Category: Free Essays

What are the major milestones related to physical developments in early and middle childhood? Briefly describe these milestones?

There are several milestones connected to physical developments in early as well as middle childhood. Physical developmental change might take place as an outcome of genetically-controlled courses known as maturation, or even as a product of varied environmental factors and learning. However, developmental change most frequently involves an interface between the two. Age-linked development periods and cases in point of defined intervals include: ages 0-1 month (newborn); ages 1 month – 1 year (infant); toddler (ages 1-3 years); ages 4-6years (preschooler); ages 6-13 years (school-aged child) and (ages 13-20) adolescent (Kail, 2006).

Aging which is also a physical development appears to concurrently occur in two major separate domains throughout all of the adulthood stages which include: primary aging and secondary aging. According to Stoker (2008), primary aging entails the ordinary, innate body progression from early maturity till death; but, secondary aging comprise progression linked with health habits, disease and/or environmental influences. During middle age aging begins to be considered in decline and loss in lieu of maturation and growth (Stoker, 2008). Nonetheless, Stoker states that some neurological and physiological advancement associated with it which never passes till early maturity. For example, reaction blockage in the frontal lobes as synchronized by the limbic system is never entirely developed till young adulthood, as well as (VO2 max) heart and lung power which does never get to optimal heights until the young adult years. Stoker (2008) hints that immune functioning related to B cell and T cell also counts young adults’ aging.

In the middle mature age secondary aging starts to have an important effect on the functioning of body neurology and physiology. A case in point is where both behavior and lifestyle choices, like alcoholism and depression, can impact significantly on neurological structure as well as cognitive ability (Stoker, 2008).

During later adulthood, it is realized that the deprivation of dendrite redundancy, do correspond to a fall in synaptic plasticity, which in turn starts to effect concrete real-world reaction times. In addition, presbyopia and presbycusis is far-off more superior during the later adult years. According to Stoker (2008) this is partly due to blood flow loss to the areas affected and collective environmental factors, like time of working in very noisy factories, etc…

The physical developments which come about during adolescence period are brought about through the introduction of gonadotrophic hormones. This hormone is released by the pituitary gland of the endocrine glands, particularly during the onset and the entire duration of puberty (Boyd & Bee, 2006). According to Boyd and Bee (2006), the release of hormones such as testosterone in boys and estrogen in girls do cause the manifestation of both principal and secondary sex uniqueness by about the age of adolescent. Indeed during the first few years of puberty, the male and female reproductive organs matures up and are capable of respectively producing sperm in boys and ovum in girls. In the early adolescence stage, young women do begin their menarche (menstrual cycle). Moreover, the cerebral cortex does thicken for the duration of adolescence and by extension some parts of the brain is myelinated; and brings with it supplementary effectiveness in the neural pathways (Boyd & Bee, 2006).

Physically, there is also a notable heave in both lung and heart size and a decline in the rate of heart beat. In addition, at adolescence the bones situated in the forelimbs mature to nearly adult levels, with maturity startlingly occurring more rapidly in girls than boys. This hand bone maturity gives a timely boost in coordination. On the other hand, boys do outpace girls in development as well as thickening of the muscle during the adolescent ages, resulting into a surge in the strength of boys.

What are the major milestones related to cognitive developments in early and middle childhood? How does cognitive changes from early to middle childhood?

Physical development in a child attracts corresponding augment in cognitive abilities of the cerebral cortex and by extension neural pathways. It is highly believed that correlation exists between physical development and cognitive development. For instance, a French speaking Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget did trust that the cerebral expansion spurts which occur during adolescence stage of human growth brings with a novel stage of cognitive development which he referred to as the formal operational stage. According to Piaget, during this formal operational stage an adolescent duly begins to grasp both abstract logic and reasoning (Patterson, 2008). Besides, it is during adolescence stage that the aptitude to control memory as well as cognitive activities begins to bear fruits in the areas such as memorization, text learning and even face recognition. Further still, amplifications in working memory competence give the adolescent the capacity to comprehend figurative language, proverbs and metaphors. What’s more, advances in supposed logic permits an adolescent to guess the perceived effect of some actions and even behaviors. According to Patterson (2008), these advances allow for the accomplishment of invented audiences (mainly built from an apparent peer group). In This manner the adolescent has the rare ability to theorize and memorize about other individual’s perceptions and by extension impressions of themselves; while, a little child only manages to view situations, circumstances and behaviors from their personal perspective. Patterson (2008) further hints that cognitive developmental advances are also directly connected to both experience and learning. That this applies mainly to higher-level cognitive abilities like abstraction that relies to a considerable degree on formal education.

What role does Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory and Vygotsky’s Social Constructivist Approach play in understanding cognitive development in early and middle childhood?

Vygotsky was a theorist who posited that children gain knowledge via hands-on experience, just as Jean Piaget promptly suggested. However, as opposed to Jean Piaget, he did argue that prompt as well as responsive involvement by the mature adults once a child is on the periphery of learning a new task might duly assist the child learn new tasks. He called this Social Constructivist Approach which deals with the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). His Social Constructivist Approach helps understand and builds upon the knowledge already children have with the new knowledge that the adults can aid the child to learn (Vygotsky, 1998). A very good example where a parent can assist a child is when the parent “helps” a child to clap or merely roll its hands till it can clap and roll its hands alone (Cultural, Communication, and Cognition: Vygotskian Perspectives, 1985). Vygotsky’s principal focus was on the cultural role in influencing the pattern of the development of the child. Vygotsky claimed that any single function in the cultural development child does appear twice: initially, at the social phase (between people), and later, at the personality stage (inside the child). Vygotsky also posited that cognitive development was a gradual process which saw era of predicament in child growth during which time there is a valuable transformation in the mental functioning of a child (Vygotsky, 1998).

On the other hand, Swiss theorist Jean Piaget did pose reliably that a child learns aggressively via the play process. That it has to interact with the environment. He suggested on that regard that the role of mature adult in helping out the child get knowledge was merely to facilitate and if need be provide suitable learning materials to enable the child to interact with the surrounding and at the same time construct. Piaget actually applied Socratic questioning to engage the child to reflect and reproduce on what initially they were doing. He would attempt to get the child to see inconsistencies in their explanations. He further developed developmental stages. Piaget’s approach is applied in school curriculum sequencing and by extension in the preschool centers of pedagogy.

What are the major milestones related to socioemotional development in early and middle childhood? What types of changes occur in peer relationships from early to middle childhood?

According to Stoker Coy (Sunday, October 4, 2009), there exists 3 levels which bare 2 sub-stages each to give details regarding moral development all through an individual’s lifetimes: 1) Conventional level-Stage i: interpersonal conformity, mutual interpersonal expectations and relationships; Stage ii: conscience and Social system (known as the Law and Order). 2) Preconventional level-Stage i: punishment and obedience orientation; Stage ii: Instrumental purpose, exchange and individualism and finally the Postconventional level-Stage i: Social contract or utility and individual rights; Stage ii: Universal ethical principles. Stoker writes that these progresses in moral reasoning do overlap, concurrently exist, and further begin and end over a lifetime. Nevertheless, he hints that certain general rules applicable are that children never reason usually over stages (i) or (ii) of level 2, and that nearly all adults reason at stages (i) and (ii) of level 1, the Conventional level. It is the third stage, the postconventional moral reasoning stage which is in the immeasurable minority including the adult population. However, it constitutes those who believe that there exist a set of moral pronouncements that surpass all other concerns. Peer friendships turn out to be greatly important and quite central to social world of a child in the adolescent years. Stoker Coy (Sunday, October 4, 2009) writes that adolescents do highly price virtues like loyalty and faithfulness while in peer relationships and even tend to obtain friends with whom they share same beliefs on things like drug use, academic, sex, smoking, achievement, relational status, as well as echelon of social skills. Additionally, peer group conformity climaxes at about the age13 years and apparently fades when an adolescent develops enough self-esteem and consequently begins to build a concrete and substantial idea of self (Stoker Coy (Sunday, October 4, 2009).

To recognize Kohlberg’s justice and also Eisenberg’s empathy Stoker states that the development of emotion as well as moral rationale like role-taking skills, do assist with the control of anger and the evasion of unsociable behavior. In that regard Stoker hints that if an adolescent for instance is able to be taught to see clearly a certain situations from another individual’s perspective, then such a person is a lot more likely to evade delinquent behavior.

How can families impact the development of young children?

Monumentally, families nurture, shape and model children into who they later become. For that matter, good influence can be encouraging whereas bad influence can be motivating. Both types of influences can bare positive and/or negative impact. For instance, a child brought up in an abusive and alcoholic home might grow into a doctor focusing on victims of abuse, or they may perhaps become an abuser or alcoholic themselves. In this case, it can go either way. However, either way it is duly influenced by their family and general background. Besides, if a family have good manner then chances are high the child will emulate and practice it in the future since the child have stages of growth and they grasp ideas swiftly. Without a family, a child never actually knows what is expected of him and/or what to expect from others. Devoid of order and kind, solid discipline, the child might fail to develop self-discipline. As a result, he could become unmotivated, out of control, and crave excitement. His life may well be another roller-coaster journey. Cadigan (April 25, 2008) writes that the attributes that children obtain directly from parents or other mature family members are fourfold. They include personality, physical and cognitive abilities, behavioral health as well as race and/or ethnicity. She suggests that family is obliged to provide both formal and informal support to the child. The child also grasps and eventually acquires physical and cognitive abilities of family members including the members’ behavioral health. Since child forms the basis of learning and apparently children generally learn very first, they acquire learn and get the economic status of the member of their family (Cadigan April 25, 2008). The members of a family should therefore practice desired attributes they would like to be depicted in their infants.

References:

Boyd, D. and Bee, H. (2006). Lifespan development. 4th Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Allyn Bacon.

Cadigan Karen. (April 25, 2008). Early Childhood Policies from Ecological and Family Impact Perspectives. Retrieved May 23, 2010.

Cultural, Communication, and Cognition: Vygotskian Perspectives. (1985). Cambridge University Press. Retrieved May 23, 2010.

Kail, R.E (2006). Children and Their Development. 4 Ed. Prentice Hall. Retrieved May 23, 2010.

Patterson C (2008). Child Development. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Stoker Coy. (Sunday, October 4, 2009). Adolescence and Adulthood Developmental Stages

Vygotsky, L.S. (1998). Child psychology. The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky: Vol. 5. Problems of the theory and history of psychology. New York: Plenum.

To what extent will recent and proposed changes to the immigration system assist in successful integration of new immigrants?

UK Immigration law has recently seen a metamorphic transition. The new Immigration Rules are now in full swing. It is inevitable that any system that is introduced for the first time will either be very beneficial in the successful integration of new immigrants or will have devastating consequences.

The introduction of the Points Based System (PBS) for new immigrants seeking to work, train or study in the UK replaces the approximate 80 routes of doing either of the above under the present regime. These Immigration categories have now been streamlined into one single immigration system.

Adopting the single system provides clarity in the law and secures a carefully controlled integration of new immigrants. The system is much more straightforward in application. New immigrants can easily ascertain whether they meet the necessary criteria for a particular visa, which will save them time and prevent wastage of costs.

The PBS is divided into 5 Tiers. Tier 1 (General) took effect from June 2008.^[1]. Tiers 2 & 5 have been in force since November 2008. Tier 3 has been temporarily suspended and Tier 4 aims to be incorporated by March 2009. Under each Tier, any prospective immigrant would need to score points in order to attain entry clearance. The points have been set by the Migration Advisory Committee. Instrumental to the PBS is the involvement of sponsorship^[2]. Another change is the requirement of the entry clearance and the knowledge of the English Language.

The objective of Tier 1 is aimed at Highly Skilled Workers (HSW) and the Post Study Work (PSW) schemes, which replaces the former Highly Skilled Migrant Programme, (HSMP) the International Graduates Scheme, (IGS) The Fresh Talent Working in Scotland Scheme and the rules for business-people and innovators, investors, writers, composers and artists^[3].

