Category: Free Essays

As the population continues to age, it is becoming increasingly important to focus on policies and practices that support and enhance the wellbeing of the older population in later life. One sad reality for many seniors in later life and an increasing cause for concern is elder abuse. Elder abuse is one of the most disturbing and rapidly growing areas of crime throughout the global. It is extremely difficult to exactly quantify the extent of elder abuse because many such cases go undetected and under-reported.

The World Health Organization reported that it is generally agreed that abuse of older people is either an act of commission or of omission or neglect, and it may either be intentional or unintentional (Krug et al., 2002). It results in unnecessary suffering, injury, the loss of violation of human rights, and a decreased quality of life for the older person. Like any other form of domestic violence, abuse of the elderly initially remained as a private matter hidden from public view. It was initially seen as a social welfare issue and latter on a problem of ageing, but now has developed into a significant public health and criminal justice concern. The value of loving family institution has been tarnished by greed, position-struggle and impatience.

Despite elder abuse is not entirely a new issue; it is time to find out the prevention ways to be implemented and effective interventions to emerge. There are a few welfare needs that will be highlighted after so that the young generation have a strong sense of love and care towards the senior citizen.

Elderly

Nowadays, Malaysians are living longer; they are on an average of 74 years for men and 78 years for women. In others words, their life expectancy has increase. With the advances in medical care and better nutrition, older people are living longer, they are more visible, more active and more independent than ever before and they are in better health. Therefore there is a growing concern regarding the global phenomenon of aging. A decline in the birth as well as death rates has resulted in an increase in the elderly population. Given that the elderly population is on the rise, it is of paramount importance to examine the care of the older persons.

2005
(%)
2010
(%)

Total Population

26.75 m

28.96 m

65 and above

1.15 m

4.3%

1.36 m

4.7 %

This table shows that the total population and the aged of 65 years or above in Malaysia between the year of 2005 and 2010. In 2005, the total population of Malaysia was 26.75 million, and which 1.15 million or 4.3% was aged 65 years and above. Moreover, in 2010, Malaysia currently has a population of approximately 29 million, and aged 65 years and above has increased to 1.36 million or 4.7%. With the projected population growth of 2% annually, it expected that the total population in 2020 will rise to 34 million, of which 3.2 million or 9.5% will be the age of 65 years and above. In the year 2035, the country is expected to have a total population of about 46 million of which 6.9 million or 15% will be the aged 65 years and above. This is evident that Malaysia’s demographic ageing pattern is emerging. Based on the figure showed in this table, the real numbers of older person have increased lately, which also means that the number of elderly will continue to grow over the coming year. As the populations of older Malaysian grows, so there has a hidden problem of elder abuse. Further, the number of elderly with chronic illness is likely to increase. This can pose an increased burden on their caregivers such as family members, and it could lead to a higher risk of elderly abuse.

Elder abuse

Elder abuse is a single or repeated act or lack of appropriate action occurring within any relationship where there is an expectation of trust which causes harm or distress to an older person (Action on Elder Abuse 1995). The “wilful infliction of injury, unreasonable confinement, intimidation or cruel punishment with resulting physical harm or pain or mental anguish, or the wilful deprivation by a caretaker of goods or services which are necessary to avoid physical harm, mental anguish or mental illness” (1985 Elder Abuse Prevention, Identification & Treatment Act). According to the Swanson (1999), elder abuse refers to the mistreatment of older people by those in a position of trust, power or responsibility for their care. This is a global problem that is likely to intensify in view of the increasing number of older people and the changing socio-economic and environmental conditions worldwide (Randel et al. 1999). Further, Hazzard (1995) described elder abuse as cruel and inhumane treatment of the elderly. Kapur (1997) defines it as a kind of harassment or an injustice done to the elderly by the family members themselves. In fact, there is too many definition of elder abuse but despite this, most would agree with this definition “an action or inaction by someone in a position of trust; often a family member or unrelated caregiver”. Normally, more than two-thirds of the abusers are their family members and are typically giving their basic needs or care support such as food, shelter, personal care or transportation. In others word, someone who commits elder abuse usually has control or influence over the older person. The older persons often know and trust the abusers. Some victims of elder abuse depend on the people who hurt them, sometimes for food, shelter, personal care, or transportation. Therefore, the abusers could be their family members, friend; someone the older people relies on for basic needs or staff in group residential settings such as care homes or in long term health care facilities.

The Prevalence of Elderly Abuse in Five Developed Countries
Country
Prevalence (%)

USA

3.2

Canada

4.0

Finland

5.4

Netherlands

5.6

United Kingdom

5.0

The accepted prevalence rates of abuse of older people are drawn from five community surveys carried out in developed countries, which are USA, Canada, Finland, Netherlands and United Kingdom. The prevalence of the elderly abuse in USA with percentage is 3.2%, in Canada is 4.0%, in Finland is 5.4%, in Netherlands is 5.6% and United Kingdom is 5.0%.

But in Malaysia, the information and data of elderly abuse is scarce. There are no reported cases of elder abuse to the Department of Social Welfare as well as no agency keeps proper records of the incidence of elder abuse in this country. Although this ‘epidemic’ is virtually unheard of in Malaysia, we are challenged to be aware of the many faces of elder abuse in our own society and this issue is much more common than societies admit.

Types of elder abuse

Elder abuse referred to an inappropriate action that causes harms or distress to an elderly which the older person has expectation trust onto the person. Elder abuse can take in several forms. Elder abuse may take form in physical, psychological, financial, sexual abuse, neglect and abandonment that cause distress to a person who is past retirement age.

Physical Abuse

Physical elder abuse is non-accidental use of force against an elderly person that results in physical pain, injuries, or impairment (Ellen, Tina, Jeanne, 2008). This abuse includes not only physical assaults such as hitting or shoving but the inappropriate use of drugs, restraints, or confinement. The physical acts of violence commonly include slapping, hitting, and striking with objects. Indicators of potential physical abuse are broken bones, sprains, or dislocations, unexplained signs of injury such as bruises, welts, or scars, especially if they appear symmetrically on two side of the body, signs of being restrained, such as rope marks on wrists (Elder Abuse.com, 2009). Diagnosis may be difficult even at autopsy as findings may be subtle and invariably some chronic or debilitating disease would be present. The case of an elderly lady from a nursing home referred to the police for suspected physical abuse. Investigations showed that osteomalacia and spontaneous fractures could have accounted for her injuries. However, recognition of physical abuse may not be straightforward, as injuries may be secondary to falls to which the frail elderly are more prone.

Emotional abuse

Emotional abuse is defined as the infliction of anguish, pain, or distress of elderly. Emotional abuse also referred as an act with the intention that causing emotional pain or injury which often accompanies physical abuse. This abuse may be happens in verbal or nonverbal acts. Verbal forms are included humiliation and ridicule, intimidation through yelling or threats and habitual blaming or scapegoating. Nonverbal emotional elder abuse can take the form of ignoring the elderly person, isolating an elder from friends or activities and terrorizing or menacing the elderly person (Ellen, Tina, Jeanne, 2008). Therefore, an elderly person who shows fear, passive, withdrawn, low self esteem, reluctance to talk openly, insomnia, fatigue and listlessness or behave mimics dementia, such as rocking, sucking, or mumbling to oneself may be abused in the form of emotional abuse.

Financial Abuse

Exploitation of the elderly is also considered as an abuse which includes acts of material or financial exploitation. Financial or material exploitation is defined as the illegal or improper use of an elder’s funds, property, or assets (Elder Abuse.com, 2009). Elder financial abuse is one of the most difficult types of elder abuse to recognize due to its lack of obvious symptoms. Some of these include misuse an elder’s personal checks, credit cards, or accounts, steal elder’s cash, income checks, or household goods. Most common example case is the announcements of a “prize” that the elderly person has won but they need to pay money to claim (Ellen, Tina, Jeanne, 2008). Besides that, theft of pension checks, threats to enforce the signing or changing of wills or other legal documents, and coercion involving any financial matters also consider as the example of the financial abuse. Indicators of potential financial abuse may include unusual bank account activity, sudden changes in the elder’s financial condition, or worsening medical conditions due to lack of follow up or unfilled drug prescriptions. Exploitation may also occur in the form of fraud schemes; someone may persuade the elderly person to withdraw their life savings in a “get rich quick” scheme, or ‘contractors’ convincing the elderly that the house needs repairs which in reality might be unnecessary. Financial abuse is one of the most difficult types of elder abuse to diagnose as the victim may not be aware of its occurrence or may not know how to seek help.

Abandonment and Neglect

Abandonment is defined as the desertion of an elderly person by an individual who had physical custody or otherwise had assumed responsibility for providing care for an elder. It also referred to the action of withdrawing a person or a thing entirely; putting aside all care for him or it. Neglect of the elderly is also a form of abuse and is often referred to the refusal or failure to fulfil any part of a person’s obligations or duties to an elder. This may be intentional or unintentional neglect. Active neglect is the intentional withholding of basic necessities or care, while passive neglect is not providing basic necessities and care because of a lack of experience, information or ability. Another area to consider is self-neglect where older adults, by choice or ignorance, live in ways that disregard health or safety needs, sometimes to the extent that the disregard also poses a hazard to others. For example, the caregiver may be unable to perform care giving duties such as bathing or changing an incontinent elderly person. Therefore, an elderly person with unusual poor hygiene, loss in weight, poor nutrition, skin breakdown, unsuitable clothing, unsafe and unclean living conditions such as no heat or running water, faulty electrical wiring, other fire hazards and smelling of urine may be neglected either intentionally or unintentionally.

Sexual Abuse

Sexual abuse is defined as non-consensual and unwilling sexual contact of any kind. This includes all unwanted sexual activity, such as verbal or suggestive behaviour, fondling, sexual intercourse or a lack of personal privacy. Besides that, activities such as showing an elderly person pornographic material, forcing the person to watch sex acts, or forcing the elder to undress are also considered sexual elder abuse. Indicators of potential physical abuse are unexplained venereal disease or genital infections, bruises around breasts or genitals, unexplained vaginal or anal bleeding and torn, stained, or bloody underclothing (Ellen, Tina, Jeanne, 2008). Sexual abuse usually implies a physical sexual relationship with an elderly person without that person’s informed consent, though this is not restricted to sexual intercourse but includes other forms of intimate sexual contact. It is often difficult to establish whether sexual abuse has occurred, unless the individual has cognitive impairment.

Signs and symptoms of elder abuse

Signs and symptoms of elder abuse should be taken seriously. It is vital that we are alert to the possible indicators of abuse. In assessing any situation, it is important to realize that an indicator may be present for reasons other than abuse or neglect. However, if a combination of the following indicators is present there is a need to further explore why those indicators are present. Increase awareness of abuse signs and symptoms as well as monitor the progress in suspected cases of abuse. Home care community nurses can play a critical role in detecting suspected cases of elder abuse. However, in Malaysia, we do not as yet have a health care system in place for such purposes, although these types of services are only now slowly emerging. Hence the only opportunity for detecting abuse is when the older adult visits a primary care setting or an emergency department.

Characteristics of the Abused Elder

Most victims of elder abuse are mentally competent and able to make decisions for them. Most of them able to taking care of their own health needs and do not need constant care. Although some victims of elder abuse are generally dependent on their abuser in some way, their dependency is not necessarily because they are mentally incapable or physically frail (Al Loney, 2006). However, if the older people who having mental or physical disability, they may be more vulnerable to be abused. Those at risk are most likely to be female, widowed, frail, cognitively impaired, and chronically ill. The older adults who poor in physical health, highly dependence on the abuser, functional or cognitive impairment and a living arrangement shared with the abuser are consider as risk factors for elder abuse. Normally, older women are more vulnerable to abuse than older men and are burdened with a lifetime of experiences and beliefs that may increase their susceptibility. In most instances, violence and abuse against older women can be sexual, physical or psychological and also can include material or financial abuse and neglect. It can occur in the home, in institutions or as a result of harmful cultural practices that specifically target older women (Breatheinspirit, 2006).

There are various studies have looked at factors associated with elder abuse. In the NEAIS report, females and those aged 80 and above were more likely to suffer abuse, family members were the most likely perpetrators and victims of self-neglect were usually depressed, confused or extremely frail. Other studies have similarly reported vulnerable elderly as those with physical and mental weaknesses, advanced age, women, those with previous abusive relationships in the family, financial strain and caregiver stress and burnt out.

Characteristics of the Abuser

The abuser is most likely the person with whom the elderly person stays with. More often, the abuser is a close relative; 80% being spouses and children of the victims, or a close relative. In some cases, elder abuse may be caused to abusers’ over use of drug or alcohol, history of anti-social behaviour, or mental illness problems. Abuse is more likely to happen when the abuser is going through a period of high stress. It may be the stress of looking after the older person due to old age is a time of weak health, low income, meaningless role, or the death of loved ones (Al Loney, 2006). These problems may be creating great unhappiness for older people and then damage the relationships with their family. In extreme cases, this may lead to abuse.

Elder abuse often happens because of the abuser’s power and fully control over an older person. Family members who depend on the elder for financial, housing, or other necessities have a higher risk of become an abuser. A caregiver’s inexperience, a history of family violence, economic dependence on the elder or a blaming personality and unrealistic expectations often contribute to elderly abuse. The abuser may be lack involved in community activities, social services, and even contact with other family members. Besides that, they may lack of family support, facing marital conflict, overcrowding and the high burden of care placed on the caregiver. In most of elder abuse cases, the abuser may not allow people to visit or talk to the older person alone.

