility.

On the other hand the group of the poor black catapulted by their optimism and American dream turns their desolate situation in to a better one by struggling very hard and this later earns them a slight upward movement in the social ladder. Through this the author embedded the Marxist theory which he argues against assuming that all educated people as Marx stated. MacLeod shows another evidence that poor people stay poor because of the generational inheritance of poverty because there are numerous pressures that act against them especially when the struggle to lift themselves sup and these end as limiting their rise in the society so far ant rise in social status effort of several generations have to be considered.

The defeatism portrayed by the Hallway Hangers in the book ain’t a making it making is explained by the social learning theory which argues that students are often socialized from their early ages and thus hold various values and own experiences based on their social situations. It further argues that students raised from backgrounds characterized by failure and under achievement always see their parents or preceding generations as failures and tend to often internalize such values at end up perceiving their own success also as unlikely. This theory thus justifies the action and decisions that are made by the peer group Hallways Hangers who saw their uneducated and poor parents and became self -defeated for the rest of their lives.

The author also describe the consequences that result when the poor are false defeated and do nothing if not worse by making wrong decisions in their current lives. The Hallways hungers saw falsehood in the American dream and believed that everything they ought to have done to salvage their situation as was empty ventures and turned to be absolute losers who in their future lives had crummy jobs, poor living standards and many regrets like if they had been serious in getting educated they would have bee leading better lives with better past.

Macleod proves that nothing good comes for free and one has to keep on struggling to attain it just as the way the brother never gave up on their dreams despite their poverty and alienation from the rest of the society. It proves that if one is to succeed. The author shows how the lives of the poor in a well off society are self-defeated by their poverty levels and end up worsening their situation as they are alienated from the rest of the society (MacLeod,347).The brothers stayed focused in their struggles to see their dream of progressing into the social ladder into the middles class coma true and later reaped its benefit of their optimism and handwork, their behavior is supported by the ideology of achievement called Need for Achievement theory which argues that the level of ones achievement is the product of their motivation to succeed and hence avoid failure thus individual tend to weigh their expectancy of success by the values placed on that success. The brothers despite being from poor families kept their dreams alive by motivating themselves with good thoughts of enjoying better life when they rose to the middle class. The values they placed in middle social class motivated them to keep on struggling hard and being optimistic of a better life ahead.

Drugs use

The Hallways hangers see falsehood in the education system and thinks that teachers no nothing and sees no values of getting educated and if they go to class they get expelled and are teachers nightmare. There parents work in low paying jobs and for them to get quick bucks they get themselves is doing drugs like selling of crack cocaine in the neighborhood. In addition to doing drugs the group engage sin alcoholism and other forma of crimes. Doing of drugs inhibits the group members from getting educated and obtain their goals as it makes them concentrate on them and as they get high they care less of their lives hence limiting their progress in life. The hallways hangers derived their name fro always found hanging in a specific hallway in the project, a place they would get drunk and high. They have given up in life and don’t see any possibility of getting out of the housing projects so they opted to doing drugs hence becoming depressed and eventually hindering their motivation (MacLeod, 147).

This peer group use drugs as a shortcut to happiness and a way of avoiding the effects of poverty. Doing drugs also made them quick money which they believed could not be obtained from work. From doing drugs one could get more than twenty dollars as compared to seven dollar salary from work. Hangers saw drugs as an n easy way out of debt but this denied them an n opportunity of going to school to better their future lives and for those who attempted to school always got in problems with their teachers and administration as result of drug use.

Male Figures Role Models

Most of the male parents of the hallways hangers are either gone and brothers are dead or in jail and this denies such them a male role models in their upbringing .On the other hand the brother have more male authority figures and they therefore respect their families more than their counter parts hallways hangers (MacLeod,47).The brothers also are more optimistic in life and hope to get their families out of the housing projects by graduating from school and getting white jobs which are well paying. This shows that the male role models in the family plays a critical role in the lives of the younger siblings or their kids as they instill some values that the male figures ca not. For example the skills of appreciating family are related to the role played by the male family figures as seen from the brothers who show some love and respect towards family members and this is attributed to the numbers of male figure in their lives as compared to the Hallway hungers whose fathers were dead and big brothers dead or in jail. The male figures in the families of the hallway hungers showed a bad example influencing the members also get engaged in activities that would lead the to imprisonment or even lead to their death.

Conclusion

The book outplays the idea of doing away of ideologies that deny acknowledgement of ones social conditions for instance the achievement ideology which made the brothers to believe that by ignoring their impoverished conditions they can make in life by trying harder and they ended up in limited progress. Most teachers believe the ideology motivates all students but that is not true as there halfway hangers needed a support in self esteem in order to get motivated. Ina addition to that in order for students to get motivated in schools materials should be provided especially those in inner-cities where schools have deteriorated to a dangerous point.