This Tier has been formed in line with bringing in the, “brightest and the best”^[4]. This is good news for some workers, particularly those that do wish to enter on the PSW. The PSW allows a new worker to remain in the country for a period of 2 years and will benefit from good quality training. Employers were previously reluctant to invest in resource training of new recruits who were required to leave the country after 12 months.

The process under the old HSMP scheme and the new HSW scheme is very different. Points are given on a sliding scale against requirements such as a degree qualification. The new immigrant needs a score of 75 points or more in order to qualify on the scheme and additional 10 points for the knowledge of English. There is also requirement for those that apply outside the UK; that they must have a bank balance of ?2,800 and those within the UK must have ?800.

The purpose is to ensure that the new immigrant is able to support him/herself up until the first salary is received and not be dependant upon Government resources. This minimum financial requirement may appear to be a hindrance for those residing outside the UK.

Tier 1 was questioned where foreign Doctors are concerned in the BAPIO^[5] case. The House of Lords held that the Department of Health guidance defeated a legitimate expectation held by Doctors in training on the previous HSMP that they would not be prevented from undertaking work. Tier 1 states that a doctor will not be able to undertake employment as a doctor in training up until entry clearance is granted. This is therefore, another procedural obstacle for a UK Immigrant.

Tier 2 applies to skilled workers with a job offer and replaces the concept of work permits completely. A skilled foreign worker will obtain 50^[6] points and this will depend upon factors such as the person already being in skilled work as well as having an earning capacity of ?24,000 or having a recognised qualification.

One way for an immigrant to earn 50 points immediately will be if the UK employer in can show that they cannot fill the required skilled post with a British worker and that the job vacancy has been advertised in the UK. This leads onto the employer passing the Resident Labour Market Test, which refers to the job being in shortage occupation.

Tier 2 does not include overseas qualified nurses and midwifes, ground staff of overseas owned airlines, exchange teachers, and language assistants. The list includes a wide range of professionals in the cross section of society, which does not help with the integration of new immigrants with these qualifications.

In R v SSHD^[7] the Judge raised a concern with the new law regarding highly skilled migrants and those immigrants who have already obtained entry clearance and have not secured a job will constitute as racial discrimination. The Home Office has incorporated the judgement. The previous rules will apply to those UK immigrants who have been adversely affected by the change in law. This is good news for those immigrants that fall under this category.

Alongside Tier 2 is the requirement of the certificate of sponsorship which has to be issued to the prospective employer. Prior to this, the Company will have to firstly be registered with the UK Border Agency so that it can obtain a sponsorship license.

Skilled workers will be discouraged from coming to the UK and if an organisation is called into question, if faces losing its license and any immigrant working would be required to leave the country within a period of 28 or 60 days. The procedure of carrying out this process is set to cause serious delay to the recruitment of key immigrants and employers will risk losing access to a pool of talent on an international level.

Tier 4 only applies to students as overseas ‘adults’. The immigrant must pass a maintenance test and produce supporting documents such as educational qualifications. The long term plan for Autumn 2009 is the emergence of the an IT system to support the student visa route. Whether the overseas ‘adult’ option excludes a section of student is yet to be decided.

Tier 5 is currently in existence where temporarily workers wish to come to the UK for primarily non-economic reasons. UK Immigrant must be awarded 30 points and savings of at least ?800. This again may be difficult for some workers who only essentially work on a ’temporary’ basis.

The actual criteria to meet has not considerably changed but what has reformed is the legal process. This will have a negative affect on those immigrants that will want to appeal against the decisions and the Asylum Immigration Tribunal(AIT). The Government has produced a consultation paper^[8], which proposes to revise the scope for Judicial Review, which will have the prevent the applicant’s right to appeal to the High Court, following a decision of the AIT.

The law could deter new immigrants from applying and discriminates against highly skilled individuals who hold the qualifications but not the job to go with it or the financial standing . The law has already been ’tweaked’ in its initial stages that could open up the floodgates for UK immigrants to question other areas of the new law.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

1. Clayton, G (2008) Immigration and Asylum Law (3^rd Edition) Oxford University Press, Oxford

2.Jackson, D Warr, G, Cole, J.0., Middleton, J (2008) Immigration Law and Practice, (4th Edition) Tottel Publishing

Journals/Articles

Home Office Border & Immigration Agency, (2008) The Path to Citizenship: next steps in reforming the Immigration System

Home Office Border & Immigration Agency (2008) Students under the Points Tier System -(Tier 4)- Implementation Plan

Home Office UK Border Agency, Consultation: Immigration Appeals, Fair Decisions; Faster Justice, August 2008

Berry, M (2007) Are your employees eligible to work in the UK?-EEF, the manufacturers’ organisation – Broadway House – Tothill Street – London

Websites

http://www.bia.homeoffice.gov.uk/

http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199238668/ -updates on Clayton, G (2008) Immigration on Asylum Law (3^rd Edition) Oxford University Press, Oxford

Legislation

Immigration Rules

Border & Immigration Agency 2007

Case Law

R (on the application of BAPIO Action Ltd & another) v SSHD and another [2008] UKHL 27

R(on the application of HSMP Forum Ltd v SSHD [2008] EWHC 004 (Admin)

Childless or Childfree?

Actress Katherine Hepburn said, “If motherhood doesn’t interest you then don’t do it!” She didn’t, along with opera singer Maria Callas, Queen Elizabeth I, and Oscar winning actress Helen Mirren , recently portraying Queen Elizabeth II.

Melissa Dear, of the Family Planning Association, was recently quoted as saying that the falling birth rate was partly a reflection of the failure to provide women with adequate support. That may be so, but perhaps it is simpler than that. Perhaps more women want to have fun rather than have a baby. Not that babies can’t be fun some of the time, but really, what would you choose: worrying about ear infections, and wondering how to replace the front tyres on the car when you need to buy a miniature pair of winter boots which cost more than the ones you saw in your own size at Clarkes; or wondering about what to wear to your dinner party and where to go on holiday this year?

In the past women reaching their thirties with no sign of a child would automatically be at the receiving end of thick streams of sympathy for their plight. After all, don’t all women have a deep maternal drive, this instinct, this burning desire to procreate? To experience for the best part of a year, haemorrhoids, backache and the raging hormones of pregnancy followed by the undeniably painful effort required to pass an infant the size of a melon through an opening better suited to something four inches in diameter. Then there’s the post pregnancy weight gain, possible occasional urine incontinence that means avoiding sneezing or coughing in public, and in private, your love life goes down the pan.

Population forecasts suggest that of those women who are of childbearing age now, one in five may never have children. Some proportion of that will be due to infertility, but there will also be those women who make the choice not to have children. Some people might think this is an abnormal decision based on an immature worldview. There will still be the knowing nods and, “You’ll change your mind later!” “You are not truly a woman until you have given birth to a child.”

Dr C Hakim, senior research fellow at the LSE said that researchers had been unable to account for the growing number of childfree women, finding no parallel with infertility statistics. Her research showed that there are rising numbers of women choosing not to have children. The childless woman is not necessarily bewailing her fate.

Dr Hakim points out that around 10% of women reach the age of 45 with no children. She says: ‘The whole idea of the childfree lifestyle is beginning to be recognised by the media. Private feelings are being legitimised and people are beginning to feel that they are not being deviant in some way.’

That “deviant” behaviour was addressed in a Radio 4 Woman’s Hour Phone-In, with women discussing problems in the workplace as childfree employees. You might think that it’s the mothers that have all the problems, considering they are the ones who have to work flexi hours, coming in late after the school run and having to rush off at the end of the school day. They are tied to school holidays, and are at the mercy of childminders in term time. However, the childfree women phoning in were generally quite resentful of the fact that they could not take advantage of later mornings as they had to cover the time the mums were not there.

Victoria, a nurse, said, “I have covered for maternity leave, Christmas and all the other times that working mothers assumed was their right to be at home. I don’t get any tax relief or benefits for not having children, and I would like a little recognition now and then.”

20% of the adult female population in Britain are childfree, and Sarah from Leatherhead felt that she was treated as “a less useful citizen, despite holding down a demanding job” because she had no children. She said she was made to feel inferior and less important than the women with children, despite the fact that she often worked longer hours and seldom took time off.

Why would childfree women would want to go on holiday in the summer with all those child-filled families? Surely the whole point is not to be around children? Apparently not. Childfree women do not necessarily dislike children; it is simply parenthood they are rejecting, and being a parent certainly is linked with disrupted lives and financial insecurity.

Those women who do decide to have children are having them later. In 2005 the average age at which women had their first child was 27.3 years, with the highest rate of fertility being in their early 30s. Despite the rise in teenage pregnancies which alters the average, bringing it down, this is still a rise of almost 4 years since the 1970s. Clearly women are choosing to stay childfree for longer, concentrating on careers or travel, or just organising their lives before giving up their independence.

Even then, it’s not all plain sailing! Julia Roberts, 39, actress and mother of 2-year-old twins reportedly said “I didn’t realise that I would get no sleep at all. I am so sleep deprived I can’t even stand, I have to sit down all the time.”

Could it be that some women who have children are ever so slightly jealous of their carefree childfree sisters?

Bibliography

Dear, Melissa. (2002) Birth rate at all time low

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/2570503.stm accessed 19 April 2007

Hakim, Dr C (2004) Family-friendly policies are unlikely to influence the voluntary childless

http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/pressAndInformationOffice/newsAndEvents/archives/2004/Family_FriendlyPR.htm accessed 19 April 2007

Hepburn, Katherine.

http://cheerfullychildless.com/CheeryQuotations.htm accessed 19 April 2007

Murphy, J (Unknown) re Julia Roberts Childcare tips from celebrity mums

http://www.gomamatoday.com/modernmama/parenting/celebchildcaretips/?MemID=11

accessed 19 April 2007

National Statistics, (2006)

http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_population/PopTrends126.pdf

accessed 19 April 2007

Swann, C (2001) Famous people without children

http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/childfree_by_choice/58081

accessed 19 April 2007

Woman’s Hour (2005) Childfree Women

http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/womanshour/2005_13_wed_01.shtml

accessed 19 April 2007

Background

The City of Greater Dandenong is a local government area in Victoria, it is located in the south-eastern suburbs of Melbourne. The city has an area of just about 129.42 square kilometres and a population of approximately 146,000 residents from over 150 nations by 2014.

Map of Melbourne showing the City of Greater Dandenong

Population

146,000(2014)

Density

1,128/km²(2,922/sq.mi)

Established

1994

Area

129.42km²(50.0sq.mi)

Council seat

Dandenong

Suburbs and towns of the city Bangholme, Dandenong, Dandenong North, Dandenong South, Keysborough, Parts of Lyndhurst, Noble Park, Noble Park North, Springvale, Springvale South.

The city of Greater Dandenong is one of the most diverse communities in Victoria. The city has a long history of welcoming new and emerging communities, including migrants arriving through humanitarian programs. More than half of these residents were born overseas with 55% from non-English speaking countries. Many of those who have migrated to the area have origins in parts of the world with recent histories of conflict, violence and displacement (City of Greater Dandenong 2014b).

The City of Greater Dandenong acknowledges the difficulty of the journey of refugees and asylum seekers who are often fleeing from conflict, human rights violations and persecutions. Refugees come to seek safety and protection in order to rebuild their lives. For these reasons the City has beena Refugee Welcome Zone since 2002 and the Council actively promotes and advocates for the rights of the forcibly displaced people. The city council believes that refugees bring resilience, hope, motivation and skills to contribute substantially to the community social, civic and economic life.

