Category: Free Essays

The family is the most important primary group in society (C.N.Sharkar, 1990, p.392).. Every one is a member of family and has duties to make our self to become a person who have responsibility and value. Also, family has responsibility in teaching children as its contribution in a building human resource for society. Member of family has right to get the body prevent, take care, and human right from parents. Member of family need meal, clothes, home, education, health prevention, and safety. To complete this needs, the parents try to do anything to raise and complete all needs (MoEYS, 2009, p.186). The family also has function to provide formal and informal education to children or member of family. So function of family is very important to educate children to become human resource in society.

Focusing on Cambodia, family has also been considered as an important agency in education. As already stated in the Education For All National Plan: 2003-2015 (EFA) stated that the sharing responsibility of parents, and local community people (MoEYS, 2004, p.4).

In order to study this topic deeply, a literature review related parent’s function in educating children in Cambodia has been conducted in purpose to answer two main questions as following:

What does MacIver’s theory explain about family function in education?

What does family function provide education to children in term of Cambodia social and cultural context?

II- Literature review:

The family as a social institution performs several functions. There are many scholars provide many functions of the family likes Kingley Davis has of four main function of the family: Reproduction, Maintenance, Placement , and socialization. Similarly, Ogburn and Nimkoff have mentioned six major functions of family: Affectional, Economic, Recreation, Protective, Religious and Educational ( C.N.Shankar, 1990, p.395). But I would like to interest in MacIver’s theory, he has describe two function of the family: The primary function or Essential function and The secondary function or non essential function ( C.N.Shankar, 1990, pp.395-397).

The primary function or essential function:

There are six major functions in the primary function or essential function including firstly, Stable satisfaction of sex need refer to sex drive is powerful in human being and sex need make human try to do anything to develop their livelihood. Secondly, Reproduction relates the result of sexual satisfaction is reproduction. Reproduction is a function of family to reproduce a new birth for social. Thirdly, Production and Rearing of the child relevant the family provides the individual life and a chance to survive. We owe our life to the family. The child which is helpless at the time of birth is given the needed protection of the family. So family is a function par excellence for the production and rearing of children. The fourthly, Provision of home connect the family provides the home for its member. Home is a place that provides opportunity for member meeting to educate each other. Children are born and brought up in home only. Though, often children are born hospitals, clinics, maternity homes, etc., they are nursed and nourished in the homes only. The fifthly, Family-An instrument of culture Transmission refer to the family transmits ideas and ideologies, folkways and more, customs and tradition, beliefs and values from one generation to the next. So children or members of family had to learn the field by parents. The sixthly, Status Ascribing function relate the family also performs a pair of functions status ascription for the individual, and societal identification for the individual people recognize us by our names and our name are given to us by our family.

The secondary function of family or non-essential function:

There are four major four functions in family, the firstly, Economic Functions: relevant to the previously member of family work together in farms for the production of goods. Member of family think about relationship to provide individual needs each other. They cooperate and help to correct, teach about process of economic. But now the situation has changed. The family member does not work together at home. They are engaged in different economic activities out side the home. The secondly, Educational functions relate the family provides the basic education to children. The member of family teaches children how to speck, how to organize, etc… The member of family helps to develop children motor skill, intelligent etc. Today preschool has instead of family function. The thirdly, Religious function relate the family is a centre for the religious training of the children. The children learn from their parents various religious virtues. The family used to teach the children the religious values, moral precepts, way to worshipping God, etc. The fourthly, The Recreational Functions: connect with the recreation was largely family based. It fostered a close solidarity. Reading aloud, visiting relatives, family reunions, church socials, singing, dancing, playing indoor games, etc., brought together the entire family. Elders would organize their own recreation among themselves or together with other children.

Both the primary function and Secondary function play a very important role in education, but secondary function seems to be more important function than primary function because it shapes children personality, help them able to communicate with others, and household financing supports that help to build children’s capacity.. Unlikely, primary function just focuses on sex needs, reproduction of generation, provide home or we can say primary needs that all family has lost.

III- The Cambodia Context:

Religious Education: All Cambodian are influenced by Buddhism. The function Buddhism is to educate and to assist in the society for people to become good. Buddhism educates people, family, women, and children to know the right way. What is right for the individual is right for society. As individuals you have to think about your feeling and that to obey parents and elders. You need to find the right way to educate the younger generation. (Janet,2006.p94).The family plays a very important role to education children. As we know, parents are key member in family, they educate children about daily activities like to educate children to respect older people, help parents to prepare food and flowers for monks, wearing appropriate clothes when children go to pagoda (Chantal, 2000, p.3).

Support family education: Although Cambodia is a poor country, but parents have participated to support children both emotion and material. To relate the economy, they support both direct and indirect costs of schooling. Direct costs include those which are met by providers of schooling plus the additional costs which are met by parents for uniforms, books, transport and related items. Indirect costs include the opportunity costs of income forgone when children attend school rather than engaging in other activities. The indirect costs are a major burden for some parents, particularly the poorest, and can be a significant determinant of whether, or not a child attends school (Mark and Seng, 2005, p.1). To sum-up, most parents in Cambodia have participated to provide supporting, push their children in education sector. It show that function of family in Cambodia have responsibilities to provide education to children in formal school.

Home-learning: Parents remain the children’s first and primary educators. It is in their family that children have their first learning experiences, explore and discover the world, and develop.(Claire,June 2009, p55) A young children needs to be supported by his or her family. It is there that the first learning experiences occur, and where social rules are acquired. Very soon, language is learned, the body is controlled, relationships develop and the child becomes an integrated member of the community (Claire, June 2009,p8).For example, when children enjoy with their mother during cooking, they ask many questions about new things they see then the mother gives answers. The questions and the responses of their mother help children to develop their intelligence. (Chantal,2004,74).Therefore, parents play very importance to educate children.

IV- Conclusion:

To sum-up there are two functions of family as primary function and secondary function in MacIver’s theory. Although the primary function refer to stable satisfaction of sex need, reproduction or procreation, production and rearing of the child, provision of home, family-an instrument of culture, status ascribing function, and affectional function, but the secondary function is more important because it a function that help children to develop their capacities to access in primary school.

Focusing on Cambodia, family also has three function to education children, like religious function, education function, and home-learning. The parents are key educator to provide health, nutrition, sanitation, safety, education, socialization and emotional life and seeking to stimulate all aspects of development as physical, intellectual, emotional, social to their children, because children early start to learn from their family.

“In this research, I will analyze the culture of the United Arab Emirates. I will analyze also aspect of the contemporary U.A.E culture and some challenges that this culture is facing. In this paper, I will give importance on 5 cultural aspects. First, I will discuss the problem of weak identity and heritage collapse. Second, I will discuss social stratification system. Third, I will discuss changes in role of women in the UAE contemporary society. Fourth, I will discuss issues of marriage, and lastly I will discuss family structure in U.A.E.”

“Historically, gender roles and family relationships in Middle Eastern culture have been very Traditional and steeped in beliefs and customs stemming from Islam. With rapid economic development and modernization, changes may be occurring among younger generation”. (Questa 1). However, UAE society over the last decade, had experienced a number of social problems, but it has shown more problem in the UAE contemporary society. However, the most important example that sociological and cultural theory can help interpreting them are (1) Social stratification system (2) lost of UAE Identity and culture (3) change in the roles of women in UAE society and (4) marriage (5) family structure.

One example of contemporary UAE Society example is social stratification system in UAE society. The UAE or Emirates society consists of two social categories, the UAE National and Foreign immigrants. The UAE nationals are subdivided into four main social classes: (1) The Ruling family, (2) the merchant or business people, (3) the professionals like teachers, engineers are middle class people and (4) Bedouin nomads and pearl divers. On the other hand, the immigrants are also divided into groups. (1)Comes the top professional like doctors and professor at universities , (2) middle class like school teacher , skilled technicians, and other professional (3) semi skilled laborers who mainly work in construction sites, however , this form of classing system in UAE is changing dramatically to a meritocracy system . A classing system that give importance to personal merits, and achievement rather than inequality in society. This dramatic change is mainly due to the notion that meritocracy system will definitely increase productivity, efficiency and, thus economy becomes better. Social mobility will be common in a meritocracy Society. For example, A Bedouin Nomads, who was mainly classified as a low income group, is now one of the ministers in UAE. This proves that equality and reward based on individual effort had motivated all low income groups to study and learn new skills, so that social mobility could happen. In addition to this , immigrants also benefited and felt of this dramatic change in classing system , they also have been more productive , efficient , and UAE economic success story is the prove of this . As to link this contemporary example of social stratification in UAE society to structural functional approach, we can know that social stratification is a must in the operation of society, and meritocracy system is a must in the success of the operation of society and economy in a country like UAE. Further , a manifest function of meritocracy system is that every level of professional need a different knowledge and skills , so meritocracy system has unrecognized and unintended function , which is the Latin function of social stratification or meritocracy system is that it help people link their performance to reward and not social class categories . Finally, in my point of view, Social Stratification has no dysfunction, because it is common in all societies around the world, and has to be there for appropriate function of society.

Another example of UAE contemporary society is the lost UAE national identity and lost of culture and heritage. “American cars and fast-food, British universities, European stores, the fact that it’s not compulsory to learn Arabic in many private schools, and some expatriates are encouraged to live in certain areas. If this is the case, then inevitably, elements of the Dubai’s Arab culture and traditions will be lost”(Gulf News 1). The UAE population structure consist of the following percentage of each foreign nationalities (Asian Indians, Pakistanis, Bangladeshis, and Sri Lankiness) account for about 45 percent of the population of the UAE, followed by Arabs (about 33 percent), and Iranians (17 percent). Westerners (Americans and Western Europeans) account for about 5 percent. Jordanians, Palestinians, Egyptians, Iraqis, and Bahrainis are employed throughout the government bureaucracy. As the number of foreigners increases tremendously, making UAE national only 15% percent of the total population, it is worth debating on this phenomenon. (Every culture 1). Multiculturalism and globalization has been encouraged in UAE, and the result is lost of UAE identity. Restaurants, Churches, malls, and all other infrastructure have been designed to accommodate all culture, but not UAE culture. In addition to this, social integration is completely nil; people from every nationality prefer to socialize with their mates from the same nationality, this result in the creation of sub cultures in society. According to Hanna Shaman, a French citizen who lived in UAE has said that this problem was once in French and most Europe country in the industrial revolution, however, government in Germany has forced all foreigners to learn Dutch in the first 2 years they are in Germany, or residence visa will not be given. Such an action, in my point of view, is a must to be implemented in UAE to solve this issue. As a matter of fact, all post – industrial societies have faced this problem of globalization and multiculturalism. As to link this example of lost of UAE identity and culture to Durkheim theory, as social integration in people of a society is strong, they are likely not commit suicide and die. On the other hand, as member of society strength their social integration, social norm, mores, and culture they are most likely not to commit suicide and live a better life than those, who have less socialization and integration in their society. This theory further illustrates that if social integration in a society is forgotten, the consequences may be hard to the member of that society. As a result of this, I would like government agencies to take this contemporary problem of UAE society in a very serious way. Because as late sheikh Zayed “said, who don’t know his past is dead for the future”.

A third example of UAE contemporary society is the change in gender roles of men and women in UAE. Although statistics proven that women are performing better in schools, they are still discriminated in work place. In 1990, only 6% of labor force was women, however, in 2000, it has jumped to 42%. This shows that women in UAE society began to given more importance in work place. But the problem is from men side they believe that women should work in a place where there is no mixing with men, however, in 2006; we can see more 50% of women labor force work in a not segregated work place. This shows further that the cultural point of view of women in UAE society has changed. On the other hand according to feminist movement, working women have double burden in their life. A work at morning, and afternoon being a domestic servant at home. This notion of double burden is spread in UAE, but as matter of fact, most of working women now have an Asian female servant to do the main domestic work at home. As a result, the contemporary UAE society has successfully proven to the world that UAE society is clear from any Social or Gender conflict.