In addition, a social change is not achieved overnight but takes sometimes and appreciation of ones social problem leads to a progressive change and through education one is able to critically understand such social problems. Finally to make any political change in the society people especially the dormant dogma should discard the long time held belief that poverty is caused by personal vices and cultural pathologies of the poor.

The term womens right refers to freedoms and entitlements of women and girls of all ages. These rights may or may not be institutionalized, ignored or suppressed by law, local custom, and behavior in a particular society. These liberties are grouped together and differentiated from broader notions of human rights because they often differ from the freedoms inherently possessed by or recognized for men and boys and because activists for this issue claim an inherent historical and traditional bias against the exercise of rights by women and girls.

Issues commonly associated with notions of women’s rights include, though are not limited to, the right: to bodily integrity and autonomy; to vote (suffrage); to hold public office; to work; to fair wages or equal pay; to own property; to education; to serve in the military or be conscripted; to enter into legal contracts; and to have marital, parental and religious rights. Women and their supporters have campaigned and in some places continue to campaign for the same rights as men.

Women in ancient Egyptian:

In ancient Egypt, women’s rights reached a level that has rarely been equaled in any civilization right up to modern times. This was unusual in the ancient world and led to condemnation from neighboring states.

Rather than being seen as the weaker sex, women were often portrayed as being just as violence as men. Queens are shown crushing their enemies; executing prisoners and firing arrows at male opponents in battle.

Women were also treated the same under criminal law and would suffer the same punishments as men for their crimes, including being executed if convicted of a capital offence. However if it was found the offender was pregnant then her execution was delayed until after the birth.

Although most official posts were given to men, women were known to hold high office. There were female overseers, governors and judges and at least one, Queen Hetepheres II, ran the civil service. Two women were given the role of vizier (prime minister), the highest administrative position and six even achieved the title of pharaoh.

Women from poorer families were also free to find work and were often employed in traditional female roles such as maids, nannies and midwives.

According to Joseph Perkins of Minnesota State University, some are known to have started small businesses out of their homes often considerably increasing the family income through making and selling products such as linen or perfume. Professional opportunities were also available to some women, such as director of dance and even physicians. Female doctors are known to have been skilled enough to perform caesarean sections and to surgically remove cancerous breasts.

The suffrage awarded to women allowed them to enjoy a high level of financial freedom. Possessions, property and debt acquired by a woman through labour or inheritance was seen as separate from her husband and if she became a widow, she was entitled to inherit one third of the property they jointly owned, with the rest divided between the late husband’s children and siblings.

Despite their freedoms, Egyptian women were most commonly bestowed with the title of ‘Lady of the House’ and were expected to run the home and bear children. For poorer families, large numbers of offspring were necessary to provide extra sources of labour and income but for the wealthy few. With both male and female servants to tend to daily chores and child rearing, richer women spent much of their time in leisure pursuits like listening to music, taking care of their pets, playing board games, eating good food and drinking fine wines.

It is as mothers, sisters, wives and daughters to pharaohs, that royal women were most influential to the state. Pharaohs also had a host of ‘minor wives’, who often were able to wield some influence and as succession did not necessarily go to the eldest son, they had the opportunity to become mother to a pharaoh.

Pharaohs would often have a host of women known as ‘Ornaments of the King’ who were chosen for their beauty and employed to entertain with singing and dancing. Although this seems more in keeping with treatment of women elsewhere, in Egypt, they were important participants in court life and were active in royal functions, state events and religious ceremonies.

Women often played a key role in the priesthood with royal women holding the title ‘God’s Wife’, a position of great political significance second only to the pharaoh, for whom they sometimes stood in. Female priestesses also played a significant role in the religious life of ancient Egypt, participating alongside men in rituals, earning a living as professional mourners and sometimes acting as funerary priests.

As warriors, intellectuals, priestesses, political figures and even rulers, the women of ancient Egypt enjoyed a large degree of suffrage. Many had the opportunity to advance themselves to an extent that was not achieved again until the twentieth century and a financial equality that many women still fight for to this day.

Women in Egypt now a day:

Rural and lower-class Egyptians generally believed that women were related to men. Women were expected to be under control of male relatives, to avoid contact with men who were not from the family, and to veil themselves in public. As children women learned to accept dependency on their fathers and older brothers. After marriage women expected their husbands to make all decisions. Early married life could be a time of extreme subordination and insecurity. The new wife usually lived with or near her husband’s family and was expected to help her mother-in-law in the house. A young wife was under pressure from her husband and his family until she gets pregnant. Barrenness was a woman’s worst possible misfortune, and not giving birth to a son was almost as bad. Women who had only daughters were called “mothers of brides.” Most families continued having children until they had at least one son. As the woman’s gets married, and her sons matured, her position in the family grew more secure.

