Category: Free Essays

Sample Student Essays

The Value of Life

Writing Assignment

So far in this assignment sequence, we have heard a number of different voices giving insights into the value of life. Hamlet’s soliloquy offers an emotional, metaphor-laden glimpse into the thinking of a young man contemplating suicide. Lance Armstrong’s autobiography uses storytelling from a first-person perspective to get across how the famed cyclist thinks about life. Amanda Ripley’s article from Time magazine provides insight into the problems involved in translating the concept of valuing life from abstract terms into actual dollars and cents. The Human Life Value Calculator establishes specific criteria for assigning monetary value to a person’s life.

You might not fully agree or disagree with any of the texts’ essential claims about the value of life. This makes your voice an important contribution to this discussion about how we should value human life. Where do your ideas fit into the terrain mapped by the other texts we have read? Is it right to assign dollar values to a person’s life? Do suffering and illness impact how we should value life? Assume that the audience for your piece consists of intelligent citizens interested in this issue-the same types of people, for instance, who would read Time magazine.

As you write your essay, think about the different ways the authors we have read make their points about valuing life. Depending on the points you are trying to make, you might want to use some metaphors for life, as Hamlet does, or tell some stories the way Armstrong does. You may choose to include some words from people you interview, as Ripley does in her article, or you might even choose to establish some criteria for how human life should be calculated in monetary terms. As you construct your essay, make conscious choices about the ways you can represent your ideas to your reader.

Be sure to refer to and cite the readings. You may also use examples from your personal experience or observations.

The sample student essays that follow reflect the EPT Scoring Guide’s criteria.

Sample student essay with a score of 6:

The Value of Life

Should people put the value of life into monetary value or should life be kept solely as an emotional quantity? People and societies throughout the ages have been trying to answer the problem of putting the value of life into terms of dollar bills. The ancient Egyptians buried their dead with all of their worldly belongings. They believed a person’s monetary worth on Earth was over, and they should take all of that earthly worth with them to the afterlife. Modern day Americans are different from the Egyptians. Today people believe that the families of the dead should be compensated for “their” loss.

It is true that life is a precious commodity much like a diamond. But unlike a diamond, life has no set monetary value. But today’s government is trying to change that. After the tragedies of September 11, 2002, the federal government started a federal fund to help the victims and families of victims of the attacks. This fund would give priority to people who were injured in the attacks, then to the spouse, and then to the parents. Sounds great doesn’t it? Your husband dies and now you just lost your income, and the government is going to pay you for your loss. Well don’t jump on the bandwagon so fast now. This might sound great now, but once you are knee deep in the program, it won’t be so fun. To figure out how much money a person will receive from this fund is determined by a multi-step process. First they figure out how much an individual would have earned had there been no attacks. This would mean that a banker’s family would earn far more than the family of a janitor in the buildings. Is it true that a banker is worth more to society than a janitor? Is a lawyer more important than a desk clerk? Then the fund adds $250,000 as a base cover, and then another $50,000 for a spouse and each child (Ripley 12). This would imply that a married man who has 6 kids in more important than a married man with no children at all. Is it more important in society to “make babies” than it is to just live your life? What about people who haven’t yet had a chance to start a family because their lives were cut so short? Now all that money sounds like a blessing, doesn’t it?

Well now that you have your foundation money, now you have to subtract the money you get from life insurance, pension, Social Security death benefits, and worker’s compensation. After these “little” subtractions, you now have the total that you are going to receive from the government’s fund. Now you are going to be hit with new questions after all this, for example is a rich man with high life insurance, high pension, and no children worth less than a poor man with no life insurance, no job, and ten children (Ripley 13)? The answer to all these questions is no. The lives of all people should be valued at the same price, if you are to set a price at all. A rich man should be the same as a poor man; a woman with no children should have the same life value as a woman with seven kids. The point is that if the government is going to put a monetary value of a human life, than it should be the same for everyone. “We hold these truths to self-evidence: that all men are created equal” (King Jr.).

There are many arguments against putting a money value on human life and two of the most impressive come from Alephonsion Deng and Lance Armstrong. Alephonsion Deng is one of the Sudanese Lost Boys. “We crossed a thousand miles of war ravaged country without the hope of sanctuary. Bullets replaced food, medicine, shelter and my loving parents. I lived on wild vegetable, ate mud from Mother Earth, and drank urine from my own body” (Deng 16). He had to walk across an entire country from refugee camp to refugee camp, always with the thought of death behind him. He didn’t have the luxury of being able to go down to the grocery store when he ran out of food. He had to scavenge for what ever he could get his hands on. If Mr. Deng was asked about the government’s 9/11 victims fund, which is set to put a monetary value on life, he would probably be outraged. After what he had been through he would probably say that it is impossible to turn something as valuable as life into terms of money.

Lance Armstrong survived a long battle with cancer, and after this battle came out with a new outlook on life. “When I was 25, I got testicular cancer and nearly died. I was given less than a 40 percent chance of surviving, and frankly, some of my doctors were just being kind when they gave me those odds” (Armstrong 1). Before having the ordeal with cancer his out look on life was just live it fast, everything was fast for him. After surviving the unbeatable he came out with a brand new outlook on his value of life. He now preached that life can end very quickly and that everyone should live their lives to the fullest terms possible. If someone asked Lance Armstrong about the government trying to put life into terms of dollars, bills, he would have a heart attack. Much like Mr. Deng, he would think that life is precious and the government should not demean it by trying to bring money into the same picture frame as life.

Should life be put into monetary values? The answer is no. Life is way too precious of a commodity to put into terms of money. People who have been on the brink of death would all say that you cannot put a value on the natural high that is known as life. To go back to an earlier metaphor, life truly is like the most precious and valuable of gems. They are similar in rareness and beauty, but are different in the fact that gems have a set money value, but life is a lot more stupendous than any gem on Earth. That is why life doesn’t have a monetary value and never should.

Work Cited

Armstrong, Lance, and Sally Jenkins. It’s Not About the Bike: My Journey Back to life. New York: Penguin Putnam, 2001.

Deng, Alephonsion. “I have Had to Learn to Live With Peace.” Newsweek 31 October 2005: 16.

King, Jr., Martin Luther. “I Have A Dream“. Mephis Educational Computer Connectivity Alliance. 11/21/05. http://www.mecca.org/~crights/dream.html.

Ripley, Amanda. “What is Life Worth?” Time December 2002: 12-13.

Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992.

Unknown, Human Life Value Calculator. Life and Insurance Foundation for Education. November 14, 2005A http://www.life-line.org/life_human.html.

Commentary

This essay illustrates the EPT Scoring Guide’s criteria for a score of 6. The superior response indicates that the writer is very well prepared to handle college-level reading and writing. Because this prompt asks for an edited (that is, revised and polished) essay, student papers should reflect the appropriate degree of organization, content, and editing.

The writer addresses the entire topic and responds fully to all aspects of the prompt.
The writer demonstrates a thorough critical understanding of the readings by incorporating them into the argument and by quoting them extensively, accurately, and, generally, in correct MLA format; occasional “dropped in” quotations indicate that the writer has not yet fully mastered this process.
The writer uses rhetorical questions to undercut the assumptions made by sources with whose opinions the writer disagrees; rhetorical questions are occasionally overused, but the writer attempts to mitigate them with details from the reading.
The writer has a smooth and easy writer’s voice, addressing the reader directly and confidently.
The essay uses a sophisticated inductive strategy, marshaling evidence first and saving the conclusions for later.
The essay remains focused throughout.
The essay makes use of source material beyond the readings; it also ties different types of support material together nicely.
The writer avoids a formulaic essay approach and brings the reader “full circle” at the end by returning to the opening idea (the gem).
Errors are rare and do not detract from meaning.

Sample student essay with a score of 5:

The Value of Life

People often question how we should measure the value of life. Can life be calculated into dollars and cents? Should ones value be determined by their life’s accomplishments? Or does the value of one’s life depend solely upon how much that individual embraces and loves their existence? In my personal experience I have found the latter to be true. Life is given value and meaning by one enjoying and accepting it.

Someone once said “You should not fear death, but fear the unlived life”. This means that one should not fear the end of a journey, but enjoy the trip. To me this is absolutely true. Why should we spend our time fearing the inevitable? We are given only a few short years to experience the world, friendships, loves, and losses. Even the bad experiences teach us to appreciate the good ones. This doesn’t mean we should all go out and be terrible people just so we will appreciate our good experiences, but rather that we should learn from our mistakes. Lance Armstrong’s view of life is similar to this; he says that sometimes life is fun, and great, and other times it is horrible, but whether good or bad our experiences make us stronger people. It is these experiences which give our lives meaning.

Meaning and value however, are completely different issues. So how can the value of one’s entire life and worth be translated into monetary values? The people at most life insurance companies will tell you it is a simple mathematical process based on age, physical health, and income. Subtract $1000 for every year over 40, subtract for any diseases, or illnesses, add 50 times their yearly income and voila! You’ll have the value of anyone’s life calculated in an instant! Unfortunately, this process cannot be applied to memories and experiences. You can’t subtract points for every bad experience, lost love, and abandoned friendship and even the bad memories are carried around with us forever. Amanda Ripley’s article, from TIME magazine, outlines, some of the problems with calculating the monetary value of life. Many people view the amount of money they receive as a measure of their loved one’s value, which creates problems for the people who have to award the money. Calculating the value of life in dollar worth can be a complicated issue involving tough emotional and moral dilemmas.

Value is something which each individual assigns to their life depending on how much meaning it has to them self and others. A life is not a self contained object; it is a network which is shared with others. All people have value not just to themselves but to others as well. If you died tomorrow you entire network of friends and family would surely mourn for you. All of the people whose lives you have touched would mourn for you. In Hamlet’s soliloquy, he neglected to consider what effect his life had on his family and friends. Everyone whether they realize it or not, has some kind of effect on the people around them. Hamlet thought of his own life as worthless and thought everyone else did too.

Life’s value cannot be determined by dollar value, popularity or even by one’s accomplishments. If one doesn’t value life them self then they will be unhappy therefore making people around them unhappy. People must depend on themselves to make their lives valuable and meaningful. Ultimately it is people’s own ability and willingness to value life which gives them worth.

Bibliography

Armstrong, Lance, and Sally Jenkins. It’ss Not About the Bike: My Journey Back to life. New York: Penguin Putnam, 2001.

Ripley, Amanda. “What is Life Worth?” Time December 2002: 12-13.

Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992.

Unknown, Human Life Value Calculator. Life and Insurance Foundation for Education. November 14, 2005 http://www.life-line.org/life_human.html.

Commentary

This essay illustrates the EPT Scoring Guide’s criteria for a score of 5. The clear competence of the essay indicates that this writer is quite ready to handle college-level reading and writing. Because this prompt asks for an edited (that is, revised and polished) essay, student papers should reflect the appropriate degree of organization, content, and editing.

The essay thoroughly addresses the prompt and raises the pertinent question of the difference between value and money.
The writer remains focused throughout the essay, offers a clear thesis about enjoyment and acceptance, and pursues that thesis throughout the supporting paragraphs.
The writer uses transitions to guide the reader, such as the sentence that ends the second paragraph, “It is these experiences which give our lives meaning,” which transitions to the opening sentence of the third paragraph, “Meaning and value however, are completely different issues.”
Occasional shifts in diction (for example, “one” in first paragraph, to “we” in the second, to “you” in third) are distracting; the essay mainly uses a conversational tone that works very well for this writer.
The writer makes a lovely case in the fourth paragraph for life as a “network” rather than a “self-contained object.”
The essay’s second half begins to repeat itself, particularly in the final two paragraphs, although the writer attempts to mitigate this repetition by using the Hamlet example.
Errors in grammar, usage, and mechanics are minor; the writer could use some practice with commas.

Sample student essay with a score of 4:

The Value of Life

The value of life. What is it exactly? We will never know the true definition of the value of life because there are so many different perspectives in this world and everyone will think their perspective is right.

According to the Human Life Calculator, our value is based on the amount of money we will make in our lives and nothing more. It depends on the money we make, how many children we have, and how much we spend on ourselves each month. Some people find it fair to actually compare the value of life to the dollar amount they are worth. They might even look into it so much that people choose their partner according to their monetary values and not the emotional attachment. There are many people like that these days that only worry about money and what society thinks of them instead of wanted to be truly happy.