On the other hands, staff in long-term care homes, such as homes for the aged and charitable institutions, might involved in abuse the older people in physically or mentally. Abusers are more likely to be staff members who are not able to do their jobs properly (Al Loney, 2006). This may due to poor of training, low salary, over-work without pay, or under-staffing. Besides that, it also could be the staffs have personal problems that influence their services to older people which under their care. But, there is no excuse for abuse. The personal circumstances or problems of the caregiver can’t be an excuse of elder abuse. These problems may be factors in the abuse, but they do not try to recognize it. It is unmoral because the older people are fully trusted and relies on the caregiver, but the caregiver misuse the trust of the older people to do something that threaten to the older people.

Common Reasons Elder Abuse Is Not Reported

The actual and prevalence of elder abuse is unknown and difficult to measure. Elderly abuse exists in our society but it is seldom reported, and perhaps even less so in an Asian society where filial piety and respect for the elderly is traditionally highly regarded. This problem often remains undetected because of poor public awareness and lack of knowledge among health care personnel. This is because it can cause some adverse effects on the health and quality of life of the elderly. Due to their mental capacity, they are unaware of the help available to them. Therefore, elder abuse is seldom reported. In most situations, elderly are unlikely to report that they are abused as they are fear of embarrassment and fear of losing care support. They are mostly completely under the control of the abuser and depend on the abusers for food, shelter, clothing and health care. Furthermore, they also fear of harm by the abuser. Some of them are lack of awareness; they are only suspect but uncertain that is abuse, therefore, the cases of elder abuse is hardly to report and also seldom reported.

Risk Factors for elder abuse

Abuse of older adults is such a complex issue with no single explanation. However, there are many factors seem to contribute to these critical issues and each case has its own unique mix of factors.

One of the most obvious factors is the family dynamics. The habits, values, emotional and coping skills are learned early in life and largely through family interaction. In other words, if unhealthy or violent behaviours go unchecked, abuse may continue when roles are reversed. Therefore, if a child who was previously abused becomes a primary caregiver, there is a probability that the cycle of abuse will continue and be inflicted on a dependent parent.

Besides that, inability to cope with stress especially for those non professional caregiver such as spouses, adult children, other relatives and friends find taking care of an elder would caused many responsibilities. This may be extremely stressful to cope with the demands of elder care giving. As a result, the stress of elder care can lead to mental and physical heaths problems that caused caregivers impatient, burned out, and sometimes are unable to keep from lashing out against elders in their care.

Next, problem of elderly abuse may also happen in the nursing home when the staffs who worked are those lacks of experience and training. This is because even caregivers in institutional settings can experience stress at levels that can lead to elder abuse. The nursing home staff may be prone to elder abuse if they lack training, have too many responsibilities and are unsuited to care giving, or they are work under poor conditions.

Social isolation can also conceal and perpetuate abuse or neglect. An older person may become isolated due to physical or mental illness, or through the loss of friends and family members. Therefore, isolation does not just conceal abuse and neglect; it perpetuates the problem. The result of this isolation can make it easier for an abuser to exploit, neglect or abuse an older person. There is a significantly higher risk for elder abuse if without a caring support network. In addition, if a caregiver imposes isolation to avoid uncovering the abuse, this is also a form of abuse.

In addition, sometimes caregivers who are unable to cope with the long term care giving may react to the stress of too many responsibilities in appropriate ways. These unusual releases way are such as abusing, neglecting the older adults in their care. Also, most of the caregiver’s perception is that taking care of the elder is burdensome and without psychological reward. Thus, many of them choose to neglect the older adults.

The society’s acceptance towards violence can also be a form of factors in contributing the elderly abuse. For example the Canadians see violence in the news, movie and television shows. This wide exposure often leads to a general acceptance or tolerance of violence as an acceptable way of venting frustration or anger. Thus, this tolerance creates an environment which can contribute to abuse and neglect of older adults.

The welfare needs of elderly

Welfare needs are necessary for elderly in order to stop the growing elder abuse issue. The government, law and legislation, mass media, school education, health care providers, family and also elderly have the responsibility to give support the rights of old persons.

The government

The National Service Program or Program Latihan Khidmat Negara (PLKN) was established since started in 2004 as a response to the Malaysian Government’s desire to inculcate the spirit of patriotism in the hearts and minds of Malaysian youths. Besides to develop the spirit of patriotism, it instils a spirit of caring and volunteerism among members of society as well as to develop positive characteristics among younger generation through good values. The three-month program is aimed at shaping young people into disciplined, independent and resilient citizens capable of advancing the nation.

From this programme, the young generations could learn how to respect the elderly.

Welfare pension should be introduced in Malaysia. If elderly do not have the ability to claim maintenance from their financially-able children, they have the pension as a security. It is seen as a way to eradicate poverty. The senior citizens are still able to take care of themselves in spite of they are abandoned by their merciless children.

Abuse prevention programme could be introduced by Malaysian government as well. Its purpose is to provide and arrange for services to protect adults who are unable to protect themselves from abuse and provide older adults with information about their rights. For example, Abuse Prevention Programme (APP) in Australia which supports older adults who are being abused, or who are at risk of being abused, by someone with whom they are in a relationship of trust, such as family and friends. APP advocates work in consultation with the older adult, either directly, or with someone else the older person has chosen (their representative). APP can assist them to identify and understand the issues related to abuse of their rights as well as discuss information about options which they can implement to assert their rights. Besides, it suggests action they can take to stop abuse of their rights and give them with appropriate advocacy support that enables them to have their rights met.

In addition, the government can launch adult day care programme, which it enables the caregivers to get time off during the day. Adult day care is a planned program of activities designed to promote well-being though social and health related services. Adult day care centres operate during daytime hours, Monday through Friday, in a safe, supportive, cheerful environment. It not just provides older persons an opportunity to get out of the house and receive both mental and social stimulation but also gives caregivers a much-needed break in which to attend to personal needs, or simply rest and relax.

Law and legislation

Malaysia law and legislation also play a vital role in overcoming the elderly abuse problem. Malaysia law can establish a legislative “Elder Protective Act” which is warranted to protect our vulnerable elderly from untold suffering. They have the right to live with dignity and security. For example in all 50 US states have specific adult protection legislation within which issues related to elder abuse and/or neglect are addressed. This legislation is influenced by child welfare models, and is characterised by legal powers of investigation, intervention and mandatory reporting. In the absence of federal mandates, states have been developing their own responses to adult abuse, neglect and exploitation. Legislative “Elder Protective Act” should be implemented by the government to safeguard the rights of our vulnerable elderly.

Suggestion has been made for the government of Malaysia to adopt a law which allowing the elderly parents to claim maintenance from their financially-able children. This can be learned from the country of Singapore where the Maintenance of Parents Act enables parents above 60 years old who cannot support themselves to seek legal action forcing their children to provide maintenance for them.

The government of Malaysia should also tighten the law and can used country of India as an example. In India, children could be imprisoned or fined or be subjected to both if they abandon their elderly parents. The Tamil Nadu government is set to notify rules for the Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act, 2007, to help tribunals in each district decide on the order of maintenance for elderly citizens, who complain about being neglected by their children. Therefore, the government is committed to develop such services and formulate policies against elder abuse in Malaysia.

Malaysia, being one of a few countries that uphold Syariah Law has Islamic Law that governs the welfare of family matters including the ageing parents, following the case in which a couple sued their daughter for not providing sufficient maintenance as what they have agreed.

Elder abuse is a national problem with far reaching consequences for individuals, families, communities, and institutions. The state courts must play a critical role in addressing the needs of victims of elder abuse. The court’s ability to assist older persons essentially determines whether individuals live their remaining years with respect and dignity, or are further alienated from the justice system with personal safety.

Mass Media

Mass media also plays a quite significant role in minimizing the problem of elderly abuse in Malaysia. The media was often blamed as one of the sources of the negative images of older adults in society. It was seen as important to work with the media to change these negative images, to raise awareness and to educate the population about elder abuse. They are able to inspire the public to be aware of this social issue by utilizing mass media such as televisions, radio networks, internet, newspaper, magazines, etc.

Nevertheless the problem often remains undetected because of poor public awareness and lack of knowledge among healthcare personnel. Therefore, the print as well as electronic media are to play active roles to increase the society’s awareness of the elderly.

Media coverage of elder abuse cases can make the public knowledgeable about-and outraged against-abusive treatment in those settings. Due to most abuse occurs in the home by family members or caregivers, there needs to be a concerted effort to educate the public about the special needs and problems of the elderly and about the risk factors for abuse. Within mass media cultures, social issues such as elder abuse, have key reference points which can attract concentrated coverage of the topic and carry influential associations in public perceptions. For example, in USA, the Indochina Sino-American Community Centre formed a coalition called “Chinese Americans Restoring Elders”, they used mass media to encourage the public to contact the Community Centre for matters related to elder abuse; provided some individual counselling sessions; and conducted a press conference and distributed brochures and flyers in Chinatown to commemorate World Elder Abuse Awareness Day.

The television networks always played the advertisements that have the influence on the public over the caring of the elderly. Like the PESTRONAS during religious or cultural holidays (namely Aidilfitri, Chinese New Year, Deepavali) are often accompanied by touching advertisement that convey the message to show love and care to our parents.

School Education

Education is the cornerstone of preventing elder abuse. This education needs to start very early, in primary school.

The students need to be educated to perceive to older adults more favourably as positive contributors to society. The elderly do not necessary mean burden to the family or society. With their wealth of knowledge and experience, they can still contribute to economic development and wealth creation. They have contributed to the development of the nation in their earlier years and they can still continue to be productive in their golden years. The students should consider senior citizens are an important and integral part of our society.

Students need to understand the interpersonal dynamic of care-giving. For example, they need to be award of the value placed on the dependency and inter-dependency in care-giving; role reversals in care-giving; and how unresolved emotions between the elderly and the care-giver influence the care-giving process.

The school curriculum is to include education on the family to enable the younger generation to understand and appreciate the elderly. They need to be encouraged to form closer relationships with older adults. The general population also needs to be aware that elder abuse happens and is a problem. Students need to understand the subtle difference between abuse, neglect and abandonment theoretically as well as operationally. The moral education teachers not just teach theoretically but also operationally. What is more, the schools should organise a numbers of the activities like visiting old

The rationale behind this assignment is to highlight restorative justice and the aspects of it, in terms of how it differs from the traditional legal justice system. This will include a critical analysis of restorative justice while evaluating its strengths and weaknesses as a different approach to crime control. I will identify underlying theory, legislation and policy that brought restorative justice to the forefront of opinion, and specifically relate it to the Northern Ireland criminal justice system. The aim is to identify if it is a meaningful system to all parties involved and why/if it is necessary in the present criminal justice system.

Introduction

In an age of “hoodie culture” and prison overcrowding, questions are being asked over the efficacy of the criminal justice system and how much of a deterrent from crime it really is. Following a long period of differing regimes, such as retribution, rehabilitation and restructure, all competing to be the dominant influence in the criminal justice system, there has emerged a ‘new’ approach to crime control, that of restorative justice (Hughes, 2001, p247). The aim of this approach is to provide an opportunity for the rehabilitation of the offender, as well as punishment of the criminal behaviour, with a central role in regards to the rights of, and provision of justice for the victim (Hughes, 2001, p248). The commonly accepted definition of restorative justice is; ‘Restorative justice is a process whereby parties with a stake in a specific offence collectively resolve how to deal with the aftermath of the offence and its implications for the future’ (Marshall, 1999, p5). According to Hughes (2001) Restorative justice aims to bring the process of criminality back into the ‘community’, enabling all parties affected by criminal behaviour to be involved in working towards resolution and future planning (Hughes, 2001, p248). This is a new concept, as traditionally criminal justice was retributive and aimed only to address the offence by punishing the offender.

In recent years, restorative justice has been a process that has been adopted by an international audience, particularly the USA, Australia and New Zealand, each employing it to address some of the traditional concerns of the formal justice system (O’Mahony and Doak, 2004, p484) i.e. the effectiveness of prison acting as a deterrent for crime, or victims lack of inclusion in the criminal justice process. The ‘new’ restorative justice system aims to move away from the traditional notions of retribution into a new context of restoration. Most international practices are supported by Braithwaite’s (1989) theory of reintegrative shaming, which exerts the idea that the offender should be encouraged to experience shame for their actions and work towards absolution (O’Mahony and Doak, 2004, p484). The process attempts to ‘repair the relationship’ between the victim and the offender and begin a ‘healing process designed to meet the needs of the victims, whilst also reintegrating the offender into society’ (O’Mahony and Doak, 2004, p484). Braithwaite’s theory is based on the proposal that the process of restorative justice will address the needs of the victim materially, emotionally and psychologically, whilst also helping them emerge from the process with more respect for the system (O’Mahony and Doak, 2004, p484).

Another theory of restorative justice was first introduced by the New Zealand Maori and their principles of collective responsibility, where restorative justice seeks to decentre the state’s status as the responsibility of dealing with crime (Tauri and Morris, 2003, p44). Instead, operating by drawing together all those involved in an offence to an environment, promoting equal power relations, while discussing the harm caused, and jointly agreeing on how reformation can be made (Tauri and Morris, 2003, p44). A central component to restorative justice is that the community is seen to be a key stakeholder in the offence (Zehr and Mika, 2003, p41). This can take a variety of forms, from the vicinity in which the offender and victim live, or their wider social networks of family, friends and colleagues (Zehr and Mika, 2003, p41). This allows for comprehensive information sharing beyond that of only the offender and victim, so that the scale of the harm caused by the offender can be explored. This is the main difference between the formal justice system and that of restorative justice, where all parties can contribute information of the offence and the harm caused, while also having an involvement into meaningful reparation.

Restorative Justice in practice

Restorative justice in practice is a relatively new concept in the UK, having elements such as reparation orders in the Crime and Disorder Act (1998), and referral orders in the Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act (1999) (Crawford and Newburn, 2002, pp476-478). Within Northern Ireland it was the Criminal Justice Review (CJR) (2000) which provided recommendations to involve victims in the criminal justice process and develop restorative justice approaches for juvenile offenders. The review concluded that restorative practices for adult offenders and young adult offenders (aged 18-21) be piloted and evaluated before whole schemes are introduced (Criminal Justice Review, 2000, p203).