The sexual behavior and reputation of the women of a line age were the most important components of a family’s honor. A bad reputation for one woman meant a bad reputation for the whole line age. Honor was essential to social life; without it even a minimal social standing in the community was impossible. Men were especially interested in maintaining honor. Women were always on their best behavior around men from other families because they were afraid of getting a bad reputation. A bad reputation could disgrace the men of her family. A disgraced husband could restore his status, however, through divorce. Most disgraced fathers and brothers in rural and lower-class urban families, however, believed that honor could only be restored by killing the daughter or sister suspected of sexual misconduct. Family members who murdered the women were prepared to accept legal penalties for their actions.

Women have traditionally been preoccupied with household tasks and child rearing and have rarely had opportunities for contact with men outside the family. But since the 1952 Revolution, social changes, especially in education, have caused many women to spend time in public places among men who were not related to them. To limit women’s contact with these men, practices such as veiling and gender segregation at schools, work, and recreation have become commonplace. Furthermore, lower-class families, especially in Upper Egypt, have tended to withdraw girls from school as they reached puberty to minimize their interaction with men. Lower-class men frequently preferred marriage to women who had been secluded rather than to those who had worked or attended secondary school.

Egypt’s laws pertaining to marriage and divorce favored the social position of men. Muslim husbands were traditionally allowed to have up to four wives at a time in accordance with Islamic religious custom, but a woman could have only one husband at a time. A Muslim man could divorce his wife with ease by saying “I divorce thee” on three separate occasions in the presence of witnesses. A woman wishing to dissolve a marriage had to instigate legal proceedings and prove to a court that her husband had failed to support her or that his behavior was having a harmful moral effect on the family. The laws required men to support their ex-wives for only one year after a divorce, and the fathers gained custody of the children. A man faced few or no penalties if he refused to provide equal support to his wives or if he refused to pay alimony to his divorced wife. Divorce was much more difficult for Copts than it was for Muslims. Common law regulated the marriages and divorces of Copts.

A new law reversed many of the rights accorded to women in 1979. A woman lost her automatic right to divorce her husband if he married a second wife. She could still petition a court to consider her case, but a judge would grant a divorce only if it were in the interests of the family. If a divorce were granted, the judge would also determine what an appropriate residence was for the divorced woman and her children.

Since the early 1970s, women’s status has been changing, mostly because an increasing number of women have joined the nonagricultural workforce. According to government estimates, the number of working women doubled from 500,000 to 1 million between 1978 and 1980. By 1982 women accounted for 14 percent of all wage-earning and salaried employees throughout the country. Although substantial numbers of women were in the professions, particularly education, engineering, and medicine, most women held low-paying jobs in factories, offices, and service industries. Half of all employed women held jobs such as street cleaners, janitors, hotel and domestic servants, and hospital aides. In 1990 women accounted for more than 12 percent of all industrial workers; most female factory workers were in textiles, food processing, and pharmaceuticals.

Strategy and Proposal
1-Reasons for choosing the topic:

My main reason for choosing this topic to be my documentary because a lot of people didn’t know what is the women right and how the women in the ancient Egyptians having a very high position were and was much honored at that time. Today a lot of men are knowing that women having all their rights and even more than they deserve.

In addition, this documentary will be exposing the different between the women in ancient Egyptian which she was having all her rights and even more, and the women now a day in Egypt which she suffering and fight to get her minimum rights in living a good life.

Women were having their rights in the old ancient Egyptian era from 7000 years ago but now in the post modernity era the women still fighting and suffering to get their right.

If we compare us to other Arab countries, we are behind. Other countries are going forward like in Yemen has judges, Sudan has judges; the general prosecutor in Syria is a woman.

For that reason it’s important to discuss this topic to let all people from men women and teenagers know the rights for women and what could she do to asking for her rights.

2-Message of the documentary:

The main message from this documentary is to raise awareness of men about the women right to know how to treat them and may be trying to help women to get their rights. Also, to raise awareness of women and girls because they should know their rights which Qassem Amen and Huda Saharawi fight to gutted for them. Also, to know that women rights were settled from the great ancient Egyptian era not only when Qassem Amen wrote about it, in ancient Egyptian era women were having their all rights so all women and girls should take them their leaders and do like them or try to be like them and get their rights.

3-Target audience:

The main target audience related to this documentary is women , ages from 25 to 45who suffering from being treated badly or didn’t get their rights that they deserves.

The young girls, ages from 18 to 24, who are not knowing their history or their rights and they going to graduated and starting their carrier life. They should decide what they want to be like their great ancient Egyptian women or give up and don’t get their rights.

Also, men, ages from 25 to 45, they should know what women right is and to know how to treat women.

4-Expected interviews:

Random people’s opinion about women rights to know what they know about it.

People who are working in women rights to help us to know more about what women right is.

Egyptian writer wrote about women right in ancient Egyptian era to elaborate how they got their rights.