In 2012/13, 2,240 recently-arrived migrants settled in Greater Dandenong, this is the highest number of settlers in any Victorian municipality. A third of these people were humanitarian immigrants from different countries such as: Afghanistan, Burma, Iran, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Pakistan and Thailand (Refugee Council of Australia, 2012).

Main goal

Our project is focused on 750 refugees recently arrived in 2012-2013 and living on the City of Greater Dandenong. Our project’s main goal is to create a social Connection between Refugees and Local Community in the City of Greater Dandenong. To achieve this goal our project is proposing the use of sports as tool to create this social connection.

Objectives

As we mentioned before, the main goal of the project is to create a social Connection between Refugees and Local Community through sports, and to achieve this outcome our project objectives are focused to:

Alleviate the community isolation faced by refugees by raising awareness and knowledge about refugees within the local community.
Promote an interaction between local community and refugees.
Promote opportunities for refugees to participate in community life.
Recognise the contribution of refugees, including their many cultures and faiths.
Collaborate with partners, community groups and local agencies to strengthen this links.
Refugee Situation

Arefugeeis defined as “ a person who is outside their home country because they have feared or suffered persecution on account of nationality, religion, race, political opinion, or because they are a member of a persecuted social category of persons or because they are escaping a war” (The Oxford English Dictionary 1989). Refugees of different nationalities arrive to Australia every year, bringing with them different expectations and goals that are often difficult to meet because of the social, cultural and language barriers that the new environment represents. These barriers of language, culture and communication are a great challenge not only for refugees but for local residents as well, these obstacles cause isolation, resentment, and a perception of social exclusion for the refugees to settle in the new communities.

With approximately 60% of residents born overseas from over150 different counties and 55% from non-English speaking backgrounds, the city Council of greater Dandenong recognises that this broad mix of nationalities enriches the diversity of the community and for these reasons they have created some Diversity planning committees to support this diversity and foster community relationships (City of Greater Dandenong 2014a).

These committees include:
Ethnic Communities Council of the South East (ECCOSE) is an independently incorporated Council of leaders of the ethnic communities in the South Eastern Region of Melbourne. It provides a strong, independent voice for migrants and refugees to encourage and facilitate participation in every aspect of community life.
Migrant Settlement Committee, is a consultative committee within the City of Greater Dandenong. Membership consists of agencies dealing with migrant and refugee settlement issues in the municipality as well as Council officers.

However, refugees face numerous problems not only with language, but also in adaptation to the new culture and environment, accessibility to public services, discrimination, unemployment, affordable housing, family structures, acculturation, and many others inherent to the new settlement experience. Some researchers have found that immigrants with problems in adjustment and embracement of the new socio-cultural environment more often will develop a low self-esteem personality (Rogler, 1991). These difficulties have been reflected in numerous studies carried out by Australian institutions, and for this reason Local Governments have historically played an important role in assisting refugee settlement and promoting community harmony in Australia.

Organizations involved

Different organizations in Australia are working to improve the life of refugees, within these organizations there is AMES and The Refugee Council of Australia.

AMES, is Australia’s largest provider of humanitarian settlement,education, training, and employment services for refugees and newly arriving migrants. The vision of AMES is: “Full Participation for all in a solid and diverse society.” To achieve this vision of full participation AMES is working with communities, Business, Government, and Social Enterprises providing jobs, training opportunities and spaces for groups to gather and share (AMES, 2014).

AMES provides a broad range of settlement services for refugees and migrants. These include on-arrival settlement support, English language training, vocational training and employment services. These services are primarily delivered through federal and state contracts such as: Humanitarian Settlement Services, Adult Migrant English Program, Skills for Education and Employment Program, Victorian Training Guarantee and Job Services Australia (AMES, 2014).

The Refugee Council of Australia (RCOA), is the national umbrella body for refugees and for the organisations and individuals who support them. RCOA has more than 180 organisational and 700 individual members and promotes the adoption of flexible, humane and practical policies towards refugees and asylum seekers both within Australia and internationally through conducting research, advocacy, policy analysis and community education.

The Refugee Welcome Zone is an initiative of the RCOA and currently involves 87 Councils around the country. A Refugee Welcome Zone is a Local Government Area which has made a commitment to welcoming refugees into the community, upholding their human rights, demonstrating compassion and enhancing cultural and religious diversity in the community. By these means, local Government Areas are encouraged in their continuing efforts to support the men, women and children who make the difficult journey to Australia to seek for protection; the city of greater Dandenong is one of the current refugee welcome zones. (Refugee Welcome Zones, 2013).

References

City of Greater Dandenong 2014a. Diversity planning committees [Online]. Available: http://www.greaterdandenong.com/document/2512/diversity.

City of Greater Dandenong 2014b. Refugees and Asylum Seekers [Online]. Available: http://www.greaterdandenong.com/document/25321/refugees-and-asylum-seekers.

The Oxford English Dictionary 1989. The Oxford English Dictionary. In: WEINER, J. S. A. E. (ed.) The Oxford English Dictionary. Second Edition ed.: Oxford University Press.

AMES. 2014. About AMES [Online]. Available: http://www.ames.net.au/about-ames.html.

REFUGEE COUNCIL OF AUSTRALIA, S. C. I. G. D. 2012. Available: http://www.greaterdandenong.com/document/18464/statistical-data-for-victorian-communities.

REFUGEE WELCOME ZONES, L. C. B. A. C. O. W. F. R. 2013. Available: https://www.refugeecouncil.org.au/g/131219_RWZ.pdf.

ROGLER, L. H., CORTES, D.E. AND MALAGADY, R.G. 1991. Acculturation and mental health status among Hispnics: Convergence and new directions for research. American Psychologist, 46(6): 585-597.

Introduction

The study will start with looking at the evolution of beer as a social drink and its subsequent acceptance across the globe. The study will also investigate how different brands came in to channelize communication of beer and incorporated community activities like football, rugby and food as moments for beer consumption to increase product acceptance.

We will also look at various international festivals like the Oktoberfest and the Great British Beer festival in UK which have developed as a part of beer culture and helped in the spread of the product through replicated festivals in various parts of the world. Primary research will be done through online surveys and interviews with respondents across Europe, North and South America, and Asia to understand consumer attitudes towards beer in these regions and a comparative analysis will be done on their responses.

Based on the insights, the study will investigate whether a similar model can be replicated in India for the nascent beer industry under the following heads:

Which of the marketing and communication strategies used in other countries would / wouldn’t work in India, and why?
Opportunities for replication of festival models from other countries.
Implications for the Indian beer manufacturers and marketers, based on a comparative analysis of beer positioning and communication in different cultures.
Literature Review

A preliminary study of literature on beer industry globally and consumer behaviour revealed the following salient points:

* Research shows that beer is a non-food specific drink compared to wine. It is more of a masculine and non-formal occasion drink and associated with fun and social events.

When it comes to different brands of beer, it is important for them to focus on positioning and consumer engagement. Beer has slowly become more fashionable to drink with its association with activities like football, rugby and rock music.

* Peer pressure plays a huge role on the consumption of alcohol. Alcohol is associated with a list of values which are belonging, excitement, warm relationships, self-fulfilment, well-respected, fun and enjoyment, security, self-respect, and sense of accomplishment. These are important cues for any company while designing their marketing and communication strategy for their brand.

* In America, beer joints stress on forming communities through engaging events and activities. The ambience of the place is also very critical since beer consumption is all about having a good time.

* Forming a connect with the brand is also an important parameter when it comes to selling beer. As quoted by Mike Bristol, owner-founder of Bristol Brewing Co. in Colorado Springs a lot more people want to spend on a company that they have some common association with. They’re local, they’re in the community, and they’re visible. Import beers don’t seem to be doing well in theirr market or nationally, and he think that’s a shift. Beer is also seen as a product, consumption of which does not go down even in economic crisis times.

* As per Culinary Currents, Beer, Wine and Spirits. (2008, September 15). Nation’s Restaurant News, some myths about beer are:

– Dark beer is heavy

– Ale is stronger than lager

– Stout is a “meal in a glass”

– Imported beer is better than domestic beer

– Wine is more complex than beer

– Fruit beers are “girly beers”

– All beer is best served ice-cold

– Beer and fine dining don’t mix

· Some craft beer makers have also tried to mix beer with specially crafted menu like cheese and seasonal food. The restaurants have even started experimenting with beer to create cocktails to increase penetration and frequency of beer consumption. This, though, could dilute the product personality of beer which does not reflect classy, fine dining experience but a more rugged and aggressive environment. This food and beer mix is primarily targeted towards non-regular beer drinkers and first timers.

· Some stats from the US market for March-April 2008 reveal interesting facts (Category Insight, Beverage: Beer Demographics. (2008, April). RETAIL MERCHANDISER, 10.)

– Beer was the fourth largest in terms of US dollar sales in edible grocery supermarket category.

– 37% of US adults are regular beer consumers

– 52% of total beer drinkers are age 28 to 49, but versus their size in the beer-consuming population, 41% of beer volume is consumed by 21 to 27 year olds

– 32% of beer drinkers shop for beer one to three times each week

– 47% of beer shoppers buy wine in addition to beer; 41% add spirits

– 70% are male

– 84% are White, 10% Latino, 6% African American

– 59% have an income above $59,000

– Grocery is the most common beer channel choice at 46%

– When available, shoppers overwhelmingly prefer to buy cold beer

* A brand study in one of the highest beer consuming nations of the world, Czech Republic and Britain suggests that branding played an important role in the development of the organised beer market in these countries at a national level. The entire system was well structured with organisational hierarchies in place as well as streamlined distribution channels. The regional brands on the other hand, do not follow a very structured nation-wide campaign. Although the brand development in case of national brands in both these countries are at similar levels, as we go down the bracket, the branding of regional markets in Czech becomes lesser developed compared to Britain. For the Czech consumers unlike British, brands were not a consideration in making the choice for public houses as much as the taste and freshness of the beer was. To sustain these smaller breweries, a rule was enacted in which the local public houses were obliged to sell the product from the local breweries restricting the entry of national brands into these places. This rule though, is not present in Czech Republic making branding more important for them. To keep the beer industry safe in Czech, the breweries have kept the price of their beer lower than the other West European countries.

* In 2007, 7 million litres of beer was consumed at the Oktoberfest in Munich in Germany. The biggest cultural context of this festival is the symbolism of equality that is shown as people from all classes and categories sit on the same table to enjoy their beer. The fair is the world’s largest fair which attracts visitors in excess of 7 million from all over the world. Such is the pull of this festival, that similar concepts have been replicated in other countries like Canada, Brazil, USA, and India.

* The “whassup” campaign by Anheuser-Busch for Bud Light revolutionised beer advertising as it targeted the core group of 21-27 year old males who loved to hang out with friends over sporting events.

* The Indian consumer mindset can be divided into the following sub heads:

– Mind over Matter

– The Functional over the Ornamental

– Fear of Tomorrow

– Enjoying the Ordinary

– The Desire to Fit In

* In UK, beer advertising has been moving towards more engaging media like the internet from televisions to deepen their customer’s experience. Companies like Stella Artois have invested in multi-layer brand experience which tries to connect more with the customers and at a personal level.

* Taking the case of Heineken, a lot of its global success can be attributed to its consistency in quality and uniformity in brand message everywhere. The marketing of Heineken is a combination of global feeling and local execution.

* In its 2004 report, Global Status on Alcohol, the World Health Organisation (WHO) estimated there were 2 billion drinkers of alcohol on the planet. Trends suggest that for brands to become bigger, globalisation is the way forward. This becomes slightly easier as the consumers in most developed countries and emerging economies are now well informed and despite the cultural differences, are more open to international brands.

* The study of global drinking trends suggests emerging markets have much better growth rates than developed markets where the growth is static. Urbanisation, affluence and influence of mass media is playing a major role in this growth. The availability of alcohol in supermarkets is also driving consumption. Beer stands fourth after carbonated drinks, tea and water in terms of share of throat in the world. The off-premise locations are drivers of volume whereas value drivers are the on-premise outlets. In mature markets, growth will be driven by experiential marketing. Barman and barista in urban areas are acquiring celebrity chef status.