A fourth example of UAE contemporary society is Marriage. marriage in the community of the UAE traditions and values, derived from the customs authentic Arab and Islamic concepts of tolerance was characterized by the marriage in the past and free from the complexities and difficulties that were dictated by social and economic conditions present that made the marriage problem and the dilemma facing young couples and threaten the stability of family and social system. Which is the duty urged by Islam religion, is the highest social relations between spouses and in-laws and strangers also within the same society, it is characterized by the status and sanctity of the private in terms of the nature of the procedures and stages of completion. When held parents intention to marry their son, they look to him for a girl belonging to the family of decent folk who show characteristics of religion and morality and a good reputation and the task of searching for the girl sought rests with the matchmaker or the Prophet, a woman with a mind and thought, tact, have the ability to assess the girl and shown her qualities that the community was still giving special consideration, the ratio of the girl, the beauty, creativity, and religion, Recipes are essential to young people going to get married, and that the reputation of the girl’s family and lineage, authenticity, and social status of the father or to his creation of decent and good behavior are also the qualities you’re looking for the groom’s family and require the availability

It may not be the matchmaker, a role in the process of the marriage to happen or if the marriage between relatives, the keenness of people formerly on the relative affinity, as his sons married the father of the daughters of his brother, sister or cousins and an increase in family bonding and family cohesion

In the case of the use of katapa, they’re a friendly visit to the house of the people of girls, and may you see the girls by surprise because it is difficult to meet the daughter when entering a foreign woman to her family and if I go back matchmaker informed all of the opinions of the people of the groom and the light of that, they make their decision, either to apply for a sermon girl or search for other

In the past, the bride price does not exceed in the desert seven twin whereas in the amount of the dowry when the people of the cities between 40 dirham’s, and a hundred dirham’s and ensures the bridegroom pay (Alqtuap) and it was money specific pay for a daughter of the clothes and decorations and vary according to the case of the people the physical and social status. Also provides for the groom requirements. At the forefront of the wedding banquet.

The different marriage customs and manifestations when compared to the people of the desert cities and villages in some of the details.

Another example of UAE contemporary society is family structure. Arranged endogamous marriage within the kinship (tribal) units was the preferred pattern in the period, but this pattern has changed somewhat. Individuals now have greater choice, yet many nationals still prefer arranged marriages. Emiratis are strongly discouraged from marrying non nationals, and a young man receives $19,000 from the Marriage Fund if he marries a national. As prescribed by Islam, a man is allowed up to four wives, but most men have only one wife.

In UAE the conventional family used to live in extended form of family. But with the development in the economy, this form of family is declining. Recent research found that around 80% of Emirati families live in small family with one or two child (Nuclear). However, due to imbalance population structure in the country. Nuclear families are discouraged and instead government wants their people to have large family with many members. Also, some changes in the role of women as discussed above in this research have changed the role and power of husband in the house. Husband power and authority is declining. In addition to this, due to increase power of women and her responsibly in her work. “On average, each household employs two live-in domestic servants, usually Asian. In addition to this, Family and tribal connections form the basis of Emirati social structure. The family and tribe are highly influential and play a role in shaping a person’s values and behavior” (every culture 2). In UAE culture, tribe and family play an important role in shaping the behavior and customs of the society. It is believe so because “It serves to support its members both financially and emotionally and as such, the family comes before anything else and its honors are protected by doing whatever necessary”( every culture 2). Furthermore, UAE society and family support kinship too much because many business are run by family members and also same tribe like to live near to each other since they believe that they will support each other.

As a result, I will summaries below the changes that might occur in the UAE family structure in the coming decade:

1) One will see the configuration built for the family the UAE has changed in the future in terms of style, size, number of children, and is this change in the predominance of the pattern of the nuclear family (small) on the extended family, and the direction of family size to the average number, and the direction of families to reduce the number of children.

2) One will occur on the marriage process in the future some of the changes is the disappearance of the traditional methods of marriage and was accompanied, to be replaced by modern methods, with the attendant arrangements.

3) One will occur on the network of social relations within the family group of changes, is to chill the relationship between spouses, and the predominance of selfishness, love of self to the members of one family.

4) changes in roles of women within the family in the UAE society, where the wife will put a lot of roles that go beyond the traditional form in parenting and care of home affairs, and exercise of women within the family and the UAE in the future to participate more in decision-making process within the family.

5) There would be some changes in the functions carried out by the Emirati family in the future, especially those related to emotional and psychological function and reproduction.

6) There would be the format of the Family Values in the UAE society in the future to some changes, especially those relating to the value of cooperation and solidarity and obedience, as well as the system of religious values and ethics, and values of consumption.

7) Family in UAE society will face some social problems, some of them did not know before, such as: saturation of Western values, and the entry of innovative patterns of crime, and some other extension of the old problems, but it will worsen in the future, such as family disputes.

8) One will see the Emirati family in the future escalation to divorce.

These above changes might occur in the near future. If you open the news paper on daily basis you will see that some of these issues are being discussed. I think there shall be some huge reform from government side and also people to minimize these problems. I would prefer government to establish a strategy to face these problems.

In Conclusion, the UAE contemporary society is more likely to face a numbers of social problem and issues due to imbalanced population structure and over speedy construction boom the country is experiencing. As a Solution, government agencies should pay attention to their society and try the limits those issues. In this research paper, I discussed many important aspect of one of the most growing countries in Middle East. I discussed issues that have relationship to cultural studies in Middle East. First, I spoke about the contemporary UAE culture and discussed some of its problems. In that context, I spoke about the national identity issue; also I spoke about how the western society has affected UAE culture. Further, I spoke about marriage in UAE in the past, and the end I spoke about family structure and how that structure is changing from nuclear to extended family. Finally, I gave some recommendation and changes that might occur in UAE society in the near future.

Work cited

http://www.everyculture.com/To-Z/United-Arab-Emirates.html

http://archive.gulfnews.com/articles/06/09/14/10067514.html (2

http://www.communicaid.com/access/pdf/library/culture/doing-business-in/Doing%20Business%20in%20the%20UAE.pdf

http://www.lahaonline.com/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=913

http://www.emartyvision.com/vb/showthread.php?t=26

http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=26C14DDA8FF15E35979E7AED0FAE7FA0.inst2_1a?docId=5010976997

Islam is the second major religion in the world in which there are “over 800 million Muslims in 45 countries that spread from North Africa to South East Asia” (Chowdhury,1993). The messenger of god Prophet Moh’d (PBUH) was sent to convey the message that there is only one god that we should worship. Consequently, this message also included all aspects of a living including rights, limitations, laws and activities that extend from social and personal life to economic and political issues. As a result, Islam was meant to guide and assist both genders male and female giving each their rights and limitations.

In the debate about women’s rights, both liberals and conservatives declares that the Quran guaranteed to put an end to ‘Jahilyah’ rules (Hijab,1988,p15).Thus , in the ‘time of ignorance’ females didn’t have the rights and were considered inferiors to men. For example, when a female is born, the father would bury her alive because of her gender. Thereupon, Islam came to give women their rights and raise their position at the same time. For instance, Islam gave the women the rights to marry divorce, inherit, work, and live her life with limitations. Such limitations that are exposed on the gender’s behavior, created the segregation between men and women.

Segregation of gender means the separation of both genders in which they are separated socially , economically and politically. Segregation is a phenomena that is widely spread in Islamic countries such as Saudia Arabia.For example, women are not allowed to drive and are not permitted to go out without a male relative.In addition, segregation also exists in restaurants in which there are separated areas for men and families in every restaurant around Saudi Arabia(Telegraph,2009).

Segregation of gender is believed to be more of a tradition than a religion.In addition, muslim women are expected to be the ‘conservators’ of traditions , while men are supposed to cooperate with the changing environment (Tucker,1993,p43).

For instance, the Prophet’s (PBUH) first wife Sayida Khadija was an acknowledged merchant and the Prophet worked for her before their marriage (Hibjab,1988,p.15). Thus, this shows there was no segregation between women and men in Islam. Likewise, traditions and customs forced the segregation between the genders to protect and guard the Muslims’ women reputation and prevent her from doing sins. In traditions , its believed that if a women is not guarded with a ‘Muhram’ and is left alone she is exposed to do sins .In addition, there are no Quran citations that calls for segregation between genders.

Nevertheless, Muslim women are allowed to work in place where men are present but applied some limitations to protect Muslim women’s rights. Although most of those limitations were traditions , people accepted them through time. Some of those limitations are a strict dress code for women, assigning women to do specific jobs and sometimes not allowing direct contact with men. In essence, many Muslim women have by passed those traditions and worked in a male dominated work field. For example, Sheikha Lubna Al Qasimi became the first Emarati women to work in a male dominated field. She became the United Arab Emirates’ Minister for Economy & Planning(ZU,2006) .In addition, AlQassimi was ranked number 99 for the world’s most powerful women (Forbes,2007).

Sex segregation affects Muslim women every day. Thus, making them struggle on their daily basis. Consequently, the failure of women comes from the fact when sexual differences are deeply stressed out (Krause,2008,p.68).For essence, men are expected to be more powerful that women , thus making the separation between men and women when assigning their roles. According to a participant, “The UAE leadership are men. Men are better at coordinating and planning because the way men think is more logical. Women follow their feelings.But women advise men” (Krause,2008,p.68).As a result, women are separated from men by giving them less powerful positions.

women are most likely to be working away from men, or its preferable that women’s to be working in special places for females only. And that creates lots of controversial issues in the society such as the coordination and transactions between both companies which might affect eventually the efficiency of the job.

Similarly, gender segregation plays a huge role in marriage .For essence, the man is not allowed to talk and go out with his fiance before getting married. Thus, when enforcing segregation between genders it becomes difficult for the spouses to learn about each other before marriage which may lead to divorce. According to Tucker, “the high rates of divorce in Islamic society introduce a measure of doubt as to whether the absence of consent was always a rule between Arab.”In addition, segregation affects marriage in an indirect way. Making the female less exposed to men ,thus making them unable to meet and choose their own spouses.

Moreover ,gender segregation also exists in education to both genders. For example, Sharjah University doesn’t allow mixing between student in classes, which has lead the university to build two different building for each major so that it can compensate both sides which costs a lot. Actually, The Qur’anic verses which specifies the communication between women and men with : “Tell the believing men to lower their gaze and to be mindful of their chastity: this will be most conducive to their purity – (and,) verily, God is aware of all that they do. And tell the believing women to lower their gaze and to be mindful of their chastity, and not to display their charms beyond what may be apparent thereof; hence let them draw their head-coverings over their bosoms.(24:30-31)”

Also, segregation plays a role in marriage. As we can notice, most Muslim find their wives through the assistant of their female relatives such as the mother sister or the aunts. And that’s because interaction between men and women are forbidden in the case of relationships. In which, intimate relation are extremely prohibited before marriage otherwise its called adultery. Also, girls are not allowed to meet men without a supervision of some relative company. Consequently, men send their moms to find them the best woman available for marriage and after engagement he gets the chance to meet her and know her well.

However, segregation in most Muslim countries has risen to reach a level that’s it a tradition or even rule in most societies. As we can witness in Saudi Arabia, women are not even allowed to drive cars or get the driving license. That’s all meant to ensure there is no interaction between women and men in streets. Also, we can notice the severe problems that occur because of illegitimate relation in Arab world. Where they consider it as a scandal to the family of the girl or the man, and sometimes it ends with a crime. Currently, most Arab world are witnessing a massive change in those tradition, where we can see most students entering mixed universities and ales and females shares their jobs equally.

After I did the research I found some recommendations that will help in solving the problem of gender segregation globally and UAE in particular. First , making education “co-educational” and allowing the mixing between genders at a young age .This will help both genders at a very young age to understand the roles and limitations that are expected from them. Second, placing rules and regulations at work that will help both genders to be working together at the same place without the causes of forbidden sins. Third, giving women more options to work in a male dominated field that will help in decreasing the percentage of segregation .As a result, if segregation was totally dismissed females will be having more chances to marry, more talented in her work and will be successful.

In conclusion, gender segregation is a cultural phenomena and is not considered religious .Thus, making it easier to prevent segregation from our future generation. In addition , gender segregation challenges women to take new steps to a better living , giving them more power and confidence to step into a world of dominated men .Consequently, as long as women continue to struggle they will be able to reach their goal and become equal to men bringing a new world with no segregation.

Functionalists view the family as a nuclear family and assume that the family is a positive beneficial institution in which family members receive unconditional love, nurturing and care. They believe that society is based on consensus that is we are all socialised to agree on how to behave thus reproducing norms and values. Fuctionalists look at society on macro scale.

Murdock (1949) states that the family is universal because without the sexual and reproduction there would not be new members in the family and without economic and educational, where the family provide for its members and the young are socialised into societies norms and values, culture would not exist. In the absence of culture human society could not function. (Haralambos and Holborn, 2008).