Interview with Mona Helmy an Egyptian journalist who wrote a lot of articles about women write now a day.

5-shooting places:

Shots for women infront of courts trying to get their rights.

Shots for Doctor Mona Helmy in her office.

Shots for seminars about women rights.

Shots for people in the streets.

6-Sequence of the documentary:

The documentary will start by showing some footages for ancient Egyptian women queens and gods

Then some other footage for women in Egypt suffering infront of courts trying to get their rights.

Then an Egyptology will talk about how the women in ancient Egyptian getting their rights

Then the documentary will then proceed giving people’s opinion about women rights now a day.

Then the Egyptian Dr Mona Helmy will discuss the women rights now a day.

Finally, will telling the people how to try learning from our Egyptian civilization and let the women get their minimum rights.

7-Visual list:

The documentary will include some footages of

8-Question of the documentary:
Random people in the street:

What did you know about women rights?

Do you know any thing about women rights in ancient Egyptian era?

Did you think women take all her rights?

Do you think women could be a judge or not and why?

Random women infront of court:

What is your case?

Did the low help you in getting your right quickly?

Did you think you have all your rights?

Dr.Mona Helmy:

What is your opinion about women today in Egypt?

Did she get all her wrights?

Did your article about women rights do something for women?

In your opinion, what should the Egyptian women do to get all her rights?

9-Script of the documentary:

video

audio

Situation Analysis
1-Background of the topic:
Women in ancient Egyptian:

An exception to most other ancient societies, Egyptian women achieved parity with Egyptian men. They enjoyed the same legal and economic rights, at least in theory, and this concept can be found in Egyptian art and contemporary manuscripts. The disparities between people’s legal rights were based on differences in social class and not on gender. Legal and economic rights were afforded to both men and women.

Egyptian women’s rights extended to all legally defined areas of Egyptian civilization. Women could manage, own, and sell private property, which included slaves, land, portable goods, servants, livestock, and money. Women could resolve legal settlements. Women could conclude any kind of legal settlement. Women could appear as a contracting partner in a marriage contract or a divorce contract; they could execute testaments; they could free slaves; women could make adoptions. Women were entitled to sue at law. This amount of freedom was at variance with that of the Greek women who required a designated male, called a kourios, to represent or stand for her in all legal contracts and proceedings. This male was her husband, father or brother.

An Egyptian woman could acquire possessions in many ways. She could receive it as gifts or as an inheritance from her parents or husband. Or she could receive it from purchases with goods which she earned either through employment, or which she borrowed. A woman had claims to up to one-third of all the community property in her marriage.

Women’s legal rights:

The Egyptian woman’s rights extended to all the legally defined areas of society. From the bulk of the legal documents, we know that women could manage and dispose of private property, including: land, portable goods, servants, slaves, livestock, and money (when it existed), as well as financial instruments (i.e., endowments and annuities). A woman could administer all her property independently and according to her free will. She could conclude any kind of legal settlement. She could appear as a contracting partner in a marriage contract or a divorce contract; she could execute testaments; she could free slaves; she could make adoptions. She was entitled to sue at law. It is highly significant that a woman in Egypt could do all of the above and initiate litigation in court freely without the need of a male representative. This amount of freedom was at variance with that of the Greek woman who required a designated male, called a kourios, to represent or stand for her in all legal contracts and proceedings. This male was her husband, father or brother.

Women’s property rights:

There were several ways for an Egyptian woman to acquire possessions and real property. Most frequently, she received it as gifts or as an inheritance from her parents or husband, or else, she received it through purchases–with goods which she earned either through employment, or which she borrowed. Under Egyptian property law, a woman had claim to one-third of all the community property in her marriage, i.e. the property which accrued to her husband and her only after they were married. When a woman brought her own private property to a marriage (e.g., as a dowry), this apparently remained hers, although the husband often had the free use of it. However, in the event of divorce her property had to be returned to her, in addition to any divorce settlement that might be stipulated in the original marriage contract.

A wife was entitled to inherit one-third of that community property on the death of her husband, while the other two-thirds was divided among the children, followed up by the brothers and sisters of the deceased. To circumvent this possibility and to enable life to receive either a larger part of the share, or to allow her to dispose of all the property, a husband could do several things:

1) In the Middle Kingdom, he could draw up an imyt-pr, a “house document,” which was a legal unilateral deed for donating property. As a living will, it was made and perhaps executed while the husband was still alive. In this will, the husband would assign to his wife what he wished of his own private property, i.e., what he acquired before his marriage. An example of this is the imyt-pr of Wah from el-Lahun. 2) If there were no children, and the husband did not wish his brothers and sisters to receive two-thirds of the community property, he could legally adopt his wife as his child and heir and bequeath all the property to her. Even if he had other children, he could still adopt his wife, so that, as his one of his legal offspring, she would receive some of the two-thirds share, in addition to her normal one-third share of the community property.