* In traditional drinking alcohol essentially signified a male’s entry into adulthood and was associated with food. In the modern day, drinks have become more of an individual’s style statement and identity. It is important now to be seen with the right drink for the right occasion. Communities and association with them has become more important than before. Another newly developing phenomenon is that of post modern drinking where connoisseurship, novelty and exclusivity are taking predominance. Themed drinking associated with specific cultures is also seeing a good interest amongst the travelling class who get exposed to different cultures frequently. Some of the names like Guinness and Scotch whiskey have become iconic as they are seeped deep in the local culture.

* According to the Euromonitor report of 2005, the following are the key drivers in the beverage industries in the major countries

– Australia – convenience and health, mature market needing to add value. Alcohol part of the culture

– Brazil – status, sociability and convenience, developing market with opportunities for growth and adding value. Market vulnerable to economic volatility, beer and football key to national culture

– China – affordability, convenience and status in cities, developing market with huge urban potential, rural areas remain largely unchanged

– France – convenience, sociability and status, traditional drinking culture being eroded by changing demands and globalisation

– Germany – price, convenience and health, mature market – opportunities to add value. Interest in discounters – among affluent and poor

– Italy – sociability, status and health, mature market – adapting to changes but traditional infrastructure

– Japan – convenience, status and health, mature market, highly fragmented and source of innovation

– Russia – affordability, convenience, status, high consumption of locally produced spirits as well as increasing presence of global brands in the cities, high beer and vodka consumption. Alcohol dependence an issue among rural male Russians

– Spain – status, sociability and health, directional market in terms of youth drinking trends – older drinkers stick to traditional drinking, young driving the post-modern

– UK – convenience, sociability and health, mature market – adding value through novelty concentrated retail infrastructure

– US – convenience, sociability and health, mature market – adding value through segmentation and premiumisation

* A few of the future trends which can be seen in the global drinks industry are health awareness, fusion drinking, artisan brands and connoisseurship experiential marketing and sociability.

* Specific to Germany which has the 3rd highest beer per capita consumption in the world, the consumption of beer has been slowly going down. This is attributed to rising prices and the health consciousness of the drinking population. In turn, flavoured beer, non-alcoholic beer and malt-based Ready to Drinks are showing growth in consumption.

* A major development in recent years has been the role and involvement of women in purchasing the drinks. Some of the international brands have started targeting women by creating flavoured beers for them. The communication strategy still targets the male predominantly though.

* Econometrics study in the US by Franke and Wilcox suggests that there is no significant correlation between the beer advertising and alcohol consumption. All advertising does is make people aware of the brands available but does not really affect the amount of beer consumed overall. A study by Waterson in UK, shows that although advertising spends increased 80% between 1978 to 1987, the actual sale of beer in this period fell by 14%. The study also included Sweden which has banned alcohol advertising since 1979 with similar results.

* The April 2009 Euromonitor report on beer shows a global demand of 184.6 billion litres. In the mature markets volumes are declining but in terms of value consumption is increasing. Laws on drinking and driving are encouraging growth of low/non-alcoholic beer and currently it accounts for 2% of global beer market but is showing high growth rate especially in Muslim countries. In Spain, this category already accounts for 20% of beer volumes. There is also a trend of moving away from the conventional beer type to niche segments like wheat beer and craft beer. Dark beer is also seeing a healthy revival in growth.

* Specific to India, beer consumption has registered an increase of 700% between the period of 1995-2007. The per capita expenditures on alcohol have grown at twice the rate of the average growth in the rate of expenditure in this period. The average of 24 in the country with affluence, access to mass media and information, lowering of entry barriers and high awareness levels means a goldmine of an opportunity for alcohol companies. Retailing for wine and beer is now allowed in supermarkets on a lot of states thereby reaching out to more potential consumers, especially the women. This has also resulted in more and more urban households stocking alcohol at their homes unlike earlier times.

Finally, the major beer manufacturers will have to compete for an expanding but challenging global market, which will ask hard questions of the positions that global players occupy by category, price point and geography. India will form a major part of this strategy shift and it is already visible with the number of beer brands that have entered the Indian market in the past 2 years. All the research done above talks about beer as a part of the popular culture in developed markets. The challenge is to try and suggest a workable strategy for India based on consumer insight to tap the enormous potential that it offers. India today stands at the forefront of this opportunity and hence it is important for these international players to understand the cultural nuances of the Indian consumer before formulating their strategies for the market.

Conceptual Framework/Problem Definition

India has one of the lowest annual per capita consumption levels of beer in the world, at 1 litre. The biggest international names like InBev/Anheuser-Busch, Heineken and Carlsberg have already started making investments in the market. Carlsberg has already invested close to $ 200 milion in production facilities in the country. The other companies are also entering the market through tie-ups with local players or setting up their own breweries. The growing affluence and increased disposable incomes along with the low average age of Indians presents a huge potential waiting to be tapped by these players. The increased global travel and exposure to western media has led to changing attitudes towards alcohol. This is expected to boost beer sales, while shifting government policy regarding alcohol and reductions in taxes and duties present interesting opportunities for large domestic and multinational players alike. Some of the states have already allowed beer to be sold in supermarket formats thus increasing penetration of beer substantially.

For international players, the race is on to establish local manufacturing facilities and distribution networks, in order to gain first-mover advantage over other entrants. Currently the Indian market is dominated by local players but lack of other options has a major role to play in this. Curiosity and aspirational value attached to imported beer presents a unique market for these international players. Clear opportunities exist for those companies which are partnering with local companies or setting up their own breweries to get a head start in this dynamic market. At this juncture it is of paramount importance for these companies to get their marketing and communication strategy right. This is all the more important because the Indian market and consumer presents a challenge which is different from any other country in the world. Even within India, the cultural diversity is such that different strategies might be needed for different parts of the country.

The current literature reviewed primarily consists of work which has been done in the developed beer markets or talks about projected figures based on empirical data. The biggest gap in such projections is the lack of understanding of the Indian consumer. Launches of a number of successful international products in India backed by such research have failed because of this.

This research will try and understand the cultural differences between the Indian beer drinker and the western beer drinker and do a comparative analysis to gain insights which can be used to design the marketing and communications strategy for these international companies. Beer as a product has been successful in developed countries because of the community culture they have created amongst the consumers. The research will help determine key drivers and key characteristics of the Indian beer market.

Proposed Research Design

The research will be carried out through administering questionnaires to the beer drinking community in urban India as well as respondents in USA, Canada, Germany, UK, Columbia, Brazil, China, France, Poland, Finland, Slovakia, Lithuania and Korea. Detailed interviews will be carried out with some respondents in all these locations through telephonic interview/online interaction to understand the culture of beer consumption there. An analysis will also be done to compare the communication of the top 3 brands of the world in all these countries to see the differences and similarities and how these consumers absorb it.

The Indian respondents will then be shown the communication used in all these countries and insights will be taken on their response to each communication. This will give us insights on the cultural differences and similarities between the Indian consumer and their international counterparts.

The sample size will consist of at least 10 detailed interviews of international respondents and 10 in depth interviews on Indian consumers. The questionnaires will be administered to 150 beer drinkers in India and 50 based abroad. The sample size of the questionnaire might increase based on the response of the target group.

Expected Contribution

The study as earlier mentioned will give a deep insight into the mindset of the urban Indian consumer with respect to beer. It will also look at what are the associations that the Indian consumer has with the alcohol industry in terms of perceptions and specifically with beer. Their responses to international communication will be recorded and analysed to define the key drivers and the key characteristics of the Indian market. The final output as mentioned in the introduction would address at the following heads:

Which of the marketing and communication strategies used in other countries would / wouldn’t work in India, and why?
Opportunities for replication of festival models and other community building activities from other countries.
Implications for the Indian beer manufacturers and marketers, based on a comparative analysis of beer positioning and communication in different cultures.

Postwar American society during the 1950’s was known for baby boomers and the return to achieving the all-American dream. Returning military men wanted the security of marriage and began building families. World War II (WWII) was over and so was the depression. SparkNotes Editors (2005) write, “The economy soared, creating a level of affluence not seen before in American History” (p.218). The economy grew stronger, inflation remained low, incomes rose, and American spent money. Not everyone in America, however, enjoyed the economic boom.

A farmer in the 1950’s and people living in rural America still suffered economically from falling prices. Minorities residing in the city still lived in poverty. Factories laid off unskilled laborers and discrimination kept many minorities out of work. Even though suburbs like Levittown sprung up quickly, African Americans were excluded from home ownership. In fact, African Americans rarely benefited from the economic boom. African American’s in the 1950’s reshaped U.S. History with huge civil rights protests that changed the face of the county forever. From desegregation, bus and restaurant boycotts, to the rise of Martin Luther King Jr., the black middle class materialized and their voice was beginning to be heard.

Americans who lived in the 1960’s and 1970’s still remember the events of those decades even today. The War in Vietnam, President John F. Kennedy’s assassination in Dallas, and civil rights movement, changed American lives forever. The now famous “I Have a Dream” speech was given by Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. in 1963. Sadly, he was assassinated in 1968. After his murder, riots broke out across the country. Americans were still feeling threatened by the Cold War with the Soviet Union. From the arms race, to the space race, and the Cuban Missile Crisis, peace with the evil empire the Soviet Union, was constantly threatened. The space program was prioritized in an attempt to establish the United States as the leader in the space race over the Soviet Union. The younger generation protested the war in Vietnam that they considered a waste of money and innocent lives. The Watergate scandal of the Nixon administration in 1972, the Arab oil embargo of 1973 combined with inflation at home, which created the United States first energy crisis, added to Americans stress and anxiety about their future. The United States was losing ground in the world’s economy. SparkNotes Editors (2005) write, “The United States gradually lost its predominant place in the world economy as foreign countries such as Japan and Germany finally rebounded from post-World War II depressions” (p. 255). By 1974, the United States suffered a severe economic crisis.

Vice president Gerald Ford was sworn in as president of the United States after Nixon’s resignation over the Watergate scandal. Although he was able to pull the last American troops from Vietnam, he could not fix the economy. SparkNotes Editors (2005) write, “He lacked the resources, knowledge, and political clout to tackle the stagnant economy” (p.257). As a result, Americans suffered the deepest recession since the Great Depression.

By the end of the 1970’s American society was changing. The growth rate was slowing signaling the end of the baby boom. Divorce occurred more frequently and living together as unmarried couples became the common living arrangement. The population was growing older, as such senior citizens moved to warmer climates like Florida and Southern California. Illegal immigration also changed the face of America. The United States was prime for significant changes, both socially and economically, religiously and politically, leading in to the 1980’s.

Adam Smith is a fascinated moral philosopher and an expert of economic. He left two famous books. I can still get much enlightenment when I read his words in this modern society. His mainly research are on morality and economy. This essay will focus on how self-interest motivates individuals in these two aspects and what role does self-interest plays in the developing society.