Since then, within the UK and indeed internationally, there are the three common practices of restorative justice used within the criminal justice system, these are; 1) Victim-Offender Mediation (VOM) – a face-to-face meeting with a trained mediator, the offender and the victim to discuss the offence and reparation. VOM is predominantly offered to incarcerated offenders. 2) Family Group Conferencing (FGC) in Youth Justice – is open to a wider number of participants including the offender, victim, victim’s family and professionals who are linked to either party, where the aim is to resolve conflict or behaviour, and discuss reparation. Specifically used within youth justice as an alternative to formal prosecution, encouraging offenders to achieve empathy towards their victim, while also assuming responsibility for their behaviour. 3) Restorative/Community Conferencing – Open to a wider circle of participants including the offender, victim, both families and members of the community who discuss the offence and how to repair the harm caused. Conferences hold the offender accountable, but also offer reintegration into the community.

(Extracted from www.restorativejustice.org.uk)

FGC in youth justice is seen as one of the most successful models of restorative justice, widely used internationally in New Zealand, Australia and parts of the USA, and gaining momentum in the UK (O’Mahony and Doak, 2004, p485). FGC aims to be an alternative to formal prosecution, providing the offender, victim and families with an opportunity to understand the offence and the implications of it. The main aim of FGC as a form of restorative justice seems to exist to prevent younger people becoming implicated in the adult criminal justice system, having countless disadvantages for their future. FGC specifically seems to be effective as it uses a holistic understanding of the offence. It incorporates collaboration between the offender, victim and community i.e. friends and family, to find suitable resolution to the offence. This perhaps creates a more ‘person centred’ justice system realising each person’s needs are different but equally important. A reflection of this on a wider scale is that – should the reparation fit the people rather than the crime? Restorative justice practice shows that it is necessary to meet all parties’ needs, and not just the offenders. This relates to changes in policy which recognises the victim as a central aspect of the criminal justice process.

In other areas of the criminal justice system, such as with adult offenders and serious crimes, restorative justice only operates within the already established systems of punishment. Restorative justice is not used to substitute traditional measures, i.e. retribution, but to work alongside them. Restorative justice for serious crimes is not used unaccompanied without formal justice, as legislation and policy do not currently permit it. Marshall (1999, p7) claims restorative justice should be used with serious offences as there is more to gain in regards to victim benefits, and also crime prevention. However, it remains to be seen if this could be functional as the only form of justice, and without punitive measures would the behaviour be negatively reinforced?

Within Northern Ireland restorative justice is a relatively new concept which has been introduced under different circumstances and will be discussed below.

Restorative Justice in Northern Ireland

As mentioned earlier restorative justice in Northern Ireland was a result of the recommendations made from the Criminal Justice Review (2000), and the Justice (NI) Act (2002); each identifying that the victim should be central in the criminal justice process. This became the state led restorative justice approach, but a community based restorative programme was unique to Northern Ireland and the ‘Troubles’ at that time. Restorative justice and theory became prominent during the Northern Ireland peace process as an alternative to paramilitary violence (McEvoy and Mika, 2002, p2). First introduced from the Good Friday Agreement (1999), community projects were established, in part, to remove ‘paramilitary policing’, while reflecting the desire for community-based justice (Gormally, 2006). Projects were established in both communities – Northern Ireland Alternatives on the Loyalist side and Community Restorative Justice Ireland on the Republican side (Gormally, 2006). Both projects now operate successfully throughout Northern Ireland, each having numerous locations. The main agenda for the projects are to provide victim-offender mediation and reparation of the communities, with the community playing a significant role in each. It is also indicated that beyond the non-violent alternatives to paramilitaries, the projects now extend into ‘broader mediation and conflict work’ (McEvoy and Mika, 2002, p7). Critics of the community-based projects claim that paramilitary violence still occurs, only under the ‘respectable cover’ of these schemes (www.mediationnorthernIreland.org) leading to questions being asked about its legitimacy. However, evaluation of the projects show punishment violence related to crime and anti-social behaviour has decreased dramatically within each community (McEvoy and Mika, 2002, p8).

As well as the strengths of restorative justice and the benefits it provides it is also necessary to discuss possible draw-backs in order to be fully aware of the system. This will be discussed below.

Critical Analysis of Restorative Justice

Restorative justice, as mentioned earlier, has a strong theoretical basis and practical application. However, as it is a relatively new concept it is imperative to discuss potential shortcomings as well as benefits in relation to retributive forms of justice. The four main criticisms that will be discussed below will relate to the offender, community, victim and retribution in relation to restorative justice.

Offender:

The principles of restorative justice are about redefining crime as harm and giving stakeholders a share of power (Marshall, 1999, p6). The benefits of this are well documented in practice, especially within youth justice, with the young offender more likely to complete reparation plans if they themselves have helped construct them. However, it remains to be seen if this practice is completely ethical. When facing a victim, in a room full of strangers and perhaps their own parents, a young person is likely to comply to any measures, without dispute, in order to hasten proceedings (Daly, 2002). The victim may also be revengeful or unforgiving and want a harsher punishment with pressure on the young person to agree, creating a power imbalance similar to punitive measures. The young person may then regret volunteering for the restorative process, aiding the break down of restorative plans, making the process ineffective and meaningless.

Community:

Possibly one of the biggest critiques of restorative justice is its reliance on community relationships, with the community playing a large role in the reintegration of the offender back into society. Marshall (1999) claims that communities are not as integrated as they once were, with many individuals wanting greater privacy and self-sufficiency. Leading to questions; who are the community and how can they play a significant role in the rehabilitation of the offender? According to Zehr and Mika (2003) the community can take a variety of forms, for example, the neighbourhood where the offender and victim live, or their closer social networks of family, friends and colleagues. Braithwaite’s (1989) theory of reintegrative shaming claims that strong relationships within the community helps limit wrong-doing because of conscience and anxiety. For those offenders that commit crime ‘shaming’ then is an integral part, not only for reintegration, but for crime prevention. Restorative justice then needs community and family relationships to be effective, if the offender does not take responsibility for their crime or feel shame, then they cannot be rehabilitated correctly or reintegrated into society. Does restorative justice then have its downfall if there is no bond to society?

Victim:

Another criticism of restorative justice is that it is open to offender manipulation and other symbolic implications. Is it seen as an easy option? Perhaps it is all too easy for an offender to say sorry and ask for forgiveness, without actually being punished appropriately for their actions. Daly and Stubbs (2006) claim that without treating offences seriously, the wrong message can be conveyed to the offender e.g. that their behaviour is acceptable, and therefore reinforced, leading the victim to feel injustice and therefore re-victimised. This is one of the major downfalls when it comes to adult restorative justice; if it was the only form of justice it is open to manipulation and coercion of the offender.

Retribution vs. Restoration:

The main question that needs to be addressed is ‘can restorative justice exist without retribution and the formal justice system?’ In regards to juvenile court it is possible to exist alone, if the offence is minor. But for adult offenders, with major offences, the process is not so simple. According to Mead’s ‘psychology of punitive justice’ (cited in Daly, 2002, p59) there are two contrasting methods responding to crime. 1) ‘The attitude and hostility toward the law breaker, which brings attitudes of retribution, repression, and exclusion’ which identifies the offender as the ‘enemy’, and 2) Outlined in youth justice, is the ‘reconstructive attitude’, which tries to ‘understand the causes of social and individual breakdown’ & ‘not to place punishment, but to obtain future results’. It is a contrasting method which identifies differing views, which is fundamentally what restorative and retributive justice represent. The question that needs to be addressed is ‘can restorative justice exist alone as a justice system for all crimes?’ According to Morris (2002, p601) it shouldn’t have to meet the standards of conventional criminal justice, but just consider what it has already achieved, and what it can still achieve.

It is now accepted that restorative justice should be used to integrate with traditional forms of justice, to provide an effective service to all those involved & to offer a ‘whole’ justice (Marshall, 1999, p8). Marshall (1999, p8) claims both forms of justice should now support each other to become a single system in which the community and formal resources can work in partnership. Nevertheless, without current legislation or policy that governs restorative justice practice, this leaves the projects that do exist in Northern Ireland, and the rest of the UK, operating in an informal basis with a lack of safeguards, resources and support to gain proper momentum.

The criticisms of restorative justice practice are negative, but research nationally and internationally can show us just how successful it can be, with victims and offenders experiencing greater satisfaction with the processes and outcomes of restorative justice compared with attending court (Ashworth, 2003, p175 and Daly, 2002, p208). Properly done, restorative justice can have many benefits to not only the offender, but to the victim and community as well, providing a balance that is surely the way forward for the criminal justice system.

Conclusion

The question for this assignment was ‘restorative justice aims to address the consequences of offending for victims, offenders and communities in a meaningful way’? Evidence shows that restorative justice works within the youth justice system, but due to restraints on policy and legislation it is limited in the adult justice service. When restorative justice is implemented properly, it is effective at meeting the needs of offenders and victims, but to decide if this is meaningful is based on an individual experience, which I do not possess.

On the theory of restoration vs. retribution – to combine them, rather than separate them provides all stakeholders with a ‘whole’ justice, capable of meeting physical, emotional and social needs, while also considering all parties as equal.

There are many criticisms of restorative justice, but evidence shows that it is effective and provides reformation far beyond that of retribution. It provides explanation of behaviour, which in itself is meaningful, and is more than traditional methods provide. Restorative justice is an internationally respected system, and identified as a person centred form of justice, representing all parties equally, while balancing reformation with understanding.

References:
Ashworth, A. (2003) ‘Is Restorative Justice the Way Forward for Criminal Justice?’ in McLaughlin, E., Fergusson, R., Hughes, G. and Westmarland (eds) (2003) ‘Restorative Justice: Critical Issues’, London. Sage Publications. The Open University
Braithwaite, J. (1989) ‘Crime, Shaming and Reintegration’, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
Crawford, A and Newburn, T (2002) ‘Recent Developments in Restorative Justice for Young People in England and Wales’. British Journal of Criminology, 42:3
Daly, K. (2002) ‘Restorative Justice: the real story’, Punishment and Society, 4:1, 5-79
Daly, K. & Stubbs, J. (2006) ‘Feminist engagement with restorative justice’. Theoretical Criminology, 10:1, 9-28.
Gormally, B (2006) ‘Community Restorative Justice in Northern Ireland – An Overview’: http://www.restorativejustice.org/editions/2006/april06/gormallyarticle – Accessed 22/10/09
Hughes, G (2001). ‘The competing logics of community sanctions: welfare, rehabilitation and restorative justice’. In E McLaughlin and J Muncie, ‘Controlling Crime’, London. Sage Publications. The Open University.
Marshall, T. (1999) ‘Restorative Justice: An Overview’. London. HMSO
McEvoy, K & Mika, H. (2002) ‘Restorative justice and the critique of informalism in Northern Ireland’. British Journal of Criminology. 43:3, 534-563
Morris, A. (2002) ‘Critiquing the Critics: A brief response to critics of restorative justice’. British Journal of Criminology, 42:3, 596-615.
O’Mahony, D. & Doak, J. (2004) ‘Restorative justice – is more better? The experience of police-led restorative cautioning pilots in Northern Ireland’, The Howard Journal, 43: 5, 484-505
Tauri, J., & Morris, A. (1997). ‘Reforming justice: The potential of Maori Processes’. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 30:2, 149-167.
Zehr, H and Mika, H (2003). ‘Fundamental concepts of restorative justice’
In E McLaughlin, R Fergusson, G Hughes and L Westmarland (Eds). ‘Restorative Justice: Critical Issues’. London. Sage Publications. The Open University.

Web sources:

http://www.mediationnorthernireland.org/documents/BrendanMcAllisterEuropeanRestorativeJusticeConferenceJune2006.pdf – Accessed 22/10/09
http://www.psni.police.uk/index/updates/index/updates/consultation_zone/eqia_of_youth_diversion_scheme.pdf – Accessed 19/10/09
http://www.restorativejustice.org.uk/index.php?What_is_Restorative_Justice%3F –

In his statement to the House of Commons when presenting Lord Laming’s Inquiry Report into the death of Victoria Climbie, on 28 January 2003, the Secretary of State for Health, Alan Milburn, said:

“It is an all too familiar cry. In the past few decades there have been dozens of inquiries into awful cases of child abuse and neglect. Each has called on us to learn the lesson of what went wrong. Indeed, there is a remarkable consistency in both what went wrong and what is advocated to put it right. Lord Laming’s Report goes further. It recognises that the search for a simple solution or a quick fix will not do. It is not just national standards, or proper training, or adequate resources, or local leadership, or new structures that are needed.”

I will give an overview of the inquiry. I will also give an overview of the themes, lack of accountability right through the organizations to the most senior level and staff not adequately trained in child protection. I will analyse and critique these themes in relation to agency policy, legal requirements, research, practitioner knowledge and the voice of the service user. Previous inquiries and there link to this inquiry will be discussed along with have we learned any lessons from this. The failure to implement a legal, ethical and political framework to inform current best practice will be utilized. I will reflect on the implications of evidence informed practice and how this will inform future social work practice.