A woman was free to bequeath property from her husband to her children or even to her own brothers and sisters (unless there was some stipulation against such in her husband’s will). One papyrus tells us how a childless woman, who after she inherited her husband’s estate, raised the three illegitimate children who were born to him and their female household slave (such liaisons were fairly common in the Egyptian household and seem to have borne no social stigma). She then married the eldest illegitimate step-daughter to her younger brother, whom she adopted as her son, that they might receive the entire inheritance.

A woman could also freely disinherit children of her private property, i.e., the property she brought to her marriage or her share of the community property. She could selectively bequeath that property to certain children and not to others. Such action is recorded in the Will of Naunakht.

Women in contracts:

Women in Egypt were consistently concluding contracts, including: marriage and divorce settlements, engagements of wet-nurses, purchases of property, even arrangements for self-enslavement. Self-enslavement in Egypt was actually a form of indentured servitude. Although self-enslavement appears to have been illegal in Egypt, it was practiced by both men and women. To get around the illegality, the servitude was stipulated only for a limited number of years, although it was usually said to be “99 years.”

Under self-enslavement, women often technically received a salary for their labor. Two reasons for which a woman might be forced into such an arrangement are:

(1) as payment to a creditor to satisfy bad debts;

(2) to be assured of one’s provisions and financial security, for which a person might even pay a monthly fee, as though they were receiving a service. However, this fee would equal the salary that the provider had to pay for her labor; thus, no “money” would be exchanged. Since this service was a legal institution, then a contract was drawn up stipulating the conditions and the responsibilities of the involved parties.

In executing such an arrangement, a woman could also include her children and grandchildren, alive or unborn. One such contract of a woman who bound herself to the temple of Saknebtynis states:

The female servant (so & so) has said before my master, Saknebtynis, the great god, ‘I am your servant, together with my children and my children’s children. I shall not be free in your precinct forever and ever. You will protect me; you will keep me safe; you will guard me. You will keep me sound; you will protect me from every demon, and I will pay you 1-1/4 kita of copper . . . until the completion of 99 years, and I will give it to your priests monthly.’

If such women married male “slaves,” the status of their children depended on the provisions of their contracts with their owners.

Women before the bar:

Egyptian women had the right to bring lawsuits against anyone in open court, and there was no gender-based bias against them, and we have many cases of women winning their claims. A good example of this fact is found in the Inscription of Mes. This inscription is the actual court record of a long and drawn- out private land dispute which occurred in the New Kingdom. Significantly, the inscription shows usfour things: (1) women could manage property, and they could inherit trusteeship of property; (2) women could institute litigation (and appeal to the court of the vizier); (3) women were awarded legal decisions (and had decisions reversed on appeal); (4) women acted as witnesses before a court of law.

However, based upon the Hermopolis Law Code of the third century B.C., the freedom of women to share easily with their male relatives in the inheritance of landed property was perhaps restricted somewhat. According to the provisions of theHermopolis Law Code, where an executor existed, the estate of the deceased was divided up into a number of parcels equal to the number of children of the deceased, both alive and dead. Thereafter, each male child (or that child’s heirs), in order of birth, took his pick of the parcels. Only when the males were finished choosing, were the female children permitted to choose their parcels (in chronological order). The male executor was permitted to claim for himself parcels of any children and heirs who predeceased the father without issue. Female executors were designated when there were no sons to function as such. However, the code is specific that–unlike male executors–they could not claim the parcels of any dead children.

Still, it is not appropriate to compare the provisions of the Hermopolis Law Code to the Inscription of Mes, since the latter pertains to the inheritance of an office, i.e., a trusteeship of land, and not to the land itself. Indeed, the system of dividing the estate described in the l aw code–or something similar to it- -might have existed at least as early as the New Kingdom, since the Instructions of Any contains the passage, “Do not say, ‘My grandfather has a house. An enduring house, it is called’ (i.e., don’t brag of any future inheritance), for when you take your share with your brothers, your portion may only be a storehouse.”

Female literacy:

It is uncertain, generally, how literate the Egyptian woman was in any period. Baines and Eyre suggest very low figures for the percentage of the literate in the Egypt population, i.e., only about 1% in the Old Kingdom (i.e., 1 in 20 or 30 males). Other Egyptologists would dispute these estimates, seeing instead an amount at about 5-10% of the population. In any event, it is certain that the rate of literacy of Egyptian women was well behind that of men from the Old Kingdom through the Late Period.