Having found this complex question, we should have a general understanding of what is self-interest? Many people may confound self-interest and selfish. Adam Smith thought people will do whatever good to themselves when they burned and selfish is a human’s natural action. (Smith Moral ex.) But actually those two words have huge differences. Selfish describe a kind of person who just care about himself of herself. They ignore others feeling or benefit as long as they can get something good from what they did. This is really a negative influence which we should abandon it. ‘Self-interest or self-love is derived from the selfish passions, but self-love is not identified with selfishness, because self-love, like other interests, can be virtuous (the virtue of prudence) or evil (greed or avarice).’ (Werhane, PH 1989, p. 671) Self-interest looks like selfish on the surface but indeed it can make an interaction between people. ‘To the selfish and original passions of human nature, the loss or gain of a very small interest of our own appears to be of vastly more importance, excites a much more passionate joy or sorrow, a much greater desire or aversion, than the greatest concern of another with whom we have no particular connection.’ (Smith Moral ex. 8). Everyone who chase them own profits and don’t do harm to others’ benefits in the meantime is called self-interest. Thus help other is helping themselves in fact and the more you get better the more you are willing to help others, which is a kind of huge power to make our society improve, so our society will become much more harmonious and plentiful eventually. That why Adam Smith said: ‘His interests, as long as they are surveyed from this standpoint, can never be put into balance with our own; can never restrain us from doing whatever may tend to promote our own self-interest.’ (Smith Moral ex. 8)

On the other hand, although Adam Smith believes self-interest may make people seems selfish, but it will bring sympathy to them as well. Smith said: ‘The man of the most perfect virtue, the man whom we naturally love and admire the most, is he who joins, to the perfect command of his own original and selfish6 feelings, a real appreciation of the original and sympathetic feelings of others.’ (Smith Moral ex. 7) It is a natural when people burn, which let people take others feeling and their happiness or sadness into them own business, even though he derives nothing from it except the pleasure of seeing it. (Smith Moral ex. 1) Smith thinks sympathy is kinds of sense which will make their emotion fluctuate with others feeling which can resolve the conflict between individual interests and social interests. ‘The man who feels the most or the joys and sorrows of others, is best fitted for acquiring the most complete control of his own joys and sorrows.’ (Smith Moral ex. 5) Furthermore sympathy not only means share feelings but understands and contain as well. We can acquire the same feeling when we in the similar circumstance that others had thus we will have a deeply communication with them. They will see the phase called help other is helping me. ‘Smith argues, sympathy, coupled with reason, imagination, and our natural desire for “what ought to be approved of” provide the conditions that enable us disinterestedly or impartially to examine and to approve or disapprove a motive, character, or action.’ (Werhane, PH 1989, p. 677). So what prompted the ordinary people on many occasions to sacrifice their interests for others bigger benefits? It is not a noble and grant human natural, it is a strong motivation; a self-satisfied; a self-interest! (Smith Moral ex. 11)

Smith thought everybody burn with self-interests they only want to do the things good to themselves, which is the prime motive for human’s active. People help others want to achieve their own goal indeed so they will become better when they help others. ‘He will be more likely to get their help if he can interest their self-love in favoring him, and show them that it is for their own advantage to do what he requires of them.’ (Smith Wealth ex. 3) In this case the more individuals chase their benefits the more they motivate the whole society’s progress and the society include all walks of life will achieve a universal prosperity finally. Just as Smith argue that: ‘He is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an outcome which was not part of his intention.’ (Smith Wealth ex. 6) Each individual is thought to be able to perceive his or her own best interests; they act so as to gain pleasure or happiness in whatever way they choose.’ (Heywood, A 2003, p48)This is something that can be a win-win. ‘By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of the society more effectively than when he really tries to promote it.’ (Smith Wealth ex. 6) So self-interest is a kind of catalytic of improving society to a great extent in this case. ‘In principle, individuals always seek their own economic advantage; and, in principle, they act strictly rationally to achieve this goal.’ (Skirbekk, G & Gilje, N 2001, p 250) Smith call this the law of natural which is free competition actually, this invisible hand is a kind of power which make the market fairer.

It is important to make a division of labor in the market; I think the competition is the direct reason which causes this phenomenon. ‘It is the necessary, though very slow and gradual, consequence of a certain tendency in human nature which has in view no such ultimate outcome; [this is] the tendency to deal, barter, and exchange one thing for another.’ (Smith Wealth ex. 1) Smith thought it is the division of labor that increases the productivity. Everyone can just accomplish his part of job; he can focus on his own business. There is an idiom called practice makes perfect, so the efficiency of the whole market must be improved. It is a kind of exchange, just as Smith said: ‘give me that which I want, and you shall have what you want. That is the meaning of every such offer…. we expect our dinner, but from their concern for their own interest.’ (Inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations extracts 6). People always have much more interest in their own business than the society profits. ‘It was the conduct of individual human beings that led us into this mess, and it is the behavior of individuals as well as the structuring of systems that has to change.’(Garton Ash 2014) So as we can find from here it is self-interest that motivate people to work; to do those economic activities.

Moreover, what is the simplest method to reach this boundary? Smith thought is the freedom and non-interventionism. It doesn’t mean no-government, their function is limited to the administration of justice, and they are night watchman. ‘He attacked economic protectionism: the government should meddle as little as possible in trade and industry.’ (Skirbekk, G & Gilje, N 2001, p 249) So Smith strongly recommended creating a free-market. ‘In an ideal free market resting on private property, no individual can coerce any other, all cooperation is voluntary, all parties to such cooperation benefit or they need not participate.’ (Friedman 2014, pp. 122-126). He opposed the state intervention in the economy, because he thought the market will automatically adjust. This is what he called ‘the invisible hand’, it will help people maximum their own profits and the society will make progress with individuals in the meantime. So it can make a combine between self-interest and public-interest. When the businessmen work hard to do their own business this ‘invisible hand’ will let them to choose the best-fit for the society. This is also help other is help ourselves. ‘Altruism is relegated to no more than delayed self-interest, so, for example, the more we create a good reputation, the more we can exploit it for economic advantage.’ (Hutton & Schneider 2014, pp. 13-17.)

So as the analyses I have presented above, we can clearly find that self-interest is the necessary and sufficient condition of our society’s thriving and prosperous. The better market can’t leave self-interest, which means they can’t exist without each other. Smith described that the conflict between self-interest and public-interest can be solved by combining them. They made each other! Thus if everyone can motivated by their self-interest, they will try them best to acquire the profits, which can motivate our society’s economy and make the market much more efficient and fairer ultimately.

Introduction

The focus of this essay is the role of youth work in modern Ireland, in addition, to providing examples from practice. Youth work can generally be defined as teaching young people in an informal context as it usually occurs out of school and consists of various activities that aim to provide new opportunities for ‘young people’s social development’( Hurley & Treacy, 1993). In Ireland, youth work has been regulated and State involvement has been visible under legislations such as Youth Work Act 2001 and the National Youth Work Development Plan 2003-2007 (Burgess & Herrman, 2010). Within youth work an individual can volunteer to help young people or can be a paid worker within the field. Throughout history Irish youth work has relied enormously on ‘voluntary effort’ both individual and institutional (Devlin, 2012). This will discuss the role of a volunteer, a paid youth worker, as well as comparing both of these roles.

Volunteerism

The goal of volunteering is to help individuals, groups, organization, cause, or a community, without expecting any material rewards (Musick &Wilson, 2007). Within the realm of youth work the service providers can either be paid or volunteer their time. However, there is much more to a community other than its geographic location, the community, is a ‘social and psychological entity that represents a place, its people, and their interaction’ (Luloff & Bridger, 2003; Wilkinson, 1991 cited in Brennan (2007). The majority of youth work in Ireland is voluntary, therefore, the voluntary action and social participation can be viewed as the key to the development of the community (Devlin, 2010) in Ireland volunteerism has been consistent with the youth work policy. Three major factors that contribute to volunteerism is that the service is not compulsory, not paid, and non-statutory (Devlin, 2010).

Voluntary youth work organisations are non-statutory an example of this can be seen in youth work organisations that have ‘voluntary management committee’ in comparison to paid ones that are appointed in other organizations (Doran, 2014a). Young people are not required to go to a youth work organization as it is not compulsory which is markedly different from their relationship with the formal education system (Devlin, 2010). There are different types of volunteering such as formal volunteering this consists of a volunteer having direct contact with young people of the service, this is much more directly linked to affluent areas wherein the voluntary youth services, have more volunteers in comparison to paid professionals. According to Doran (2014a), there is an average of ‘50 volunteers to 1 paid professional worker in voluntary services and 6 volunteers to 1 paid professional worker in community youth work projects’ (Doran, 2014a). Whilst there are formal volunteerism there is also informal this usually occurs in disadvantaged areas, and can more often occur when family or friends try to help out a parent or young person. Volunteers also help make aware of issues that are occurring within the community and encourage ‘outreach programs that partner with ongoing voluntary activities’ (Brennan, 2007). Thus, creating a greater result by coordinating efforts between group and may result in meeting young people’s needs.

Moreover, volunteering can also create a positive and friendly atmosphere for children as it allows different individuals with an array of skills to feature their many talents and abilities to the youth work setting (Doran, 2014a). Through voluntary efforts young people and volunteers are able to interact with one another and ‘begin to mutually understand common needs’ (Luloff & Swanson, 1995 cited in Brennan (2007). Further, this interaction should improve the social, cultural, and psychological needs of younger individuals (Brennan, 2007). Volunteers can also take part in activities within the community such as helping to coach kids sports, field trips, art classes, and mentoring, all of these activities should enhance a young person’s social development.

The role of a Youth Worker

Youth work in Ireland has become increasingly ‘professionalised over the last decade and has a greater sense of established identity’ (Jenkinson, 2013). Youth work that predominately correlates with paid youth work occurs mainly in disadvantages areas. Furthermore, within disadvantaged areas youth workers participate in a programme known as detached youth work. These programmes allow youth workers to go out and find young people either on the street or youth centres. Youth workers are able to meet young people and grow to develop relationships (Nuffield Foundation, 2008). This service is provided based on mutual trust and developing respect on the young person’s terms e.g. going to a local area at night where young people tend to be. The youth worker will be able to talk to the individuals and assess their needs as the relationship develops workers will be able to reach young people in a comfortable setting. The goal of detached youth work is to build effective relationships and gain trust. Youth workers act as role models for young people and relationships created supports the personal learning and development of young people (Doran, 2014b).Youth workers now have to work towards an established ‘youth work curriculum’ this is a targeted specified participation rates and evidence of young people’s progression towards and achievement (Nuffield Foundation, 2008).

Young people are generally portrayed as a group that are personally or socially lacking in terms ‘of education, morality or even the civilising effects that can only be accessed with the aid youth development worker’ in predominantly disadvantaged area (Belton, 2012). Youth workers have to work with an increasing policy that ‘emphasises targeted, intensive interventions, shaped by a ‘deficit’ model of youth’ (Lee, 2010) The Deficit Model of youth work, reflects a negative perception of young people it is in intended for individuals that are unable to take care of themselves (Lee, 2010). This model presumes that young people are difficult to understand, rebellious, misbehaved and have numerous shortcomings and weaknesses. However, the role of a youth worker should reject the deficit model, and promote a model that emphasises young people as optimistic.

Volunteerism and Youth Workers Roles

Volunteers and youth workers both work to help and support the community and the welfare of young people. However, while both are working towards a common goal, both fulfill different roles. A youth worker is in charge of doing an array of tasks to assist the youth such delivering programmes and assessing the needs of young people, working within community projects, monitoring and reviewing the quality of the local youth work provision, working with partnerships with professionals from other organisations that support young people such as ‘health, police, education, youth offending teams and local authorities’ (Prospects, n.d.) and drawing up business plans and making formal presentations to funding bodies. These are all significant to continue getting funded so that youth programmes are not ceased, thus, youth workers can continue to provide for young people within the area (Prospects, n.d.). In contrast, volunteers are unpaid and working freely on their own time. Volunteers work primarily face-to-face with the youth and help to provide a safe environment for young people as well as contributing to specific skills that may help young people e.g. social skills. Further, to encourage young people to be socially active and participate within their community. Both of these roles are different yet everyone is working towards helping young people.

Conclusion

Overall, the main objective of this essay was to describe the role of volunteers and youth workers within modern Ireland. Whilst this essay gave a clear understanding of both volunteers and youth workers it also gave an account of their roles within youth work and their similarities and differences. Thus, concluding that while both roles are different both of these groups are a valuable part of the community and in young people lives.