This paragraph will provide a summary of the events leading to the death of Victoria Climbie, and establish why there was a need for the inquiry. From the report (Lord Laming, 2003) we know that Victoria Climbie came to England with her great-aunt, Marie-Therese Kouao in April 1999. Within a year, she was dead. On 25th February 2000, Victoria died of hyperthermia at St Mary’s Hospital, Paddington. She was just eight years old and had 128 separate injuries to her body. On 12th January 2001, her great-aunt Kouao and her boyfriend, Carl Manning, were convicted of murder. The level of cruelty experienced by Victoria was truly horrific, with daily beatings using several different implements. Her final days were spent living and sleeping in an unheated bathroom in the middle of winter, where she was bound hand and foot, lying in her own urine and faeces in a bin bag in the bath. The secretary of State set up the independent statutory inquiry into her death, under the Chairmanship of Lord Laming, in April 2001, to establish under section 81 of the Children Act 89 the concerns with the functions of the local authority social services committees and the way they relate to children. The inquiry wanted to examine the way in which local authorities in respect of their social services functions and identify the services sought or required by, or in respect of Victoria, Marie-Therese and Carl.

This section will now aim to analyse and critique the key theme I have identified that emerged from the inquiry report which is lack of accountability right through the organizations to the most senior level and staff not adequately trained in child protection. Lord Laming (2003) points out ‘There were at least 12 key occasions when the relevant services had opportunities to successfully intervene to help Victoria, but had failed to do so.’ Within the Report Lord laming (2003) states ‘That not one of these interventions would have required great skill or made heavy demands on staff, sometimes it needed nothing more than a manager doing their job by asking pertinent questions or taking the trouble to look in a case file.’ He continues to states Lord Laming (2003) ‘There can be no excuse for such sloppy and unprofessional performance.’ As Lord Laming (2003) commented ‘Not one of the agencies empowered by Parliament to protect children in positions such as Victoria’s emerged from the Inquiry with much credit, what happened to Victoria, and her ultimate death, resulted from an inexcusable “gross failure of the system.’ Lord Laming’s (2003) expressed ‘His amazement that nobody in the agencies had the presence of mind to follow what are relatively straightforward procedures on how to respond to a child about whom there is concern of deliberate harm.’

The Inquiry Report (Lord Laming, 2003) highlighted “widespread lack of accountability through the organisations” as the principal reason for the lack of protection afforded to Victoria. Who should be held responsible for these failures? As Webb (2002) states: ‘Lord Laming was clear that it is not the hapless and sometimes inexperienced front-line staff to whom he directs most criticism, but to those in positions of management, including hospital consultants, I think that the performance of people in leadership positions should be judged on how well services are delivered at the front door’. Professor Nigel Parton (2003) points out that ‘Too often in the Inquiry people justify their positions around bureaucratic activities rather than around outcomes for children. Frankly, I would be the very last person to say that good administration is not essential to good practice. Professor Nigel Parton (2003) continues to state that ‘Good administration-and we did not see a lot of it, I have to say-is a means to an end. I cannot imagine in any other walk of life if a senior manager was in charge of an organisation and that organisation was going down the pan-to put it crudely-in terms of sales and performance that someone would say ‘My role is entirely strategic, do not hold me to account for what happens in the organisation’. People who occupy senior positions have to stand or fall by what service is delivered at the front door. The Inquiry Report Lord Laming (2003) highlighted the apparent failure of those in senior positions to understand, or accept, that they were responsible for the quality, efficiency and effectiveness of local services. As Rustin (2010) states Lord Laming pointed to the ‘yawning gap’ in the differing perceptions of the organisation held by front line staff and senior managers. Lord Laming was unequivocal that the failure was the fault of managers whose job it should have been to understand what was happening at their ‘front door.’ As the Report Lord Laming (2003) pointed out, some of those in the most senior positions used the defence “no one ever told me” to distance themselves from responsibility, and to argue that there was nothing they could have done. Rustin (2004) states this was not a view shared by Lord Laming. Rustin (2004) also continues to state that Lord Laming went even further in evidence to us, telling us forcefully that, in his view, accountability of managers was paramount, and that the front line staff were generally doing their utmost. In addition to the fundamental problems of a lack of accountability and managerial control, it was also apparent in the course of the Inquiry Lord Laming (2003) that other failings existed in all aspects of practice. This section will evaluate previous inquiries and how they link to this inquiry and have any lessons been learned from them. As Rustin (2004) states: ‘As with many previous inquiries into child protection failures, Maria Colwell (1973), Jasmine Beckford (1984), Tyra Henry (1984) and Kimberley Carlile (1986) it was clear that the quality of information exchange was often poor, systems were crude and information failed to be passed between hospitals in close proximity to each other. As the Report commented Lord Laming (2003) ‘Information systems that depend on the random passing of slips of paper have no place in modern services’.

The evidence from another report, Maria Colwell, who had died in January of 1973 pointed to similar weaknesses, which were found in Victoria’s report these weaknesses were, lack of accountability and staff not adequately trained (Corby et al, 2001).

Inquiry reports are sources of evidence to inform social work practice and even though they have many weaknesses within them as illustrated. Professor Nigel Parton (2004) points out that ‘In many respects public inquiries have proved to be the key vehicle through which changes in policy and practice have been brought about over the last thirty years in relation to child protection policy and practice in this country.’ Professor Nigel Parton (2004) continues to point out that ‘Rather than public inquiries being ignored, they have been fundamental to the way child protection operates. In this respect, they are as much a part of the problem as they are the solution.’

Have lessons been learned from the many public inquiries over the previous thirty years. It was as if states Professor Nigel Parton (2004) ‘The frontline professionals, and the key organisations and agencies who have responsibility for children and families were quite incapable of learning the lessons and, crucially, putting these into practice in such a way that such horrendous tragedies could be avoided. It is hoped by many, therefore, that the report by Lord Laming, and the changes brought about as a result, will mean that this will be the last report of its type.’

This section will address the other theme I have highlighted adequate training. The question of adequate training and supervision for staff working in all the relevant agencies were also an issue identified in the Inquiry. Professor Nigel Parton (2004) points out that In Haringey, for example, it was observed that the provision of supervision may have looked good on paper but in practice it was woefully inadequate for many of the front line staff. Professor Nigel Barton (2004) also points out that nowhere was this more evident than in the fact that in the final weeks of Victoria’s life a social worker called several times at the flat where she had been living. There was no reply to her knocks and the social worker assumed, quite wrongly, that Victoria and Kouao had moved away, and took no further action. As the Laming Report (Lord Laming, 2003) commented, ‘It was entirely possible that at the time Victoria was in fact lying just a few yards away, in the prison of the bath, desperately hoping someone might find her and come to her rescue before her life ebbed away’.

This section will now look at the failure to implement the legal and political framework within the inquiry report. Lord Laming within the report (Lord Laming 2003) told us that he continued to believe that the Children Act 1989 was “basically sound legislation”. His recommendations do not argue for a major new legislative framework. However, Lord Laming (2003) states he did not believe that the Act was being implemented in the way that had been envisaged for it, and, in his view, there was “a yawning gap at the present time between the aspirations and expectations of Parliament and the certainty of what is delivered at the front door”. Rustin (2004) states ‘In the absence of adequate managerial accountability, front line workers were obliged to make crucial strategic decisions, for example about the use of the Children Act, and between using sections 17 and 47 (relating respectively to a child in need, and a child in need of protection)’. The sections of the Act had been developed with the intention of as pointed out by Rustin (2004) ‘Of recognising the different needs of children’. How the sections were being applied on the ground however as stated by Lord Laming (2003) is ‘Quite different, far from employing the section of the Act that would best meet the needs of the particular child and their circumstances, what they were actually doing was using these sections to restrict access to services and to limit the availability of services to people’. The Children Act, Lord Laming (2003) argued to us ‘Should be about promoting the well-being of children, not about putting labels around people’s neck’. Lord Laming (2003) went on to suggest that ‘Front line workers were being forced into making decisions that should properly have rested with management and policy decisions’. This raised major questions about the role of public services and the basic principles that should underpin them, as (Lord Laming 2003) stated ‘We need to stand back and say that we need to discover the basic principle that the public services are there to serve the public, not just some of the public and not just some people who can get through eligibility criteria, or who are sufficiently persistent’. Therefore services must be more accessible and they must be more in tune with their local communities. If, as Lord Laming believes Kirton (2009, p.17) states ‘The Victoria Climbie case was not unique, but highlighted widespread and major deficiencies in the implementation of the Children Act, this raises issues that Government should address.’ I believe that the Children Act 1989 remains essentially sound legislation. However, there is concern as pointed out by Professor Nigel Parton (2004) ‘That the provisions of the Act which sought to ensure an appropriate response to the differing needs of children are being applied inappropriately, used as a means of rationing access to services, and have led to section 17 cases being regarded as having low priority.’ The Laming Inquiry (Lord Laming 2003) recommended that consideration should be given to unifying the Working Together guidance and the National Assessment Framework guidance into a single document, setting out clearly how the sections of the Act should be applied, and giving clear direction on action to be taken under sections 17 and 47.

Within this section I will discuss the ethical framework. It is important to include the issues of social class and gender, which were not evident in the Victoria Climbie inquiry. However, it is issues around ethnicity and race that are more evident. However, the diversity referred to is incredibly complex. This is illustrated at various points states Webb (2002) For example: ‘At the time Victoria’s case was handled in Brent, all the duty social workers had received their training abroad and were on temporary contracts. (In Brent) at least 50 per cent of social workers time was spent working on cases of unaccompanied minors.’ As Webb (2002) states ‘There was evidence that Haringey has one of the most diverse populations in the country, with 160 different languages spoken locally, a long tradition of travellers settling in the borough and a high proportion of asylum-seeking families (9 percent of the total population).’

Within the report Lord Laming (2003) points out that ‘In relation to all the London boroughs involved there were high levels of poverty and deprivation, diverse ethnic, cultural, linguistic backgrounds, as well as the diverse backgrounds of the workers themselves.’ In many respects, it seems Victoria’s situation was not unique in these respective boroughs. Webb (2002) indicated ‘The impact of increased global mobility, more specifically the rapid increase in asylum-seeking families, together with the diverse backgrounds of the workers themselves increasingly seems to characterise work in many metropolitan areas.’ This has a particular impact states Webb (2002) ‘On the nature, stability and cohesion of local communities.’ It is worth noting that, compared to the Maria Colwell case, no referrals are noted in the Victoria Climbie case from neighbours or other members of the community apart from the ‘child minder’ Mrs Cameron. We are not simply talking about diversity here but incredible complexity. Kirton (2009) argues that ‘Not only does it pose major linguistic challenges but also it poses major challenges for statutory departments in relation to the familial and cultural identities of those with whom they work and to whom they have responsibility.’ Issues around racism are clearly important here, however they cannot be reduced to a simple black and white community and cultural divide.

This section will reflect on the implications of evidence-informed practice (EIP) and the usefulness of the inquiry to inform the development of future social work practice. Often, in hindsight, those who put people at risk are blamed for the misfortune and harm they cause. (Kirton, 2009) This is arguably the most signi¬?cant professional context in which EIP has emerged. According to Munro (1998) ‘Social workers rely on vague assessments and predictions, rather than considering what is more or less probable. In everyday life decisions have to be made on a limited evidence base and professional decisions are also at best problematic’. There are numerous unexpected and complex outcomes in social work, many of which rest on having to make judgments under conditions of uncertainty. (Kirton, 2009) The main problems associated with making effective decisions in social work as stated by Kirton (2009) include: risk and uncertainty, intangibles, long-term implications, interdisciplinary input and the politics of different vested interests pooled decision making and value judgments. Decision analysis has developed as a statistical technique to help overcome these kinds of problems. Decision analysis is closely related to risk assessment and actuarial practices. Evidence-informed practice and policy are self-explanatory. They involve the adoption of evidence-based protocols and use local standards for conducting social work practice and developing organizationally speci¬?c policies. (Webb, 2002) It has been suggested that evidence-informed protocols feed directly into the practitioner context to provide guidelines for carrying out EIP. Essentially evidence-informed practice and policy in social work will entail the explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the social care of service users. This de¬?nition is widely used and derived from Sackett et al.’s ‘Evidence-based Medicine’ (1996). A pragmatic approach as stated by Sackett (1996) ‘Has been adopted here, which regards the practice of evidence as integrating practitioner expertise with the best available external evidence from systematic but multiple research methods.’ The implementation model outlined is the idea that the practice-based process begins with the evidence rather than the individual or groups of clients.

Clearly the application of evidence-informed practice and policies will be governed by the economic scope of social work agencies in terms of resources and the development of an evidence-informed infrastructure. (Kirton, 2009) Sackett (1996) points out that ‘At a local level it will also be dependent on incremental learning and accumulative professional development which are likely to be facilitated by the practice research networks and evidence-based brie¬?ngs discussed above.’

In this essay I have analysed and critiqued two key themes from the inquiry, lack of accountability right through the organizations to the most senior level and staff not, adequately trained in child protection. I have also analysed and critique these themes in relation to agency policy, legal requirements, research, practitioner knowledge and the voice of the service user. I have linked previous inquiries and discussed have we learned any lessons from these inquiries. I identified the failure to implement a legal, ethical and political framework to inform current best practice will. I also reflected on the implications of evidence informed practice and how this will inform future social work practice.

A closing quote to finish from the Secretary of State, Alan Milburn (2003)

“It has felt as if Victoria has attended every step of this inquiry, and it has been my good fortune to have had the assistance of colleagues whose abilities have been matched by their commitment to the task of doing justice to Victoria’s memory and her enduring spirit, and to creating something positive from her suffering and ultimate death.”

Ministry of Community Development, Youth and Services (MCYS, 2005) states that, “Child abuse is defined as any act of omission or commission by a parent or guardian which would endanger or impair the child’s physical or emotional well-being, or that is judged by a mixture of community values and professionals to in inappropriate.”

Different types of abuse

MCYS (2005) recognised four different types of abuse, namely physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse as well as neglect. In addition, neglect can be broken down into 4 segments; physical, medical, education and emotional (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2006)

Therefore, what actually comprises in each of the different types of abuse?