Parsons (1955) states that there are two irreducible functions of the family, primary socialisation through which children learn to accept the norms and values of society and stabilisation of adult families that is helping the adults to cope with stresses of everyday life by giving them the necessary emotional support. The emotional support of spouses in marriage helps prevent stress overpowering the individual and frightening the stability of society. (Taylor and Richardson etl, 2002)

Parsons explains that conjugal roles in functionalism family are segregated everyone carrying out different roles, instrumental male going to work to provide for the family and expressive females providing love, warmth and care for children. Based on Biology the woman is the child bearer and has to look after the child. These roles maintain social stability. Functionalists argues there is rise of reconstituted families, increase of single or lone parent families and changes in the law on divorce have made divorce easier to obtain.

Norms and value in functionalism benefit society for example respect keeps peace and social stability, loyalty keeps social solidarity and lack of crime maintains social order, peace and safety therefore a conflict free society.

Functionalism assumes that the family is positive and nuclear while Marxism argues that the family is negative and extended and reproduces conflict between classes. Functionalists also assume that the family has equal benefit to everyone however Marxists argue that the capitalist economy depend on the family to purchase and work to produce goods that will benefit the capitalist society. Functionalists states that the nuclear family is responsible for socialisation while radical psychiatrists see this as negative because socialisation can be negative hence causing racial attitudes, criminal behaviour and violence because not all norms and values are positive.

Functionalism depicts he nuclear family as ” rosy” and don’t take into account domestic violence while interactionalists shows problems, issues and struggles in marriage and the fact that an ideal nuclear family might divorce, not all families are the same. Parsons do not see the family as diverse. For even within society there are distinctions founded on class, region, ethnicity and religion. (Taylor and Richardson etl, 2002)

Feminist perspective is a conflict theory that argues that the family reproduces patriarchy where men benefit from the family. They also argue that men oppress women through domestic violence also known “the dark side of the family” meaning not reported or don’t tell anyone. Feminists have also highlighted domestic duties due to gender distinctions within the family for example women cooking and cleaning. Feminist theory has made sociologists to view the family as an institution involving power relationships.

Liberal feminists like Wollstonecraft, 1792 wanted to get legal reforms in equity whereby women get same equality and justice as men. Radical feminists think that all men benefit from women’s oppression not just patriarchal men. They thought that gender distinctions are politically and socially constructed. Kate Millet came out with the term “The personal is political”.

Sociolist Feminist/Marxist looks at gender as the basis and socialist Marxist combine gender with class. They believe there is dual oppression of women for example women going to work as well as working at home. Marxist feminist believe destruction of the capitalist society brings equality to everything. Lesbian feminist look at politics as political antique of the ideology of heterosexuality which leads to male supremacy. Humanist feminist believe that society allows only men to self-develop not women.

Marxist feminist basic position is that the family with its exploitation of women serves the needs and perpetuate capitalism. Bentson argues “As an economic unit, the nuclear family is a valuable stabilizing force in capitalist society. Since the husbands-father’s earnings pay for the production which is done in the home, his ability to withhold labour from the market is much reduced”. Bentson, 1972. (Haralambos and Holborn, 2008, pg466).

Ansley, 1972 shows the emotional support in family stabilises male workers and makes them less likely to take their frustration out of the system. Feely, 1972 argues that the family value teaches obedience to children therefore learning to accept hierarchy of power and their position within it. Greer, 2000 a radical feminist states that families in Britain are not as stable as they were, with the divorce rate becoming high. According to Geer it is due to women not being happy as wives and no longer wants oppression from their husbands.

Marxist feminism tends to ignore the diversity of modern family life assuming that everyone lives in heterosexual nuclear families. They also paint a very negative picture of family life possibly exaggerated for example they don’t focus on the influence racism might affect families. They portray women as passive victims of capitalist and patriarchal exploitation.

They ignore the likelihood of women fighting back against exploitation and succeeded in changing the nature of family relationships.it does not take into account women who abuse men. Functionalists assume that everyone benefit in the family for example respect keeps peace and solidarity in society while feminists argues that it’s only men who benefit for women are taught to respect men. functionalists states that conjugal roles are segregated where everyone carries different roles while feminists argue that the segregation causes unequal division of labour, captivity of women in families through forced free labour.

The Marxist perspective of family is that family is socially constructed and negative thus reproducing conflict between classes. It also benefits the bourgeoisie by creating labour force. Engel, 1972 argued the monogamous bourgeois nuclear family developed to help solve the problems of inheritance of private property from father to son then to son therefore keeping wealth in the family. The family is designed to control women and protect property. The bourgeois nuclear family emerged with capitalism. Engel concluded that the family is patriarchal and benefits men, he said it is designed to guarantee and perpetuate male power through inheritance of property therefore serving the interest of capitalism.

Marxists say the family serves capitalism by socialising children thereby reproducing both labour power and false consciousness. Women’s domestic work is unpaid which benefits capitalists. The family acts as a safety valve for the stresses and frustrations of working class men. The family as a unit of consumption buys the goods and services provided by capitalism. Zaretsky, 1976 claimed that the family “props up” capitalism. He also believes the family uses the products of capitalism and this makes the bourgeoisie to reproduce surplus value. The family is one place that male workers can feel that they have power and control. This helps them accept their oppression in wider society.

Marxists view increased economic pressure from unemployment may place added strain resulting to divorce. They also state that family members are living longer and this could increase pressure on relationships.

Marxists view the socialisation process in the family results in the transmission of a ruling class ideology whereby individuals are deceived into accepting the capitalist system and the dominance of the capitalist class more or less without question while functionalists view the socialisation process within the family as encouraging compliance with desirable norms and values which contribute to overall social stability. The Marxist view ignores family diversity and sees the nuclear family as being simply determined by the economy. Anthropologists have suggested that the emergence of the nuclear family didn’t actually coincide with the emergence of capitalism. Somerville, 2000 argues that Zaretsky exaggerates the advantage of the family as a refuge from life in capitalist society.

According to (Herbert, 2004), the American family has changed profoundly in the past 20 years. For all these changes it has experienced in fertility and mortality since independence till today, surprisingly the bigger change in family structure occurred in the last quarter of 20th century. Till this point, the age of marriage has changed from time to time, however, only a minority of ladies never got married and birth’s occurring out of wedlock were less than 10 percent of all births.

According to my personal experience, the fundamental social institution changed since 1980s. If I was to define the most original demographic features by 180 in America, then it will be the changes that were happening in both families and household for all section of the national population. The original American family has undergone many changes for all races, ages, and even the ethnic groups. My experience shows that, every American family concept is experiencing some sort of change. For instance, long ago, more adults were married, but currently only a handful get married, there were also many children in a house hold, but I was suppressed to hear a couple saying that, it does not need a child, and if any, only one child is enough. Other areas include the number of non-family households, the roles of women in economy and the significance of marriage in accounting for total births, (Herbert, 2004).

The proportion of individuals who have attained 15 years and never married reached a historic level by the year 2000, when a quarter of men and a third of women were not married, (Biblarz & Judith , 2010). Though there has been a decline in married in both the whites and the blacks, there are also rising trends in adults that are unmarried. This increase in ratio of unmarried individuals is also shown in changes in relation between households and families in history. Furthermore, the non-family household used to exist just as a small proportion of the household in total, normally made of elderly men with no families left. On the other hand, in the current times, instead of being made up by elderly individuals, it is made up of young adults, most amongst them not married. Although the percentage of a couple household, or two parent house holds with kids is on decline, there has been an increase in a single parent-plus children households. Going by the 2000 population census however, their account was 53% of them, a decline that seems to have taken place in the past few years.

Currently, non-family house holds, accounts for around 31% of the household, while the rest is accounted for by the families headed by single parents that makes up to 27% of all the families that have kids. The families of blacks are the once highly affected by the decline in dual-parent household. By the end of 20th century, married couple having children accounted for only around 4 out of 10 black family households having kids. Nevertheless, there has been no group that has remained immune to the increasing trend of single-parenthood.

Elderly individuals are also living alone. The decline in morbidity and mortality, improved social security and other benefits accrued from retirements, aimed at ensuring that aged individual are I positions of financing themselves, healthier in general, and lived more years as compared to the earlier periods. A change in values of culture that occurred in the second half of the 20th century, lead to an increase to the privacy value amongst aged individuals. For instance in 1910, most widows above 66 years lived with their children, while only around 10% were living alone.

However, by 1990, the figure rose to 75% of aged widow living alone. The same period experienced a rise in empty nests households, with aged couples having no resident children regardless of the age. The arrangements of extended families were disappearing slowly in the population majority. Under the same time, more couples were surviving to the older age as compared to the past, as an effect, by 2000, more than half of the adult of 65 years of age and above were living in different households, lived with their spouses. With the help of better health and better income, most of the aged people still have the capability and the aspiration of buying their privacy as never in history, (Amato, 2005)..

The point of single-parenthood and childless couples, have resulted to the family household decline and women giving birth to fewer kids a part from spacing them far apart, as well as ending their fertility very early. All these in general, have given rise to lower levels of fertility. During colonial periods, average women had more than 7 kids, but this has changed to two children. Among all women, it is only Hispanic women that still have at least higher fertility rate of around 2.5 children as compared to others who have 1.8 to 2.1, (Herbert, 2004). Though the fertility rates in U.S have reduced, to the lowest degree in the history of America, the higher percentage of these having children now is help by single-women.

The high rates of births out of wedlock mean that women in marriage are no longer the only arbiters of fertility. However, in the mid century, such like extramarital births were just insignificant, as they only accounted for 3% of the total births, this rose to a third of all births by 2000, and the same rate is rising. Though all groups are experiencing this change, non-Hispanic whites are experiencing a slower rise as compared to all other groups. Though this has been thought as temporal aberrations in history; the rising legitimacy proportions in Europe shows that Northern America is following the advanced trends of Western Europe.

There has also been a change in the role of women in the economic development, even including dual-parent household having kids. Traditional families had male as single breadwinners in the family. It was a norm for them to work alone to sustain their families, this norm has drastically changed. By the end of the 20th century, only one in five household couples had male being single breadwinners. Amongst married couple having children less than six years of age, only 36 of them had mothers staying. In families that women had given birth to a child in the previous years, many of these mothers at the end year were not working at home. The true is that, not only having more women in places of work, the ratio has been increasingly constantly in the recent times.

In mid 1970s, teenagers were the once having higher rates of child birth out of wedlock, and such like birth rates were increasing as per that time. However, by the end of 20th century, the rate of aged women illegitimacy was high and rising. The reverse was now taking place on the rates of teenager ladies, as their rate was reducing in both relative and absolute numbers. The increase in births out of wedlock, were attributed to poverty per se can be looked upon in the fact that, “the fact that the United States was not unique in this new pattern of births” (Herbert, 2004), as well as the reduction in the significance of traditional marriages. Other developed countries like Sweden also have experienced similar trends.

While, the difference is, in 1950s, it Sweden had fertility rates similar to that of U.S, but towards the end of the century, its illegitimacy births was more than half of total births. Even countries like Spain and Portugal that deeply follows Catholic believes, has scored above 16% and 22% rates of illegitimacy respectively. So believing that, this was just a temporal North American development does not hold in any way. Factors affecting such like trends in the developed countries seem to be all similar. For instance, late marriages, women participating in the workforce hence higher revenues, as well as changing belies on the role of marriage, (Biblarz & Judith, 2010).

All these changes have impacted on the U.S. fertility rates. Not only formal marriages are exclusive arbiter of fertility, but more ladies have been reducing the number of kids to bear. This is not based on the fact that, ladies are foregoing kids, as a matter of fact, the number of ladies going without kids has remained constant and is much less. The decline in fertility is attributed to the fact that women are taking an option of having fewer children. They are also marrying very late, hence reducing their marital fertility; as an effect, they are starting bearing of children at a very late stage, as well as spacing their children wide apart. On top of all these, they are terminating their fertility earlier than before. Apart from rising the average age of mothers bearing children from 1960-1999 by 2.7, it significantly rose for every child being given birth as well, (Herbert, 2004).

As a matter of fact, American family state, just as other family states in most industrialized countries, is much different from what it used to be in the past days. It is characteristically a family with few kids; both parents do work, as well as mothers producing children at a very old age. On top of all these, more aged individual are living alone, or with companions that are unmarried, and giving birth outside marriage. All these trends collectively have changed the American family state other than declining the family state.