References

Belton, B. (2012) Professional Youth Work: A Concept and Strategies. Available at: http://thecommonwealth.org/sites/default/files/events/documents/Professional%20Youth%20Work.pdf. [Accessed 22 November 2014]

Brennan, M. A. (2005). Volunteerism and community development: A comparison of factors shaping volunteer behavior in Irish and American communities. (pp.61, 67) Journal of Volunteer Administration, 23(2), 20.

Burgess, P., & Herrmann, P. (Eds.). (2010). Highways, Crossroads and Cul de Sacs (Vol. 8).

(pp.72). BoD–Books on Demand.

Devlin, M. (2010) Youth work in Ireland–Some historical reflections. Available at: http://eprints.maynoothuniversity.ie/3063/1/MD_Youth_Work.pdf. [Accessed 22 November 2014]

Doran, C. (2014a). Detached Youth Work Lecture: Course Notes. Institute of Technology Blanchardstown.

Doran, C. (2014b). Volunteerism: Course Notes. Institute of Technology Blanchardstown.

Hurley, L., & Treacy, D. (1993). Models of youth work: a sociological framework. (pp.1) Irish YouthWork Press.

Jenkinson, Hilary (2013) “Youth Work in Ireland – A Decade On,” Irish Journal of Applied Social Studies: Vol. 13: Iss. 1, Article 1. Available at: http://arrow.dit.ie/ijass/vol13/iss1/1 [Accessed 22 November 2014]

Musick, M. A., & Wilson, J. (2007). Volunteers: A social profile.(pp.1) Indiana University Press.

Lee, F. W. L. (2010). Nurturing Pillars of Society: Understanding and Working with the Young Generation in Hong Kong (Vol. 1).(pp.29-31). Hong Kong University Press.

“Nuffield Review” (2008). Available at:http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/sites/default/files/files/11%20Lessons%20from%20Detached%20Youth%20Work%20Democratic%20Education2.pdf. [Accessed 19 November 2014]

Prospects (n.d.) Youth Worker. Available at:http://www.prospects.ac.uk/youth_worker_job_description.htm. [Accessed 14 November 2014]

1

Introduction to Social Work. David Gower and Jackie Plenty. S134487

The area I have chosen to discuss is Youth Offending and intend to look at options that will help prevent re-offending and how we, as Social Workers, work as part of a team within Youth Offending. I intend to look at what areas of society are more likely to offend or re-offend.

A young offender is defined as someone under 18 years of age who has committed an offence. The legal age of ‘criminal responsibility’ in England and Wales, is ten years old, therefore anyone under the age of 10 cannot be held responsible for their actions.

Anyone aged between 10 and 14 years old is presumed to understand the difference between right and wrong, so they can be convicted of a criminal offence if found guilty.

Teenagers between 14 and 17 years old are fully responsible for any crimes they commit, but they are sentenced differently in relation to adults. Young offenders are assessed by the (1) Youth Justice System (YJS). There are a number of risk factors which may make a young person more likely to become involved in committing crime or anti-social behaviour. Whilst not exhaustive these include a lack of education, poor family relationships, having family members or peers who have offended, and misuse of substances. The YJS aim to tackle these problems (www.yjb.gov.uk)

According to the Children Act 1989, the child’s welfare shall be the court’s paramount consideration. Therefore why do we lock so many children up, but allow terrorist to walk free under a control order? (Part 1 Welfare of the child)

In the United Kingdom we lock up more children than any other country in Europe. 90% of young offenders put in prison will reoffend within two years of release. The UK’s (2) Youth Justice Board spends 70% of its budget on custody, 5% on preventive methods; leaving just 25% for restorative and other methods. The age of criminal responsibility in England, Wales and Northern Ireland is 10 years old. In Scotland it’s eight.

‘Interviews with young offenders revealed litanies of jailed mothers, abuse at home, street living, and failed foster care. Almost all such children are excluded from school, and other attempts to divert them are laughable: youth clubs with “a pool table, one TV and one PlayStation to fight over”. ‘

(radio-youth justice)A

The Crime and Disorder Act was legislated in 1998 for the first time. Working together as part of the new Multi-agency (3) Youth Offending Team under section 39(5) a Youth Offending Team (YOT) would now consist of a Social worker, a police officer, a probation officer, a nominated person from the education department & a nominated person from the health authority. Working as part of a YOT involves being a member of possibly the most diverse and wide ranging multi-agency team within Social Care.

Under the (4)GSCC code of practice Social workers have 6 standards (5)that need to be maintained within Social Care settings ensuring that you can build up a relationship with your client and their carers, whilst using this we also need to take into account the National Occupational Standards and use these to provide a benchmark within our practice. Within Youth Justice the National Standards are set by the Home Secretary and issued by the YJB. The Standards provide a benchmark to measure good practice whilst working with children and young people who offend, as well as their families and victims.

‘Social work has little to contribute and little wish to contribute to the effectiveness of prisons if one takes the view that their primary purpose is to punish and humiliate their inmates. If, on the other hand, prisoners are there as a punishment, not for additional punishment, Social Work has an important role, prison based Social Workers can play a vital part in helping prisoners maintain contact with communities, preparing them for constructive activities after their release, and providing opportunities for reflection on their offending and planning for a better life. Social Work is based upon a belief in dignity and worth of all human beings, and in individual’s ability to change’. (Williams cited in)

The role of social work may be more effective if partnered with a service user using a Care & Control system, thus avoiding more custodial sentences. The service user would be well aware they had narrowly avoided a custodial sentence and would be guided by the Social Worker if they do not conform to the agreement that they could end up back in court and eventually back to Prison. Having a basic understanding of the Human Development as well as a good knowledge of Social Work Codes of Practice will help us to understand the service users’ role within society. We need to help empower the service user into making the right decision for them, by giving them the means and help to do it. By treating them with dignity and respect at a level they can understand without them feeling inferior or pressurised to make a decision by the Social Worker. Within this we can offer help with past problems they have suffered using (6)S.W.O.T. analysis, counselling, curfews, boundaries, mentoring, restorative work, talking to parents and working with multiple agencies to ensure the service user gets the service and support they need. Helping the service user to promote positive change and help reduce risk.

A service user is a term used to emphasis a professional relationship. Service user involvement is putting the people who use our services in control of the lives offering support they may need, to help them overcome their issues and empowering them to lead more fulfilling lives.

The anti-social behaviour orders were introduced by Tony Blair in 1998 and by 2005 55 per cent were being breached (cited in article-1228445 Daily Mail) is this because the courts and the police are making the (7)ASBO’s unrealistic , Setting out for the Young person to fail and break the order, so they can then go back to court to get the young person of the streets. Working as professionals within the Multiagency setting of YOT we should be looking for opportunities to empower the young person into meeting realistic targets and not setting ASBO’s which we know they will be unable to comply with for various reasons. Under the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) State Parties recognise the right of every child alleged as, accused of, or recognised as having infringed the penal law to be treated in a manner consistent with the promotion of the child’s sense of dignity and self worth.(Youth Justice and Social Work )

Piaget distinguished three stages in children’s awareness to rules by playingA games, 1st ages up to 4-5, rules not really understood,2nd stage 4-5 up to 9-10, rules were seen to be coming for a higher authority (e.g. adults, god, town council) 3rd stage 9-10 onwards rules could be mutually changed by others. (cited Understanding children’s development)

Many young people who become involved in violence and crime have experienced this type of behaviour from a parent or a peer, if they have learnt that this is the accepted way of dealing with a problem and have seen or experienced this kind of abuse they may have little self esteem and perceive this to be the correct way of dealing with an issue.

As discussed by Paiget about children learning and understanding rules, if a child is taught the wrong moral standings by an adult in stage 2, it could lead to them following the wrong path in life. Using this theory we can benchmark where a child should be.

There was a drop in the number of children entering the justice system for the first time in 2007/08. Numbers of ‘first time entrants’ aged 10 to 17 entering the Youth Justice System in England and Wales were around 87,400, a fall of about 7 per cent on the previous year. Slightly more than 2,700 of children in this age group were in custody in England and Wales in December 2008, including around 500 children aged 15 and under. The majority of young offenders in custody were boys (94 per cent). More than four-fifths (86 per cent) of young offenders were held in Young Offenders Institutions, 8 per cent were in Secure Training Centres and 6 per cent were in Secure Children’s Homes.

Around 51,000 children aged 10 to 17 were found guilty of indictable offences in 2007 and a further 75,000 were cautioned. Of those found guilty of an indictable offence, more than a third (36 per cent) were found guilty of theft and handling stolen goods and around 14 per cent were found guilty of violence against the person. Boys aged 15 to 17 accounted for 69 per cent of all children found guilty of indictable offences in 2007 including theft and handling stolen goods (11,200 offenders), violence against the person (5,500 offenders), drug offences (4,600 offenders) and burglary (4,500 offenders).

(Source: Home Office, Ministry of Justice, Youth Justice Board )

In Order to help prevent this from happening the government launched a program called Youth Inclusion program (8)(YIP) which was established in 2000, and tailor-made programmes for 8 to 17-year-olds, who are identified as being at high risk of involvement in offending or anti-social behaviour. Whilst the programs are run for the identified children, YIPs are also open to other young people in the local area. The programme operates in110 of the most deprived/high crime estates in England and Wales.

YIPs aim to reduce youth crime and anti-social behaviour in neighbourhoods where they work. Young people on the YIP are identified through a number of different agencies including youth offending teams (YOTs), police, social services, local education authorities or schools, and other local agencies. YIP receives a grant each year from the Youth Justice Board annually via its Youth Offending Team and is required to find the same amount of funding via Local Agencies.

(Cited YJB/Prevention YIPS)

Working in genuine partnership with other agencies and being able to access more information will enable the social worker to assess the service users needs quicker and have a detailed history of the client, which will help everyone involved within the multiagency partnership. Most referrals will come via a common assessment form (9) CAF which is used to highlight the areas each individual agency feels the service user is at risk and working within the comprehensive framework for assessment.

An independent national evaluation of the first three years of YIPs found that:

arrest rates for the 50 young people considered to be most at risk of crime in each YIP had been reduced by 65%
of those who had offended before joining the programme, 73% were arrested for fewer offences after engaging with a YIP
of those who had not offended previously but who were at risk, 74% did not go on to be arrested after engaging with a YIP.

(Cited YJB/Prevention YIPS)

Even though these results prove YIP to be an effective project it struggles for the necessary funding. If YIP had more readily available funding there would be more opportunity to intervene early with the affected children.A Earlier invention would help to refocus the energies of children. This could mean that eventually that we can have early intervention programmes running in all areas where children are more at risk and this could potentially prevent my children becoming involved in crime.

‘The evidence shows that intervening early with the most challenging families in this country works.’ Ed Balls MP, Children’s Secretary (cited Children & Young People Now)

The conflict between Social work ethics and the legal systems is arguably more distinct in the practice of youth justice than any area within the Social work field. Positive, constructive achievement through social work intervention for a young person will encourage the young person to take responsibility for their actions and empower them to reflect their options whilst making decisions. For a young person, age discrimination and labeling often occur, which could give the young person an attitude and make them feel quite defensive, paranoid sometimes.

I think Society possibly needs to change its way of thinking, our New Labour government has passed over 900 new laws since coming to power. This has had an effect on how we view children and young people, 20 years ago we had 339 children in prison, today we have over 3000, does this mean that children have become 10 times more dangerous?. I don’t believe that children and young people have really changed as much as statistics say, I believe it is because we have too many laws and because some people live in such a dysfunctional manner, that they prefer to be in prison as they are warm, safe, can get qualifications, they have friends and they get 3 meals day and it is a routine for them, whereas living within a family that is dysfunctional could mean living with violence, drug or alcohol abuse and not having their basic needs met on a regular basis. Everything that happens within a service user’s life is logical to them.