I don’t agree with the Human Life Value Calculator what so ever. No person’s life should be estimated on their monetary worth. It should go deeper then that. It all depends on how they want to live there life and if they think they live it to the fullest. If they live it to only become rich and die rich then so be it that is their own personal value. But to assume that every person values their life that way is completely and utterly wrong

When it comes to Hamlet, he wonders if there is even a value to life. “To be, or not to be-that is the question:” that is his main issue throughout the entire play. He pretty much loses everything that means anything to him in his life so he can’t help but wonder if there is even a point anymore. Anything he truly valued, such as his father and Ophelia, was taken from him. He has nothing to value so why should he question the value of life?

Life has many hardships no matter who you are, even if you are Hamlet. It still has a value to it. It teaches you to value you what you have because you never know when or they may not be there.

Lance Armstrong is a whole different story. He looks at life in such a positive perspective now unlike before. Unlike many people, he was given a second chance to live his life. He values every single thing because he never knows when it will be his time to go. He was luck the first time but no one know if he will be next time, if there is a next time. He learned the hard way not to take life for granted but to take advantage of it and live everyday as though it were your last.

Not everyone is as lucky as Lance Armstrong. He now realizes how valuable his life and everyone in it is but that’s because he was given a second chance. There are so many people out there who wish they would have realized how valuable everything was before it was too late because they didn’t get that second chance. We may not realize it until it happens but when we or a loved one goes through suffering or illness it truly impacts how we value life. It makes us face the reality that not everyday is guaranteed and people will not stay with us forever no matter how much we wish they would.

I think, as a society, we should value life not by how much money we have or how much we are worth but by how much we enjoy life and everyone in it. It shouldn’t take the death of a loved one for us to realize everyday is valuable. We should wake up everyday realizing it’s a new day and be thankful for it. I’m not saying to wake up and say “today might be my last” but realize it, embrace it. Take nothing fro granted and live everyday to its fullest. If you love someone then tell them. If you want to start a business then do what it take to start one. Do whatever you have to so that when you leave this world you are happy with who you are and what you accomplished. Don’t expect to have no regrets or make no mistakes because those are what helped to form you to the person you become over time. I admit I am far fro perfect but that is what makes me and I am happy with myself. I love my life and everyone in it who helps to form it. I wouldn’t take anything back or do anything over because if I did I wouldn’t be the intelligent, free spirited, young woman I am today. I value my life to the fullest and it will never be based on money or praying to be given a second change because I didn’t live it right the first time.

Works Cited

Armstrong, Lance and Sally Jenkins. It’s Not About The Bike: My Journey Back To Life.New York: Berkley Trade, 1991.

Human Life Value Calculator

Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Ed. Alan Durband. London: Hutchinson and Co., 1986.

Commentary

This essay illustrates the EPT Scoring Guide’s criteria for a score of 4; however, it is a strong 4. This adequate response to the topic suggests that the writer should be able to handle college-level reading and writing. Because this prompt asks for an edited (that is, revised and polished) essay, student papers should reflect the appropriate degree of organization, content, and editing.

The essay is a classic “befuddling” 4 paper; it wobbles between a 5 paper and a 3 paper, never really settling in either camp.
The writer opens with a rhetorical question and then moves quickly to a clear, if simplistic, thesis.
The writer attempts to integrate the readings by including supporting detail, although the essay offers only a single direct quotation.
The works cited list provides a quasi-MLA format for sources.
The logic in the third paragraph fails to persuade; the writer opens by showing Hamlet questioning life’s value and then closes with the question, “He has nothing to value so why should he question the value of life?”
The essay is somewhat repetitive, restating the idea of personal satisfaction as the best gauge of life’s value.
The essay lacks transitions in general, although the opening sentence of the penultimate paragraph, “Not everyone is as lucky as Lance Armstrong,” is an exception.
The writer opens each paragraph with a statement that focuses on the reading; however, the second half of each paragraph, which features the writer’s own experience and opinions, generally becomes repetitive, rambles, or offers a cliched conclusion.
The writer struggles with usage (than/then, there/their, everyday/every day), mechanics (especially punctuation), and grammar, although such instances do not greatly detract from meaning; the shifts in person in paragraph six, however, are quite distracting.

Sample student essay with a score of 3:

Extreme Life

What is life? I don’t know, but I know it is full of obstacles. Sometimes they are small, sometimes they aren’t. I don’t think there is a point to it, but who knows? Another thing I know, everybody dies at the end, so why won’t people live it to the maxim instead of just sitting on their bums and doing nothing, Being alive to me is to experience new adventures and to have fun.

Life is worth living for as long as you can. As Lance Armstrong said, “I want to die at a hundred years old with an American Flag on my back on the star of Texas on my helmet.” It is very fun living out to your maximum, doing extreme sports like bungi jumping. I think that life should be extreme. It is also nice to come back home to someone who loves you and cares about you. I love food; I think it’s another great thing to spend time with friends, especially when you can dig in and pig out. Its nice to have friends that are there for you when you have problems, and you know that they will help you out. Life is just a great things, but it doesn’t always feel like it.

“To be or not to be” is Hamlet’s famous quote. I bet every single person on earth has come to this decision. Besides the great things in life, you come across difficulties. For example losing the loved one. I think that hurts the most. Another thing is when you don’t feel loved or accepted. That’s when people come out of their limit and start doing bad stuff like drugs. When it gets really out of hand, they try to commit suicide. I believe that anybody who tried it or attempts suicide it are failures in life. As Lance Armstrong said, “Why don’t we all just stop and lie down where we are?” what is we just do it? It’s just an easy way out of life, escaping all the obstacles and pain. There is a lot of it. You friend can stab you in the back, your family member can die, there are just too many to name. You should just love life enough to struggle through the painful times.

“Why would I want to change, even for a day, the most important and shaping event in my life?” Lance Armstrong’s words. Express how I feel. I would not give me life up for anything. I have made many of bad mistakes that I should not have done, but those mistakes make me the person I am today. I wouldn’t want to look or be any different than I am right now. I love my life, and I hope everyone else does too because it’s the only one we’ve got. You will have to start loving it or that only one wont be a good one.

Commentary

This essay illustrates the EPT Scoring Guide’s criteria for a score of 3. Although the essay suggests developing competence, it is flawed in significant ways that suggest the writer needs additional practice before being able to succeed in college-level reading and writing. Because this prompt asks for an edited (that is, revised and polished) essay, student papers should reflect the appropriate degree of organization, content, and editing.

The essay responds to the prompt at the opening, although it moves away from the prompt later.
The writer attempts to define life itself rather than discuss the value of life.
The writer offers a thesis about adventures and fun but does little to offer support for that thesis.
The essay’s paragraphs, although short, are overworked in that they contain several ideas competing for space; the essay does not attempt to separate paragraphs into discrete ideas.
The paragraph about eating and hanging out with friends struggles with logic, perhaps because the writer is still trying to connect the evidence to the thesis; by the third paragraph, the writer seems willing to move away from the thesis completely.
The opening of the third paragraph (“‘To be or not to be’ is Hamlet’s famous quote. I bet every single person on earth has come to this decision”) makes neither logical nor rhetorical sense.
The writer attempts to quote texts directly but lacks the skill to incorporate quoted material properly.
The writer shows a limited syntactic repertoire; the first paragraph, for example, contains four rhetorical questions out of six “sentences.”
Errors of grammar, usage, and mechanics accumulate to detract from meaning; there are several missing apostrophes and fragments (see the second sentence of the final paragraph, for example).

Sample student essay with a score of 2:

Value of Life

This is a question that runs through everybody’s mind. What would somebody pay for a life? What would you do if your life ended tomorrow? Would you tell someone that you cared about the most that you loved them? What would you do for your final hours? How do you think the people aboard the 9/11 plane attack felt as soon as they knew that they weren’t going to see their families anymore? These questions are all very goods questions but the most important one is “Have you been living the life that you wanted to live”?

Humans always follow others ways of posture and ways of thinking. People picking up laughs, looks, even the way they think about other people. Think of it this way…if someone put a gun to year head and they said, “Give me three reasons why I should not pull this trigger”? What would you say? It might sound like a harsh, blunt question but if you think about it…. where you living your life to the fullest?

Posers always get on everybody’s nerves. They are going to look back on their lives and think what they did was really stupid. Their values of life are following somebody’s else’s footstep, following others stories, what they like, don’t like because they can’t think for themselves. They rely on other people to make their decisions for them.

The final thought is the toughest thought of all. Things all bundled up inside your head. The only thing to realize is that people don’t make you who you are. You make the decisions that will lead your life, the rest of your life. What would your family get if you died? “Tack on an extra $50,000 in pain and suffering for a spouse and for each child.” That’s what you would get. Now think to yourself, are you living your life to the fullest, what you think is good?

Ripley, Amanda. “What is a life worth?” Time: 11 Feb. 2002.

Commentary

This essay illustrates the EPT Scoring Guide’s criteria for a score of 2. The serious flaws here indicate that this writer will need considerable additional practice before being able to succeed in college-level reading and writing. Because this prompt asks for an edited (that is, revised and polished) essay, student papers should reflect the appropriate degree of organization, content, and editing.

The essay opens with a statement about questions, followed by six rhetorical questions in a row.
The writer seriously overuses the questioning strategy, with three additional questions in the second paragraph and two in the fourth (concluding) paragraph; the essay itself finishes with a question.
The essay neglects the prompt; it discusses “values” rather than the value of life.
The final paragraph attempts to approach the prompt by quoting Ripley (although the writer does not attribute the quoted material), but the quotation is ineffectively dropped into the concluding text.
The essay does not demonstrate any discernible organizational strategy.
Some sentences make no sense at all, such as “People picking up laughs, looks, even the way they think about other people.”
Errors in grammar, usage, and mechanics are present but not all that profound; lack of logic and content is the issue with this essay.

Sample student essay with a score of 1:

The Value of Life

People put a money aspect on people for example, when people have money then we need them, we don’t even care about anyone unless they have money. When disaters like sunamis happen, people want to find there family but dont understand the water infected and no one no’s what’s happening to any one any where.

Katrina for example. They (the army) use colors were dead are, yellow were sick are, green x marking the spot were people who are worth saving were. We help people every where in the world but no our own people, to save them, even the army was there making every one get out of there house if they wanted to or not, they might get shot if not. People have always come here to make a new lives and this is what happens? Its way messed up. Is this how to value people?

Shakespeare new how bad life can be. “To be or not to be” said Hamlet who thought not. We have to find out a way to help and over come what might happen next so every one is not so discouraged because money is not the answer or stocks or bonds or jewelers but only love.

Commentary

This essay illustrates the EPT Scoring Guide’s criteria for a score of 1. The fundamental deficiencies here indicate that this writer will need a great deal of additional practice before being

Nowadays people feel a responsibility to fit into today’s society. People want to look as better as possible due to the outside influences one has. In the online article written by Jane Shure readers are able to realize how the surroundings have a great effect on choices that we make. This article points out three major categories on which tries to explain in more detail the troubles with body images.

Readers are able to see how cultural background plays an important role on people’s body image. Couple of factors that influences notoriously on today’s society is the media and advertising companies. These two change people’s perspectives in having an idea on what we should look like, being that just of myth that is not a reality. Many people tend to follow this ideal look due to the reason that media is exposing visual and audio messages every day, which is unrealistic. Some may even get to the point of having health issues becoming bulimic or anorexic due to the reason that they want to fit into those role models that the media exposes.

Readers are also able to see that peers and family could affect positively or negatively in the way one feels. Most of the time people’s body image is negatively affected due to the fact the parents neglect to provide confidence for child wasn’t sufficient enough for them to feel positive themselves and create that confidence on how they look and how they think people look at them. Peers also play an important role on people’s body imagines. As a one is growing up, peers tend to criticize by the outside appearance because of you physical appearance. For example, kids tend to be shorter, fatter, and skinnier than others are.

Due to the many studies that have been done from a psychological perspective, body image could be explained through the social cultural perspective. Sociocultural perspective refers to behavior one follows due to the surroundings the individual has from how they act and how they look at things from their point view. This varies because we all come from different background and we each have different beliefs that make us act different from one another depending the situation we are in.