Physical Abuse

In accordance to Child Welfare Information Gateway (2005), physical abuse is physical injury caused by punching, beating, kicking, stabbing, burning or using a foreign object to hit the other party. The severity of injury may vary from minor bruises to fractures or death. Furthermore, physical abuse does not take into consideration if perpetrators accidentally or intentionally harm the child.

Sexual Abuse

Sexual abuse is known as inappropriate activities performed by the perpetrators. The Federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA) further defined sexual abuse as “the employment, use, persuasion, inducement, enticement, or coercion of any child to engage in, or assist any other person to engage in, any sexually explicit conduct or simulation of such conduct for the purpose of producing a visual depiction of such conduct; or the rape, and in cases or caretaking or inter-familial relationships, statutory rape, molestation, prostitution, or other form of sexual exploitation of children, or incest with children.” (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2006)

Emotional Abuse

Child Welfare Information Gateway (2006) states, child can be emotional abused if perpetrators conduct behaviours that affects child’s emotional development or sense of self-worth. However, MCYS (2005) added, emotional abuse not only affects child’s emotionally development, it also weakens child’s social and intellectually development. Additionally, such abuse exists with adult’s continual hostility, ignoring, blaming, threats, discrimination or blatant rejection of the child (MCYS, 2005).

Moreover, based on research, both sources agreed that other types of abuse are also present if emotional abuse is being identified.

Neglect

In relation to Chan, Chow & Elliot (2000), neglect was redefined as either omission or commission of any act that impairs the child’s physical, psychological, intellectual or social development.

As mentioned above, neglect can be categorised into 4 different segments. First, physical neglect may be the inability of providing food and shelter as well as the lack of supervision (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2006). Second, adult may failed in the provision of essential medical care or mental health treatment which is known as medical neglect (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2006). Next, adults may commit to education neglect if they are not capable of giving child an education as well as the lack of attention to special education needs (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2006). Last but not least, if adults do not attend to child’s emotional needs, failure to give child adequate love and care and allowing child to have easy access to alcohol and drugs, adults are at high risk in executing emotional neglect (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2006).

However, it is important for further investigations to be done if any of the neglect is present. There might be other contributing factors such as poverty or different culture practices that might surface parents are being negligent.

Why is Child Abuse a topic of interest

As an advocator, it is important to know that children are safe, being respected and are treated appropriately. With the raising numbers of cases of child abuse in Singapore, it shows that any children may be at risk of being a victim.

According to the statistics on child abuse investigations from Year 2009 to Year 2010 (MCYS, 2011), apart from physical neglect, the rest of the types of abuse cases had increased. The numbers shown were the cases with evidence of cases. For example, the number of physical abuse cases had a jump from 82 to 133, which is about 38%. As for sexual abuse, it raised from 28 to 46 numbers of cases, which is equivalent to 39%. Emotional abuse cases had increased by 2, summing up to 6 cases in Year 2010. Although there was a drop of 4 cases for physical neglect, it may show that people may be more aware of such wrong behaviours. However, these numbers stated above only showed the reported cases with evidence. What about the other cases that had been reported but inadequate evidence were gathered?

In addition, children from the United States (U.S) were victims of abuse and neglect as well. Statistics for Year 2006 shows that 54% are victims of child maltreatment of age up to 7 years. To add on, statistics reported an estimated number of 1,530 children died due to abuse or neglect. Out of 1,530 children, 78% were children under the age of 4 (Shaw & Goode, 2006). This shows that children of the preschool years are very vulnerable to abuse.

Maine State Dept. of Behavioral and Developmental Services (2001) mentioned that childhood abuse may lead to adult experience of shame, repeated flashbacks and nightmares may be traumatic for the victim. In addition, it may cause victim to be severely anxious over matters, depression as well as developing feelings of humiliation and unworthiness.

Therefore, it is also important to educate parents about the raising numbers of child abuse cases. In addition, to create awareness that no one should deprive a child to have a healthy childhood experience.

Hence, in this present paper, it will further elaborate on who may be the victims of child abuse and its impact on children, how child abuse affected parents and what happened to survivors of child abuse as they grow up.

Victims of child abuse and its impact

According Chan, Chow & Elliot (2000), evidence from research stated that adolescents are also at high risk on physical maltreatment. On top of that, more commonly reported cases of physical child abuse cases involve the adolescents as well.

Therefore, what makes a certain child be at a higher risk of child abuse? Statistics consistently showed that families that are socially and economically disadvantaged have more reports on physical abuse. Based on the research, families that falls under the low income family or annual income are below poverty level, it is more likely for the child to receive more fatal or serious injuries (Chan, Chow & Elliot, 2000).

Being financially unstable may cause a child to be a victim of child abuse, however this is not the main reason to place such child at risk. Pre-matured infants, intellectually disabled and any child who are developmentally disabled can be vulnerable to being abused too (Chan, Chow & Elliot, 2000). The reasons behind it are such child is viewed as a source of stress and burden to the family and family might find it difficult to handle.

For instance, a child was being physically abused, how did the experience affects the child negatively? In accordance to Chan, Chow & Elliot (2000), it may cause impairment in child’s behaviours, varied severity of physical injuries on child, child faces difficulties at school and child may have poor interpersonal skills.

However, one of the limitations of this study is that research was carried out long ago and results are still limited and scarce in Singapore. Next, this study did not exactly mention the precise source where they gathered the statistics or how did they go about gathering and compiling the results. Lastly, this study focuses on two age groups which are the infants and toddlers and the adolescents. What about children from the older age group? How high is the risk for older children pertaining to child abuse?

Impact on parents

The term “impact on parents” refers to parents who were once victims of abuse or parents who had child who was being abused. Hence, how did once victimised parents got over the bad experience and started a new family? In addition, how did parents feel when their child was being abused by others?

Being a parent, survivor of child abuse, and yet having a child who was assaulted, it may be very distressing especially for parents who disclose their childhood abuse experience for the first time (Grant, 2006). Furthermore, these parents may start to develop a sense of guilt as they were not incapable to protect their child despite experiencing it. Parents may also have flashbacks of those painful memories after disclosing the abuse (Grant, 2006).

In addition, Grant (2006) mentioned that parents who had child being abused may begin to face many challenges. Having a child being abused, it may be hard for certain parents to accept the fact. Certain parents may be too overwhelmed and can be emotionally unstable. Parents may be in the state of confusion which in turn may impede their ability to support and provide help for their child and family throughout the investigation process (Grant, 2006).

Taking for example if parents entrust their child with a caretaker and it turn out to be the caretaker who is the perpetrator, parents may be devastated and hard to believe. In addition, parents may be in great shock and developed a sense of betrayal. Therefore, after encountering such incident, how easy or possible can the parent cooperate and trust other unknown professionals? (Grant, 2006) Additionally, parents may also put the blame on themselves for allowing their child to be abused. For instance, they may question themselves, “Why had not I (parents) see this situation?”, “Why did not I protect my child?” or ‘What type of a parent am I?” (Grant, 2006)

Upon accepting reality, it can be really hard on parents to handle the upcoming problems faced at home if they have more than one child. Parents may understand that they had to spend more time with the victim, trying to help the child to get over the bad encounter. On the other hand, parents have to ensure that they are capable to maintain a healthy relationship with other children at home. If the situation is not handled appropriately, other children may start to develop a sense of jealousy and resentment towards the victimised sibling as well as the parent (Grant, 2006).

However, one of the limitations in this study is that there was not any statistics given. Next, this study did not mention the age of the parents. Older parents may be able to handle the situation better than younger parents. Lastly, this study did not give detailed information on the parent’s family background and the relationship within the family. With a supportive family, parents as well as child may be able to recover faster from the bad encounter.

Survivors of child abuse when they grow up

As researched by Maine State Dept. of Behavioral and Developmental Services (2001), some abused children may experience lifelong emotional harm as they grow up. For instance, some abused children may experience serious mental health problems. Research estimated that abused children are 2 to 3 times more likely to develop a serious mental illness. In addition, up to 70% of women who were treated in psychiatric setting have histories of childhood abuse (Maine State Dept. of Behavioral and Developmental Services, 2001).

On top of that, some may suffer lifelong physical harm due to childhood abuse. Ranging from 3% to 6%, research shows that abused children may develop a permanent disability (Maine State Dept. of Behavioral and Developmental Services, 2001). Brain damage is an example of permanent disability and 20% to 50% of abused children suffered from brain damage but of different severity. It is further hypothesized that abused children are of higher risk of getting heart disease, cancer or even other chronic medical conditions (Maine State Dept. of Behavioral and Developmental Services, 2001). However, there is not concrete evidence to prove this hypothesis.

Another negative impact on abused children is that they cause self inflict harm. Some abused children may get into a depression and others may choose to attempt suicides (Maine State Dept. of Behavioral and Developmental Services, 2001). Some abused children may even abuse the use of drugs, alcohol or nicotine in order to minimise or hide their pain. It was also reported by Maine State Dept. of Behavioral and Developmental Services (2001) that sexually abused children may be more exposed to further sexual abuse or to contract sexually-transmitted disease (STD).

However, one limitation of this study is that the statistics are not up to date. Therefore, results given in this study may not be accurate enough. Findings may vary if research is done based on recent years.

Apart from the depressing impacts that happened on survivors of childhood abuse, some survivors chose to seek help from professionals such as social workers, counsellors or therapists.

This research was done by questionnaires and interviews were conducted based on respondent’s willingness. Out of 500 questionnaires mailed out, there were 384 completed questionnaires. Fifty interviews were also conducted to further supplement the data.

Out of the 15 themes that were emerges based on how helpful the services were, seven common themes were mentioned in the study. Respondents felt that professional helpers were patient and they listened. In addition, professional helpers seem to be empathetic (Palmer, Brown, Rae-Grant & Loughlin, 2001). Next, respondents felt that professional helpers were able to help them deal with their raging feelings and they no longer have to avoid those feelings. To add on, having nonjudgmental and understanding professional helpers benefitted survivors as they were encouraging too. Next, survivors felt empowered as the professional helpers believed in them. Professional helpers were also able to provide connections for the survivors with other survivors, letting them know that they are not alone. On top of that, professional helpers helped survivors to build their self-esteem and develop a value of self worth. Lastly, professional helpers were able to validate survivor’s experience giving survivors assurance (Palmer, Brown, Rae-Grant & Loughlin, 2001).

However, one of the limitations of the study is to generalise survivor’s experience across different types of abuse. In addition, the study only produced one side of the data. Findings may be different if these components are further addressed.

Conclusion

To conclude, it is important to create the awareness to parents about the raising numbers of child abuse cases in Singapore. By doing so, parents may be more aware of their own actions and not commit to any form of abuse be it accidentally or intentionally. In addition, parents are encouraged to develop an early, secure and consistent relationship with the children (Shaw & Goode, 2008). On top of that, according to Shaw & Goode (2008), parents need to provide the same level of attention to child’s emotional and social needs, not only their cognitive skills.

For future research, it would be good to research more on how one can further help victims and survivors who are really resistant to get over the bad experience. In addition, another research can be done to help children to work on their social and emotional skills after the bad encounter.

Social workers are faced with making decisions about risks whilst managing the pressures of limited resources such as a lack of social workers and society’s view of social work (11). This can cause a social worker to be risk averse and become more concerned with avoiding risk to protect themselves instead of taking action that may be right for the service user. 88% of social workers have expressed a concern that cuts in services can put people’s lives at risk and 77% stated that they were unable to manage their caseloads (1). Wales has the second highest vacancy rate of social workers in the UK at 9% with England at 11% (Lombard, 2010).

There are 3 different types of risk (Adams, Dominelli & Payne). These are the risk to service users from others, the risk to service users from themselves and the risk to others from service users.

In the statutory sector risk assessment is a mandatory part of casework as it is within law and agency policy to assess risk to an individual (Healy,2012). S17 and S47 of the Children Act 1989 places a duty on a social worker to investigate when it is believed that a child is at risk of harm. The difference between S17 and s47 is the urgency and seriousness of risks (Beckett, 2010). Risk to the child includes some form of harm and the probability of that harm occurring.

2. Factors of Risk

There are certain factors in a child’s life that may be linked to poor outcomes (Parton, ????) These include low family income, homelessness, parenting capacity, post natal depression in the mother, low birth weight, substance misuse and community factors such as residing in a disadvantaged neighbourhood. Protective factors may include a strong relationship with parents and other significant adults, parental interest and involvement in the child’s education and positive role models. There are also other protective factors if the child is outgoing, has self motivation, has intelligence and plays an active role in family and community life. The more risk factors present the more likely it is that they would experience abuse or poor outcomes (5). Early intervention to identify risks can help to reduce problems.

Identifying the risk and protective factors can give a prognosis on the child’s future development (8). Assessing their needs and risks will help to identify the services that should be in place to prevent further impairment to their health and development (BASW, 2012, 3.2).

In assessment we must recognise the factors that could have harmful consequences and the severity and the likelihood of harm (Beckett, ???). The difficulty in assessing risks is that we may see a high risk factor that may be unlikely to materialise but dismiss low risk factors which may cause more harm long term. There is the potential to reinforce social inequalities as many factors are strongly associated with socioeconomic disadvantage such as single parents, low income and previous institutional care (CCW, 2002, 1.5).

3. Assessment

In social work the assessment of children involves analysing the child’s development needs, parenting capacity and family and environment factors (Welsh Government, 2001). Using the assessment triangle gives a holistic view of the child and the influences upon them. Once all the information is gathered it can be easier to identify the areas in which a child is most at risk and how those risks maybe addressed (BASW, 2012, 3.2).

Risk is an aspect of all assessments (Whittington, 2007). The aim of a risk assessment is to consider the situation, decide on the likelihood of the risk happening and aim to reduce the identified risk having a negative impact.