A positivist believes that crime is not chosen but caused largely by factors beyond the offender’s control. In essence, the belief is that offenders simply can’t help themselves, certain genetic, psychological or environmental factors have influenced their behavior and the existence of these factors means that offenders are almost pre-programmed to become criminals. This is one of the great contradictions of the positivist approach to crime is its focus on reformation and rehabilitation. (Taylor et. Al. (1973) cited in Youth Justice and Social Work

Appendix
YJS- Youth Justice System
YJB – Youth Justice Board
YOT- Youth Offending Team
GSCC – General Social Care Council
GSCC-A 6 Standards
S.W.O.T – Strength, Weakness, Opportunities & Threats.
ASBO- Anti Social BehaviourA Order
YIP- Youth Inclusion Program
CAF- Common Assessment Form
General Social Care Council Standards: Code of practice.
As a social care worker, you must protect the rights and promote the interests of service users and carers.
As a social care worker, you must strive to establish and maintain the trust and confidence of service users and carers.
As a social care worker, you must promote the independence of service users while protecting them as far as possible from danger or harm.
As a social care worker, you must respect the rights of service users while seeking to ensure that their behaviour does not harm themselves or other people.
As a social care worker, you must uphold public trust and confidence in social care services.
As a social care worker, you must be accountable for the quality of your work and take responsibility for maintaining and improving your knowledge and skills.
Referencing
http://www.yjb.gov.uk/en-gb/yjs/Prevention/
http://www.guardian.co.uk/culture/2009/feb/15/radio-youthjustice

Oxford: Blackwell.
Davies, M. (2000) The Blackwell Companion To Social Work,Oxford: Blackwell.
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1228445/We-rein-ASBOs-Tories-plan-instant-penalties-control-yobs.htm
Dugmore, P. and Pickford, J. (2006) Youth Justice and Social Work,Exeter: Learning Matters.
Smith, P.K. and Cowie, H. (1996)A Understanding Children’s Development (2nd ed.),A A A A A A A A A A A A A Oxford: Blackwell. Page 198
Source: Home Office, Ministry of Justice, Youth Justice Board http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=2200)
http://www.yjb.gov.uk/en-gb/yjs/Prevention/YIP/
Ed Balls quote (Children & Young People Now) 3-9.12.09
Dugmore, P. and Pickford, J. (2006)A A A A A A A A A A A A A Youth Justice and Social Work,A A A A A A A A A A A A A Exeter: Learning Matters. Page 49 Taylor

Mental and substance use disorders are among the most important health issues facing Australians. They are a key health issue for young people in their teenage years and early 20s and, if these disorders persist, the constraints, distress and disability they cause can last for decades (McGorry et al., 2007). Associated with mental disorders among youth are high rates of enduring disability, including school failure, impaired or unstable employment, and poor family and social functioning. These problems lead to spirals of dysfunction and disadvantage that are difficult to reverse. (McGorry et al., 2007). As over 75% of mental disorders commence before the age of 25 years, reducing the economic, geographical, attitudinal and service organisation barriers for adolescents and young adults is an essential first step in addressing mental health problems (Hickie and McGorry, 2007).

In Australia, rates of mental illness among young people is higher than for any other population group and represented the major burden of disease for young people with depression making the greatest contribution to this burden. In addition, youth suicide and self-harm have both steadily increased during the 1990s (Williams et al., 2005). 60% of all health-related disability costs in 15 34-year-olds are attributable to mental health problems, and of the total disability years lived in Australia, 27% is attributable to mental disorders. Although most common mental disorders commence before 18 years of age, people aged 25 44 years and 45 64 years are more than twice as likely as those aged under 25 years to receive an active treatment when seen in general practice (Hickie et al., 2005).

Research has indicated that some mental health problems can be prevented through appropriate early intervention, and that the impact of existing mental illness can be mitigated through the early provision of appropriate services (Mental Health Policy and Planning Unit, ACT, 2006). It has been estimated that up to 60% of cases of alcohol or other substance misuse could be prevented by earlier treatment of common mental health problems (Hickie et al., 2005).

Despite the enthusiastic efforts of many clinicians around Australia, progress in service reform has plateaued, remains piecemeal and is frustratingly slow in contrast to what has been achieved in other countries, many of which began by emulating Australia. In addition, the specialist mental health system is seriously under-funded (McGorry and Yung, 2003). While Australia s national health spending continues to grow past $72 billion the total recurrent mental health spending has consistently remained below 7% of this figure (Hickie et al., 2005). The need for coordinated national health and welfare services for people with mental health and substance misuse problems has been recognised by all Australian governments, but insufficient investment, lack of accountability, divided systems of government and changing health care demands resulted in a very patchy set of reforms (Hickie and McGorry, 2007; Vimpani, 2005).

Statistics regarding the problem

Close to one in five people in Australia were affected by a mental health problem within a 12-month period, according to the National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing. Young adults were particularly affected, with more than one-quarter of Australians aged 18 to 24 years suffering from at least one mental disorder over a 12-month period (Mental Health Policy and Planning Unit, ACT, 2006).

In Australia, the prevalence of mental health problems among children aged 4 12 years lies between 7% and 14%, rises to 19% among adolescents aged 13 17 years, and increases again to 27% among young adults aged 18 24. Therefore, up to one in four young people in Australia are likely to be suffering from a mental health problem, with substance misuse or dependency, depression or anxiety disorder, or some combination of these the most common issues (McGorry et al., 2007). It is therefore more likely that mental health problems will develop between the ages of 12 and 26 than in any other stage of life (Orygen Youth Health, 2009).

This situation also exists among Australian Indigenous communities, where the continuing grief and trauma resulting from the loss of traditional lands and cultural practices as a result of colonization, past policies of child removal and the destruction of traditional governance arrangements within Aboriginal communities, are an ever-present cultural reality that plays out in some of the worst developmental health and well-being outcomes in advanced industrial society (Vimpani, 2005).

Risk taking by young people

Studies show that psychosocial issues form a great burden of disease for young people, including intentional and unintentional injuries, mental disorders, tobacco, alcohol and other substance misuse, and unprotected sexual intercourse (Tylee et al., 2007). The pathways to substance misuse in young people involve complex interplay between individual biological and psychological vulnerability, familial factors and broader societal influences. The impact on family and society is often painful, destructive and expensive (Vimpani, 2005).

In 2005, nearly half of all deaths of young men and a third of young women aged 15 34 years in NSW were due to suicide, transport accidents or accidental drug overdoses (418 persons; ABS, 2008b). In 2007, amongst young men in the age group 15-24 in NSW, the average age for first consumption of alcohol was around 15, and amongst women of the same age group, the average age for first use of alcohol was around 17 years. In addition to its potential direct health consequences, risky or high risk drinking can increase the likelihood of a person falling, or being involved in an accident or violence (ABS, 2008a). 71% of persons aged 14-19 and 89.4% of persons aged 20-29 were current drinkers. 27.6% of persons aged 14-19 (40.5% at the age of 20-29) were at risk of short term harm, while 10% (14.7% at the age of 20-29) were at risk of long term harm. Around 90% of Australian youth (aged 18 24 years) have drinking patterns that place them at high risk of acute harm (Lubmen et al., 2007). On average, 25 percent of hospitalisations of 15-24 year olds occur as a result of alcohol consumption (Prime Minister of Australia, 2008).

Almost one-quarter (23%) of people aged 15 24 years in Australia reported using illicit drugs during the last 12 months, around twice as high as the proportion of people aged 25 years and over (11%). Marijuana/cannabis was the most common drug used by 15 24 year olds (18%), followed by ecstasy (9%), and meth/amphetamines and pharmaceuticals (both 4%).

Barriers to provision and use of health services

Primary-care health services are sometimes still not available. They may be inaccessible for a variety of reasons such as cost, lack of convenience or lack of publicity and visibility. Health services might not be acceptable to young people, however, even if available and accessible. Fear about lack of confidentiality (particularly from parents) is a major reason for young people s reluctance to seek help, as well as possible stigma, fear of difficult questions. In addition, health professionals might not be trained in communicating with young people. If and when young people seek help, some may be unhappy with the consultation and determine not to go back. To ensure prevention and early intervention efforts, clinicians and public-health workers are increasingly recognising the pressing need to overcome the many barriers that hinder the provision and use of health services by young people, and to transform the negative image of health facilities to one of welcoming user-friendly settings (Tylee et al., 2007).

Spending in the area remains poor, and service access and tenure are actively withheld in most specialist mental health and substance misuse service systems until high levels of risk or danger are reached, or severe illness, sustained disability and chronicity are entrenched. Thus, just when mental health services are most needed by young people and their families, they are often inaccessible or unacceptable in design, style and quality. Moreover, numerous young people with distressing and disabling mental health difficulties struggle to find age-appropriate assistance. Young people with moderately severe non-psychotic disorders (eg, depression, anxiety disorders and personality disorders), and those with comorbid substance use and mental health issues, are particularly vulnerable. For many of these young people, if they survive (and many do not), their difficulties eventually become chronic and disabling (McGorry et al., 2007).

Another barrier is related to the manners in which young people seek help when they have a mental problem. The most recent national survey data for Australia show that only 29% of children and adolescents with a mental health problem had been in contact with a professional service of any type in a 12-month period. Some subgroups, such as young males, young Indigenous Australians and migrants may be even less likely to voluntarily seek professional help when needed. If young people want to talk to anyone, it is generally someone they know and trust and when they do seek professional help, it is from the more familiar sources family doctors and school-based counsellors. However, many young people at high risk of mental health problems do not have links to work, school, or even a family doctor (Rickwood, Deane and Wilson, 2007).

Furthermore, mental disorders are not well recognized by the public. The initial Australian survey of mental health literacy showed that many people cannot give the correct psychiatric label to a disorder portrayed in a depression or schizophrenia vignette. There is also a gap in beliefs about treatment between the public and mental-health professionals: the biggest gap is in beliefs about medication for both depression and schizophrenia, and admission to a psychiatric ward for schizophrenia (Jorm et al., 2006).

Existing resources: Knowledge, policy and programs

Existing knowledge: Manners of interventions

Prevention and early intervention programs are normally classified into four types: universal programs are presented to all regardless of symptoms; selective programs target children and adolescents who are at risk of developing a disorder by virtue of particular risk factors, such as being children of a depressed parent; indicated programs are delivered to students with early or mild symptoms of a disorder; and treatment programs are provided for those diagnosed with the disorder (Neil & Christensen, 2007). Universal prevention programs target all young people in the community regardless of their level of risk, and include economic measures, social marketing, and regulatory control and law enforcement initiatives, as well as a range of psychosocial programs (Lubmen et al., 2007).

In addition, interventions can be divided between promotion and prevention programs. Mental health promotion refers to activity designed to enhance emotional wellbeing, or increase public understanding of mental health issues and reduce the stigma surrounding mental illness. Prevention of mental illness may focus on at risk groups or sectors of the whole population. (Mental Health Policy and Planning Unit, ACT, 2006).

Source: Mental Health Policy and Planning Unit, ACT (2006).

Finally, collaborative care is typically described as a multifaceted intervention involving combinations of distinct professionals working collaboratively within the primary care setting. Collaborative care not only improves depression outcomes in months, but has been found to show benefits for up to 5 years (Hickie and McGorry, 2007).

The importance of early intervention

In the last two decades research demonstrated the high importance of early intervention to promote youth mental health and cope with mental disorders and substance misuse. Early intervention is required to minimise the impact of mental illness on a young person s learning, growth and development, thus improving the health outcome of those affected by mental illness. (Orygen Youth Health, 2009).