One can clearly see how this sociocultural perspective strongly relates to the article written by Jane Shure in that it explains the influences that affects one’s behavior. An example would be that body image is greatly influenced by family and peers (Shure, 2009). This is important because through this readers can realize that growing up as a child family and peers have a great influence in the way we act and behave to others. This is an example of sociocultual perspective because family and peers are an outside influencers that due to the interaction that people have day by day, they influence greatly in the choices and ideas one has (Wade, 2008).

Another example of the article that relates the sociocultural perspective is the way media influences society in what they should look like. An example would be how the fashion industry does a great job in influencing what we should buy in order to fit in (Sadaba, 1997). This is important because through this one can see how the media manipulates one’s actions and preferences as to what we should and should not like. According to the sociocultural perspective this example relates strongly to this perspective in that people don’t chose what they really want, they rather follow the crowd by listening to what society is advising them to acquire (Wade 2008).

Lastly, another example that could help us understand better, how the sociocultural perspective relates to the article would be the challenge individuals could face in changing the idea of what our body should look like. Because our surroundings have great influences in how we see and look at ourselves, it is very difficult in changing the idea that media, family, and peers have influence us in believing what the ideal image should be (Sadaba, 1997). This is essential in that because one has been influenced since childhood; it would be difficult to change the way you see yourself and others. Through this one can see the sociocultural perspective in that the cause of how we fell physically living in our body is due to the fact that the body image that has been established through our surroundings (Wade, 2008).

In conclusion, studying the issue on physical appearance from a sociocultural perspective would help in solving this problem in helping individuals look at themselves more positively. On example in how studying this issue from this perspective would help others would be in that they can realize that they do not have to follow the unrealistic model ideal look that they media portraits that we should look like. This would help in changing the individual’s body image that one should look like in loving themselves and loving other how they are and not judge them by their physical appearance. Another example that studying this issue from this perspective can help in solving this problem would be that one should surround ourselves with family and peers that can positively can help us in increasing our confidence. This would be very important because individuals would surround themselves by people who would love and not judge them by their physical appearance.

References

Sadaba, Stanley W. Applied Social Psychology. (1997). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Shure, Jane, PHD (2009). How Body Image Impacts Self-Esteem. Submitted on Feb. 19, 2009 from http://www.selfgrowth.com

Wade, C. & Tavris, C. (2008). Invitation to Psychology (4^th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

The numbers of people who smoke have increase over the years. Although they are equipped with the knowledge of how unhealthy smoking can be, people still choose to smoke. It is a personal choice and a highly addictive habit. Smokers choose to subject themselves to the health risks of smoking. It is not for the government or any third party to dictate whether or not a person should be allowed to smoke. However, smoking does not only affect the smoker negatively. It also affects all the people around those who smoke because when people smoke in pubic the smoke travels everywhere through the air, and the negative effects of this smoke affects all living, breathing creatures. Therefore smoking should be banned in all public places.

People who smoke in public portray a bad example. Children are easily influenced in their growing stages. They imitate the people around them because they cannot differentiate between right and wrong. Therefore they perceive the actions they see around them as the way things should be. Besides that, teenagers who see people smoke in public take it as precedent to start smoking as well. There is a saying that goes “monkey see monkey do,” which tells us that people imitate the actions of others as they see it in their daily lives. Teenagers happen to think that smoking makes a person “cool.” When they see adults doing it on the streets it strengthens their belief in the “coolness” of smoking. Some teenagers think that smoking marks their transition into adulthood and maturity. Hence, more teenagers start smoking due to the influence of seeing other people smoke in public places.

If smoking is banned in public areas, it will promote a healthier lifestyle for everyone. People will see it as a government endorsement for a healthier lifestyle of everybody. This is because by banning smoking in public areas the government sends the message that the government cares about the health of the citizens and that the government discourages people from smoking. Thus, when smoking is not allowed in public areas it reminds people that health care is very important. It reminds each and every person that the government is seriously concerned for the well being of its citizens. Therefore, people would be reminded to live a healthy lifestyle.

If smoking is banned in public places it safeguards the life of the smoker as well as that of the public. Studies have shown that second hand smoke kills. Second hand smoke causes sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), respiratory infections and asthma attacks in children. Besides that, second hand smoke causes heart diseases and lung cancer in smoking and non-smoking adults. According to the Center for Disease Control (CDC), secondhand smoke contains at least 250 chemicals known to be toxic, including more than 50 that can cause cancer” (CDC, 2009). These studies have proven that second hand smoke can cause cancer and is extremely bad for both the smokers and non-smokers’ health. In addition, the CDC also states that, “The California Environmental Protection Agency estimates that secondhand smoke exposure causes approximately 3,400 lung cancer deaths and 22,700-69,600 heart disease deaths annually among adult nonsmokers in theUnited States” (CDC, 2009). This means that just by being near people who are smoking, innocent people are dying of diseases that are caused by second hand smoke. This violates a non-smokers’ right to live a healthy lifestyle because just by being in public places where other people smoke they are subjected to breathing in toxic fumes. Consequently, the health of innocent non-smokers who are in public places are being jeopardized against their will.

By disallowing people who smoke from smoking in public, it will cause smokers to smoke less. Because smoking is not allowed in public, people are only allowed to smoke in their homes. This would mean that as long as they are out of their homes: at work, when they eat out, at the movies or even at the parks, they cannot smoke.A‚ Smokers will have to wait until they get home to light up a cigarette. As a result, their cigarette consumption reduces and they smoke less. This in turn will benefit the smokers who have been trying to quit smoking but are unable to because they have more reason to stop. The law prohibits them from smoking in public areas, so cigarette consumption is reduced. Also, should they have an urge to smoke in public they will put in extra effort to quash the craving because it is punishable by law. In addition, there is less temptation for smokers who want to quit smoking if the ban is enforced because no one will offer them cigarettes. Therefore, this allows them to abstain from smoking. This theory is proven in a report published in The Daily Mail (2008), stating, “At least 400,000 people inEngland have quit smoking as a result of the ban on lighting up in public places that was introduced last July.” Smokers will benefit from this ban because it will help them reduce the amount as well as the frequency of smoking and it could also help them break their addiction to cigarettes. In the long run it could help them quit, and also help them develop healthier lifestyles.

If smoking is not allowed in public areas it discourages non-smokers from starting to smoke at all. People will not be tempted to start smoking because they know that smoking is addictive, and if smoking is not allowed in public they will suffer from withdrawal from their addiction to the nicotine from cigarettes. The Wiltshire Times (2007) postulates, “New research shows that one in ten smokers claim to have quit and over half of south west smokers have thought about quitting since the nationwide ban was introduced on July 1.” If smokers choose to quit or even think of quitting because of the inconvenience of not being able to smoke in public, would it not, more so, prevent a non-smoker from smoking? Surely one would not intentionally subject themselves to an addiction knowing that they will suffer withdrawal symptoms due to that addiction. By banning smoking in all public areas, the government shows support for the fact that smoking is bad, and it helps to set changes to the mind set in people reminding them that smoking is not a healthy habit. Furthermore, smoking will no longer be an issue when it comes to the influence of peers because nobody is allowed to smoke in public, so peers cannot pressure a person to start smoking.

Some may argue that by preventing smokers from smoking in public, it infringes upon their rights. It is true that smokers have rights and these rights should not be infringed upon. However, a non-smoker’s right to breathe clean air should be taken into consideration as well. When people smoke in public areas the toxic fumes travel through the air and into the lungs of others. Many non-smokers breathe in the second hand smoke and as a result their health is compromised. Should non-smokers be subjected to these unhealthy and vile smelling fumes every time a smoker chooses to light up a cigarette? Certainly not! Smoking is a personal choice and people can choose to smoke but others should not be subjected to the health risks that come from inhaling second hand smoke. People’s rights to breathe fresh and clean air should be protected, and along with that their right to maintain a healthy lifestyle without breathing in second hand smoke should be protected too.

If people are prohibited form smoking in public it would be safer for the environment. When smokers smoke in public they tend to throw their cigarettes on the ground wherever they are. These cigarette buds are detrimental to the environment because they take a long time to decompose. According to McLaren (2005) “Traditional butts are made of synthetic polymer cellulose acetate’ and never degrade, only breaking apart after roughly 12 years.” Because the cigarette butts are not biodegradable they pollute the land. Most of the cigarette butts that are littered all over the place end up the rivers, and in the bellies of fishes and other aquatic creatures. McLaren (2005) also postulates that, “within an hour of contact with water, cigarette butts can begin leaching chemicals such as cadmium, lead and arsenic into the marine environment.’ This pollutes the water supply that will inevitably end up in the stomachs of all living creatures. If the smoking ban is enforced the littering of these buds will no longer be an issue and the environment will be cleaner and healthier for everyone.

If the current situation continues, the health of many people will remain in danger.

The death toll for heart and lung diseases as well as the death toll for cancer will continue to gradually increase if the current smoking situation is not corrected. By putting forth a ban of smoking in public places the government promotes a healthier lifestyle for everybody and it protects every citizen from many diseases and health risks such as cancer and other deadly diseases. Besides that, the ban will eliminate the bad example set fort by people smoking in the public. Children and teenagers will then have a mindset implemented by the government that smoking is bad. The ban will discourage non-smokers from starting to smoke, thus preventing them from getting addicted to cigarettes. Also, it will encourage smokers to quit, and aid them on the difficult journey to be freed from the bounds of addiction. Consequently there will be no cigarette buttes littered all over the place affecting the environment negatively.A‚ By prohibiting people from smoking in public the government is protecting the God given rights of its people to live a full and healthy life. It encourages people to take steps to better their quality of life and to take care of themselves as well as the people around them. Therefore, smoking should be banned in all public places.

References

McLaren, W. (2005). Cigarette Butts: One Huge Problem, Two Solutions. Treehugger.

Retrieved December 7, 2009 from

http://www.treehugger.com/files/2005/10/cigarette_butts.php

One in Ten Quit Smoking Since Ban (2007). Wiltshire Times. Retrieved December 5,

2009 from http://www.wiltshiretimes.co.uk/news/1706214.one_in_ten_quit_smoking_since_ban/

Secondhand Smoke (2009). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved

December 5, 2009 from http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/secondhand_smoke/general_facts/index.htm

Smoking ban spurs 400,000 people to quit the habit (2008). Mail Online. Retrieved

December 5, 2009 from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-1030575/Smoking-ban-spurs-400-000-people-quit-habit.html

The development of slavery in the Chesapeake was due solely to the economic needs of white settlers. Do you agree?

History can never adequately provide answers regarding the motives of men and women throughout recorded history; what it can do, however, is to provide a prism through which to gauge the consequences of their actions. With regards to slavery, the consequences of the Southern United States’ intrinsic involvement in the practice of slavery were truly seismic, resulting in the American Civil War and the cementation of the world’s most powerful economic and military force. The role of the Chesapeake in this tumultuous domestic conflict should not be underestimated – such was the deep seated nature of the region’s association with slavery. Certainly, economic necessity appears to be at the forefront of this historical fact with the rich tobacco and other grain industries flourishing in the South as a direct result of the burgeoning slave trade. Indeed, as Fogel (2003) underscores, even the slaves themselves could be traded amongst white settlers for economic profit.

For the purpose of perspective, the following analysis into the development of slavery in the Chesapeake region must adopt a critical stance attempting to show that economic reasons were indeed the dominant paradigm in the region’s development of a sophisticated slave trade while also underscoring the complex and diverse nature of the early American slave trade. First, however, a conceptualisation of the issue must be attempted. It is important to note that Chesapeake differed markedly from the slave trades operating in the Georgia Low Country after the first arrival of enslaved African workers in the early seventeenth century (transported by Dutch merchants to replace a dwindling European labour force in the North American colonies). Unlike in other English colonies, the Chesapeake was a locale that was only colonised for economic reasons with a sparse colonial population in the days immediately prior to the introduction of slavery. Likewise, the differences within the Chesapeake itself highlight the way in which the values of trade, profit, production and the economy were central to the genesis of slavery in the region, as Philip Morgan (1998:9) details.