There are different types of risk assessment (Coulshed & Orme, ???). These are preventative, investigative and continuation. Preventative is undertaken before intervention to decide on whether or not to intervene. It involves looking at the situation and assessing the risk factors along with balancing the rights of service users and the responsibilities of the social worker. Investigative is carried out during an initial assessment to identify the current and potential risks. Continuation assessment is balancing the risks of intervention against no intervention. A social worker should evaluate the original situation then acknowledge changes and what effect these changes will have if any at all.

In social work the actuarial and clinical methods of risk assessing are used (Cree & Myers, ?????). The actuarial method uses statistical calculations of probability and how an individual’s behaviour is judged on the basis of behaviours in other people in a similar situation. The clinical method uses personality factors and situational factors relevant to risky behaviour and the interaction between the two.

Adhering to legislation, policy and procedures and the rights of the service user should ensure good practice in relation to assessment and managing risk and protection (Adams, Dominelli and Payne, ????). Legislation and policy shapes and determines the actions, duties and powers of a social worker (CCW, 2002, 6.1). Failure to follow set policies and procedures can result in things going wrong.

4. Skills and Judgements in Assessment

Management of risk is often judged by the outcome and not the process of the assessment (7). When examining a case that has had negative outcomes it is easy to see the presence of heightened risk. This can reinforce the view that the outcome could have been avoided had the risks been realised. Conducting an initial assessment requires interview skills to get the information and reasoning skills to analyse the information and identify risks (CCW, 2002, 4.2).

Assessment is an essential skill in itself (9). It requires effective communication skills to gather the necessary information and critical analytical skills to interpret that information. A social worker will need the appropriate skills to be able to negotiate with a service user or an agency in order to provide appropriate services (BASW, 2012, 2.2.3).

Serious case reviews often highlight the importance of assessment and analysis (Good practice in assessment book). An effective assessment looks at the overall situation to explain what has happened to a child and provides a framework for analysing the needs of the child and the dangers that individuals pose to children. Particular care must be taken so that the assessment does not become over optimistic and minimise the risk to the child. The focus should be on gathering evidence to make professional judgements about whether a child is safe from harm, neglect, and abuse.

Other skills in assessing risk is the ability to predict what may happen in the future in areas of uncertainty (Trevithick, ????). If the information gathered is accurate and up to date and the social worker has a sound knowledge and skill base there is less chance of over or underestimating the risks involved. In order to gain accurate information a social worker should use effective communication and listening skills to pick up on the risks presented.

Communication between professionals and agencies may be difficult as there may be issues of power, different priorities and professional values (10). For example a doctor will be more concerned with discharging a service user once their medical issue has been addressed. A social worker will be concerned that services are put in place to ensure that the service user is safe to return home. Skills and knowledge are frequently criticised in serious case reviews into child protection services and can adversely affect risk management.

5. Risk Management

In a review of child protection services it was identified that mistakes in assessment of risk have been either over or under estimating the risk posed to the child (2). Risk management cannot completely eliminate risks only reduce them. An assessment may decide that the risk of harm to a child will be low but low risk events can still happen. A social worker should use their professional judgement when deciding on actions to take as all options will involve a certain amount of risk (CCW, 2002, 4.1). For example when a child is removed from their family and placed in local authority care they may face other risks such as being unable to settle with a new family. The principles of working in child protection are to maintain the safety, security and well being of individuals. A social worker should use their judgement to balance the possible benefits of a decision against the likelihood of possible harm. They should work with other professionals to make decisions on risk involved so that errors can potentially be reduced (BASW, 2012, 3.1). Lessons can be learnt to improve decision making from the successes as well as the failures. Positive risk taking relies on quality information. Agencies should share appropriate information on those individuals who pose a risk to others or those that are at risk from harm.

A serious case review identified several failings in the protection of Baby P (6). Two of the children in the family were already subject to child protection plans which may be seen as a risk factor. The adults involved had refused to explain P’s injuries. It would have been reasonable to believe that Baby P was at risk if the adults were not willing to provide an explanation if they had nothing to hide. It was recommended that interagency working and communication must improve to ensure that children have a greater level of protection from different professionals. Professionals should recognise and respect each other roles and be trained appropriately together (BASW, 2012, 3.14). Supervision for the social worker in the case of Baby P was inconsistent and often cancelled. When carrying out S47 enquiries a social worker should be supported by their manager and have periods of supervision to review their caseload. This provides the opportunity to view the actions of the social worker from another perspective so that other options can be explored. A criticism of social workers in child protection is over familiarity with a family (10). The social worker may have long term involvement with the family and are unable to take an unbiased view of the situation. Therefore it is important that supervision takes place to gain another perspective (BASW, 2012, 3.13).

Child protection conferences should involve the parents (AWCCP). Professionals should determine how information about the case will be shared with them to ensure that a child is not put at further risk. Unless the criteria for exclusion are met parents should always be encouraged and supported to attend the conference. By attending the conference parents will be clear on what the concerns are, understand the risk to their children and the reason for the involvement of the different agencies. This will ensure that they are aware of the changes that need to be made to protect their children from harm. During the conference professionals involved must consider the risks of harm if the child were to remain at home and how those risks can be managed. A plan will be created which will detail the arrangements for managing the risks identified and how it will be monitored. The child protection plan must consider the wishes of the child and the parents (CCW, 2002, 1.2).

A solution focussed approach can be utilised by the social worker to plan the necessary services required to manage the risk (Creer and Myers). This approach is used when finding solutions to the current situation. A social worker may consider services such as family counselling to explore and understand the issues the family have.

6 Values and Ethics etc

There are times when taking a risk is a positive move (Beckett, ???). It provides an opportunity to learn to manage risk. If a child is over protected they cannot be expected to understand how and when to take risks. If risks are unavoidable then the positives and negatives of the outcome should be analysed. In child protection the dilemma may arise when deciding on whether to remove a child and place them in foster care or remain with the family. As previously identified there are risks in placing a child in foster care. If they are unable to settle they may experience multiple moves. When there are risks of harm to children there will be pressure on the social worker to act quickly but this may be difficult as exploring the risks and benefits effectively may take time.

There are also risks to social workers from aggressive parents when working in child protection (Lindon, ???). The social worker should acknowledge the parents feelings and refrain from arguing back. As the social worker has a responsibility towards the children they should attempt to diffuse the situation to prevent upsetting the children (CCW, 2002, 5.7). The anger from the parents could present a risk to the children and should be acknowledged as such.

A child has the right under Article 19 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child to protection from abuse and neglect (WAG, 2008). The parents could also argue that they have the right to a private family life under Article 8 of the Human Rights Act 1998 but if they are subjecting their child to abuse or neglect then this right is over ridden.

There are many uncertainties regarding risk in child protection (Adams, Dominelli and Payne). There may be no right or wrong decisions if it is approached correctly. However, there is always the possibility of a negative outcome which can be difficult for all involved and have serious implications for a child. It is difficult to make decisions where there is incomplete knowledge and uncertainty of a situation. The social worker must use their professional judgement to ensure they have taken as much care as possible to address risks with the information available (BASW, 2012, 2.3.4)

In conclusion risk can be difficult to manage as it contains many areas of uncertainty. The negative factors should be identified early to prevent further risks occurring. The assessment must take into account all areas in a child’s life to ensure a complete picture is gained and all risks are acknowledged. If the social worker has good communication skills then the quality of the information gained should be high and will enable them to make a more informed assessment. If the relevant information is not gathered then appropriate decisions may not be made. Several recommendations were made in the serious case review of Baby P. Supervision is important as it can ensure the quality of a social worker’s practice, provide other perspectives on relevant cases and potentially can improve outcomes for service users. Multi agency working is a requirement in social work. It must be utilised to gain a holistic view of the child and identify various services that can be put in place to manage risks. A service user still may not experience a positive outcome even though the most appropriate services are utilised to reduce and manage risks. If the social worker has carried out their duties correctly in accordance with legislation and policies, identified the risks and worked with others to manage those risks then they can be satisfied that they have done all they can and accept that not all outcomes will be positive.

Social workers are put into difficult situations on a regular basis. The Health and care professions council (HCPC) set guidelines to aid the challenges social workers face. To remain registered, a social worker needs to abide by the HCPC code of ethics to ensure delivery of the best possible service for users. Working within the guidelines set can be challenging as it may cause conflict with the service users values or potentially the social workers own values. For the purpose of this essay, ethics will be defined as “professional obligations and rules of conduct” (Meacham, 2007). Social work values will be defined as “a range of beliefs about what is regarded as worthy or valuable in a social work context” (BASW, 2012 p17). This essay focuses on two areas of the personalisation agenda that can cause challenges for social workers; accommodation and personal budgets. The target service user group for the purposes of this essay is people with disabilities. Using the definition stated in the Equality Act, (2010) “A person is considered disabled if they have a physical or mental impairment that has a ‘substantial’ and ‘long-term’ negative effect on their ability to do normal daily activities”. Legislation and requirements to support adults with disabilities is increasing for the “over eleven million people with a limiting long term illness, impairment or disability in Great Britain” (office for disability issues, 2012). However, disabled people report mixed feelings and reactions to the legislations and rules put in place regarding their care and allowances (Dalley, 1991). The social philosophical approaches to social work will be used to deal with the challenges and conflicts social workers face. This essay touches upon Kant’s deontology; Bentham’s and Mills utilitarianism and Biestek’s 7 principles approach.

Immanuel Kant (1785) developed the theory of deontology. This means that social workers need to be promoting good actions and the correct motive, however the consequence is not important and the idea of an acceptable motive is subject to judgement (Adapted by Hartsell, 2006; Banks, 2001; Reiman, 2009; Meacham, 2008). Subsequently, Kant introduced the idea of a categorical imperative (CI). A CI maintains a person’s motives for their actions and they therefore should be acceptable as a universal law. Thus people should act on motives that can be used by everyone in a moral society and lead to respect for people (Darwell, 2002 cited in Reiman, 2009). From this it is seen that people should be treated as an end, for example a choice or desire, rather than a means (object) to our own ends. He believed that everyone should be treated with respect regardless of their characteristics or behaviour (Banks, 2001).

Kant talks about respect for the individual person and promoting self – determination. Biestek (1961) produced 7 principles that over time have become highly influential to social workers looking at values and ethics within their practice. 5 main principles have been used:

Individualisation; Recognition that each service user has unique qualities, good and bad.

Purposeful expression of feeling; Recognition that service users need to express their feelings (especially negative ones) freely.

Acceptance; The social worker should be able to work with a service user without passing judgement and accepting Individuals for who they are, including their strengths and their weaknesses.

Non – judgemental attitude; Social workers should be able to not pass judgement or assign guilt to the service user. It is about judging the service users behaviour

User self – determination; the social worker should be able to guide the service user, depending on their on their capacity, to have freedom in making their own decisions and choices (Adapted by Banks, 2001).

Utilitarianism focuses on a consequentialist approach as it focuses on the consequences of the action, rather than the actions themselves. (Scheffler, 1994 cited in Reiman, 2009). Decisions should be made on the results and consequences it could have on society rather than on a personal and individual basis, and to promote maximum good within society. The right action produces the greatest balance of good over evil – the principle of utility. (Banks, 2001). Utilitarianism is based on a theory developed by Bentham and Mills who looked into two branches of utilitarianism; hedonistic and ideal utilitarianism. Bentham explored hedonistic utilitarianism, where good was matched with happiness. Mills explored the idea of ideal utilitarianism. This focused on good being about virtues, truth and knowledge, not just happiness. (Banks, 2001). The theory promotes the greatest good for the greatest number of people. When making a decision it is imperative that the consequence is considered. Therefore as a social worker, it would be beneficial to look at the consequences of the forthcoming action and evaluate what would be most beneficial and least harmful to the service user.

In the late 1980’s, the Government recognised that an improvement in access to community services was required. The Government were committed to providing more support for people with long term needs by assisting and supporting individuals to manage their conditions and providing services they require in the community rather than in long-stay hospitals.(Oliver, 1996) Morris (1993) conducted a study that looked into disabled individuals who needed day to day services. He found that disabled individuals were starting to feel a sense of hopelessness and helplessness when trying to access statutory services. Historically, social workers assessed and told service users what services they needed. Through the personalisation agenda, and the introduction of direct payments, service users told the social worker their needs. For the first time, the social worker had to accept the service user’s self-assessment and then use the assessment to see if the highlighted issues were eligible under Fair Access to Care (2003) legislation. Direct payments were introduced in 1997 and social workers had to translate service user needs into a monetary value to enable them to purchase their own service. The aim was to give individuals control over their care and their lives. Direct payments evolved into personalised budgets and have further evolved into a more individualised budget / service plan. The need for change and equality of service provision has been recognised as more views are being voiced by people with disabilities. In line with Beistek’s theory, service users are using purposeful expression of feeling and self-determination to enable the social workers to know their wants and needs. This has resulted in changes which could reduce the potential for conflict in the future.

A further challenge is budgetary control. Service users often want services that are financially unavailable to them. Although ethics state that service users should be encouraged to have self- determination, be treated as a whole and the social worker should promote and provide information regarding their care (BASW, 2012), the service users choice cannot always be guaranteed. Utilitarianism would suggest that this is because if service users always received the services they wanted, the social worker would not be promoting the greatest good for the greatest number, instead would be taking a more Kantian approach of promoting moral good. These two philosophical approaches cause conflict within themselves.

The Mental Capacity Act (2005) says “a person lacks capacity in relation to a matter if at the material time he is unable to make a decision for himself in relation to the matter because of an impairment of, or a disturbance in the functioning of, the mind or brain”. (s2). This leads to challenges and conflicts for social workers. If the service user had capacity, there could be conflict over the way they spend their budget which could lead to the social worker treating that individual without respect. Following the BASW code of ethics (2012), it states that social workers should respect the right to self-determination. Kant would support this view as, by the social worker supporting the individual to meet their own self-defined needs, the social worker is promoting good actions that will in turn produce good outcomes for the individual. The social worker needs to recognise that the individual has human rights and freedom to voice their views. Burton (1996) showed that there was a failure to recognise the unequal power relations between the social worker in control of provision of services and the service user who relies on the services. This therefore would undermine Beistek’s principles of self-determination as, although the service user is voicing their opinion, the social worker is not listening and this could be seen as jeopardising the principles of personalisation and the code of ethics that are imperative. The implementation of The Mental Capacity Act needs to be reviewed to ensure workers are following legislation and ethics. It should not be assumed someone lacks capacity because they have a disability.