Lower class women, certainly were illiterate; middle class women and the wives of professional men, perhaps less so. The upper class probably had a higher rate of literate women. In the Old and Middle Kingdoms, middle and upper class women are occasionally found in the textual and archaeological record with administrative titles that are indicative of a literate ability. In the New Kingdom the frequency at which these titles occur declines significantly, suggesting an erosion in the rate of female literacy at that time (let alone the freedom to engage in an occupation). However, in a small number of tomb representations of the New Kingdom, certain noblewomen are associated with scribal palettes, suggesting a literate ability. Women are also recorded as the senders and recipients of a small number of letters in Egypt (5 out of 353). However, in these cases we cannot be certain that they personally penned or read these letters, rather than employed the services of professional scribes.

Many royal princesses at court had private tutors, and most likely, these tutors taught them to read and write. Royal women of the Eighteenth Dynasty probably were regularly trained, since many were functioning leaders. Since royal princesses would have been educated, it then seems likely that the daughters of the royal courtiers were similarly educated. In the inscriptions, we occasionally do find titles of female scribes among the middle class from the Middle Kingdom on, especially after the Twenty- sixth Dynasty, when the rate of literacy increased throughout the country. The only example of a female physician in Egypt occurs in the Old Kingdom. Scribal instruction was a necessary first step toward medical training.

Women in public:

The Egyptian woman in general was free to go about in public; she worked out in the fields and in estate workshops. Certainly, she did not wear a veil, which is first documented among the ancient Assyrians (perhaps reflecting a tradition of the ancient semitic- speaking people of the Syrian and Arabian Deserts). However, it was perhaps unsafe for an Egyptian woman to venture far from her town alone.

Ramesses III boasts in one inscription, “I enabled the woman of Egypt to go her own way, her journeys being extended where she wanted, without any person assaulting her on the road.” A different view of the traveling women is found in the Instructions of Any, “Be on your guard against a woman from abroad, who is not known in town, do not have sex with her.” So by custom, there might have been a reputation of impiousness or looseness associated with a woman traveling alone in Egypt.

Despite the legal freedom of women to travel about, folk custom or tradition may have discouraged that. So, e.g., earlier in the Old Kingdom, Ptahhotep would write, “If you desire to make a friendship last in a house to which you have access to its master as a brother or friend in any place where you might enter, beware of approaching the women. It does not go well with a place where that is done.”

However, the theme of this passage might actually refer to violating personal trust and not the accessibility of women, per se. However, mores and values apparently changed by the New Kingdom. The love poetry of that era, as well as certain letters, are quite frank about the public accessibility and freedom of women.

Women’s occupations :

In general, the work of the upper and middle class woman was limited to the home and the family. This was not due to an inferior legal status, but was probably a consequence of her customary role as mother and bearer of children, as well as the public role of the Egyptian husbands and sons who functioned as the executors of the mortuary cults of their deceased parents. It was the traditional role of the good son to bury his parents, support their funerary cult, to bring offerings regularly to the tombs, and to recite the offering formula. Because women are not regularly depicted doing this in Egyptian art, they probably did not often assume this role. When a man died without a surviving son to preserve his name and present offerings, then it was his brother who was often depicted in the art doing so. Perhaps because it was the males who were regularly entrusted with this important religious task, that they held the primary position in public life.

As far as occupations go, in the textual sources upper class woman are occasionally described as holding an office, and thus they might have executed real jobs. Clearly, though, this phenomenon was more prevalent in the Old Kingdom than in later periods (perhaps due to the lower population at that time). In Wente’s publication of Egyptian letters, he notes that of 353 letters known from Egypt, only 13 provide evidence of women functioning with varying degrees of administrative authority.

On of the most exalted administrative titles of any woman who was not a queen was held by a non-royal women named Nebet during the Sixth Dynasty, who was entitled, “Vizier, Judge and Magistrate.” She was the wife of the nomarch of Coptos and grandmother of King Pepi I.

However, it is possible that the title was merely honorific and granted to her posthumously. Through the length of Egyptian history, we see many titles of women which seem to reflect real administrative authority, including one woman entitled, “Second Prophet (i.e. High Priest) of Amun” at the temple of Karnak, which was, otherwise, a male office. Women could and did hold male administrative positions in Egypt. However, such cases are few, and thus appear to be the exceptions to tradition. Given the relative scarcity of such, they might reflect extraordinary individuals in unusual circumstances.

Women functioned as leaders, e.g., kings, dowager queens and regents, even as usurpers of rightful heirs, who were either their step-sons or nephews. We find women as nobility and landed gentry managing both large and small estates, e.g., the lady Tchat who started as overseer of a nomarch’s household with a son of middling status; married the nomarch; was elevated, and her son was also raised in status. Women functioned as middle class housekeepers, servants, fieldhands, and all manner of skilled workers inside the household and in estate-workshops.