Alzheimer’s is claimed to be a disease for some scientists, but for others researcher believe that it’s not a disease and is simply just a part of growing old. These scientists believe that if everyone is capable of living long enough they will all experience this disease. In order to prove who is correct we must first know what Alzheimer’s is, what are its symptoms and how it affects the human mind. And finally from using cited articles, papers, and books we can come to a conclusion and see whether Alzheimer’s is an actual disease, or simply just a process of growing older.

Alzheimer’s: Is it a Disease or Simply Just Aging?

Alzheimer’s disease is a brain disorder that causes a slow and permanent decline in memory, language skills, thinking, awareness of time and space, and eventually the caring of one’s self. Although scientists are learning more every day about it, they still do not know what causes it, and there is still no medicine or treatment for it. Alzheimer’s disease is believed to be a severe disease in our world today, and the people in our world need to be more aware about the disease to help these people. In order for someone to understand and learn about the disease, they have to know about what it is, how it occurs, what causes it. There are scientists and researchers that claim Alzheimer’s is an actual disease that can have severe affects on humans, however there are other researchers that claim Alzheimer’s isn’t a disease, and is simply just a part of aging and growing old.

In the article “National Alzheimer’s Disease Awareness,” scientists estimate that as many as 4.5 million Americans suffer from Alzheimer’s disease. This disease usually begins after the age of 60, and as the age goes up so does the risk. At the ages 65 to 74, there is a 5 percent chance in getting the disease. Also at the ages 85 and over, there is a 50% chance of getting the disease. While people in their 30s, 40s and 50s have a little chance of getting the disease, the disease at their stage is called early-onset Alzheimer’s. However, these scientists believe that Alzheimer’s isn’t a normal part of aging.

According to Bellenir Karen, the disease was first described by a German doctor, named Dr. Alois Alzheimer. In 1960, Dr. Alzheimer examined the brain of a woman who died of an unknown mental illness. When he examined her brain he found abnormal clumps and tangled bundles of fibers. Today the disease is named after this doctor, and the abnormal things he found in the brain are now considered signs of Alzheimer’s disease.

Bellenir, Karen states that the brains of patients with Alzheimer’s have abnormal formations, including abnormally shaped proteins called tangles and plaques. Not all parts of the brains show these abnormal formations. The areas that are mostly affected are those related to memory. Tangles are long, slim tendrils found inside nerve cells (neurons). Scientists have learned that when a protein called tau is changed, it may cause the tangles in the brain of an Alzheimer’s patient. In healthy brains, tau provides structural support for nerve cells, but in Alzheimer’s patients this structural support collapses. Plaques, or clumps of fibers, form outside the neurons in the nearby brain tissue. A type of protein, called amyloid precursor protein, forms toxic plaques when it is cut in two places. Researchers have found the two enzymes that cause the cuts are beta-secretase, and gamma secretase.

In the article “Neurobiological Bases for Alzheimer’s Disease,” scientists believe that tangles and plaques cause the nerve cells in the brains of Alzheimer’s patients to shrink and eventually die, first in the memory and language areas and finally throughout the whole brain. When the neurons die, they create gaps in the brain’s messaging network that may interfere with communication between cells, causing some of the symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s patients have lower levels of neurotransmitters, which are chemicals that carry complex messages back and forth between the nerve cells. With less neurotransmitter the memory communication in the brain is significantly decreased.

Author Juliet Cohen states in her article that it is not yet fully understood what causes the disease, but there are many possible factors that may cause the disease. These factors include Genetic inheritance, diets, environmental agents and brain traumas. There are also other factors that have not yet been proven to be factors for causing the disease, but are still under research. Scientists believe that genes may play a role in causing the Alzheimer’s disease. They have learned that people who are carriers of a specific version of the apolipoprotein E gene (apoE gene), are several times more likely to develop Alzheimer’s than carriers of other versions of the apoE gene. The most common version of this gene in the general population is apoE3, and these people do not have the disease. Nearly half of Alzheimer’s patients have the less common apoE4 version, and research has shown that this gene plays a role in Alzheimer’s disease. Scientists have also found evidence that mutations in one or more genes located on chromosomes 1, 10, and 14 may increase a person’s risk for Alzheimer’s disease. It is recently known that the gene mutations on chromosomes 1 and 14 produce mutated proteins called presenilins. These mutated proteins start the activity of one of the enzymes that produce toxic plaques. These toxic plaques produce toxins that destroy nerve cells in the brain, causing Alzheimer’s disease.

From the information above we can verify that many scientists believe Alzheimer’s is a valid disease. However not all researchers believe in this claim, there are many other scientists and researchers that believe Alzheimer’s isn’t a disease but is only a part of getting older. According to Dr. Allen Roses a Duke University researcher who has extensively studied 293 people in 32 families in which the disorder is prevalent believes that Alzheimer’s may be a natural part of the aging process which occurs when a special type of gene in the human body wears out as we get older. “Just as people get wrinkles and grey hair at different ages the rate of Alzheimer’s cases increases with age,” he said. “But if we live long enough, we will all get Alzheimer’s disease”. (Shera Gross, 2000) he reported at a genetic conference jointly sponsored by Jacksons Laboratory and Johns Hopkins University. Alzheimer’s which affects an estimate of 4 million Americans is marked by progressive memory loss that is related with dead and dying brain cells. Alzheimer’s usually starts in the 60’s and by the age of 90, one of three people are affected by it, and by the age of 95 and above one of two people are affected. For this reason there are many researchers that believe Alzheimer’s is not a disease, since most humans will get these symptoms when they grow old.

In the article, “Is It Aging or Alzheimer’s?” memory expert Gary Small of UCLA says, “The brain ages just like the rest of the body.” He claims that at the age of 50 most people’s brains will slow down, since we begin to lose brain cells as we get older. When a human is in their 20s, they begin to lose brain cells a few at a time. Their bodies also start to make less of the chemicals that their brain cells need to work. So the older you are, the more these changes can affect your memory. Aging may affect memory by changing the way the brain stores information and by making it harder to recall stored information. Their short-term and remote memories aren’t usually affected by aging, but your recent memory may be affected. For example, they may forget names of people that they have met today or where they set their keys. At these ages we seem to forget, have mood swings at times and etc. This means as we grow older we begin to have some symptoms of Alzheimer.

According to the article “National Alzheimer’s Disease Awareness,” many scientists claim Alzheimer’s disease to be a slow process and there are three stages of the disease. Firstly the early to mild stage symptoms which include mild forgetfulness and not knowing how to make decisions. Also, they might have difficulty in remembering recent events, activities, or the names of people or things that they know. The person will have trouble finding the right words to talk and to express themselves, and soon they will stop talking to avoid making mistakes. Also they have mild problems learning new things and remembering where they left common objects, such as keys or a wallet. The person will lose interest in doing activities, in others, in their own life and will become unorganized.

According to Brenda S. Paris, as the disease continues, the symptoms become easily visible and become serious enough to cause people with Alzheimer’s disease to go and look for medical aid. Also beginning to forget starts to interfere with daily routine. People in the middle stages of Alzheimer’s disease may not remember how to do easy tasks like brushing their teeth, their hair and even to an extent were they do not know how to swallow anymore. They can no longer think clearly, and begin to forget people and places that they know. Problems also begin to affect the way speak, understand, read, or write. Patients may have difficulty remembering what day or month it is, or finding their way around familiar surroundings. They may start wandering off and then be unable to find their way back. Patients often become short-tempered and unsociable as they struggle with fear and frustration. Also their everyday tasks become unfamiliar and annoying to them. Patients become paranoid and unable to engage in normal conversation. They may accuse, threaten, curse, be uneasy and behave inappropriately. Eventually in the final stages, Alzheimer’s patients become completely out of action and unable to take care of their most basic life functions, such as eating and using the bathroom. The person starts speaking in gibberish, and is difficult to understand. The patient may repetitively cry out, groan, mumble and scream loudly, forgets how to walk or is too unsteady. Begins sleeping more and loses control of his or her bladder. Finally patients become anxious, aggressive, wander away from home and stop caring for ones self.

This shows us that most researchers believe that there is a difference between aging and Alzheimer’s disease, even if there is some similar symptoms. According to the article “Is it aging or Alzheimer’s” scientists believe that Alzheimer’s is a disease because it has a much more drastic and severe affect on humans. These scientists claim that when people age they do begin to lose memory, but the symptoms are much more drastic to people that suffer with Alzheimer, because people with Alzheimer have the same problems of people that are aging includind more severe symptoms.

According to the article “Is it Aging or Alzheimer’s”.

Alzheimer’s
Normal

1

Forgetting recently learned information is one sign of serious memory loss and possible Alzheimer’s.

Occasionally forgetting a task on a to-do list.

2

It is difficult to complete everyday tasks such as dialing the phone.

Sometimes drawing a blank on what you were about to say.

3

Simple words such as “toothbrush” or “car” cannot be recalled.

Occasionally forgetting a friend’s name, only to remember it later.

4

Frequently placing things in odd places such as putting a shoe in the freezer.

Most people temporarily misplace things such as keys or reading glasses, but not in odd places.

5

Rapid mood changes for no apparent reason.

Feeling sad or moody at times.

In the end we must come to the conclusion that Alzheimer’s disease, isn’t simply just aging or growing old, because we have proven that Alzheimer’s has different problems and also more drastic symptoms then a person who is simply just aging. Alzheimer’s disease is in fact so drastic to the human mind that it might eventually lead to their death. Scientists still need to learn a lot more about what causes Alzheimer’s disease and ways to prevent it. For this reason I believe that Alzheimer’s is a actual disease, and is not simply just apart of growing old.

Refrences

Bellenir, Karen. (2003). Alzheimer’s disease: basic consumer health information about Alzheimer’s disease. Detroit, MI: Omnigraphics

Brenda, S. Parris. (October 31, 2003). Creating an awareness. National Alzheimer’s Disease Awareness. Retrieved from http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/alzheimers_disease/104318#ixzz0lYqBSTz9

Juliet, Cohen. (March 15, 2008). Health in health. Alzheimer’s Disease. Retrieved from

http://www.healthinhealth.com/alzheimers-disease-memory

Kathleen, Fankelmann. (April 3, 2007). Is it Aging or Alzheimer’s? Retrieved from

http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2007-04-02-aging-alzheimers-book_N.htm

Maier-Lorentz & Madeline M. (April 1, 2000). Neurobiological bases for Alzheimer’s disease. Retrieved from

http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-62495811.html

Shera, Gross. (July 25, 2000). Alzheimer’s disease may just be a part of growing old. The Spokesman Review. Retrieved from

http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1314&dat=19900725&id=AisgAAAAIBAJ&sjid=vvADAAAAIBAJ&pg=2637,3038629

This paper is about typical grades of growing -up. A summary of the content of readings and discussions as we obviously cannot include everything .There are different definitions of age level (early adulthood, middle adulthood)and the adaptation to the age is different too. The problems of adaptation to the late adulthood and the concept of ageing, propositions to make life of old people more interesting and easier in the conditions of the Nurse House can help in the Health Care Assistants.

Lifespan Psychology Reflective Learning Journal

Changes in thinking, the person and behavior of adults depend on chronological age or from specific biological changes, than from personal, social and cultural influences or events much less. Social changes, cultural requirements of young adults can support, develop or destroy the templates of the behavior which has been put in pawn in teenage years. It is necessary to make of the decision and to overcome difficulties, proceeding from a daily life. A distinctive sign of a maturity is ability to react to changes and to adapt to new conditions.

We conditionally divide years of growing-up on early adult (the second and third decades of a life), average (the fourth and fifth decade) and late adult (age of 60-65 years and above). Value of age for a separate individual can vary considerably .What prospects of classification and research of development of adults in the presence of the big number of specific features? For lack of other indexes, except any age ranges, we will address to concepts of age hours and social norms.

By the end of the period of a youth (approximately by 30 years) the person worries a crisis condition, a certain crisis in the development, connected by those representations about the lives which have developed between twenty and thirty years, do not satisfy him. Analyzing the passed way, the achievements and failures, the person finds out, that at already developed and outwardly safe life its person is imperfect, that it is a lot of time and forces is spent for nothing, that he has a little made in comparison with that could make, etc. Differently, there is a revaluation of values, critical revision of the “I”. The person finds out, that he cannot change much in the life any more, in itself (himself): a family, a trade,­ a habitual way of life. This crisis testifies that the person passes to a new age step – a grown-up age. (Feldshtejn D.I.)