On the other hand, if the service user didn’t have capacity, it could cause conflict between the social worker and the paid carer and/or unpaid carers. If the service user lacks capacity, how would the social worker or the carers be able to assess what was best for the individual? A social worker would have to uphold and promote human dignity and well-being as well as empowering the individual. (BASW, 2012). These ethics and values are supported by Beistek’s theory. Workers need to treat the service user with respect, be non -judgemental and accept the situation the service user may be in. The social worker therefore would only be able to act upon their assessment which should include the carer’s views on what is best for the service user. Utilitarianism, an alternative argument, would argue what’s the greatest good for the greatest number? What would benefit the service user more? The social workers views or the carer’s views? The outcomes need to ensure that the maximum people are happy. The social worker could reach the maximum happiness and reduce conflict by using empowerment. The social worker would respect the needs and preferences of the service user, via the carers and family members as well as recognising their own prejudices to ensure the correct services are offered. The Community Care Act (1990) promotes care in the community and people staying within their own home, allowing the individual to use their personal budget and have carers to promote independence. There is evidence to suggest for example, individuals who have fractured a limb, fare better when they recuperate in their own homes. (Pignolo, Keenan and Hebela, 2011).

Accommodation is a major concern for many service users (Davis and Wainwright, 1996). One aspect that could cause conflict is the practice of placing young people in young disability units, properties that are specifically designed for people with learning disabilities. Although this could be seen as a solution for people to interact and have support, there is a potential conflict as the individual cannot choose where they want to live and may live a distance from family/friends. If placed in a purpose built establishment, the individuals are classed as being housed by the local authority and therefore do not get to choose alternative locations (Oliver, 1996). The dilemma for the social worker is the need to take the individuals views into account whilst balancing their needs and wants, particularly if the service user lacks the capacity to make the decision.

It is unlawful for anyone to sign a tenancy agreement on behalf of an individual who lacks capacity. A capacity assessment needs to be undertaken to ensure the service user understands how to maintain that tenancy. In order to proceed, an application needs to be made to The Court of Protection. This could lead to conflict as the social worker and housing department need to uphold the law, however many families feel they have the right to sign a tenancy for their disabled family member and find it difficult to accept that this is not the case. According to BASW (2012), the social worker needs to develop professional relationships with the service user and the family, uphold the reputation and values of the profession as well as recognising diversity and treating the individual as a whole. Utilitarianism would recommend looking at what benefits the whole family, rather than just the service user. Challenges arise when the service user lacks capacity. Using the utilitarian approach, it could be said that the service user shouldn’t be given a tenancy as it doesn’t promote the greatest good for the greatest number. This view is in conflict with BASW codes of ethics. It could be seen as unethical practice and lead to further conflict. Beistek would support the view of BASW in using the specific value base that service users should be allowed to freely express their feelings, both positive and negative, and the social worker should listen and make a decision in an accepting and non-judgemental way. However, Kant would say that although the consequence of not getting a choice in where the service user lives is a negative outcome, the intention of placing them in a home, with other people to socialise is a good moral judgement that is solely benefitting the individual.

Another potential conflict could be older disabled individuals being forced into care. The Sutherland Report (1999) claimed that older disabled people were being forced into institutional care too early due to the lack of alternative care at home. Sixsmith and Sixsmith (2008) provided evidence that by 2008 there had been a shift in care provision and that the Personalisation Agenda meant that people were remaining in their home for longer and receiving appropriate services. However there is a further potential for conflict when accommodating people, with disabilities, to stay in their homes. Individuals may want to grow old at home but is this possible for people with significantly reduced mobility? Many homes are inaccessible to wheelchair users and those with significant mobility impairments (Burns, 2004). There is a Government scheme whereby disabled people can apply for a disabled facility grant to have their homes adapted, and certain individuals have to re-pay the Government, therefore the Government is not financing expensive care packages. The role of the social worker would be to negotiate, support and empower the service user to have their needs met in the most appropriate, desired way. According to Kant’s theory, having a loan is the moral good as people will be able to remain at home for longer, promoting happiness and community care. This would be supported by the values of BASW which states social workers need to treat the service user as a whole and respect their right to self-determination. In contrast to Kant’s theory, Utilitarianism would consider weighing up the consequences of removing the service user from their house and into an adapted and safe environment. I.e. a care home could be seen as an easier option for disabled people to receive care. This view could cause conflict because the social worker is going against the wishes and desires of the service user. Utilitarianism looks at the best outcome for society rather than on an individual level. Therefore, by moving individuals out of the house into the care home may provide maximum happiness for society, although it disregards the individual’s views and opinions. This is a criticism of the model as many service users could potentially not have their needs met in a manner that is acceptable to them due to the focus being on the benefit to society. This could be particularly true e.g. for people with English as a second language or who follow a religious faith. However, Beistek would agree with Kant in promoting self-determination.

A key theme running throughout this essay is respect for the individual person as a self – determining being. Both Kant and Beistek promote this and therefore appear to be the social philosophical models best tailored towards social work values and ethics. There are clear conflicts between traditional social work and the personalisation agenda for people with disabilities. These conflicts have been reduced with the introduction of HCPC ethics. If the social worker consistently uses these theories whilst working with conflict and challenging service users then the BASW ethics will be maintained and the service users will receive the best appropriate service available within Fair access to care criteria.

Discuss the use of communication skills and values in social work

This assignment sets out to explore the use of communication skills and value in social work according to three interconnected dimensions. The first section discusses the importance of communication in the practice of social work – including building a rapport with service users and carers, and the importance of empowerment. The second section identifies and explains the centrality of effective communication skills such as negotiation, interviewing and self-awareness. After this, part three considers the impact of personal and professional values on communication. This includes traditional and radical values in social work practice and the effects of communication in ethical dilemmas. The code of practice (CCW, 2002) in the Welsh context is considered throughout.

This first section discusses the importance of communication and empowerment in social work practice with service users, carers and other professionals. Communication is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary (2013) as ‘the imparting or exchanging of information by speaking, writing, or using some other medium’. It cannot be described in such narrow terms within social work because of the different techniques involved in working with different service users in a multitude of situations. This involves social workers making judgements and getting to know the service user in order to communicate efficiently to the service users preferred method of communication (Wilson et al, 2008). Communication in social work practice is central to all inter-agency working and to building relationships with service users and carers. Good communication as a social worker requires the expertise to be both sensitive and understanding of their situation in order to build rapport with the individual (Trevethick, 2000). Rapport is how the social worker contacts and engages with the service user and carers. Developing a rapport starts with an introduction which forms the basis of the relationship, particularly as it is important to gain an understanding of the service user. This involves discussing their background, values, culture and needs, which will help develop the rapport (Knapp, 2009).

The fundamentals of communication in social work are voice and speech, body language, hearing, observing, encouraging and remembering. These skills can be used in introductions with service users and their families/ carers. Introductions can be uncomfortable and worrying for the service user if they are unsure what a social worker is there for and it depends on their previous experiences, if any. To ease this process an introduction exercise can be implemented – for example a genogram can be drawn by asking the family to collectively describe each family member in the house and those they would describe as their support and closest to them. Put simply, a genogram is a very detailed family tree using symbols to represent relationships (Parker and Bradley, 2010). This will help build a relationship with the service user as well as gain information and observe their reactions (body language) when working together and when talking about family and friends. This will show some key skills on the social workers behalf such as, listening, speech, remembering and encouraging.

Active listening uses a combination of talking and listening skills to make the service user feel you understand their situation, and encourages them to place trust in the social worker (Cournoyer, 2011). It involves positive body language and speech to invite/enable the service user to express themselves. More specifically, body language is expression through movement and facial expressions which convey emotion. Social workers should use body language to make service users feel more comfortable but also pay attention to whether the service user is showing signs of aggression, trying to hide something, or seems happy in the situation.

Empowerment is a process promoted by skills and should involve the service user. It aims to emphasise the rights and needs of people who may be oppressed by society (Leadbetter, 2002). Empowerment can be delivered in many forms, for example, personal, organisational, community based, family, group or team empowerment. Personal empowerment helps service users to gain control over their situations and overall empower themselves and others to enable change. Organisational empowerment supports staff in an organisation, promoting morale and motivation in workers so they are happy to take on more responsibilities and go to work. Community based empowerment supports the community to challenge inequalities and exclusion so everyone who lives in a certain society can feel a part of the community and take control of their environment. Family, group or team empowerment focuses on allowing each person in the group to help each other and themselves collectively. They can call on each other for support and help if they need to fight oppressive behaviour (Adams, 1996).

The second section discusses effective communication skills and how they support anti-oppressive practice. Skills are ‘the ability to carry out a particular activity effectively and consistently over a period of time’ (Thompson, 2005:81). Skills that shape the way social workers communicate are interviewing, negotiation and partnership and self-awareness (Thompson, 2005). An interview is a conversation with meaning and the beginning of change (Trevethick, 2000). Social workers use interviews to collect data and to build a face to face rapport with service users. An interview should be natural and the service user should not feel like they are being treated according to a checklist just going through the process, as this could be seen as oppressive if service users are not treated as individuals. The service user should have an understanding of why the social worker is there and has the right to know the process that has taken place to get to the interview. A key skill of interviewing is directing, this means although there should be a steady flow the social worker needs to keep the conversation on the subject that they are there for in a subtle way. This can be done by using phatic conversation as glue to keep it social and help keep a relationship going but redirecting to the main issue so it is a healthy balance for both taking part. It is better to use questions that will not give the service user the answer, especially children because this could create a story that is not exact. For example use, where did you get that bruise? Instead of did your mum give you that bruise? Open ended questions allow service users to expand on answers and give information that the social worker may not have thought to ask about (Hepworth et al, 2010).

Negotiation and partnership is an essential part of interagency working. Working in partnership with other professionals requires a level of negotiation when both services have different/alternative ideas of what is best for the service user. Professionals who work together quite commonly are social workers and health care professionals. Everyone involved in interagency team should have a clear role and have an understanding of each other’s place/responsibilities in the team and their point of view. Negotiation may take place in deciding the best solution for a service user. However, there may be a hierarchy between the professionals causing tensions in decision-making. This would need to be resolved in order to work in partnership. This can be achieved by building relationships and achieving trust and mutual respect through communication (Atkinson et al, 2007). The code of practice (6.5) states social workers should always treat colleagues with respect and work openly and co-operatively with them (CCW, 2002). Negotiation also takes place with service users’ in the decision of the best solution for their situation. Keeping the service user involved with all decisions helps maintain the service users’ trust and confidence in social services. This is anti-oppressive practice, which involves social workers empowering the service user to take control of their lives and help contact people in their society in similar situations. This is to help them feel part of society no matter their culture, language or lifestyle. It is seen as part of the social workers job to get rid of oppression in society (Dominelli, 2002). For example, by using a language interpreter this will make the service user more at ease and allow them to get their point across better.

Social workers need a level of self-awareness to convey attitudes, the correct emotions and self-control. Without self-control personal issues and emotional attachment to a situation could be expressed which could cloud professional judgement. The situation should always be focused on the service user and the social workers thoughts of their personal perfect solution may not coincide with the service user (Cournoyer, 2011). The code of practice (2.6) states social workers must declare issues that may create conflict of interests and making sure they do not influence their judgement or practice (CCW, 2002). The skill of self-awareness grows overtime with experience in practice, it teaches social workers to think on their feet during communication and difficult situations, deal with stress and tackle all obstacles as completely different when dealing with different people (Cournoyer, 2011).

This third, and final, section considers the impact of personal and professional values upon communication within social work practice, including how ethical issues arise in communication. Personal values need to be taken into account because they will frame many decisions; it’s the social workers instincts about safety and danger that decides, for instance, whether it is safe for a child to stay with their parents. However, personal values need to coincide with professional values because social workers cannot let personal judgements shadow their professional obligations to help all service users and abide by the code of practice (CCW, 2002). For example a social worker cannot express their personal opinions to a service user through verbal or non-verbal communication. They have to treat them with professional courtesy despite their personal feelings towards them. Social work values are underpinned by traditional and radical values. Traditional values focuses on being non-judgemental, protecting confidentiality and treating the service user with dignity and respect (Biestek, 1961). This follows the anti-oppressive practice of treating everyone as individuals and to not compare two different cases. These values underpin the core principles of the code of practice (CCW, 2002). Radical values are more modern views of social work practice which involves the service users taking more action to solve their problems themselves. For example, empowering the service user to have more confidence to build a partnership with their social worker and give input into their own plans for the future (Thompson, 2000).

According to BASW code of ethics (2012) ‘professional ethics concerns matters of right and wrong conduct, good and bad qualities of character and the professional responsibilities attached to relationships in a work context.’ Ethical issues can arise because social workers promote the welfare and rights of service users but the end result may not coincide with what the service user thinks is the right decision for them. This could cause communication barriers/issues because social workers support service users to be a part of deciding their own life changes then in some circumstances this power can be taken away from them. For example, an elderly woman wants to be able to live at home but she does not have the support and her dementia and mobility is deteriorating. The decision is made that she needs to go into supported accommodation, this effects the social workers relationship with the woman and the service users whole demeanour changes towards the social worker including body language, attitude and facial expression.