“By the late seventeenth century, Virginia had a plantation economy in search of a labour force, whereas South Carolina had a labour force in search of plantation economy.”

From the very beginning, therefore, a symbiosis began to form between the determining economic factors of the white settler communities and the introduction of large numbers of slaves into the colonies, with the number of African workers increasing from 13000 to 250000 in the Chesapeake Bay area between 1700 and 1770. The fact that this unprecedented level of African recruitment was accompanied by a drive to attract more female slaves to the colonies so as to increase the plantation population is testimony to the economic imperative at the heart of slave development in the Chesapeake. If slavery were a temporary measure to increase population levels in the area then the imposition of female slaves would not have occurred; only because of the permanence of the economic necessity for slaves did this phenomenon occur.

Furthermore, the sheer expanse of the New World landscape required the development of slaves to even begin to cultivate the land for economic production. After the introduction of rice crops in the 1680’s, Boyer (2003:85) estimates that a farmer planting 130 acres of the crop would require at least 65 slaves to do so. With the rapid reduction of the white indentured slaves after the turn of the eighteenth century, the absolute economic need for African slaves in the Chesapeake further increased so that the white plantation owners were utterly dependent on slave manpower in order to function as viable enterprises, competing with highly productive colonies such as the West Indies. Without the slave trade, the Chesapeake region of America – particularly the states of Virginia and North Carolina – could never have emerged as a major player in the expanding trans?Atlantic trade system.

It was not just for economic reasons that slaves were seen as integral to the rise of the Chesapeake. Health imperatives likewise played a part in the development of slavery during the early years of the colonial era. The African workers were immunised against the malaria that came with the imported rice and grain crops – a disease that rendered white workers obsolete during the formative years of the Chesapeake’s economic development. Moreover, the hot and humid climate of the Chesapeake was wholly alien to the white settlers from the colder European climate while the African workers imported to work on the plantations were much better equipped to cope with the working conditions in the New World, though Oscar and Mary Hadlin (1950:199-222) refute this claiming that it is unjust to blame nature for barbaric human institutions.

It is also important to recognise, as Edmund Morgan (2003:314-344) points out, that the slaves were important for sociological and cultural reasons, helping to underpin the rigid class structure that flourished in the southern American states. By taking away the need for a white working class, the slaves of the Chesapeake performed the task of cultural underdogs, which was an integral part of the economic rise of the region as a world exporter.

Despite the diverse range of cultural and sociological factors prevalent in the development of slavery in the Chesapeake there is no escaping the pre?eminence of economic imperatives. Indeed, the manufacturing of the term ‘slave trade’ implies the significance of economic issues in all parts of America that indulged in slavery with the transaction of human beings working in tandem with the production of profits garnered from the rich plantations. As Winthrop Jordan (1976:110-115) details, the underlying prejudice of the white settlers – incorporating a profound sense of racial and ethnic superiority – facilitated the evolution of slavery as a comprehensive way of life in the Chesapeake. The fact that the Chesapeake was willing to go to war with the Yankees for the perpetuation of the profits generated by the slave trade proves beyond doubt that economic reasons were the catalyst behind the development of slavery in the region.

References

Boyer, P.S. et al (2003) Enduring Vision: a History of the American People: Fifth Edition New York: Houghton Mifflin

Breen, T.H. (Ed.) (1976) Shaping Southern Society: the Colonial Experience Oxford: Oxford University Press

Fogel, R.W. (2003) The Slavery Debates, 1952-1990: a Retrospective Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press

Morgan, E.S. (2003) American Slavery, American Freedom London: W.W. Norton & Co.

Morgan, P.D. (1998) Slave Counterpoint: Black Culture in the Eighteenth Century Chesapeake and Low Country Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press

Selected Articles

Jordan, W. (1976) Unthinking Decision: Enslavement of Negroes in America to 1700, quoted in, Breen, T.H. (Ed.) Shaping Southern Society: the Colonial Experience Oxford: Oxford University Press

Journals

Hadlin, M.F. and Hadlin, O. (April 1950) Origins of the Southern Labour System, quoted in, William and Mary Quarterly, Volume 7, Number 2

Definition

The issue of lone parenting is quite clearly one that is of significant importance and impact in the modern social context. It is also one that has different viewpoints, which are important to recognise in the context of this report. While the actual term of ‘lone parenting’ is a given, it is important to understand the various views which are taken in order to address this problem. For example, ‘New Labour’s’ social policy towards lone parents is generally governed by the attitudes epitomised in the mantras “reforming welfare around the work ethic” and funding a system that “believes in empowerment not dependency” (Millar and Rowlingson, 2001, p xv). This quite obviously conflicts with the view which was held by previous governments, which is said to maintain the view that poverty is “relieved by cash handouts” (DSS, 1998, p 19). It is also said that the differences between these two viewpoints epitomises the differing views of ‘old Labour’ and ‘new Labour’ (Millar and Rowlingson, 2001, p xv), and also highlights the shift between the welfare state policy to a more capitalist approach to addressing the lone parenting issue.

Main Issues

Given the discussion of the United Kingdom’s approach to lone parenting, it might be relevant to compare these provisions with those of other jurisdictions. Take, for example, New Zealand which categorises ‘solo parents’ as:

(a) A woman who is the mother of one or more dependent children and who is living apart from, and has lost the support of, or is being inadequately maintained by, her husband:

(b) An unmarried woman who is the mother of one or more dependent children:

(c) A woman whose marriage has been dissolved by divorce and who is the mother of one or more dependent children:…

(e) A woman who is the mother of one or more dependent children and who has lost the regular support of her husband because he is subject to a sentence of imprisonment and is-

(i) serving the sentence in a penal institution; or

(ii) subject to release conditions or detention conditions (as those terms are defined in section 4(1) of the Parole Act 2002) that prevent him undertaking employment:

(f) A man who is the father of one or more dependent children whose mother is dead or who for any other reason are not being cared for by their mother (Social Security Act 1964 (NZ), s 27B(1)).

Arguably, in consideration of the above, it is clear that the New Zealand social security system is geared more towards caring for a woman who may be a lone parent, as opposed to a father. It might also be noted, however, that social security benefits are only paid to lone parents in New Zealand if the parent is of the minimum age of sixteen (16) years, unless emergency circumstances exist (Social Security Act 1964 (NZ), s 27B(2)).

Compare this situation to that across the Tasman Sea in Australia, where the Australian Bureau of Statistics has recorded a three-fold increase in lone parenting families in the last thirty (30) years, from 7.1% in 1969 to 21.4% in 1999 (ABS census). However given this increase, it might also be worthwhile to note that lone parenting in Australia remains at lower levels than other English-speaking countries, but still higher than some countries in continental Europe (Millar and Rowlingson, 2001, p 61). Further to this, it has generally been the attitude of Australian governments to extend social security benefits to all classes of lone parenting families, irrespective of the cause of the lone parenting situation (Millar and Rowlingson, 2001, p 65). Around 47% of lone mothers were employed in 1999 and around 63% of lone fathers, and approximately 9% of both lone mothers and lone fathers were unemployed (ABS, June 1999). This perhaps symbolises a non-dependency on the welfare system, and that lone parents in Australia generally try to work at least part-time to supplement their welfare incomes and provide for their family.

Key Dilemmas

The key dilemma that has been the recurring theme throughout this paper is the need to balance income support and welfare with the need for non-dependence on the welfare system. There is a conscientious push by governments in the above countries to not encourage reliance upon welfare handouts and to push these people to seek active employment, but also recognises the various situations of lone parents who may be unable to work full time for any number of reasons. The United Kingdom obviously recognises this problem in a social context, and took steps to address it though social policy reform. Some say that this was a more ‘heavy handed’ approach to the social problem, and this argument may have some merit given the approaches of other countries. New Zealand prescribes certain circumstances where welfare can be paid, and Australia has a more liberal approach to the welfare system, however all of these approaches seem to function appropriately in their individual contexts.

Conclusion

In consideration of the above points, it is quite clear that lone parents are a significant social problem. However, the more prominent problem is that of how to address the issue. It is quite clear that the United Kingdom has a more recent history of reforming social policy on this issue and limiting the distribution of welfare benefits. Is this the most appropriate course of action? Some would suggest no, given the experience of other countries. However, regard needs to be had for the statistics: approximately one in four of Britain’s seven million families are headed by a lone parent, and less than four in ten lone parents in Britain work full time (which is a piecemeal 16 hours a week statistically) (Millar and Rowlingson, 2001, p 11). This only serves to fuel the debate further, and one needs to consider the legislative and policy-based approach of the United Kingdom in context before judgement on this issue can be passed.

Bibliography
Books
Millar, J., and Rowlingson, K. (eds), Lone Parents, Employment and Social Policy (2001), Bristol: The Policy Press
Journal Articles
Hughes, J., ‘Lone Parents and Social Security’ (2005) 36 Victoria University Wellington Law Review 1
Soley, C., ‘Lessons of the Lone Parenting Battle’ (1997) 126 New Statesman.
Legislation
Social Security Act 1965 (NZ)
Social Security Act 1991 (AU, Cth)
Other Sources
Australian Bureau of Statistics, June 1999
Australian Bureau of Statistics, census 1969 and 1999
DPI, census 1999

Introduction

The debate on the legality of homosexual marriages has been considered both as an unwarranted feat and as belated act of liberty worth celebrating yet this status ruins the institution of marriage. This paper is written in a thesis-antithesis-synthesis pattern, addressing the issues raised by opponents of homosexual unions as well as the reasoning of its advocates. Finally, it is gives the writer’s opinion – a synthesis of the two opposing arguments – guided by reasoned insights.

Part I: The Legal Marriage of Homosexuals is not warranted

Many criticisms have been piled on the prospects of homosexuals’ lawful sanctification of their union. Somehow the basis of these anti-homosexual’s legal marriage is not far-fetched. Here are some reasons that have been used to buttress the attitude.

The legalization of same-sex unions grossly undermines the institution of marriage. A marriage that comprises of persons of the same gender is in itself a self-contradiction. When these unions are legally allowed to thrive, the institution will suffer irreparable damage. The reason being, marriage is perceived as sacred especially from the religious quarters, an institution sanctified by God between a man and a woman for mutual companionship. Children are the fruits of such holy matrimonies (Maccio, 2010). Homosexuals contradict it, allowing their passions to override the holy decree. Furthermore, same-sex unions are always considered ‘open relationships’ meaning that partners involved do not necessarily have to be committed to each other sexually, psychologically, emotionally and socially. This translates into a blow to the monogamous unions and by extension holy matrimony.

Same-sex unions are conventionally considered unnatural and it does not take an apt mind a second to think otherwise. So, how can an unnatural union be naturally unionable? Heterosexual relationships are the norm, both in society and in nature. Why has man, as rational as he is, been passionately driven by sexual pleasure to the heights of finding it from the same gender? Brutes in their irrationality do not indulge in this! The greatest favor that should be done them is tolerance, nothing more. They should not be validated by the state nor recognized as a form of marriage because of their abnormality and unnaturality.

The legal status of this union encourages many of the same and therefore the human species is destined to extinction. It is a self evident fact that the sexual intercourse between homosexuals of whatever ilk does not procreate life. Lesbians and gays, alike have sex primarily for pleasure and therefore no human conception can arise. If say three-quarters of the human population goes homosexual, there will not be any human being left walking on the surface of this planet with at least a couple of centuries (Hollowell, 2010).

Homosexuals themselves, together with their sympathizers argue that they can become good parents. To whom can they parent? Adopted children, they say. Granted, they can be even excellent parents as they claim, but the psychological development of the child or children that they are parenting is at stake. Naturally, human beings have the orientation towards the two sexes and that is precisely the reason that a female parent is referred by the child as mother, and the male parent father. So in a legal family that comprises of two fathers – gays; or two mothers – lesbians; how does the child under their custody expected to grow normally? Are they not putting the welfare of the child at the expense of their pleasurable adventures? Is the legal body that authorizes this abnormal family doing any justice to the child? Besides, this is a horribly repugnant precedence that the ‘homocouples’ are setting to the children under their parentage. Most likely, when such children come of age, they will copy the lifestyle of their parents and there by continue perpetuating the ignoble idiosyncrasy to subsequent generations (Kuyper, 1993).