According to Shaji, in the middle age the person uses the cognitive abilities to solve problems of others – in a family and on work. At some these duties can become difficult enough, demanding adjustment of relations in working collective and assuming ­ possession of the person of versatile knowledge. Such people have possibility ­ to show the cognitive abilities, carrying out administrative functions. At later age, according to Shaji, character of solved problems varies again. ­ The problem reintegration subjective traces of events all previous life, judgement of the life as whole and an estimation of the passed way becomes the main task­.

People of middle age should adapt to ­ changing requirements and roles of old parents. When parents ­ have good health and there can live independently, their relations with children are often characterized by mutual equality; it means, that parents and their adult son or the daughter render each other the concrete help. Such relations usually change, when parents fall ill or become too weak to live independently.

The duty to look after parents brings not only satisfaction, but can be a stress source­. It causes pressure in some between dependence and independence. The old conflicts connected with children’s dependence or other problems of family relations between parents and the child or between syblings can become more active again­. Sometimes old attachments and the unions between members of a family or old rivalry again revive. Besides, care of parents serves as an omen of the future position of people of middle age which ­ now look after the parents, but in near already the old age it should face own dependence on children.

Decrease of physical strengths and appeal – one of the main problems which the person in days of crisis of middle age and then faces. For those who is necessary on the physical qualities when was younger; middle age can become the period of heavy ­ depression. Histories of the beautiful and charming women struggling with destructive action ­ of time became banality. Act of nature of falling physical strengths of people ­ of unexpectedly wide range of trades, including, artists and actors. University professors ­ regretfully recollect the ability in student’s years to spend some days without a dream if that was demanded by an important issue. Many people simply complain that they start to get tired too often. Though well thought over program of daily exercises ­ and a corresponding diet has the an effect, the majority of people in the middle age start to rely more and more on “brains”, instead of on “muscles”. They find new advantages in the knowledge accumulating life experience, get wisdom ( Bentley, E. (2007).

The period of grown-up is characterized by that the basic or higher achievements of many kinds of creative, theoretical activity have these years. During this period there is a new differentiation of the separate parties of intelligence and at the same time – its higher level of the general integration. So, in an interval from 34 till 37 years there comes the second peak in development of thinking of the adult person, more and more close and steady communications between figurative, verbally-logic and practical thinking (Pinjaeva S.E., Andreev N.V. Personal and professional development in a maturity//Questions in Psychol. 1998. a„-2. p.7).

Let’s address to group investigated by us with favorable forms of mental ageing. The following age group – people 70 – 80 years («the second life»). This time when there are significant such illnesses of an old age as easing and restriction of impellent activity, the sight and hearing decrease, complicating habitual forms of activity. However the share of persons with the positive relation to ageing here again in essence does not vary, despite more significant for this group the factor of physical weakness, the big depth of physical decline.

The physical condition of old men substantially depends on their psychological state of health: optimistically adjusted old men shipped in the affairs feel much better, than the despaired, hypochondriac people concentrated to the misfortunes. Certainly, creative people worry ageing is easier – with them there is the favourite business, the saved up experience, the got wisdom. The history knows many examples of activity of writers, poets, artists, the musicians who lived to a ripe old age and have kept clearness of mind, taste by a life, creative abilities even contrary to a physical infirmity or illnesses. Goethe, Voltaire, Swift, Michelangelo, Renoir, Monet, Verdi, Beethoven derived strength for struggle against an old age in immense enthusiasm for the business; others, less known, but also causing respect, keep from own advantage.

It is possible to note and one more characteristic fact testifying in favour of adaptive value of senile concern: motivational conditionality of a condition of alarm informs emotional experiences in structure of this condition bright partiality [Bennet, PravitsJ. G., 1987; Lazarus R. S., Averill J.G., 1972]. Emotional experiences of alarm (as a whole characterized as unpleasant) are incompatible with experiences of boredom and give a sharpness to a subjective picture of the surrounding validity. Concern concerning the health that is often shown at old men in shape hypochondriatic fixings… Induces development of new interests and requirements for enrichment by medical knowledge in the field of the best ways of treatment and other forms of struggle against senile illnesses. Old men receive great pleasure from stories about the illnesses and thus them does not confuse, that surrounding these stories are perceived as persuasive – older persons sincerely do not notice it as the life out of a society promotes decrease at Them the behavioral control. But conversations on illnesses, infinite treatment and self-treatment is a process, it is a way, instead of the way end. It is interesting that within the limits of this strategy of adaptation concern in health of relatives extends basically on the narrowest circle of relatives on which the life and well-being of old people directly depends.

Other characteristic emotional condition of older persons, according to the given strategy of adaptation, age-situational depression in the absence of complaints to this condition is. As a whole, senile depression is shown in easing of an affective tone, delay of the affective vivacity, set aside a„? affective reactions; thus the person of the old person is limited in possibilities to transfer sincere emotional movements [Shahmatov N.F., 1996; Santrock J., 1995]. Older persons inform on feeling of emptiness of a surrounding life, its vanity and uselessness. All event before their eyes seems to them insignificant and uninteresting; interesting, full of sense the life in the past is represented only, and it never will return. But these experiences are perceived by older persons as usual and do not carry painful character. They grow out of life reconsideration, carriers of new senses and have adaptable value as protect the person from aspirations, struggle and for the excitement interfaced to them which is the extremely dangerous to old men.

Interpersonal conflicts – a daily element of a life of the house for aged. People get to such houses-boarding schools with the broken destiny, growing old on( E.Erikson’s) “unsuccessful” type, suffering from the former mental traumas which have not lost urgency, as a rule. They get here many blessings, but, at the same time, are exposed to the negative socially-psychological influences which are a consequence «hostel way of life» and the “state” unified maintenance. It is rigid deformation of a personal existential continuum, free will restriction, depersonalization, etc. Neurotic conditions in which depressive passivity alternates explosive affective displays become result of negative influences.

As a result of the listed tendencies mentality of the old person living in the house-boarding school, it is deep neurotic, that leads to its frequent collisions with associates. Such person creates round itself the disputed environment and itself becomes its victim. He gets to a vicious circle: a neurotic condition – the conflict – the new neurotic condition generated by the conflict. The person from this circle cannot independently be pulled out, the qualified psychological help is necessary for it.

At the age of 60 years also is more senior the most widespread kind of pathology illnesses of system of blood circulation are. Following rank places occupy illnesses of bone-muscular system and a connecting fabric, bodies of breath, digestion, nervous system and sense organs, new growths. On these six classes of illnesses it is necessary about 90 % of all diseases at persons of elderly and senile age.

The number of the older persons suffering because of death of the favourite person is amazingly great: about 12 million become a widow/widower older persons live in the USA, and over 800 thousand from them have become a widow/widower less than year back. At the age of 65 years more than half of women and 10 % of men have become a widow/widower at least once. Among those to whom for 85 years, 81,3 % of women and 40,5 % of men have become a widow/widower (Gibson, H.B. (2002.)

Reactions of the person to heavy loss are characterized by especial scale of feelings, thoughts and behavior in which most often tested emotions are the grief and grief. The sharp melancholy and languor concern other reactions on died, a shock, catalepsy, hallucination experiences, anger, feeling of fault, depression, problems with health, irritability and feeling of senselessness of existence is equal as feeling of simplification and hope. Naturally, not all people, worrying heavy loss, test all or the majority of the listed emotions, therefore is difficult to divide normal and pathological reactions of experience of a grief.

As consider M.Marshall and M.Dikson, «if we have no positive experience of dialogue with old people in a daily life, the risk increases to see all old people in identical light, namely in what we see them on the work. And see we them as invalids, helpless problems having many» [Marshall M., Dixon M., 1996, with. 28]. Moreover, social workers and psychologists usually contact to old people and their families when they are in a difficult, crisis vital situation. Thus, if working with older persons have experience of dialogue with them only as with the patients and clients they usually have a confidence, that advanced age is time involution and difficulties of the most different plan. And after all older persons are capable to study, develop abilities, to get new interests.

Social workers should listen older persons who tell them about the life; they can feel thus their grief, despondency, disappointment. However older persons have not only bitter experience. About many events which took place in their life, they do not recollect. Events for older persons become significant only in the event that they find reflexion in their late life.

The psychologists working with elderly and old people, should have base education under personal and psychological characteristics of people of late age. Starting to work with the elderly and old people, many experts receive a shock from the clients «client shock» [Britton P.G., Woods R.T., 1999, with. 20] already in the first week of work. Roots of this shock lay in insufficient understanding of old people, underestimation of their requirements and potential. The reason of other stress which experts can receive, is covered in a lack of abilities and the competence, necessary in work with this age group. It is possible to name and other problems – necessity of knowledge of religion of that cultural group of the population which they serve, sexuality of old people (the taboo on this theme until recently has been imposed), personal changes in result of mental diseases. The main danger to those who works with older persons is sensitivity loss to their individual requirements.

L.Brejtspraak allocates for experts three basic managements in work with older persons:

– Not to allow older persons to be involved in negative image of ageing, for example, it is necessary to help for them to see and understand, that the source of their problems lays in a situation, but not in them;

– To demand from elderly to take responsibility for the life there where it is possible;

– To stimulate activity of older persons who supports sensation of integration and integrity of a life.

Old people sometimes become agers in relation to the age group. Therefore the problem of our personnel is softly to resolve their own relation to the age and to the age group.

As a whole work [with older persons] in the psychological plan consists in the following:

– Maintenance and increase of social activity and a self-estimation of the person, prompting to expansion of social contacts;

– Creation of optimum conditions for training of skills on self-service and social functioning taking into account age changes;

– Stimulation of potential mental possibilities and creative abilities;

– Carrying out of special exercises and training to the skills compensating age changes.

Work forms can be the most different. For me co-education of older persons and children in which course they operate in common is very effective and help each other, for example, training to computer games and games of type “Dandy”. Overall objectives of such training is derivation of older persons from thoughts on the past, studying them to live in the present by an establishment of friendly relations with young generation, search of the general interests connecting generations, and reception of pleasure from these communications and interests. Creation of clubs and circles on interests where would enter not only elderly, but also people of all age is effective. They promote dialogue, occurrence of feeling of aesthetic satisfaction, emotional support, raise pithiness of pastime, improve state of health and bring calm.

To make the conclusion of the work, I’d like to say that old people like kids need our attention, understanding and love. This age is the most non-protecting part of human beings. If they feel lonely,

they must be heard by us. Our Nursing Home tries to keep the high level of living place for old people.

We do the best to make them feel there like at home.

In my essay I will attempt to demonstrate that while alienation in many respects seems of only limited use as a concept for understanding contemporary working lives, it has been critical in shaping our current understanding and practices of work. I intend to look at the work of Karl Marx among other sociologists to show how the introduction of capitalism into industrial production in particular developed feelings of alienation in people’s working lives. I have chosen to specifically focus on Marx as I find his thoughts and ideas on alienation to be of key importance in our current understanding of labour. I will principally be looking at his Alienation Theory, which was his belief that our labour in society developed different forms of alienation, and how, if at all, this determines our inherent human being. I plan to assess whether theories on alienation at work are still relevant in modern society, and how they have contributed to our current understanding of contemporary working lives.

“Work, in its physical features and its linguistic description is socially constructed; there is no permanent or objective thing called work…what counts as work cannot be severed from the context within which it exists, and that context necessarily changes through space and time” (Grint, 1998, 11).

Karl Marx believed labour was at the heart of humanity, and that the conditions under which we work can vary. He felt that alienation was a systemic effect of capitalism which exploited workers and created a sense of isolation in people’s working lives. He believed that under a capitalist regime workers unavoidably lose any control they have over their lives by having the control over their labour taken away from them. According to Marx’s Alienation Theory, there are four forms of alienation in labour, the first being alienation from the product of work. Marx states that when a worker is producing something for someone other than themselves, especially when they do not even know who they are producing the item for, the product often becomes alien to them. In this situation the worker will not have any emotional connection with the end product they have created. In this way Marx gives the worker a direct connection to the product, which in turn, alters it from being simply an abstract object. Furthermore, Marx suggests that the product, which he believes ought to create a positive connection, instead holds a negative disconnection. According to Marx, when a person works for others and not for themselves they can be seen to be working in an alienating situation simply to receive their basic requirements to get by.

Marx’s second form of alienation is alienation from the activity of work. This alienation occurs as a result of the worker being alienated from the product they create, as this means they must also be alienated from the process they undertook to make it. Marx’s aversion to capitalism is linked to this theory which proposes that as humans are working solely for survival, the work is required of them by others and so not natural. In which case the worker will not be working for themselves but instead for others and so will inevitably become estranged from the process of work.