Women could also be national heroines in Egypt. Extraordinary cases include: Queen Ahhotep of the early Eighteenth Dynasty. She was renowned for saving Egypt during the wars of liberation against the Hyksos, and she was praised for rallying the Egyptian tro

The Green Mile movie was fundamentally made to show the harm that human beings inflicted on other members of their species, some degree of corruption and high levels of crime in the society that called for large number of executions in Green Mile. Seemingly, there was little or no regard for morality and obedience to social norms governing the society. Greem Mile was a term reffering to death row in Louisiana State Penintiary, where prisoners were held as they waited for their execution. The movie illustrates the true nature of death penalty, showing how cruel and barbaric it was (Darabont).

The symbolic nature of the film portrays a care-free type of society, whereby Eduard’s adopted mouse represents freedom. The mouse could come and go away without any restrictions. He was never trapped and he seemed to fully enjoy life as clearly seen through his daily circus activities. This clearly shows the level of freedom enjoyed by members of this society, without cultural or social barriers. This is evidently so due to high levels of crime comitted. Too many executions were carried out in Green Mile (Darabont). This is a clear presentation of Durkheim’s theory of functionalism perspective which embraces crime as a normal and functional practice in any society. According to this theory, crime is normal because in every society, there exists some level of crime. It is equally functional as it serves to reinforce social norms, provide the raw material for social change and provide a kind of safety valve for social discontent, where people could simply disobey the law, rather than seeking to change it (Anderson and Kaspersen 158).

In Green Mile, everyone was seeking to harm the other. The society lacked compassion and had no respect for humanity. There was no social order and stability but only a collective will to maintain order through executions. This is a society where killing was the order of the day The parents of a girls believed to have been killed by Coffey had a venom in their minds against him. Percy and Maniacal prison inmate Sam Rockwell sought nothing more than perverse destruction. Even the prison guards had one sole purpose, to kill (Darabont). This is in line with Durkheim’s theory, who insists that crime is both functional and inevitable in any society (Anderson and Kaspersen 28).

Corruption was evident in this society. It was revealed that Percy was a nephew to the governor’s wife, and his powerful political connections got him hired as a prison guard. He had no regard for work ethics. He derived pleasure from frightening, humiliating and hurting other people, contrary to what was expected of him as a prison guard (Darabont). His deviance began with the society as explained by Durkheim’s theory of functionalist perspective. The society’s collective sentiments seem to be too weak to prevent any deviance from the law as clearly seen through corrupt acquisition of his job using political connections. This shows that there was neither constant reaffirming of shared values nor was there passing of the same values from one generation to another, a critical situation responsible for the collapse of this society. People such as Percy and the Governor’s wife do not seem to follow any collective society conscience. They are naturally selfish by all means and only preffer to satisfy their own interests regardless of who is hurt in the process. Even law and primary socialization of the family does not seem to stop them (Anderson and Kaspersen 258).

Coffey’s magic healing power could be said to represent perfect power of God which was at work. Even though the society was going through a period of social strain and dramatic change, religion could playe a key role in bringing back the shared norms and values of the society thus restoring social order as well as helping the society to distigush the good in those around us and resist evil (Anderson and Kaspersen 541).

Conclusion

This paper has discussed Emile Durkheim’s theory of Functionalist Perspective with special emphasis on events witnessed in the movie Green Mile. From issues discussed, the movie seems to have targeted the corrupt leaders and unjust systems of justice that contributed to selfishness as people undermined social expectations that call for respect of rights and needs of others and preffered to look after their own interests regardless of who was hurt in the process. This is evidently seen in unjust execution of Coffey who is believed to have been innocent. People in this society only seem to obey their natural state of greed and selfishness, a condition that has accelerated erossion of society values and led to total disregard for order and harmony. This is anomie which is very dangerous and harmful to all as seen through charcters like Percy and Maniacal prison inmate Sam Rockwell whose main desire was to destroy and kill. The power of collective conscience, social norms and values in this society have been weakened through external shocks. However, through education and religion, society values and collective conscienceness could be restored to bring back the shared norms, values and social order. social systems could be highly valuable in working to maintain equilibrium and to return to it after such external shocks that have disturbed balance among members of this society. Strong emphasis put on socialization of members of the society into basic values and norms of the society could help the society to reach a consensus. A society should be viewed as totally united with all parts of institutions working in oneness and quasiamatic fashion toward achieving overall social equilibrium.

Sociology is the scientific study of society and human behavior. Webster’s Dictionary defines a perspective as a “view of things in their true relationship or importance”. Therefore, the sociological perspective provides viewpoints used to look at human behaviors and interactions as they relate to individuals and groups within a society. The sociological perspective stresses that to understand humans, not what is inside of them, but instead the external factors influencing them, should be observed. There are several theoretical perspectives in sociology that are used to understand social relationships and behaviors. The three theoretical perspectives discussed here are symbolic interactionism, functional analysis, and conflict theory.