Marriage is a symbol that represents cultural ideals about sex, sexuality, and human relationships. These ideals define an individual’s self identity and therefore, when the traditional nature of marriage is interfered with by sneaking in homosexual tendencies, people’s basic identities are challenged (Dankmeijer, 1993).

Part II: Legalization of Same-sex Unions is long overdue

Quite a number of homosexuals and their supporters have been waiting with abated breath for the landmark ruling that accord same-sex unions a legal marriage status. It has been hailed as a gesture that reinstates sexual liberty to individuals who hitherto had suffered silently when this right was trampled upon.

The anti-homosexuals argue that legal marriage is strictly between a man and a woman. Defining marriage on the basis of sex does beg the question of how sexes are defined. Though the traditional categories of male and female appear separate, there are indeterminate cases in reality which do not match these categories. Therefore the assumption made here is that the clarity of biological concepts corresponds to social concepts. Take for example, Daniel was born female but changed his sex and became male; and now he wants to marry his partner Chloe. By accepting the above reason, Daniel can only marry a male even though by outward appearance he is male. Put differently, if a woman changes her sex and acquires physical traits of a man, would not it be legal for this person to marry a woman? (Maccio, 2010)

The consideration of marriages as a religious rite is missing the mark since exclusive religious tenets are used to define it. Consequently, legalizing homosexual marriages is a mortal sin that beckons the wrath of God to a state. It is an indubitable fact that the nature of marriage has varied in every era and from every society. Therefore, it has been difficult to find a conventional definition of marriage. Marriage has never been a creation of religion, if anything the state has always treated it as a private contract with public implications. Thus the basis of marriage was on the wishes of free, consenting adults (Cott, 2002).

The claim that homosexual marriage is not a home for protection and procreation of children; hence a threat to human extinction is refutable. This claim is anchored in the assumption that sex as the natural end of marriage is for procreation. It can be argued that, following this premise, a couple whose sexual intercourse cannot bring forth a child should not be allowed to marry, all the more homosexuals. The implications of this reason would mean that heterosexual marriages with infertile couple due to various reasons are outlawed as well. Similarly, couples who voluntarily resolved to be childless should not be allowed to marry legally. The impulsion for marriage is love not children (Senreich, 2010).

Opponents of homosexual marriages argue that such relationships are unnatural and abnormal and therefore should only be tolerated not legalized. Here, heterosexual relationship is taken as natural because that is what is found in nature. Since nature does not provide for homosexual relationship it is unnatural and ought to be abhorred by the society (Senreich, 2010). Well, are not human a part of nature? If yes, then homosexual relationships are also a part of this nature. Brutes which are part of this nature do not engage in legal marital contracts, does it as consequence mean that the legal marriage as an institution is unnatural and should be outlawed?

The argument that legalizing homosexual marriage undermines the institution of marriage does not hold water. It baffles the minds of proponents how a legal marriage between homosexuals damage the heterosexual marriage. Consideration should be made here that the opponents use religion to smoothen their disapproval. Marriage is governed by the civil/secular law. Period (Geest, 1993).

Part III: Homosexual Marriages do not merit Legal Status

Having painstakingly considered the arguments from both sides of the debate on the legalization of same-sex marriages, the writer hereof opposes according legal status to such unions.

To begin with, marriage as an institution derives its sanctity from interplay between instinct and reason. Considering that the sexual instinct is primarily for procreation, man ought to use his rationality to direct this force appropriately. The pleasurable part of the act is secondary and therefore should not be allowed to define a person. The reason is, if man becomes myopic with the secondary end of sexual instinct; and remains consistently so, then human species’ destiny is at stake. It may sound religious but thoughtful reflection reveals so. Marriage is therefore an institution where under natural circumstances male and female partners are freely allowed to procreate (Geest, 1993). However, if the primary end cannot be realized due to illnesses or old age, the intent warrants its sanctity.

The proponents of homosexual marriages are largely silent on the parentage of children of homosexuals, adopted or otherwise. They secretly recognize the psychological as well as sociological damage that they wrought to the development of these children (Paul, 1993). It’s not disputable that they can have the custody of children either through adoption, surrogate motherhood, artificial insemination, or previous heterosexual relationships. What is paramount here is the welfare of these little children in regard to their development into adults of sound minds. In this consideration homosexual parentage of children is looked at vis-a-vis heterosexual. If for instance, Kathleen is being raised by two mothers, she is being deprived of the experience of being with a father. Recent research as well as the common experience suggests that a father and a mother together provide by far the best surrounding in which a child may be raised. The reason being men and women contribute different gender-connected strengths and attributes to their children’s development. Erik Erikson differentiates the kinds of love to children: “fathers love more dangerously because their love is more expectant and instrumental than that of mothers” (Wardle n.d. p. 846). Children from homosexual families will are likely to exhibit the homosexual tendencies of the parents and become one of such in adulthood (Kuyper, 1993).

The homosexual marriage remains unnatural not because it cannot be found existing among natural brutes which constitute nature, but because the act itself is solely for pleasure. If anything there are creatures which show tendencies akin to homosexuals. Man is endowed with incredible intellect and he should use it to discern what underlies some of his cravings before allowing himself to be held hostage by them.

Conclusion

To surmise, the debate on the legality of homosexual marriages has been considered both as an unwarranted feat and as belated act of liberty worth celebrating yet this status ruins the institution of marriage. As it can be seen from the text, the arguments of pro-homosexual marriages are aimed at winning rather than analyzing the facts that belie the orientation.

References

Cott, N. (2002). Public Vow: A History of Marriage and the Nation. New York, NY: Harvard University Press

Dankmeijer, P. (1993). Journal of Homosexuality: The Construction of Identities as a Means of Survival. 24(3), pp. 95-105.

Geest, H. (1993). Journal of Homosexuality: Homosexuality and Marriage. 24(3), pp.115-123.

Hollowell, K. (2010). World Net Daily: Homosexuality: Evolution of the human race. Retrieved on March 24^th, 2010, from:

Kuyper, E. (1993). Journal of Homosexuality: The Freudian Construction of Sexuality. 24(4), pp 137-144.

Maccio, E. (2010). Journal of Homosexual: Influence of Family, Religion, and Social Conformity on Client Participation in Sexual Reorientation Therapy. 57(3), pp. 441-458.

Paul, J. (1993). Journal of Homosexuality: Childhood Cross-Gender Behavior and Adulthood Homosexuality. 24(3), pp. 41-54.

Senreich, E. (2010). Journal of Homosexuality: The Effects of Honesty and Openness About Sexual Orientation on Gay and Bisexual Clients in Substance Abuse Programs.57(3), pp 364-383.

Wardle, L. (n.d.) Website of Family Action: The Potential Impact of Homosexual Parenting on Children. Retrieved on March 24^th, 2010, from:

Community Service: Serving Each Other in Today’s Society

There are many young adults out there who lack self-esteem, confidence, a sense of

accomplishment or purpose, or simply a reason to get away from TV, computers, and video

games. They often don’t understand the value of community and the importance of team work.

Most teens also don’t realize how much lending a helping hand to others can also benefit them.

What could be done to teach teens the importance of helping others and build a sense of self-

confidence and worth? Community service is quick to remind anyone the importance of offering

help, working as a team and simply getting outside and active. These teens shouldn’t be assigned

to just anything. All of the participants in community service should have a voice in the activities

in which they are participating. Otherwise, it could make the whole experience a miserable one

and do just the opposite of what it is intended to do. There is a lot of stigma around mandatory

community service, but with flexible community service programs, positive promotion, and

choices, teens will be put on the right track.

A lot of stigma surrounds mandatory community service. Most people see it only as a

means of corrective punishment. There are many people who think community service should be

left to prisoners, and not to the youth of today. This poor attitude needs to be reversed by

education. Many teens believe what they hear from their parents, teachers, and mentors. With

this poor attitude on the matter, it’s no wonder teens may despise the idea of serving in the

community. Proper education and promotion is the key to a successful program. For example,

teens should see the results of community service. They should be able to see workers having a

good time and enjoying what they do. Young adults should also see that they would benefit from

serving in the community. This could all be done by providing introductory programs, attractive

pamphlets, peer communication, and so on. Once teens are educated about community services

and its benefits, the stigma will fade and they will be more willing to participate.

It’s important to remember the power of choice. There are numerous activities the teens

could participate in. Blood drives, children activity clubs, clean-ups, and mentoring are just a few

of the many things to choose from in community service. One who has a choice in what he or she

does as an extra activity will be happier while participating. Delgado states, “[…] a summary of

the literature on youth activities, found that youth benefit the most when they have an

opportunity to actively plan community-service projects that contribute to the welfare of

others[…]”.(127) When community service workers plan activities, a sense of ownership is built.

Since the ideas were their own, the activity belongs to the workers and they will likely work

much harder than they would if they were forced into the activity. Choosing an activity is just as

powerful as planning one. The ability to choose an activity will also encourage teens to

participate in multiple activities, which will broaden their horizons and abilities.

A lot of young people lack a good sense of self-esteem. It can be caused by criticism, the

media, the lack of activity, and so on. Many times all a teen needs to boost his or her self esteem

is a sense of purpose and direction. Studies have shown that productive individuals generally

have a higher self-esteem. (Joseph 1) Using community service as a way for teens to stay active

is a great way for them to see the fruits of their efforts. When young adults see how much the

work they are putting forth really matters, it will boast their confidence. For example, if a small

town had grass growing in the sidewalk, trash lying about, and dirt everywhere, a group of teens

could plan a cleaning project. Such a project would beautify the town and would likely give the

group a sense of pride. The town would benefit by the work and maybe even be educated by the

teens actions. If there were a huge turn-around in appearance, then perhaps the rest of the

townspeople would help maintain the new condition of the small town. This would boost morale

even higher for the group and make all the work seem very worthwhile.

Another good point to mention is the fact teens would be busy. A lot of teens spend a ton

of time in from of their computers, televisions, or video games systems. A study conducted in

2003 concluded that an alarming 34% of teens were clinically obese. (Nichols and Good 169)

The sedentary lifestyle most Americans have adopted is devastating to overall well-being. When

teens are over-weight, they suffer in numerous ways. They are persecuted by their peers, which

results in a low self-esteem, depression, and anxiety. They lack the energy or drive to pursue an

activity because they lack physical fitness. Any kind of activity is good for someone’s health. If

teens get actively involved in community service, they will be on the go. If teens get moving and

realize how out of shape they are, then it may motivate them to do something about it. This will

promote exercise and proper diet, thus resulting in a healthier lifestyle.

Schools have been trying to incorporate teamwork into the classrooms, but it often

doesn’t work out as well as hoped. There have been numerous studies conducted on the matter

and only a small portion of teamwork exercises have worked in schools. (Thomas 1) When a

teamwork activity is academically based, it is difficult to pursue and most times it is difficult to

see any results. Actual physical labor shows more of an effect of one’s efforts. Therefore, some

type of community service where one is physically involved in an activity with a group of people

would teach teens how positive teamwork is. Then, they would later incorporate the idea into

other activities, thus making them well rounded and willing to work with others.

There are many young adults who leave high school and have no idea what the real world

is all about. Most teenagers only know a life where everything is structured, and there is no

question about what step to take next. Teens receive a schedule with their classes, books, a time

for lunch period, and often their extra activities are planned for them. Community service would

be a great place for teens to learn the importance of self-reliance. When a teen is provided a

choice in what he or she may do as an activity, this would be the first step in that lesson. The

second would be finding a way to transport themselves to the place of work. Then, they would

have to make sure they are on time. Decision making, responsibility and initiative all fit into the

lesson of self-reliance and define some of the basic things they would go through in adulthood.

As it has already been said, with self-reliance comes a sense of responsibility. Anyone

participating in community service is still held to a standard. These standards typically aren’t as

high standards in a paid environment; however, there is still something to be gained. The

Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development states, “[…] by age 15, millions of young people

risk reaching adulthood unable to assume the responsibilities of informed, active citizenship in a

pluralistic society. (Radest 30) This same report also says, “Early adolescence offers a superb

opportunity to learn values, skills, and a sense of social responsibility”. (30) With teens being

held to a standard, they must assume responsibility for their successes and failures. This is

something everyone goes through as an adult. It is better to learn these lessons earlier in life so

teens can make their mistakes, learn from them, and grow from the entire experience.