The third form of alienation is alienation from species being, meaning people become detached from their personal creativity and in a sense the heart of humanity. Marx maintains that the activity of work requires workers’ spiritual energy and therefore when a worker is alienated from the practice of work it is impossible for them to give themselves fully to their work hence becoming alienated from their basic human roots. If the process of labour which is in our innate essence becomes alien to us, then we may become alien to ourselves in some way. Marx attempts to convey that work is something that ought to be a natural instinct to humans, not something carried out purely for survival. He refers to humans as active producers which contradicts the idea of people being alienated from their working lives. When a worker is forced to produce something for others and not for themselves they will see labour purely as a means of survival which will become a burden they are forced to monotonously repeat and hence may end up becoming alienated from themselves.

The fourth and final form of alienation in Marx’s Alienation Theory is alienation from others. When a worker is forced to produce a product for someone else they too will become alien to the worker, and so in this way people become alienated from other humans, which can lead to a breakdown in society. This can give rise to a type of hostility as the worker may feel they are required to do work for others with more cultural capital and so a class division can arise. Marx says of this form of alienation,

“If man is related to the product of his labor, to his objectified labor, as to an alien, hostile, powerful object independent of him, he is so related that another alien, hostile, powerful man independent of him is the lord of this object. If he is unfree in the relation to his own activity, he is related to it as bonded activity, activity under the domination, coercion, and yoke of another man” (Marx, 1844, 57).

So, how useful is this theory of alienation as a concept for understanding contemporary working lives? Marx likens humans to animals only doing what we must to survive. In an ideal world we would participate in work for the love of it as we believe it is meaningful and valuable. Marx claims that under capitalist industrial production systems in society people become alienated at work as a result of their loss of control. Capitalism creates a system where by the worker gives more power to the capitalist by producing better products. So it can be seen that the more the worker produces the more they must rely on that product. Marx says,

“Labour, to be sure, produces marvellous things for the rich, but for the labourer it produces privation. It produces palaces for the wealthy, but hovels for the worker. It produces beauty, but cripples the worker. It replaces work by machines, but it throws part of the workforce back to a barbarous kind of work, while turning others into machines. It produces sophistication, but for the workforce it produces feeble-mindedness and idiocy.” (Marx, 1844, 30)

The relevance of Marx’s theory today seems limited. It is easy to see that at the time of Marx’s writing a large contributing factor to alienation at work in the 19th century was the revolutionary form of labour named Fordism, which refers to the production methods used by Henry Ford in creating the Ford cars. C20th Marxist Antonio Gramsci often used the example of Fordism in his work on mass production and consumer culture. Ford was heavily influenced by Frederick Taylor who developed scientific management, and aimed to improve labour productivity. The system was created to improve productivity and enable mass production; it was successful in cutting the cost of production but also heavily deskilled labour. It saw a high turnover rate of staff and prompted numerous strikes due to workers resistance to speed control and oppressive forms of work. It took any control away from the workers by making them work to the pace of the assembly line; on top of this workers rarely got to see what they were making as each worker would be in charge of such a small part of the total creation of the product. Workers often complained the labour was solely about profit motive and their power was completely subsumed by the managers who deskilled the workers to gain control and eliminate their power and decision making.

“Scientific management so called is an attempt to apply the methods of science to the rapidly increasingly complex problems of the control of labour in rapidly growing capitalist enterprises. It lacks the characteristics of a true science because it assumptions reflect nothing more than the outlook of the capitalist with regard to the conditions of production” (Braverman 1974, 86).

But work today is far broader than mass production in a factory setting. In her article “Alienation and New Work Practises – Reconstructing a Classical Concept” Amanda Damarin argues,

“Existing concepts of alienation are inadequate for capturing the relationships among workers, tools, and labour processes that exist in new work organizations. Marx assumes that production is industrial (standardized and fixed), that employers own the means of production, that ownership is coextensive with control, and that only relationships between workers and employers are significant in shaping the experience of work.” (Damrin, 2005, 2).

One need only think about the growth in the service sector or indeed the health care industry to realize that Marx’s Theory of Alienation is deficient in fostering our understanding of contemporary working lives. For example, he focuses principally on the labour form of manufacturing, whereas if we were to look at retail Marx’s description of the 4 forms of alienation seems less pertinent. In retail there is no product being created in the shop and so less chance of shop assistants to feel alienated from it. Likewise although they may be selling to others it would never be the case that they would sell to themselves so they are less inclined to feel alienated from their fellow man. They can experience contact with the customers but not feel like they work directly for them so in this way I believe there wouldn’t be predominant feelings of isolation. But if Marx’s theory about the forms of alienation can take seem less relevant to today’s working environment; one cannot ignore the fact that work can indeed leave people feeling isolated or powerless.

Marx views work as central to the human experience. But why does man work? Looking to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, we see employment fulfilling level 2 Safety needs but also, beyond that, our need for Love and Belonging can often be met via work. Even people in the most mundane of jobs often look to their co-workers as valuable providers of community. Marx posits that ‘proper’ work (that is not under a capitalistic regime) also provides people with a sense of self-worth and achievement. But clearly this is true in current day working lives, even in capitalistic economies. Indeed Durkhiem, contrary to the views of Marx and Engels, gave a positive analysis of the industrial society, with less emphasis on capitalism. He spoke of a more heterogeneous society and a more segregated division of labour where people are more dependent on one another. This interdependence he felt brought people together as you have to go to others to receive the necessary products for daily life. So society was viewed more as a body that functions together as a whole.

It is important to remember that Marx’s alienation theory was part of his earliest work and possibly an opening thought into his later more developed work on capitalism as an economic structure within society. If it is true, as I believe, that many of Marx’s theories have significantly less relevance since advancements made after the industrial revolution, I believe it is equally true that much of his work on alienation has been crucial in shaping our contemporary understanding and practices of work. For example even in today’s factory setting, workers are now often asked for their opinions and suggestions to improve conditions at the work place. And with 360 degree feedback becoming the norm in the Western workplace, workers can comment on their managers’ performance too which gives them a sense of control over their working conditions and allows their voices to be heard. It is not inconceivable to imagine that the introduction of ‘worker voice’ was aided by Marx’s concerns about alienation. In fact a highly successful British retailer, John Lewis Partnership, which I worked at for several months, was founded on the principles of total employee ownership with the thought that this would create a direct link to the success of the business. However these improved environments in work places are witnessed predominantly in Western countries; factories in the developing world can be seen to maintain conditions much more akin to that of the 19th century factories in Europe.

If one accepts Marx’s premise that work is central to humans as a basic form of self realization then it isn’t difficult to understand how the loss of employment can be equally isolating. Although people may feel alienated at work Braverman points out unemployment is even more degrading and isolating. In their study, “Your Job No Longer Exists! From Experiences of Alienation to Expectations of Resilience” Vickers and Parris suggest “We have entered the age of the contingent or temporary worker where we are expected to be pliable and tractable; to fit in” (Vickers and Parris, 2007, 114). For example, when a worker is fired from their job, there are often associated feelings of rejection and alienation which can be agonizing. They claimed alienated workers tend to experience similar emotions, “including powerlessness and social isolation as well as shock, betrayal, humiliation and shame” (Blauner 1964, 101).

So as working lives are constantly changing and being altered to suit contemporary society the very concepts that Marx used to portray the evils of capitalism may indeed be helpful in understanding reactions to the loss of that central source of self realization, work.

I strongly feel although Marx’s original ideas about alienation at work appear overly focussed on 19th century working conditions, particularly in the mass production manufacturing world, the concept is not without merit in understanding how contemporary workers may come to feel a sense of isolation or powerlessness via work. Marx may have taken an overly critical view of capitalism but in doing so he no doubt opened the door for a wider recognition of the importance of worker voice and engendering a sense of belonging or value to individual labour. Braverman has voiced his debt to Marx’s work on capitalism and alienation at work, and although he has not contributed much in the way of innovative theories on the topic he can be seen to renew Marx’s work in modern society. “The Managed Heart” demonstrates Hochschild’s vigorous application of Marx’s alienation theory while condemning the feeling of alienation experienced as a result of the comodification of human emotions. However I have to wonder whether this comodification of feelings directly results in alienation. Both Bolton and Boyd outwardly reject the idea of emotional labour as contending with wage labour as they believe not all people’s feelings are necessarily comodified during the labour process. They argue that workers have a relatively large amount of emotional choice due to the narrow degree that their emotions can be comodified, and therefore wouldn’t experience much alienation at work in the sense Hochschild refers to. Overall I believe in many ways alienation appears to be only of limited use as a concept for understanding contemporary working lives; however through the work of such sociologists as Marx it has been essential in moulding our existing understanding and practices of work. Modern society has a much broader spectrum of work than just mass production in factories but with the work of sociologists such as Gramsci and Braverman who have built on existing ideas of alienation by Marx and others we can continually deepen our knowledge and increase our understanding of contemporary working lives.

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Charles Darwin is perhaps one of the most important and enlightened figures in the history of modern science. In the town of Shrewsbury, Shrospire in England, Darwin first knew life on February 12th 1809. Grandson of Erasmus Darwin, who was famous in his own rights as a natural philosopher and Josiah Wedgwood, who brought about the industrialization of pottery production, Darwin was groomed early on for a life of education.

Darwin first attended school in Shrewsbury. At the Shrewsbury School, he studied under Dr. Samuel Butler. Feeling constrained by the narrow minded approach to education, which was universally accepted, he left the Shrewsbury School. Later in 1825, Charles Darwin moved to Edinburg with the intent to study towards a career in the medical field. Within a short amount of time he realized that this would not be the course that his life would lead. In 1828, with the help of his father, he relocated to Cambridge, his intent would be to study and eventually join the Clergy. In 1831 Darwin earned his degree from Christ’s College where he matriculated. Graduating a mere 10th in his class, he quickly developed a love of sports and of entomology, the study of insects. While attending school at Cambridge, Charles Darwin made the acquaintance and friendship of men such as Robert Edmond Grand, William Macgillivray, and James Stevens Henslow.

After passing his last examinations, Charles Darwin took two terms of residence at Cambridge, where he moved his focus of interest towards geology. During this time Darwin and another geologist, Adam Sedgwick made an excursion to Northern Wales in 1831. After returning from this trip, Darwin would be prompted by one of his peers to apply for a position aboard the HMS Beagle. He would function as the position of “Naturalist” during a long surveying expedition.

Darwin’s voyage aboard the HMS Beagle would last from 1831 to 1836. These 5 years of exploration and discovery would become his inspiration for many later views and ideas. Among the most widely known is the theory of evolution by natural selection. Functioning in the capacity of the ships naturalist, Darwin’s job was to study the geographical features of unexplored coasts and ecosystems. He would collect an immense cache of specimens in his studies showing evidence of species evolution. His first theory was that the earth was only 6000 years old, and that the inhabitants were unchanged during this time of the planet’s development. This would later change as Darwin would realize that the earth was infinitely more aged than his first belief of a mere 6000 years. In South America, Darwin witnessed one of the marvels of nature. After a large earthquake the landscape was altered; the ground in certain places had risen by several feet. Later in the expedition of the Beagle, Darwin would have the opportunity to study the Galapagos Islands. He would find multiple species of animals and reptiles which were adaptations of similar species found in other parts of the world. These discoveries would bring about the realization that the earth was in constant geographical and ecological change. The inhabitants of Earth were also in a constant flux of adaptation geared towards the survival of the inevitable change of their environment. During his voyage on the Beagle, Darwin would encounter many more examples of the adaptation of various species for survival within the respective environments. Pondering these observations, Darwin would begin to question how and why life would adapt to meet the demands of the climate and ecology of the native land.

Darwin’s Notebooks on the Transmutation of Species, which was inspired by an essay on the Principle of Population by Thomas Robert Malthus, would become his first work towards his forming view of evolution. In 1838, Charles Darwin would arrive at his first idea of the theory of Evolution through Natural Selection. In 1858, Darwin would reveal his theory Evolution to the Linnaean Society of London. His first published work, “On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection” would ignite a firestorm of debate among both the scientific and religious communities.

In 1859, Darwin’s shattering work, The Origin of Species, came out (“a sell out in one day”); it is now recognized as a leading work in natural philosophy and in the history of mankind. Simply stated, Darwin’s theory is that things, and, in particular, life, evolves by a process which Darwin called “natural selection.”