It was found that the duration of untreated psychosis (DUP) could be dramatically reduced by providing community education and mobile detection teams in an experimental study (McGorry, Killackey & Yung, 2007; McGorry et al., 2007). On the other hand, delayed treatment and prolonged duration of untreated psychosis is correlated with poorer response to treatment and worse outcomes. Thus, first-episode psychosis should be viewed as a psychiatric emergency and immediate treatment sought as a matter of urgency (McGorry and Yung, 2003).

The existing evidence also highlights the importance of prevention and early intervention programs on substance abuse. Such programs focus on delaying the age of onset of drug experimentation; reducing the number of young people who progress to regular or problem use; and encouraging current users to minimise or reduce risky patterns of use. Universal school-based drug education programs have been found to be effective in preventing and delaying the onset of drug use and reducing drug consumption (Lubmen et al., 2007).

Early andeffective intervention, targeting young people aged 12 25 years, is a community priority. A robust focus on young people s mental health has the capacity to generate greater personal, social and economic benefits than similar intervention in other age groups, and is therefore one of the best buys for future reforms (McGorry et al., 2007).

Importance of other players

During the early phases of a mental disorder, members of a person s social network (including parents, peers and GPs) can play an important role in providing support and encouraging appropriate help-seeking. For mental-health problems, young people tend to seek help from friends and family rather than health services. In developing countries, young people are even less willing to seek professional help for more sensitive matters (Tylee et al., 2007). As friends and family are often consulted first by young people, they constitute and important part of the pathway to professional mental health services (Rickwood, Deane and Wilson, 2007).

In a survey with young Australians and their parents, it was found that the most common response was to listen, talk or support the person, followed by listen, talk orsupport family and encourage professional help-seeking. Counsellor and GP/doctor/medical were the most frequently mentioned types of professional help that would be encouraged, but when young people were asked open ended questions about how they would help a peer, only a minority mentioned that they would encourage professional help. Among parents, encouraging professional help was a common response both in open-ended and direct questions (Jorm, Wright and Morgan, 2007).

General practice is essential to young people s mental health and is often the point of initial contact with professional services. However, there is a need to improve the ability of GPs to recognise mental health problems in young people As well asensuring privacy and clearly explaining confidentiality. Finally, GPs can provide reassurance that it is common to feel distress at times, and that symptoms can be a normal response to stressful events (Rickwood et al., 2007).

Schools

For the small percentage of youth who do receive service, this typically occurs in a school setting. School-based mental health (SBMH) programs and services not only enhance access to services for youth, but also reduce stigma for help seeking, increase opportunities to promote generalization and enhance capacity for mental health promotion and problem prevention efforts (Paternite, 2005). There is compelling evidence of the effectiveness of a range of school-based interventions in primary and secondary schools for children and young people at risk of substance abuse (Vimpani, 2005). One study found that participation in a school-based intervention beginning in preschool was associated with a wide range of positive outcomes, including less depressive symptoms (Reynolds et al., 2009).

Best elements for SBMH include: (a) school family community agency partnerships, (b) commitment to a full continuum of mental health education, mental health promotion, assessment, problem prevention, early intervention, and treatment, and (c) services for all youth, including those in general and special education. A strong connection between schools and other community agencies and programs also assists in moving a community toward a system of care, and promotes opportunities for developing more comprehensive and responsive programs and services (Paternite, 2005).

Government policy

There are a number of examples of governmental policy and program to enhance youth mental health. The new Medicare-based scheme now includes a suite of measures designed to increase access to appropriate and affordable forms of evidence-based psychological care. Unfortunately, it largely reverts to traditional individual fee-for-service structures. There are no requirements for geographical distribution of services, despite the evidence of gross mal-distribution of mental health specialist services in Australia and the proven contribution of lack of mental health services to increased suicide rates in rural and regional communities (Hickie and McGorry, 2007).

Transformation is also occurring in primary care in Australia. GPs are increasing their skills, providing new evidence-based medication and psychological treatments, and beginning to emphasise long term functional outcomes rather than short-term relief of symptoms. Early-intervention paradigms depend on earlier presentation for treatment. Future progress now depends on development of an effective and accessible youth-health and related primary care network. (Hickie et al., 2005).

As for substance abuse, The National Campaign Against Drug Abuse (now known as the National Drug Strategy) was established in 1985. It is an inter-governmental and strategic approach based on national and state government cooperation and planning. The campaign has been adopted to bring together research and practice relevant to the treatment and prevention to protect the healthy development of children and youth (Williams et al., 2005).

Existing programs

There are several existing programs which address youth mental health and substance abuse. Knowing which programs exist may help us in understanding existing resources and knowledge, learning best practices, and recognising what else needs to be done.

Australian programs:

* The National Youth Mental Health Foundation headspace: providing mental and health wellbeing support, information and services to young people aged 12 to 25 years and their families across Australia. www.headspace.org.au

* MindMatters is a national mental health initiative funded by the Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing. It is a professional development program supporting Australian secondary schools in promoting and protecting the mental health, social and emotional wellbeing of all the members of school communities. www.mindmatters.edu.au

* Mindframe: a national Australian Government’s program aimed at improving media reporting on mental health issues, providing access to accurate information about suicide and mental illness and portraying these issues in the news media and on stage and screen in Australia. www.mindframe-media.info

* The Personal Assessment and Crises Evaluation (PACE) clinic provides treatment for young people who are identified as being at ultra high risk. It involves facilitated groups using adult learning principles based on a curriculum addressing adolescent communication, conflict resolution and adolescent development. http://cp.oyh.org.au/ClinicalPrograms/pace

* The Gatehouse Project has been developed in Australia as an enhancement program for use in the secondary school environment. It incorporates professional training for teachers and an emotional competence curriculum for students and is designed to make changes in the social and learning environments of the school as well as promoting change at the individual level. www.rch.org.au/gatehouseproject

* Pathways to Prevention: a universal, early intervention , developmental prevention project focused on the transition to school in one of the most disadvantaged urban areas in Queensland.

* The Positive Parenting Program (Triple P), which has been implemented widely in Australia and elsewhere for parents of preschool children, has also been implemented for parents of primary school-aged children. http://www1.triplep.net

* The Family Partnerships training program, now established in several Australian states and already incorporated into maternal and child health and home visitor training, is designed to improve the establishment of an effective respectful partnership between health workers and their clients.

Other international programs:

* ARC (Availability, Responsiveness and Continuity): an organizational and community intervention model that was designed to support the improvement of social and mental health services for children. The ARC model incorporates intervention components from organizational development, inter-organizational domain development, the diffusion of innovation, and technology transfer that target social, strategic, and technological factors in effective children s services.

* Preparing for the Drug Free Years (PDFY) is a universal prevention programme targeted at parents of pre-adolescents (aged 8 -14 years) that has been subjected to several large-scale dissemination and effectiveness studies across 30 states of the United States and Canada involving 120000 families.

Future directions

This paper suggests that despite a wealth of knowledge and information on appropriate interventional methods, services to address youth mental health in Australia are not consistently provided and are often under-funded. New evidence is continuously available for professionals; however this knowledge has often failed to filter through to the community and those in need. As Bertolote & McGorry (2005) asserted, despite the availability of interventions that can reduce relapses by more than 50%, not all affected individuals have access to them, and when they do, it is not always in a timely and sustained way.

The major health problems for young people are largely preventable. Access to primary-health services is seen as an important component of care, including preventive health for young people. Young people need services that are sensitive to their unique stage of biological, cognitive, and psychosocial transition into adulthood, and an impression of how health services can be made more youth-friendly has emerged (Tylee et al., 2007).

Existing and new extended community networks, including business, schools, sporting bodies, government sectors, community agencies and the broader community are asked to play their part in mental health promotion and illness prevention. These networks will:

* bring together all service sectors and the broader community in closer collaboration in the promotion of mental health;

* exchange information about, and increase understanding of existing activities, and encourage new ones;

* develop and strengthen the mental health promoting aspects of existing activities; develop greater mental health promotion skills right across the community; and

* encourage an environment that fosters and welcomes new ideas, and supports adaptation and innovation to respond to a new environment (Mental Health Policy and Planning Unit, ACT, 2006).

As for substance misuse, despite acknowledgement of the substantial costs associated with alcohol misuse within Australia, there have not been serious attempts to reduce alcohol harm using the major levers of mass-marketing campaigns, accompanied by significant changes to alcohol price and regulatory controls. Young people continue to be given conflicting messages regarding the social acceptability of consuming alcohol (Lubmen et al., 2007).

According to the Mental Health Policy and Planning Unit (2006), ideas about the best strategies for supporting the mental health of the community are undergoing great change in Australia and internationally, with a growing focus on preventative approaches. Mental health promotion and prevention are roles for the whole community and all sectors of government. Although Australia has slipped behind in early intervention reform, it is now emerging that the situation can improve and that Australia can again be at the forefront of early intervention work. Here are some proposals as to how this can best be achieved:

1. Guaranteed access to specialist mental health services for a minimum period of 3 years post-diagnosis for all young people aged 15 25 with a first-episode of psychosis. New funding is clearly required to support this.

2. Such funding must be quarantined into new structures, programmes and teams.

3. The child versus adult psychiatry service model split is a serious flaw for early intervention and for modern and appropriate developmental psychiatry models. It needs to be transcended by proactive youth-orientated models. Early detection and engagement can be radically improved through such reforms and specialist mental health care can also be delivered in a less salient and stigmatized manner.

McGorry et al. (2007) suggested four service levels that are required to fully manage mental illness among young people:

1. Improving community capacity to deal with mental health problems in young people through e-health, provision of information, first aid training and self-care initiatives;

2. Primary care services provided by general practitioners and other frontline service providers, such as school counsellors, community health workers, and non-government agency youth workers;

3. Enhanced primary care services provided by GPs (ideally working in collaboration with specialist mental health service providers in co-located multidisciplinary service centres) as well as team-based virtual networks;

4. Specialist youth-specific (12 25 years) mental health services providing comprehensive assessment, treatment and social and vocational recovery services (McGorry et al., 2007).

Elements of successful programs (best practices)

Revising the vast research on preventing mental disorders and promoting mental health among youth, particularly in Australia, as well as examining some of the successful and effective programs in the field, the following items summarise elements of current best practice:

1. Holistic approaches and community engagement:

a. Adopt holistic approaches which integrate mental health promotion with other aspects of community and individual wellbeing

b. Balance between universal and targeted programmes and their relative cost-effectiveness.

c. Engage young people, the community and youth support services in working together to build the resilience of young people, and encourage early help and help seeking when problems occur

d. Community engagement with the youth, and youth engagement with the community

e. Outreach workers, selected community members and young people themselves are involved in reaching out with health services to young people in the community

f. Promote community-based health facility: including stand-alone units (which are generally run by non-governmental organisations or by private individuals or institutions), and units that are an integral part of a district or municipal health system (that are run by the government).

2. Access to services and information:

a. Make services more accessible to youth by collaborating with schools, GPs, parents etc.

b. Social marketing to reduce stigma and make information more accessible

c. Have more information online for young people with mental health issues, their families and peers. Promote understanding among community members of the benefits that young people will gain by obtaining health services

a. Reduce costs

b. Improve convenience of point of delivery working hours and locations

3. Assure youth-friendly primary-care services

a. Have other players in the community involved in promotion of youth mental health, such as schools, GPs, and community centres

b. Practitioners training

c. Ensure confidentiality and privacy (including discreet entrance)

d. Addressing inequities (including gender inequities) and easing the respect, protection, and fulfilment of human rights

4. Inter-sectoral and inter-organisational collaboration:

a. Enable organisations to work in partnership towards shared goals

b. Lead to multi agency, client centred service delivery and care

5. Research and support:

a. Provide support such as information and training for the community and for mental health carers and consumers to plan and participate in mental health promotion activity

b. Acknowledge formal and informal knowledge

6. Policy:

a. Promoting a whole-of-government response to support optimal development health and well-being outcomes

b. Policies and procedures are in place that ensure health services that are either free or affordable to all young people