Resilience is a lesson which shouldn’t be taken lightly and should be learned early in life.

Adults often rush to the rescue when problems arise, not allowing young people to think it

through and find a solution on their own. A problem arises and some teens may panic, have no

idea what to do, or stand around waiting for someone else to take care of it. While going through

community service, teens will likely meet with a few setbacks and will need to take action. Since

these setbacks would likely only be minor, it would be a great place to start learning resilience.

Resilient children are proactive rather than reactive and have a good sense of “coherence”. That

is to say they understand things happen in life but we still have some control over it all. (Joseph

29) Adults have to practice resilience a lot through life, so learning this early will help teens

become well rounded adults.

Since community service is a team effort, teens will be able to build professional social

skills. Social skills are built throughout childhood, but in a more professional setting where the

use of language is different, these skills will be refined. These teens would be working with

adults who know how to properly communicate in order to achieve a goal. If young adults

observe the behaviors of the adults around them, take note of what happened, and try their best to

act the same, they would begin building the stepping stones to success. They would learn a range

of thing from avoiding confrontation and generating solutions, to active and proper listening

skills.(Joseph 255) All of these are needed in a professional atmosphere and will help them

throughout college and the working environment.

The benefits teens would receive from community service experience have been

thoroughly discussed thus far, but not how the community would benefit. It all, of course,

depends on the activities the teens participate in. If there were a community clean-up, then a

town would be beautified. If the teens helped deliver groceries to those who can’t get around,

then people wouldn’t have to go hungry or worry about how to get their food. When teens

mentor younger kids, the children would have the benefit of someone relatively close to their age

teaching them. The people living in these communities and seeing the difference teens are

making with all of their work may adopt a more volunteer attitude. The ways a community

benefits from those who serve are endless, and shouldn’t be forgotten.

There a so many things a young adult can take from community service that will benefit

him or her immediately, as well as in the future. Teens can build a healthy self-esteem by gaining

a sense of purpose and seeing how much of a difference they can make in the world. They could

come to understand the importance of living a healthier life. Young adults would gain the ability

to think through problems, work with others as a team, and make important decisions.

Professional conduct and language will be learned, which will help them in their work

endeavors. They will also learn resilience and self-reliance, which will help them bounce back

quickly from setbacks and take a more proactive approach to life. There is a quote from Andrew

Shue that says, “Community service has taught me all kinds of skills and increased my

confidence. You go out there and think on your feet, work with others and create something from

nothing. That’s what life’s all about.” (Shue brainyquotes.com) This is a great way to sum up

what teens would gain and what community service is about. It’s about helping others, but also

helping yourself in the process. Once teens get out there and start working in our communities,

they will see what a difference they can make. They would remember these lessons through their

lives and likely continue to act in a positive way because of what they learned. This entire

process could help change the way people behave now and in the future in a very positive way.

When everyone gives just a little, it can go a long way and there has to be a beginning

somewhere. Why not make that beginning start with today youth and expand into the generations

to come?

Works Cited

Melvin Delgado, New Frontiers for Youth Development in the Twenty-First Century: Revitalizing & Broadening Youth Development (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002) 127

Joanne M. Joseph, The Resilient Child: Preparing Today’s Youth for Tomorrow’s World (New York: Insight Books, 1994) 1,29,255

Sharon L. Nichols, and Thomas L. Good, America’s Teenagers–Myths and Realities: Media Images, Schooling, and the Social Costs of Careless Indifference (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004) 169

Howard B. Radest, Community Service: Encounter with Strangers (Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1993) ,30

Andrew Shue, n.p., Community Service, brainyquotes.com, n.d., August 20, 2009, http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/quotes/a/andrewshue214132.html

Gary Thomas, Effective Classroom Teamwork: Support or Intrusion? (New York: Routledge, 1992) 1

“Friends. How many of us have them? Friends. Ones that we can depend on.” This question about friendships was asked in the 1984 song “Friends” by Whodini. Humans have the need for social interaction and one of the ways that human beings fill this need is by forming friendships. From an early age, we form bonds with our peers. Initially these bonds start as surface friendships in childhood and as people grow older, the friendships they have take on a more profound meaning. Many different kinds of friendships can be found depicted in the media. From television shows like “Friends”, “Girlfriends”, and “Seinfeld” to movies that depict the ups and downs of friendships.

People typically have more same-sex than cross-sex friendships (Booth & Hess 1974; Ross, 1985). In this paper, I will discuss the differences and similarities of female-female and male-male friendships and use examples from two movies to show how the values and characteristics of these friendships differ and are alike. I will also be discussing cross-sex friendships (CSFs). There hasn’t been as much research or theory on cross-sex friendships because for a long time, theorists and researchers viewed cross-sex friendships as potential romantic relationships (Bleske-Recheck & Buss, 2001). This view has changed and there is now emerging research and study of difficulties and advantage of having and maintaining cross-sex friendships. I will also be discussing a movie that demonstrates the positive and negative features of cross-sex friendships.

Male-Male Friendships

Although there has been a rising popularity of depicting “bromances” (a term used to describe close male friendships) in the media, Traustadottir found that “research has found that males have significantly fewer friends than women, especially close friendships or best friends.” (2008 p.1) There are three main barriers that have been attributed to the lack of close friendships in men; competition between men, traditional masculine stereotypes about “real men”, and fear of homosexuality (Fasteau, 1991; McGill, 1985; Miller, 1983).

The movie The Wood, is about three male friends from Inglewood, California who have grown apart and reunite back in their hometown during one of their weddings. The movie shows present-day and also flashback scenes to their childhood to show how their friendship developed. One of the flash-back scenes gives an example of the three barriers attributed to lack of closeness. The three main characters; Mike, Roland, and Slim in a pizza parlor discussing how their luck with the women is going during their junior year of high school. All three are talking about their frustration at still being virgins as sophomores (traditional masculine stereotypes), they begin to argue about who will lose their virginity first (fear of homosexuality) and decide to make it a competition by making a “pot”. Every week, they add a dollar to the pot and whoever loses their virginity first will receive the money (competition).

Male friendships tend to emphasize activities and companionship and expressions of closeness felt between friends comes in the form of friendly teasing. Although male friendships are formed and maintained in ways that differ from female friendships, there are still some similarities that can be seen. Male friendships provide a release of stress and reduce depression in the same manner that women friendships do.

Female-Female Friendships

The differences in female friendships and male friendships is not in what is strived for in their close relationships i.e. intimacy, empathy, and trust; but in the means in which their friendship goals are accomplished. Women are naturally more apt to show emotions and this translates into the friendships they form as well.

Traustadottir (2009) examination of female friendships found:

Women typically describe their friendships in terms of closeness and emotional

attachment. What characterizes friendships between women is the willingness to

share important feelings, thoughts, experiences, and support. Women devote a good

deal of time and intensity of involvement to friends. (p.1)

Women are more open with affection and more likely to sincerely complimenting each other. While men use communication to accomplish things, communication is seen as a way to build and maintain intimacy and closeness in female friendships. This is why women are more likely to discuss personal thoughts, feelings, and problems with their friends (Greif 2009). In a survey done by Greif (2009) 71% of women stated that being understood (communication, sharing, caring, not being judged, and receiving feedback) to describe what friendship means. Only 51% of men surveyed answered the same. Demonstrating friendships with concrete acts (example. helping move, giving loan) was a choice that men responded to in the survey was not shown on the women’s responses.

In the movie, Waiting To Exhale, it depicts four female friends providing support and advice to each other through their dealing with men, families, and careers. This movie shows how female relationships are built on communication and emotional intimacy.

Cross-Sex Friendships

Because male and female same-sex friendships have different characteristic, it has been speculated that men and women cannot become and maintain strictly platonic friendships. Although much more difficult, successful cross-sex relationships are possible. There are at least four unique challenges facing individuals in cross-sex relationships: defining the relationship, managing sexual attraction, establishing equality, and managing interference of others (O’Meara, 1989).

The movie Brown Sugar is the story of two friends Dre and Sidney that met as children and have maintained their cross-sex friendship throughout their adulthood. In the movie, Dre starts dating a woman and they become engaged. This sparks questions and thoughts about Sidney and Dre’s own friendship and if there was any romantic feelings between them. One scene in the movie after Dre has become engaged, shows Sidney prepping and beautifying herself when Dre calls to say he’s coming to visit. As she looks at herself in the mirror and fixes her hair and make-up, she pauses and asks herself “What am I doing? It’s just him.” This scene shows how managing sexual attraction and clearly defining the relationship are concerns that come up even in long-term cross-sex friendships.

Although difficult, there are benefits from cross-sex friendships that cannot be seen in same-sex friendships. Those benefits include, an increase of the understanding about beliefs and values of the other sex (Canary, Emmers-Sommers, & Faulkner, 1997), verifying out attractiveness to the other sex (Rubin, 1985), protection, short-term sexual opportunities, self-expression, and intimacy (Bleske-Rechek and Buss 2000).

Conclusion

Developing and maintaining friendships is key in developing interpersonal skills. Although some friendships may be more easy to maintain than others, there are benefits to all types friendships and they are attainable if the parties involved value the relationship enough to put in the hard work and effort.

References

Alison P. LentonLaura Webber. (2006). Cross-sex Friendships: Who has More? Sex Roles, 54(11-12), 809-820. Retrieved April 12, 2010, from Psychology Module. (Document ID: 1175830101).

Diane H Felmlee. (1999). Social norms in same- and cross-gender friendships. Social Psychology Quarterly, 62(1), 53-67. Retrieved April 12, 2010, from Research Library Core. (Document ID: 40396565).

Greif, G. L. (2009). Buddy system: understanding male friendships. New york: Oxford Universtiy Press.

Matthijs Kalmijn. (2002). Sex Segregation of Friendship Networks. Individual and Structural Determinants of Having Cross-Sex Friends. European Sociological Review, 18(1), 101. Retrieved April 12, 2010, from Social Science Module. (Document ID: 323673221).

Traustadottir, R. (2008, April). Gender patterns in friendships. Retrieved from http://thechp.syr.edu/genpat.htm

Critically consider the relationship between culture and economy. To what extent is it true to suggest that decline of community and the growth of competitive individualism are produced by the shifting needs of the capitalist economy?
INDIVIDUALISM
independent self reliance
a doctrine that bases morality on the interests of the individual
a social theory maintaining the political and economic independence of the individual and stressing individual initiative (Penguin English Dictionary, 2001)
an economic system characterized by the profit motive and by private ownership and control of the means of production, distribution and exchange (Penguin English Dictionary, 2001)

The 15^th century saw the rise of humanism and the re-evaluation of the human condition in relation to his or her world. This was viewed as a journey from the dark ages of fear and oppression to the enlightened visions of individuality and hope. In reality, it was a journey that very few were privileged enough to afford. One arena for the exercise of this alternative approach was equating classical Greek and Roman cultures with what was then the rigours of contemporary religion. Already, the image of the individual is looking to another stereotype for definition. Yet how surprised these early scholars would be to find that with this individuality came loss of community spirit, apathy and destruction of the extended family in supposedly advanced societies. They would probably be less surprised to find that economics and politics are two of the tools which have been used to carve out and colour these new societies.

The following essay looks at how specific these factors operate within this changing framework of postmodern (Featherstone, 1991) society. It extends its scope beyond classical economic and political theory, which is due more consideration that given here. It considered some of the literature available on the subject of culture and economics, but, in order to get a balanced view, it also tries to see what other elements contribute to the decline of community.

To start with, it is necessary to understand the elements that go to make up contemporary society. To put it in Foucaultian (1983) terms, how are these discourses constructed and what are their requirements. How specific are they to each society?