“Currently we accept the general idea that biological development can be explained by mutations in combination with natural selection. In its essential parts, therefore, Darwin’s theory of development has been accepted. In Darwin’s time mutations were not known about; their discovery has led to extensive modifications of his theory, but it has also eliminated the most important objections to it. …

We are beginning to see that the awesome wonder of the evolution from amoeba to man – for it is without a doubt an awesome wonder – was not the result of a mighty word from a creator, but of a combination of small, apparently insignificant processes. The structural change occurring in a molecule within a chromosome, the result of a struggle over food between two animals, the reproduction and feeding of young – such are the simple elements that together, in the course of millions of years, created the great wonder. This is nothing separate from ordinary life. The wonder is in our everyday world, if only we have the ability to see it.” (Alfven’s Atom, Man, and the Universe.)

The scientific community would widely accept his ideas while the church would vehemently deny his findings. His views on the evolutionary theory, in conjunction with the Mendelian genetics would become known as the “modern Synthesis”, a belief that is still widely accepted in the scientific community today.

The repercussions of the church were both severe and widespread. The Clergy would argue that this was a direct challenge to the widely accepted belief of Creation taught by the Church. Darwin would find himself denied a knighthood for his achievements due to the influence of the church on the Crown.

The works and studies of Charles Darwin, while still widely accepted today, are often misunderstood. Many people relate Darwin’s theory to the origins of life, other people belief that he was the first person to propose the idea of evolution, an idea originating to the time of the Ancient Greeks, Both beliefs are fallible, While he may not have been the first to propose Evolution, he was the first to document and present a scientific argument towards this theory.

Charles Darwin’s contribution to the scientific world today, without question, makes him one of the most important scientists of all times. Even the church as began to issue apologies, post humorous, to Darwin. A mere 200 years after his birth, Darwin is finally realizing his success among both the Scientific World and the Church.

CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides the background of the study in particular will focus on social capital in relation to agricultural activities in Dungun Terengganu.

1.0 Introduction

Agriculture play important role in economics of a country especially in developing country. This is because this field become large financial resource of national income (Ayob, 1994). Various policies were enacted to ensure intact permanent agriculture field as one of the national income main source. Among them were National Agriculture Policy, Policy Of Agricultural Development (Ayob, 1994) and Program “1 Azam” (. Government Transformation Programme: The Roadmap. 2010). All this policy drafted to ensure country earned food source that is sufficient (food security) in long time and can eradicate national poverty. This is because most poverty area was in agricultural area. Hence, the areas of agriculture are very important to the country in ensuring food continuity and economic development of the country.

Nevertheless, agriculture in Malaysia still was in weak level as this field not so adored by youth. Hence, government needs come out with alternative that is good and need promote the productivity so that it can enhance agricultural activity productivity. According to Liverpool-Tasie, Nail, & Ajibola,(2011), the improvement of agricultural productivity is very important to the government policy goal and development agency.

In line with nation’s modernization, areas of agriculture also experienced the revolution. Nomination method no longer limited to those having land, even people who has no land also can garden. It refers to innovation where change occurs within practices (Westendorp, & Biggs). Hydroponic and Fertigation System is innovation for agriculture system in Malaysia. It used to provide opportunity to farmers to increase their income revenue as this field often associated with poverty (Ayob, 1994).

There are various elements to ensure areas of agriculture success. There are trust, interaction, networking, knowledge sharing and cooperation. However, element that is most important of success in agricultural field is social capital. Social capital is public resources. It needs to be managed and being shared nicely through cooperation by group or people in long period to ensure sustainable social development (Yamaoka, 2007). However, if people fail for recognise the benefit of social capital, it will cause failure on something. Hence, social capital is very important to ensure innovation agricultural project can walk successfully.

This study looks into how the social capital fit in the context of agricultural activities.

1.1 Background of study

Modernity of a country not only base on the technology but it involves with innovation in agricultural field. In recent years, there are various types of new agriculture in the worldwide. These show that area of agriculture also experienced comparable revolution with others field. According to Heemskerk, & Wennink, (2004); D.Parthasarathy, & V.K.Chopde and Westendorp, & Biggs, they focus to agriculture innovation as it needed for stabilizing production and areas of agriculture productivity by can enhance community development.

There is various innovation that have been done in every country to stabilize sector agriculture such as implementation of small water reservoirs in Ghana by Kinderen, (2006), crop without using any poison in Indonesia by Westendorp, & Biggs, agricultural technologies for dryland, arid and semiarid

Areas by D.Parthasarathy, & V.K.Chopde in India and Soil Management Option in Southern Africa by Njuki, Mapila, Zingore, & Delve, (2008). All this agriculture innovation affects that positive impact on social capital. However, Malaysia also has the agriculture innovation and it had known as fertigation project.

Fertigation is soilless culture production system. Fertigation crop system can avoid crop from root disease infection soil-borne. Among type of crop that suitable to be used for crop fertigation is like red chilli, cucumber, melon, zucchini, brinjal, okra, capsicum and strawberry. Usually, the farmers will build greenhouse known as “Struktur Perlindung Tanaman” (STP) to protect crop from infection in leaves and fruit and ensure fertilizer concentration at level that correct. Apart from that, crop medium that commonly used in this system is coconut coir dust known as coconut powder or coco peat. It applies as able to absorb and stores fertilizers solution beside used by root as place to believe. Moreover, it cheap and easy to find in the market. This system also uses arranging device time to ensure every crop get fertilizers solution in time was prescribed. Frequency and period every drop depend on type of crop and crop age. (Sources: Teknologi Penanaman Secara Fertigation (MARDI)).

Organization from areas of agriculture now had opened the eye of farmers by introducing new crop system namely fertigation crop. It has become latest trend in agricultural field of Malaysia where all organization support using the fertigation crop. This crop promising returns back investment capital within short time if those use this method properly. There are various successes of the farmers by using this system fertigation (sources: By Cultivation Technology Fertigation (MARDI)).

In this research, the researcher focuses on how social capital can contribute to the success of fertigation project in Dungun Terengganu. The researcher want see the connection between social capital and the agriculture. According to Liverpool-Tasie, Kuku, & Ajibola, (2011), social network will affect nomination method (farming practices) by adaptation technological information or network. This indirectly will affect agricultural productivity as the farmers have acquired information that is useful to develop their crop system.

Apart from that, social capital can improve the agricultural technology. This is because social capital has ability for developed and it also can use various types of social network to create understanding between farming household and farming community (D.Parthasarathy, & V.K.Chopde).

Social capital in agriculture has given benefit on farmers and also nonfarmers. Social capital will increase awareness and appreciation to the stakeholder interests where it will increase trust and confident on action of community member. When social capital has existed, nonfarmers will support and respect on local agriculture while farmers will respect nonfarmers’s concerns and need. Hence, the establishment of social capital will contribute mutual respect among each other and they will share sense of community which will support individual interest and locality (Wilkinson (1991) cited in Sharp, & Smith).

According to Aleksiev, & Penov, (2006), social capital will make people change to be better because everyone have the opportunity to change position and can modify the network where they work.

Putman (1993) cited in BRUEGEL, (2006) tell difference between societies with social capital and societies with no social capital. He found that the high level of distrust shows the low level of social capital. People with low level of social capital have a tendency not to follow the rule. Hence, any punishment sentenced will take long time as offences committed heavy.

Apart from that, the researcher also focuses on two types of social capital such as bonding and bridging. According to Putnam cited in Yamaoka (2007), bonding social capital are also known as exclusive type where this group have members that is more-or-less and had equation between one same other in term of nature and internally oriented while bridging on the other hand known as inclusive type which include few groups in cross- sectoral and it externally oriented manner.

This aim of this study is to explore on how social capital can contribute to the success of fertigation project of Malaysia especially case of Dungun Terengganu. Malaysia has not yet has research on improvement of fertigation on social capital.

1.2 Problem Statement

Social capital is the main issue of this research. Social capital is one of the most crucial agricultural activities that are proven to offer advantages to not only for organization but also for individual in meeting certain objectives. The role of social capital for instance is indeed critical especially dealing with networking between the people. With regard to social capital, learning, communication and trust are among the significant attributes that can help to measure the successful fertigation project in Dungun Terengganu.

Fertigation project in Malaysia are growing the usage. However, there are some of the issues that are link in this project. The issue which occurred are trust, cooperation, interaction, networking and knowledge sharing. Nevertheless, all this problem can be overcame with social capital.

Trust is another thing which is highly associated with social capital. Trust will be influenced by a lot of factors which need to be explored by the researcher.

Besides trust, according to officer in Dungun Agriculture Office, they cannot measure the level cooperation between farmers and organization. It is because not all farmers involve in all activities carried out by organization.

Other than that, interaction also play very important role to expedite the social capital. Hence, the effective communication needs to use to make sure they understand the information and terms used in fertigation project. Note that effective interaction can influence social capital should they choose the right tools.

Networking play role that is important in ensuring continuity social capital in this study. The researcher will study factor which influenced networking in this project of fertigation.

Apart from that, the researcher also focuses to knowledge sharing to know as far as it influences social capital.

There are a lot of studies pertaining on the social capital. However, the researcher only focus on social capital and agriculture where there will be many research carried out showing that social capital can help agricultural project. For Heemskerk, & Wennink, (2004); D.Parthasarathy, & V.K.Chopde and Westendorp, & their Biggs focus on social capital and agriculture innovation while Yamaoka, (2007); Sharp, & Smith; Kinderen, (2006); Liu, & Besser,(2003) on the other hand focus on social capital and agricultural and rural development. Apart from that, Hong, & Sporleder on the other hand focus on social capital and agricultural cooperative and Liverpool-Tasie, Kuku, & Ajibola, (2011) on the other hand focus on social capital and agriculture productivity. However, projects carried out above not venture in the nature on fertigation project.

1.3 Research Question

With regard to the problems highlighted in problems statement, the following research questions were posed for this study:

How bonding contribute to successful of fertigation project

How bridging contribute to successful of fertigation project

1.4 Research Objective

In general, the main research objective is to examine the social capital for fertigation project in Dungun Terengganu. Besides that, this research also explore on the factors that influence social capital which include trust, cooperation, interaction, networking and knowledge sharing

Thus, the study is carrying out to achieve the following objective:

To examine the relationship of social capital towards successful fertigation project

1.5 Scope of the Study

The scope of this study is the organization that related to agriculture sector in Dungun Terengganu. There are the Department of Agriculture and Farmers’ Organization Authority of Malaysia and the farmers involved in Fertigation Project in Dungun. The selection is based on trust, cooperation, interaction, networking and knowledge sharing that are assumed to contribute towards social capital.

There are several limitations of this study. There are:

1.5.1 Place

This research is made in Dungun district where it focuses on farmers in Dungun district. It only focus to one place only and it may be cannot represent actual situation.

1.5.2 Scope

The scope of this study is the fertigation project. This project was conducted in two organizations that have been selected by the researcher. The researcher only concern about this project on the area of Dungun, Terengganu only. If the same study implemented in another scope, the result may be different.

1.5.3 Variables

In this study, the researcher only focus on trust, cooperation, interaction, networking and knowledge sharing as the variables.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The importance of this study will see whether the trust, cooperation, interaction, networking and knowledge sharing to the stakeholder will gain the social capital in agricultural product development in Dungun Terengganu.

Social capital is critical to realize the development community in the social agriculture. This is because by having a good networking, it will create the positive impact to the society and also will increase capacity building in the area. In addition, it also will foster innovative community where they can understand the new knowledge and be involved with a new mission and decision.

The other significant of the study is to gather new knowledge on this area. It will give academicians and organizations new knowledge on social capital, how it can be done between the farmers and organization in an agriculture context. Besides that, it can serve as a platform for future research. The data obtained can be used for other researchers to study the social capital globally.

Besides that, the researcher also will come out with the theoretical contribution which can use by the others scholar particularly on social capital in agricultural activities.

Last significance of this study is to provide recommendations to improve the present situation. With that, the organizations can prevent, reduce and overcome some cases by taking appropriate prevention and action to solve the problems. It is to ensure that any problems that occur have the solution and make sure that the organization did not make the same mistake in the future.

1.7 Definition of Terms
1.7.1 Fertigation

Fertigation is soilless culture production system (Teknologi Penanaman Secara Fertigation (MARDI)).

1.7.2Social Capital

For Cohen (2007), social capital is network of informal trust relationships that provide an essential social infrastructure for knowledge sharing and knowledge creation sparked by new combination of existing knowledge.