Symbolic interactionism is a microsociological theoretical approach that examines small-scale patterns of social interaction. Interactionists focus on how humans use symbols (signs, gestures, language) to develop views of the world, others, and themselves, as well as the importance of these symbols in social interaction and communication. Interactionists also believe that humans use these symbols to define the self, by comparing themselves to others and by constantly adjusting their view of themselves. Interactionists see reality as being negotiated based on shared agreements and perceptions about events and therefore reality is not stagnant but instead fluid, ever changing. Also, symbolic interactionists try to understand how an individual feels in order to understand why they act the way they do.

For example, many female babies are killed in India. To understand why they are killed, Interactionists look at what makes people kill them. Raising a girl is very expensive in India. The meaning that Indians attach to the birth of a baby girl is that of a burden to the family. However, western cultures tend to think of every child as a gift and a blessing, no matter what gender. A doctor interviewed for a TV documentary said that she does not report families that kill their infant girls, because it is a generally accepted societal practice. A lot of people are poor and few can afford the cost associated with raising a girl. When getting married, the groom’s family is paid a dowry for taking over the obligation of the bride. Getting back to the doctor, comparing her own conduct to that of others, she does not find anything wrong with not reporting those murders since others do not report them either. By her own admission, however, if others were to begin reporting the murders of infant girls, she would then adjust her own conduct accordingly and also start to report the killings. The response to the killings depends on the meaning and significance that is attached to that death, and right now the doctor sees it as insignificant and not worth reporting.

Functional analysts (or functionalists) view society as a whole, a complex system of integrated, interrelated parts that work together to keep society balanced. Each part of society has a certain function that it has to fulfill in order to meet the needs of the society in which it exists, thus functionalists stress order and stability. If a part of society is in dysfunction – meaning it does not fulfill it’s role, the harmony is interrupted and the system is weakened. Through natural and gradual change, equilibrium has to be restored. To understand how society works functionalists examine how society operates, what needs must be met and how they are satisfied. They also examine what functions the various parts of society fulfill, and what the relationships between those parts are.

Take, for example, the female fighter pilot Lt. Col. Martha McSally, who fought for women stationed in Arabic countries to not have to wear the traditional head covering (abaya) and the changing roles of women in the military. Female and male service members had certain functions. Women often worked as nurses or as clerks whereas men filled combat positions. Each gender had roles assigned and the system worked together in harmony until women were allowed to serve in positions that once were meant for male service members only. Through a gradual and natural process the roles of men and women in the military will have to be redefined until previous balance is restored.

Another example would be Lt. Gov. Jane Swift of Massachusetts, who was pregnant when she entered office, and the functions of a mother and a politician. As a mother society expects her to care for her children and be there when her children need her. However, in her function as politician, she is expected to fully immerse herself in State politics. The functions of mothers and politicians are clearly defined, but, she is blurring the boundaries between the two functions and society (the system) has not yet adjusted to the changes associated with mothers of young children in politics. As more and more mothers with dependant children are entering politics, the system will have to adjust to their special needs, roles will have to be redefined for balance to be restored.

Like functional analysis, conflict theory focuses on large-scale patterns of society. However, whereas functionalists believe that society is composed of groups that work together, conflict theorists believe those groups are in constant disagreement with each other over limited resources. Conflict theorists also believe that societies are constantly changing and that some groups have more power then others and that norms and values of a society are made by those with power in order to keep those without power “down”. Conflict theorists believe that the way to change society is to change its structure and not the individuals within that society.

Going back to Lt. Gov. Jane Swift, power is seen as a result of her social position and not as a result of her character. As a politician she holds certain powers that conflict with those of non-politicians. For example, she excused her use of the state helicopter with her position as an important political figure. Non-politicians disagree with her right to use the helicopter, as they could not do that.

In India men and women are in a constant battle for scarce resources. In the case of the infanticides the resources are power as well as money. The only solution to that conflict would be for society to change its structure by, for example, removing dowries as a condition of marriage or removing the need for expensive ceremonies for daughters. Since those with power and money see no need to change the current structure, the only way the change would ever happens is if poor Indians stood up and protested current practices.

The same is true for the military. The problems that arose for Lt. Col. McSally while stationed in the Middle East came from inequality in the treatment of male and female service members. As a woman she was required to wear an abaya when leaving the base. This caused a problem since the abaya covered her from head to toe and therefore her social location, her rank as Lieutenant Colonel, was no longer visible to others. Her powers were diminished while male service members, even those of lower rank, did not have to remove or hide the signs of their social location within the military society, resulting in a struggle for power.

To summarize the three major theoretical perspectives described above it can, in most general terms, be said that structural functionalists would focus on what is common practice in a certain society and would also analyze the function of symbols used to interact and communicate in that society; whereas symbolic interactionists would try to determine how the individuals of a certain society interpret their environment or what effect others have on the development of an individuals self image; and conflict theorists would look at power differences between various groups of a society, where they come from and what effect they have on that society.