“They [discourses] offer us social positions and statuses: the capitalist economy makes us into ‘workers’, ‘employers’ or ‘unemployed’”

(Burr, An Introduction to Social Constructivism, 1995, p.54)

Culture and economics have been much studied, investigated and written about but the relationship between the two has been a difficult one to define. Guiso, Sapienza, Zingales, (2005) argue for a “heterogeneity of preferences” as affecting peoples economic choices. If one agrees with this, then the roots of this heterogeneity have to include culture. However, each of these elements of human society have only the stability of the time in which they are created. They are shifting sands and manipulated by both internal and external factors. For example, in a democracy where politicians are elected by the people, it can be supposed that they are saying what the people like to hear and promising to do what the people who elect them want. It may be a cynical view, but once in power, it appears that one form of manipulation gives way to another. As Chomsky (1992) says, propaganda is to democracies what power is to dictatorships. Political ‘spin’ both reacts and leads. Yet, as the Frankfurt School of Philosophy shows, a depressingly negative conflict between applied reason and an ability for society to cope with, and adapt positively to, change. For example, the search for ‘panaceas’ (Horkheimer, 1987) disturbs explanations of society and economics. The panacea of the poor, as the saying goes, used to be religion. Theorists now point to consumerism as the new religion, yet it fails to provide the happiness it promises.

Horkheimer (1987) explores the roots from which these questions arise and examines the success of individuality and autonomy. Why, when advanced technological societies seem to provide such levels of individual choice, is there such discontent? Could it be that an undermining of certain values has rendered us instinctively insecure? Could it be that there is truth in the statement that “every aspect of culture is in the process of commodification and linkage to the sale of goods” (Herman, 1995)? If so, is individuality an illusion and humans purely commodities to be sold to whether through cultural conformity or adherence to contemporary ideals?

For the purpose of this essay, certain parameters need to be placed on the issues. For example, culture, as defined by the Penguin English Dictionary (2001), is a number of things. It is mental development, namely through education. It is the “intellectual and artistic enlightenment as distinguished from vocational and technical skills”. It is the customary beliefs and social forms of specific groups. Finally it is defined as “socially transmitted pattern of human behaviour that includes thought, speech, action, institutions and artefacts” (Penguin, 2001). This essay will mostly involve the last definition of culture. Economics seems simpler to define: “A social science concerned chiefly with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services” (Penguin, 2001). However, even in these general terms it is easy to see how culture and economy inter-depend. For the purpose of this essay, culture and economics will be put in the context of capitalist economies. It will start with questioning what the needs are of a capitalist economy according to theory and actuality. It will then examine how community has changed and whether both the past society and present individuality are ideals rather than realities. This will then be put in the context of contemporary society. Whilst this essay has a specific focus, it is understood that there are many other forms of political, social and economic systems and these can have different effects depending on their societies. For example, as Paecher, in agreement with Burr’s quotation above, points out;

“Different forms of discourse result in the prioritising of different forms of knowledge; change the power relations between discourses and the knowledge relations associated with them will change as well”

(Paechter, Educating the Other: gender, power and schooling, 2001)

This puts the issues within a cultural context. To do the same with regard to economics one could take the following example. Certain people who benefit from a technologically advanced capitalist economy would find survival extremely challenging in a subsistence economy. However, this is but one approach and one aspect of these issues. In order to see whether capitalism and the increase of individuality alone have been the reasons for a decline in the ideal of community, the ‘needs’ of all these elements of society have to be considered.

The ‘needs’ of a capitalist economy can perhaps both be guided and led by the society they are integrated with. A ‘need’ to understand and quantify the changes that occur within these economies has led to works such as that done by Webber and Rigby (in Albritton et al, 2001, pp. 246-262). To take a factual analysis as typical of the more classical economics, they study the slow down in world economy that took place in the 1970’s. They concluded that a lowering profitability in the advanced economies was to blame for the slow down. They took this overview and quantified the results of economic change in order to assess what the reasons were from an analytical perspective.

In reality, unemployment rose and wages, as Sennett shows, fell. He quotes a fall of 18% in American wages between 1973 and 1995 (Sennett, 1998, p.54). Whilst the division of rich and poor is as evident through history as today, the illusion that a capitalist society would benefit all individuals was dissolved. Discontent and disillusionment with political promises became part of the culture. It may be that the pressures felt by individuals to strive and survive through competitive application of business strategies has its roots in the depression and vulnerability of unemployment. Sennett talks about these changing pressures in terms of inequality within corporate structures. He has individuals required to out perform and increase skill diversity (p.55) in order to succeed. Work is therefore governed by economics on the one hand and culture on the other with politics as a mediator between desired forms of society and managed realities. In this light, the opposite of competitive individualism is unemployment and whilst fear of the latter keeps the former competitive, the cost of the latter encourages methods of achieving full employment. For example, Featherstone uses the actions of Seattle (1996) to develop its image as a “quality of life capital” (p.107). The aim was to reduce its mass unemployment by making itself attractive both within the cultural sphere above and as a thriving economic entity. This postmodernisation (Cooke, 1988; Zukin, 1988b cited in Featherstone, 1996) is, once again, a form of self-publicisation and image production – something that this essay will return to later.

To return to the UK situation. A percentage of the UK population became dependent on the Welfare State for survival and became known as the long-term unemployed. Politics and economics are at the forefront when it comes to paying for unemployment. Since the 70’s, politics has tried both a carrot and stick approach to reducing outgoings on the unemployed. Behind these initiatives is the Government budget and the premise that you can measure the success of a country by its National expenditure – this will be returned to later. Politics has continued to experiment with methods of cutting the costs of the Welfare State. Programs such as working for the dole were started. Limiting the time unemployment benefit is available for has been tried. Gradually, the programs and policies work there way back to education, the family and the community. For example the Back to Basics campaign could be seen as an attempt to introduce values that would apparently aid community cohesion. However, the ethics involved required a level of appreciation and agreement with the cultural capital (Bordieu, 1987, cited in Featherstone, 1991) of that discourse. Long-term unemployment undermined the expectation and value of educational cultural capital. Yet, “western governments [tended] to view education as a principal means for alleviating social disadvantage” (Webb, Schirato & Danaher, 2002, p.111). Therefore politics had to try and create the values to aid economics. For a section of society, there was no educational habitus, as Bordieu would put it, or familiarity with ‘mind sets’ that make education familiar. Again, politics needed to create these as ‘natural’ expectations. This is one demonstration of the links between economics, culture and individuality and already it shows how the elements are forced both to react and interact. It also shows a necessity for illusion, created ideals, stereotypes and manipulations.

A different approach looks at the ethics behind human society and puts parameters on the changes they incur. For example, market survival, success and failure through economic cycles brings in Sennett’s (1998) exploration of ‘flexibility’. Flexibility can take a global or local approach for businesses (and seems to be one of the manufactured ideals that consumerism needs to create within its target markets). When faced by falling profits in their domestic markets, the multi-nationals (cigarette firms, drinks etc) tend to expand into under-developed markets such as the third world, youth, specific racial groups (Herman, 1995). Other forms of flexibility worked on creating ‘needs’ in domestic markets (Sennett, 1998). They create niche markets and challenge the individual to be incomplete without compliance. These ‘needs’ may be defined as part of the basis of capitalist economies, but they also become part of the defining factors of their societies, part of their history and therefore their culture.

The next question is how is the actuality of ‘community’ affected by business. How do the ethics applied to financial success co-exist with a construction of community? A tendency to divide the community into constituent elements – business community, cultural community, class community etc has led to a range of definitions. Wenger (1998), for example, explains individual integration into business systems through the idea of a community of practise. The variables are at what level individuals are integrated into these systems and this is one way of viewing business and business community in contemporary society. It can also start to expose the isolation even within a workforce. For example an ITC worker can work from an office or home so long as the technology is in place. Although he or she is a member of this community of practise, they can be isolated from the control systems that lead it. Even if working from home, they are divided between which community they are contributing to.

To return to consumerism, it would seem that rather than focus on the destruction of the family as a form of power, consumerism and the business community uses it as an expression of individuality. Likewise, politics appears, when faced by a population that is demanding reform, to come up with an ideal that no longer exists and re-creates it in the form it requires – the Nuclear family becomes a unit of modernity, essential services become community actions.

The forms used to promote these needs range from local publicity to mass media, globalisation and spin politics. Herman (1995) looks at the affect of the market on culture. He identifies the tools of commercialisation on television, both in subliminal forms (brand placement) and straight-forward advertising. He looks at how commerce exploits certain pre-existing elements “which sell? (1995) (e.g. sex and violence). He suggests that the global popularity of American movies, music and escapisms “reflects the global decline in family and civil life, and loss of faith in politics.” (Herman, 1995, p.8) Whilst this has been a simplification of the intricacies of commercialisation, it agrees with those such as Slater who state that “culture as a whole has become consumer culture” (Slater, 1997, p121).

In the introductory section questions were raised as to why discontent should exist in an apparently free society. So far, the dichotomy of appearance and actuality in a capitalist society has been alluded to rather than explored. At the essence of this duality is perhaps the recognition that the “fundamental unit of meaning in capitalist and economic thought is the object,, that is, capitalism relies on the creation of a consumer culture” (Hooker, 1996). An object is controllable and manipulatable. However, if the object is a human being then it is that person’s individual choice that has to be appealed to. As the roots of commerce tend not be the same ethically as those applied to society, appealing to individual choice requires a certain degree of basic undermining of community values. This ethical difference is shown by the types of programs Governments use to support business, which they must in a market economy, as opposed to the types of programs used to re-construct community. Whilst the former takes a business community approach, the latter tends to work on the individual.

At one level, the individual is expected to rationalise, at the other to conform through consumerism and political acquiescence. Alexander (1997) explains that recognition of this duality of commerce and its society has existed for some time. In essence, he argues that an imbalance threatens society` when it becomes overly dominant and creates a “severed culture” (Alexander, 1997, p.209) and therefore artificially sustained. He quotes Disraeli and Snow as warning that a:

“similar gulf continues everywhere between the mind of commerce and industry on the one hand, and the mind of non-commercial people – most people – on the other.”

(Alexander, The Civilised Market, 1997, pp.208-209)

If this is the case, one of the needs of a capitalist economy from its community is complicity and another is apathy. When the USA and the UK became enamoured with the market, they did not fully comprehend that business is based on profits and that “present profits are offsets to future costs” (Alexander, 1997, p.124). Governments supported markets at the cost of small business, competitiveness and ultimately high unemployment. To support an artificial ethic, society must either be too powerless, and at worst apathetic, to demand change, or too comfortable believing the ideals of individuality. The price of this redefinition of ‘self’ has been loss of community cohesion. This brings us to the means of capitalist power and whether loss of community values are the price to be paid for individuality.

Slater examines how philosophies and theorists identify ‘alienation’ (Slater, 1997, p.104) of the individual where people become a commodity to be managed. For the majority, they no longer are integrated into a society within which they are part of the control system. It has been argued that there is the illusion of control maintained through choice (Slater, 1997). An idealistic example could be an individual in a self-sufficient but essentially subsistence economy such as a tribal village. Each person contributes to the survival of the whole village. Roles are understood. Culture is therefore a reflection of unity and survival. However, in the apparently ‘rich’, technologically advanced economies, the cult of the individual has placed specific values on success through materialism… and perhaps best supported this through the illusion of choice. Slater further examines this illusion of choice and its production through the media and suggests that:

“All consumption, but above all cultural consumption, has become compensatory, integrative and functional. It offers the illusions of freedom, choice and pleasure in exchange for the real loss of these qualities through alienated labour; it integrated people within the general system of exploitation by encouraging them to define their identities, desires and interests in terms of possessing commodities; and it is functional in that consumer culture offers experiences ideally designed to reproduce workers in the form of alienated labour.”

(Slater, Consumer Culture and Modernity, 1997, p121)

Slater comes to the above through his study of the development of political economics from Marx to Smith, the Frankfurt School to Soper (1981) and Doyal and Gough (1991). He uses the issue of modernity as his framework. In the above quote he talks of capitalism as essentially a cycle of loss. He also argues that culture produces the demand for this capitalism in the first place and that therefore if “all objects of consumption are meaningful [this] implicates them in the wider field of cultural reproduction” (Slater, 1997, p.5).

The following looks briefly at this social reproduction from the perspective of Bourdieu and education. It does this in order to see how individuality and community actually fit within contemporary society. This gives an opportunity to see how political mechanisms use social structures for the production of specific communities.