Besides that, according to Woolcook & Narayan, 2000 (cited in Kilpatrick & Falk, 2003) social capital is norms and networks that enable people to act correctly (pp. 501).

According to World Bank Cited in Liverpool-Tasie, Kuku, & Ajibola, (2011), “social capital refers to the institutions, relations and norms that shape the quality and quantity of a society’s interactionsaˆ¦ Social Capital is not just the sum of the institutions which underpin a society-it is the glue that holds them together.”

1.7.3 Bonding social Capital

Bonding social capital describes the links between individuals or groups with similar goals within the network (Hong, G., & Sporleder)

1.7.4 Bridging Social Capital

Bridging social capital describes the capacity of individuals or groups to make links with others outside their organization, particularly across social networks (Hong, G., & Sporleder)

Measurement of social capital

Social capital has a variety of dimensions. While in many developing countries, it is often captured via some measure of membership in community based organizations, as well as engagement in the community (Okunmadewa et al. 2007; Balogun and Yusuf 2011a; Yusuf 2008), there are a number of other aspects of social capital that have been identified as important for a comprehensive understanding of the concept. Some aspects of social capital that have been identified in the literature as very important (Roslan et al. 2010a, 2010b; Balogun and Yusuf 2011) include:

1) Groups and networks, measured by

a) Membership in formal or informal organization or association.

b) Ability to get support from those, other than family members and relatives, in case of hardship.

c) Remittances.

d) Ability to learn from one’s network or group, particularly the impact on technology adoption.

e) Access to various markets (labor, input, or output) via the group.

2) Trust and solidarity, measured by

a) Perceptions about whether most people in the community can be trusted.

b) Perceptions about social support/help provided by group members for each other in times of hardship.

3) Collective action and cooperation, measured by

a) More than half of the community contributing time or money towards common development goals.

b) A high likelihood that people, in the community, cooperate to solve common problems.

4) Information and communication, measured by

a) Frequency of reading or listening to news sources such as radio, newspapers, and television.

5) Social cohesion and inclusion, measured by

a) Strong feeling of togetherness within the community.

b) Feeling safe from crime and violence when alone at home.

6) Empowerment and political action, measured by

a) Having control in making decisions that affect everyday activities

b) Political participation such as voting and being voted for in local elections

(Liverpool-Tasie, Kuku & Ajibola (2011))

To measure socialcapital, two indicators are utilized. The first item is a social network measure reflecting the extent to which residents interact with farmerss. The second socialcapital item represents trust, and is an attitudinal measure of resident trust or confidence in local farmerss. The network question asked respondents to indicate how often he or she saw or met a farmers during the course of a year, with response categories including never, a few times a year, once or a few times a month, and once a week or more (Sharp & Smith)

This paper uses an innovations systems framework to analyse the ways social capital in the overall agricultural and natural resources innovation system in Nepal has increased far beyond what was originally expected in the project proposal (Westendorp & Biggs)

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction

In the previous chapter, the researcher provides the basic information of social capital. Under this chapter, it will explore more on the elements of social capital which relevance to the research.

This chapter describes the theoretical foundation for social capital in agricultural sector in Dungun Terengganu. In the section, the researcher gives an overview of the how social capital can contribute to the success of fertigation project in Dungun Terengganu. This section will culminate issue related to theoretical considerations to empirical study. The researcher will also present a conceptual framework. An outline of this chapter is given in the figure as below:

Figure 2.0: Outline of Chapter 2
2.1 Problems in Agriculture

Every project carried out doubtless has problem and the challenge. In this study, the researcher focus on problems which occurred in sector agriculture so that the researcher knows what problem that is real occurs within field of agriculture.

Heemskerk, & Wennink, (2004) discuss on group size. There is conflict on group size that should use in this areas of agriculture whether small size or big size. According To Pretty (2003), every agriculture project need membership within 20 and 50 persons but if membership less than 20, farmer can still functioning well. In this study, they discuss on advantages of small size group and big size group. Small size group will influence social capital with much better as fewer members beside it have been administered easily and particularly dynamic. However, large size will gain the huge experience as it involving many memberships. Hence, the group size become issue to many project agriculture in ensuring social capital happen.

Apart from that, difference parties doubled up problem in areas of agriculture (Enserink (2004) cited in Kinderen (2006)). According to this study, farmer with parties that have different tendency to resolve their own problem without discuss with responsible party. This is because they have their own perspective and they rather solve problems according to their own way. It also supported by Wilber (1981) cited in Kinderen (2006) where when this situation happened, farmer no longer want to solve problems but they prefer to live in imbalance and inequalities.

In addition, low skilled and low educational background doubled up problems for areas of agriculture (Ogunanya 2009; Ekunwe, Orewa and Emokaro 2008 cited in Liverpool-Tasie, Kuku & Ajibola 2011; Ayob (1994). These problems happen due to poverty which hit most farmers. This is because most impoverished area located in agricultural area. When farmer has no educational, it will give impact on agricultural productivity as they cannot accept new skill and has no knowledge to develop areas of agriculture.

Apart of that, low income in the agriculture as the farmers have low educational and low skilled. Hence, they had to make other jobs to accommodate their income (Fasoranti 2006; Okafor 2004; Adewuyi and Okunmadewa 2001; Yusuf et al. 2009; Peke 2008; Adewuyi 2006; Adejoh 2009 cited in Liverpool-Tasie, Kuku & Ajibola 2011).

Problems in this agriculture have encouraged innovation in agriculture to help farmers and in Malaysia, fertigation project is agricultural innovation and it also establishes to help farmers in country.

2.2 Social Capital

Social capital is defining an asset. It will give the benefit such as productive on process more efficient, effective, innovative, and developed. Social capital did not exist in one person, however it inhering relationship between one and other individual and with socioeconomic institutions where the individual operate (Coleman 1988 cited in Liverpool-Tasie, Kuku & Ajibola, 2011).

The study of social capital have been intrigued various scholar. Social capital is a set process by which individuals will be built and developed the relationship with other people to provide goods or services (Keyes, 2006). At this time, people will identify their strengths in their working relationship and had been feeling the benefits resulting from effective team. Social capital cannot be seen by the naked eye, but it certainly exists in the real world and its existence can be felt by the interaction. According to Woolcock (1999) cited in Bostrom (2002), social capital can be found at club, association and societies and communities where people can meet and work together.

According to Huotari & livonen, social capital associated with the actor in a relationship. If the actor in a relationship trusts each other, it does not only increase the social capital but also can create the knowledge for innovation. This also supported Ji et al (2010) that social capital has relationship with trust and had the connection in empirical study.

Before going with more much further, we need to know how social capital can happen. According to Morrice (2207), everyone has owned different amount of social capital. Only they uncertain whether it many or a little. However, when something has occurred and it involves people interest, they will be united and will develop bond among them. When they already united, this bond will become double- edge. All problems faced would be resolved jointly. It will be giving advantages to group because network has become stronger.

Interaction and learning is between one of the element in social capital (Maskell (2000) cited in Chou (2006)). It can exist in society with the existence of process of interaction and learning. This is because people interact with colleague compared to own family and also friends. Hence, social capital will emerge at workplaces and it will help cooperation in job.

Social capital will note happen if individuals only used a little ability or note use it direct for society interest (Diaz Andrade & Urquhart, 2009). According to them, social capital provides structure to understand configuration and intensity of interaction between individuals in network. Apart from that, social capital can make innovation. According to Westendorp & Biggs, it not only changing productivity agriculture and reduce cost but it also enhance institutional linkage and social capital development.

Besides that, storytelling will reinforces further social capital between people because it would be firmed further norm and trust people on organization (Hope Cheong, 2006).

Networks have four characteristic such as pluriformity, interdependency, closedness and dynamic (de Bruijn and heuvelhof, 2000 cited in Kinderen, 2006). According to them, pluriformity is variety in the network. This is because everyone have characteristic, knowledge, power, financial resources and own objective. When people do something policy that new, pluriformity need to establish because there will have conflict in the network. This is because people have various characteristic and they will act based on their characteristic. In this study, there is part of society in Africa agreeing with implementation of small reservations and some of them do not want to take part. Closedness of the network is a characteristics that is easily been recognised in the societies. In African villages, often rivalry between different ethnic groups exists and kinship is a crucial factor of being part of the group or not. ‘The closedness of an organisation (read: village/community) is the result of its frame of reference which is formed by core values deeply rooted in the organisation and which determine its action to a large degree. Organisations are usually sensitive to interventions that fit their own frame of reference’ (de Bruijn and Heuvelhof, 2000: 27). So being able to determine that frame of reference will, partly, determine the successfulness of the intervention. Apart from that, interdependency exists within group or society between actors. It depends on the amount of connection in group. When it have strong bonding, network will become interdependency. However, it difficult for predict. Hence, actors need to be careful so that no one takes advantage towards them. Last network is dynamic. Dynamic of network have the large power. It can affect the people in the network. This is because network that is dynamic will inconvenience inteference from outside. Apart from that, Maertens (2010) cited in Liverpool-Tasie, Kuku & Ajibola (2011) said that dynamic network will affect people to engage in new activity as their network strong.

Figure 2.2: Modelling a Theory of Social Capital (Lin, 1999) (pp.41)

Based on from this model, it has three blocks variable namely a blocks represent pre- conditional and precursors of social capital – factor in social structure and every position individual in social structure which can constrains or facilitate social capital. Second block representing social capital element and last block representing return probability for social capital. In first block to second, it explained on formation of inequality of social capital namely what structural element which will affect the opportunities for construct and maintain social capital. In second block on the other hand, it explained on two element of social capital namely access to social capital and use of social capital. Both elements explain process of social capital mobilization. Third Block also explained on three ingredients has inter- connected namely better accessible embedded resources, better embedded resources that could be utilised by individual. In process second block (social capital) until third block (outcome), it represents the process which social capital produce returns. It explains on what we get outcome from social capital.

2.3 Important of Social Capital

According to Grooteart, 2004 cited in Kinderen, 2006, social capital can expect certain aspect in society such as crime, health, poverty and unemployment. It can leverage on the efficiency of production, happiness, life satisfaction and wellbeing of the community (Helliwell and Putnam, 2004 cited in Kinderen, 2006). Apart from that, social capital now also is looked as important asset that is equivalent with natural, physical capital, finance, human, and political capital (Dll Meinzen-Dick, 2004 cited in Kinderen, 2006).

Social capital afford consolidate democracy in society and it can enhance efficiency towards work (Safr and Sediackova, 2006 cited in POSPAsCH & SPAsA NA (2011). When networking in strong society, all activity carried out will happen nicely because the existence of bonding in community.

Apart from that, social capital also influenced the sustainable livelihood (Pretty, 2003). This is because it got involved with social bond where actor which have high social bond will success in activity carried out and it will also influence living stability.

At the same time, social capital also gave impact on knowledge sharing. Knowledge sharing is one element in social capital. According To Putnam (1993) cited in D.Parthasarathy, & V.K.Chopde, uniqueness social capital rests with willingness of people to share. All activity carried out will succeed because people know what they need to do by can increase knowledge.

Social capital has a few key features. First feature was social capital can accumulate stock where it will give various benefits. According to Westendorp & Biggs, social capital comprises more than a social organisation or social capital values. Social can improve output with improve productivity activity.

Apart from that, social capital could reduce cost if work together. People will be having confidence to invest in collective activities (Pretty, 2003). Pretty and Ward 2001; Pretty, 2002 cited in Pretty, 2003 stress four aspects that can be ensured in social capital. Among them was the relationship of trust, reciprocity and exchanges, common rules, norms and sanction and connectedness, network and group.

2.4 Impact of Social Capital to Agriculture

According to Bourdieu (1983) cited in Wolz, Fritzsch, & Reinsberg (2004), people can change social capital to other types of capital like physical capital when obtain social capital through purposeful action. However, it takes a long time to see the result of investment on social capital.

Social capital also able generates profit in economic (POSPAsCH & SPAsA NA, 2011). This is because actors have various networks of personal ties. When actor has many networks, it can help them market their productivity agriculture.

Apart from that, social capital also produced innovation on agriculture. According to Westendorp & Biggs, the natural resources innovation system in Nepal increased and it exceeded over their expectation.

In the development of agriculture sector and urban and rural area, social capital perceived as readiness and capacity to work together. In this study, it covers case such as watersheds, irrigation management, and integrated pest management strategies. This concept has become solution of problems faced by modern society, socioeconomic and political development. (D.Parthasarathy, & V.K.Chopde).

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