Bourdieu (1983, cited in Webb, Schirato & Donaher, 2000) argues that schools are mechanisms for social reproduction. In this example, they are mechanisms for reproducing social inequalities through their policies and practises. For example, Mercier and Harold (2003) demonstrate that the religiously and culturally generated westernised ideal of the heterosexual family unit finds expression in school documentation. This raises the question of discrimination. Whitton, Sinclair, Barker, Nanlohy and Nosworthy (2004) list the forms of discrimination likely to be met in teaching ranging from race to academic ability.

How each school accepts, rejects or translates these terms of reference seems to depend on its own cultural and educational version of Bourdieu’s habitus (Schirato & Yell, 2000). For example, schools that respect difference may act firmly to stamp out evidence of sexism under the banner or anti-bullying. Their reaction may be just as firm against the somewhat more recognised discriminatory forms of racism (Lareau & McNamara, 1999; Sandercock, 2003). In understanding the reactions to these issues, the values placed on social inclusion finds expression through applied social reproduction. For example, translation of another degree from another country into a qualification recognised abroad can take a renegotiation of Bourdieu’s cultural capital (Schirato & Yell, 2000). If the issue to be re-evaluated is race or sexuality, the space for it in the culture determines the procedures necessary to move from isolation to inclusion. This can be empowered or disabled by the values placed upon it.

To take this a step further would perhaps be to recognise this example as showing the vulnerability of individuality when it is beyond specific economic value systems. Social, economic and political discourses can perhaps be seen as reflecting and manipulating the value systems applied to educational institutions. As Robert Doherty (Journal of Educational Enquiry, 2003) puts it, social exclusion may be perpetuated through deliberate institutional, personal and political ambiguity. If there were an economic value to be placed on the people involved, the situation may be very different.

Berger asserts that “capitalism does operate by the principle of self-interest” (Religion and Liberty interview, 2004). However, he then goes on to divide the situations individuals occupy. For example, a business person may well be a parent and apply different ethics and attitudes to each area. Therefore, whilst successful businesses require an underlying self-interest, the same person may have a more altruistic approach in other areas. When Broom and Selznick (1979) explain culture from a framework of social organisation, they show how different underlying values affect the individual.

“Culture is the design and the prescription, the composite of guiding values and ideals”

(Broom & Selznick, Essentials of Sociology, 1979, p.57)

And

“Statements of need are by their very nature profoundly bound up with assumptions about how people would, could or should live in their society: needs are not only social but also political in that they involve statements about social interests and projects.”

(Slater, Consumer Culture and Modernity, 1997, introduction)

In this context, consumerism takes culture, re-designs or creates need and draws an illusion to create a contemporary image of individuality. The politics of a market economy apparently has to conform to support this in order to support its economy.

However, one way of assessing how individualism stands in relation to a balance of power between culture and economics is to look at some of the recent studies into ‘downsizing’. Whilst not new this is an individual choice and a reaction to discontent with contemporary society. In Hamilton’s (2003) examination of what he terms a sickness derived from affluence, he sees down shifters as the “standard bearers in the revolt against consumerism” (p.207). They represent a move away from humans as consumerist ‘objects’ and return to values based not on how much they own and earn, but on their value as people. However, this is still an expression of individuality and it is not a return to community or family values. In this book Hamilton tracks the changes from the classical economist’s view of economy where the aim was to quantify how to develop a society’s wealth. He takes in the voices of dissent such as Veblen (1925) and Galbraith (1958) that sought to warm against the growth of consumerism not as a panacea but more as a cultural poison. Other warnings came in the forms of nations approach to their pronunciations on economics. Where policy makers and politicians need seemingly factual tools to communicate with their electorate, economics can provide. However, Hamilton uses the example of Kuznets warnings regarding reducing a nation’s prosperity to a measurement based on national income (p.13). These provided something of a false floor above which consumerism and the individual continued to thrive but below which a widening gap was forming. It could be seen as a hollowing out, an undermining, of the values that had held people together, but perhaps that is too idealistic. When he comes to the unchallenged rise of ‘neo-liberalism’ (p.10) Hamilton uses the discontent within rich societies to demonstrate how wealth and consumerism have failed the individual. He points out the essential fact that individuals have to act in their own interests in order to support consumerism. From this point it is easy to make the jump to the illusion of the individual as some-one with free choice.

These illusory factors are perhaps products in themselves. For example, Lasch (1978) looks at the human condition as predisposed to narcissism. If this is so then illusions and ideals, as recognised by Bordieu (1990), are allowed to distance themselves from reality through altering systems of belief. For example, Bordieu uses the example of social roles such as monarchy to show how culture endows roles within specific structures (1990) and creates the person in that image. He recognises “social functions are social fictions” (p.195). Yet again, images are presented in place of realities. Applied to this is change. Lasch states that the ‘degeneration of politics in spectacle” (1978, p.81) has led to the transformations of “policy making into publicity” (1978, p.81). He continues with identification of this distance between image production and reality. He explains how disempowerment, and alienation, occurs due to these images becoming the focal points. Whilst these two points of view may diverge on other issues, they agree on idea that “images of power overshadow the reality” (Lasch, 1978, p.81). But where do these images and illusions find their genesis? In modernised reproduction of ideals? In the production of expected stereotypes? Is the notion of the family unit replaced not only by a unit of commercialism but by an image of itself and its role in social structures? Both Bordieu and Lasch recognise the impossibilities of endowing an illusion with responsibility.

Another method of judging how the community fits with politics is to look what happens with migration, such as with the Italian culture. This is historically strongly networked, in part due to the city state mentality and late unification of the country. Amici, vicini, parenti (friends, neighbours, relatives) as the saying goes are still a composite force in Italian society. The answers as to why community spirit should have resisted degradation better than in many other technologically advanced societies has been much explored. One answer stems from the weakness of the political bodies and lack of trust in the ability of a politics to support the nation. These seem to be one of the fundamental causes of continued community interdependence. If this is true, then the link between politics and a consumer society is evidently very strong. Whilst Italy does not in any way lack consumerist ideals, it maintains the community through a distrust of political spin and lack of longevity (although Berlusconi has succeeded where many have failed – perhaps aided by owning some of the television stations).

This can be taken further by looking at how Italian reacted to migration. For example, how did the Italians who migrated to America react? According to Gardaphe (undated), they were “constantly negotiating their relationship between the local cultures of their origin and of their land of immigration”. It is interesting to find that self-image of Italian American individuals is affected by whether they are integrated into the structures of power associated with that community:

Where the local identities are strong is where Italian Americans are an integral part of political and social infrastructure; it is weak where there is little or no connection to that community.

(Gardaphe, undated)

This would agree with the idea that competitive individualism plays two roles in society. It could be said that an egocentric, consumerist attitude where the self is important above all else plays into the hands of the illusion of modern society. However, the above Italian American example seems to show that community needs to involve all aspects of society in order to provide a strong, cohesive balance of powers.

To a degree, this essay has been broader in its approach than hoped. However, it has tried to substantiate the view that there are many elements responsible for community decline. It has looked at the rise of individuality from its roots as a part of historical community – the Enlightenment and Renaissance – to the extremes of alienation brought about by competitive individualism. The essay has looked briefly at education from the perspective of Bourdieu and his theories on social reproduction. It has also looked at migration to see what happens to a particular community then. In summary, the rise of competitive individualism seems to be more negative than positive. It has not provided the happiness that it promised, yet the illusion of freedom makes it worth while. Throughout the essay, illusion has been a focal point for both economy and culture. The essay has looked at propaganda and ‘spin’ as tools of the market place and politics and produces of illusion. This emphasises the division between reality and illusion. Whilst the essay agrees with Bourdieu that the reality of social institutions is that they do attempt to reproduce the societies and cultures they come from, it also agrees that politics and the market create the ideal for their own ends. Therefore, competitive individualism is just one part of the re-definition of community. However, where culture will change in accordance with society, individualism is a basic essential of a capitalist economy without which the market cannot operate in the form we now know it.

References

Achbar, M & Wintonick, P. (1992). Manufacturing Consent: Noem Chomsky and the Media. A feature documentary. Quebec, Canada: Necessary Illusions.

Albritton, R., Itoh, M., Westra, R. & Zeuge, A. (eds) (2001). Phases of Capitalist Development. Hampshire: Palgrave

Alexander, I. (1997) The Civilized Market: Corporations, Conviction and the Real Business of Capitalism. Oxford, UK: Capstone Publishing Ltd.

Allen, R. (consultant Ed) (2002). The Penguin Concise English Dictionary. London, UK: Penguin Books

Bourdieu, P. (1990). In Other Words: Essays Towards a Reflexive Sociology. Translated by M. Adamson. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press

Broom, L. & Selznick, P. (1979). Essentials of Sociology. (2^nd Ed) New York, NY: Harper and Row

Doherty, R. (2003). Social exclusion: licence through ambiguity Journal of Educational Enquiry, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2003. University of Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom

Carter, D. (Ed) (2004). The Ideas Market. Victoria, Australia: Melbourne University Press

Featherstone, M. (1991). Consumer Culture and Postmodernism. London, UK: Sage Publications

Foucault, M. (Oct-Nov. 1983). Discourse and Truth: The Problematiz

Alcohol is drinks such as beer and wine. It contains a substance that causes to loss of consciousness, which affect the thinking person. Drinking alcohol is one of the biggest problems facing the Australian community. The proportion of people at risk as a result of excessive drinking of alcohol 3200 people die and almost 81000 people admitted to hospital every year. The government is trying to reduce the risks that affect their health and their social situation because of it is impact on the public and especially minors. As a result, the government cares about its population and especially minors and believe that drinking alcohol has many threats to minors could lead to several problems and risks to lead of loss their lives and also because of its negative impact on health, mind and behaviour of minors. So, the government is trying to raise the drinking age to 21. This essay will discuss the positives and negatives for raising drinking age to 21.

There are several positives for raising drinking age to 21. Firstly, alcohol adversely affect their health. For example, alcohol is containing ethyl alcohol is the substance adversely affect the mind that affect thinking, mood, and emotion of the person. In addition, The mind of the person grows and develops from the age of 15 to 24. So, alcohol has a toxic effect on the brain of a minor. Secondly, reduce the fatality rate. For instance, Increase dose of drinking alcohol may cause death because their bodies and small brains do not bear it. Statistics show that half of the males and females aged 14 to 24 die each year from drinking alcohol. Moreover, many fatal accidents; such as traffic accidents while crossing the road as well as car accidents due to loss of concentration and awareness that caused by drinking alcohol. Also, may negatively affect a person life which may lead increased incidence of suicidal in minors. Thirdly, lift the legal drinking age to 21 has positive affects to their behaviour. An example of the affect a person life to increase in violence. The Government believes that raising the age of drinking to 21 is the best ways to address the problem of violence caused by drinking alcohol. Furthermore, for drinking alcohol affects the behaviour of the minors, such as aggression, anger and depression that caused by family problems and social. In fact, drinking alcohol negatively affects the lives of those people who under the legal age.

Raising drinking age to 21 has several negatives. First of all, raising the drinking age to the age of 21 deprives them of their rights as adults. some people believe the person who at 20 becoming an adult is entitled to vote, and live in private home away from their parents, and enter the military. For example, in the war withVietnamhas been reduced drinking to the age of 18 due to the death of many young people in the war to protect their country. So, they are considered adults and they can rely on themselves. In addition, raising the drinking age to 21 to prevent them from enjoying life and doing as adults. Many countries have the legal drinking age of 18 as well. Secondly, raising the legal age of drinking does not prevent a minor from drinking. For instance, a minor can find someone for brings the alcohol for him, many under the age of 17 drinking alcohol; even though, they are prevented from drinking. Also, raising the legal age of drinking that prevents them from drinking alcohol and can lead to minor went to the steals alcohol. In addition, raising the legal drinking age does not solve the problems resulting from underage drinking. For example, theUnited Statesthe legal age for drinking alcohol have the age of 21 but they have the same problems of countries with legal drinking age of 18. Indeed, raising the legal drinking age will creates many social problems instead solve the problems.

Raise the legal drinking age to 21 would not solve the problem of violence, suicide, car accidents and other problems. For example, can reduce loss of life and the risks resulting from drinking alcohol. placing limit for amount of drinking alcohol instead of changing the law at the age of drinking alcohol. Additionally, minors can learn how to drink alcohol responsibly and in an attempt to prevent addiction to alcohol instead of raising the legal drinking age to 21.