In conclusion, communication verbal and non-verbal resides at the core of social work. It is utilized in all areas of social work as an essential part of the job. Communication is used in services for elderly, children, people with disabilities, drug and alcohol abuse and mental health. It is used to build relationships, create solutions and to negotiate plans for service users. It is important that social workers work to always improve these skills and complete training so they can learn from other professionals’ experiences of how different service users, carers and professionals like to work in partnership. This includes how to communicate with people who may not want to co-operate to begin with but can use negotiation skills to improve the relationship.

It is difficult that to describe and understand the value of care because value of care has very narrow in terms of the all the aspects of health and social care. Care value defines the rules, principles, regulations, and guidelines that every carer has to follow during their services to their clients. The values play dominant role in terms of influencing the carer because it dealt with decision making activity and practical actions with them. It need to know the values, ethics and rights. It also need to know the age, gender, ability, ethnicity, and identity’s of carer. It is also important that to know the influence of the practice to carer. It is also important that to know the relationship between values and government policy that can affect society. It also need to looking at the how the values affecting individual’s live in terms of their own lives. The value of care is also important for an organization. There are certain principles which can be consider to enhance the quality of care. These principles includes, the anti-discrimination practice has to be promotes, the information has to be friendliness in nature and also same time maintenance is also important. The freedom of people in terms of their right which also should be independence, of their choice, safety, and with all these need to be promoting and supporting at the same time. The individual’s personal beliefs and their identities should be acknowledge. The protection of people is also important in event of abuse. The communication skills of individual and the relationships between service users and carer is also important, it should be providing in effective way. The individualised care is as much important as to provide them care in terms of values. If there should any violation occurs in terms of care value, there should be a possibility of the dismissals and also sued of laws. It sometimes organization should be suffered a lot and it should be close. The above are also possible when there is a violation in code of conduct. The care values are dominant as it considers clients expectation from their health and social care services.

The below are certain points which need to considers for enhancement of quality of care.

Clinical governance

Organization need to be more responsive as they serves with formal structures to the clients. Organization has to be dealt with the other aspects such as follows national standards framework. Organization has to deliver high quality services for excellency of the organization. The commitment is requires from the all levels in organization to provide coherent services to the clients. It is the important aspects to enhancing the quality of care.

Change Management

Change management is important aspects as the question of enhancing the quality of care. The nurses or care are different at level of their works, so change management of that can be important aspects to enhancing quality of care. Change management should be do with the success and failures of individuals in organization. It is the important aspects to enhancing the quality of care.

Monitoring

The three approaches of evaluation of quality of care is important and it need to be monitor. These three approaches are structural assessment, care processes and care outcomes. The auditing is important part which helps to organizations to identifying the problems and developing the solution. It is a worthwhile processes to enhance the quality of care.

Care Standards

There are certain standards which need to be fulfil and maintain at the time of serving the work. The interventions and treatments should be make with the proper guidance. These standards has to be make with research and innovation. Organization has to encourage the innovative practice within framework of standards. The quality of care should be enhance by maintaining and promoting the care standards.

Professional Qualities

Professional individuals has to improve their skills. At the same time, they have to be work consistently and reasonably with multi-tasking abilities. It necessary for an organization to take periodically audit on the skills and qualification of the individuals. It gives the detailed information that where the individual’s lack of skills and how to be improve it, in other words what type of training require to the individual. It is the important aspects to enhancing the quality of care.

Issues related to quality

The issues such as poor discharge planning, lack of involvement in care, lack of skills, poor understanding of the needs of clients, unprofessional behaviour, poor standards of care and the problem of inequality distribution to care need to be address. These issues are important and the expertise power has to find the solution to overcome from such issues. It is the important aspects to enhancing the quality of care.

Policies

There should be a policies for the quality issues to dealt within the organization. Policies need to be frame, maintain and implement periodically within the organization. It is the important aspects to enhancing the quality of care.

Conclusion:

Individual does not need to go beyond their duties and responsibilities to enhance the quality of care. Clinical governance provides us with a framework to begin transforming care quality. Change management is important for enhancing the quality of care. Individual has to be take care of the standards of care at the time of performing their duties. Individual has to be develop and improve their skills to enhance the quality of care.

Evaluate the needs of three groups of service users and the care that can be provided for them in health and social care in Britain, including the specific roles of care assistants and social workers in each group.
Introduction

Health and social care is an immense service sphere experiencing a rapid change. With every change of government the importance to health and social care services has been amended. Priorities to health and social services are rising. With rapid change there comes an uncertainty, the only reason behind this is many times people in their lives needs a care taker in one form or the other – at home, or at hospitals at the time of surgery. Health and Social care is a profession where someone takes care of a person who has a special need. A person in special need would be a child, an adolescents, it may be a person who is experiencing physical disabilities, a mentally challenged person. This is a profession devoted to deliver a quality care and support to an individual or a group of people where the needs have been examined and identified as well. This can be formally explained as a profession purvey care, support, shelter, protagonist for a dependent person. This is applied and made in action after a great research and analysing the need and the special care that the dependent person is in need of. This Health and social care service is available all over the world however they are known by some different phenomena as the region differs. For example in Europe Health and social care is known as Social pedagogy where as in U.K. it’s called as child and young care the same is called in Canada. Scene long time the people are served from a health care organisation, and it has been a long time where physically challenged people or mentally retarded people rely upon sources such as health and social care organisations. After a proper examination on the need of the dependent a subsequence care is provided. Unfortunately these situations are also faced by people who are impotent or are not reproductive, even after surviving for the whole life they don’t have any one in their lives to take care for them. The dependents are generally divided under three major groups which are missioned as follows.

Children or Juveniles

People who are older

People who are Physically challenged or Mentally retarded

Health and social care workers have got lots of liabilities on them for the client as soon as they undertake a patient; it means they have taken the responsibilities of the client and their protection. Such a organisations are growing all over the world and are supported at a great deal by the government. An employee before being appointed in such organisation undergoes from a wide range of qualification and degrees.

Definition of Needs:

Needs refers as positive, motivating hunger that compels action for its satisfaction. Needs range from basic survival needs (common to all human beings) satisfied by necessities, to cultural, intellectual, and social needs (varying from place to place and age group to age group) satisfied by necessaries. Needs are finite but, in contrast, wants (which spring from desires or wishes) are boundless.

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/need.html

First of all, We have to understand what are the needs.

As per holistic approach, the needs are such as cultural, social, emotional, intellectual, spiritual and physical. As per services and resources, the needs are such as mobility, home care, social care, nursing and medical. As per famous psychologist Abram Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, are self-actualisation, esteem needs, belongings and love needs, safety needs, and psychological needs.

Abram Maslow’s hierarchy of needs chart.

Needs and Wants

Care assistants and social care workers has to understand what is their needs and wants. Care assistants and social care workers have to distinguish the difference between needs and wants. Needs and Wants of care assistants and social care workers should need to be asses to understanding for the assessor within the organization.

Challenges for Health and Social Care

A Health and social care organisation is a challenging and a honouring as a profession which aims to provide service to the needy ones. It also provides protection and shelter to the dependents. The health and social care organisation needs to understand the need and accordingly apply the required skill on the client. They have the power of understanding of the approach which best fits with the patients. The Health and social care department keeps a record of the dependent with clear information about the dependent and his daily routine so as to understand and improve the requirement. Such organisations practice Anti discriminatory and treat the client with their best regardless of which race, country, age, and sex does he belongs to. They provide social services and assistance to ameliorate the social as well as the psychological behaviour of the person who is not able to help himself. As discussed above the people who require special need are basically divided into three groups

Needs of Children

Hiring a Health and Social carer for children is common now days. Child with single parent is major clients for such organisation. With change in time the requirement of humans has been changed a lot which draws the parents to go out for work and no one is there to look after their juveniles so as to protect them from getting into delinquencies parents require someone who looks after their kids when they are out as to make the child literate about the social life. Many parents decide to do so even to improve the psychological functioning of the children as well as to look after their studies. It is often found that a child with less assistance has more possibilities to fall in bad deeds. Here the carer plays a vital role for the parents and guides the child toward good things and teaches him that social values of the society. Hiring a social carer solves such problems and tends the child towards good things. These organisations helps those parents with the child having learning difficulties, such children are taught by the social workers and learns the moral values of the life. Children who have behavioural difficulties such as talking to elders in an ill-mannered way the workers also teach them how to behave. Sometimes children fall in bad companies and acquire bad addictions such as having drugs alcohols the health and social care department also helps the child to rehabilitate by giving them a lively atmosphere. Children with high level of truancy are rare but in need of a person who looks after their studies, social workers work and analyse which is the better way for the individual to grab the interest in studies.

Roles of Care Assistants and Social Care Workers for children

Every care assistants and social care workers who provides the services to children needs to have their assistant. This assistant helps with care assistant and social care workers for the duties regarding teaching and caring to children. Children’s education requirements are vary according to their parents and schools. As care assistants and social care workers roles, they have to have basic qualification like diploma, with previous related experience. There is also need of college degree sometimes.

Instruction

The care assistant and social care workers have to instruct the children in terms of their learning activity. The care assistant and social care workers have to take care of the children by give proper instruction to them in terms of their education, behaviour, and safety. The care assistant and social care workers also have to check the grade papers after receiving children’s assignments. The care assistant and social care workers have also give suggestion of activities and lesson suitable to children to their parents.

Supervision

The care assistant and social care workers have to supervise the children while their break. The care assistant and social care workers have to supervise children when children are playing. The care assistant and social care workers also have to take care that children do not hurt themselves of others. The care assistant and social care workers also have to make sure that they do not go out of the premises. When there is need of or any event of problem arise, the care assistant and social care workers have to handles it as per situation very calmly. The care assistant and social care workers have to informs their superior in event of problem to get better solution of that.

Cleaning

The care assistant and social care workers have to make sure that the workspace need to be clean at the times. The care assistant and social care workers have to clean the premises accordingly. The care assistant and social care workers have to make sure that the playing area of children need to be safe so at the time of playing they are interact with one another without getting hurt.

Nurturing

When parents are busy with some other works or the teachers in the schools are busy with some other works, the care assistant and social care workers have to be with children when children get hurt. When they become sad, the care assistant and social care workers have to be with children to get out of it. The care assistant and social care workers also have to keep children clean and neat. The bathing and diaper- changing have also be do with clean by the care assistant and social care workers. The care assistant and social care workers have also make sure children get food regularly and provides the nutritious meals and snacks for the children throughout the day.

Discussions

The care assistant and social care workers have to prepare and confer the progress of children with their parents. The care assistant and social care workers have responsible to give progress report to the parents of children. The care assistant and social care workers should be helpful and also aware of the needs and issues related to the children. The care assistant and social care workers have to provide excellent feedback of the children.

Old Age people

In certain stage of life people do need a care taker after an age, even after having friend’s relatives and family they sometimes fail to access the needs, in this stage the person in special need requires a care taker who look after the patient and take good care of them. They even protect the client and take proper care of them. Unfortunately some people who are impotent and could not grow their families, are very hapless people such organisations do provide service to them. After reaching to a certain age few people undergo some disease such as Paralysis etc. These organisations provide service to such hapless people. The organisation takes care of aged people by doing household job for them such as cleaning in house, washing their cloths, Vacuuming in the corridor etc. They also take personal care such as helping them in taking shower, bathing, dress them up and toileting etc. Such a job needs a lot of patience and dedication above all it need the willingness and affection for the needy one which are often found in the workers of such organisation. The organisation has also opened a place where cares for such people are available. The place is also known as House of Commons where people of almost same age group stay together and spent there last inning of life. This care is taken by the Health and social care organisation.

Roles of Care Assistants and Social Care Workers for old age people

The workers in such organisation have very responsible work on their shoulders here they not only need to take care of the old people but also understand them. They should be a good listener so as to listen and understand that feeling of the old people who have lost their understanding and A Health and social care organisation is a challenging and a honouring as a profession which aims to provide service to the needy ones. It also provides protection and shelter to the dependents. The health and social care organisation needs to understand the need and accordingly apply the required skill on old age people. They have the power of understanding of the approach which best fits with the old age people. The Health and social care department keeps a record of the dependent with clear information about the dependent and his daily routine so as to understand and improve the requirement. Such organisations practice Anti discriminatory and treat the old age people with their best regardless of which race, country, age, and sex does he belongs to. They provide social services and assistance to ameliorate the social as well as the psychological behaviour of the person who is not able to help themself.

Physically challenge people

People who are mentally retarded or physically challenged are very hard to take care of. Since family member fails to take good care of such people such clients are better assisted by such experienced social workers. Unluckily few people are born with such disabilities and many a times in spite of being a mother and father, Parents are not able to understand the requirement of the person who is experiencing such disabilities.

Roles of Care Assistants and Social Care Workers for physically challenge people

Concerning about health

The care assistant and social care workers need have to concerned about the health of handicapped people or disabled people. The care assistant and social care workers have to be monitored medication activity of handicapped or disabled people. The care assistant and social care workers have to perform their task as per the suggestion of general practitioner of handicapped or disabled people. The care assistant and social care workers have to perform their duties under the direction of the registered nurses.

Managing under definite standards

The care assistant and social care workers have to manage the handicapped or disabled people as per assistance under personal hygiene and ambulation.

Preparing, managing and reporting

The care assistant and social care workers have to prepare record of handicapped or disabled people’s progress and serviced performed by them. The care assistant and social care workers also have to maintain record of the handicapped or disabled people’s progress and serviced performed by them. The care assistant and social care workers also have to reporting to the superior and guardian when there is a changes in condition of handicapped and disabled people.

Performing various duties

The care assistant and social care workers have to be perform the various duties such as cooking, washing the outfits, cleaning the dishes, and shopping for handicapped or disabled people. The care assistant and social care workers have to perform various housekeeping duties.

Caring in various aspects

The care assistant and social care workers have to take care of disabled or handicapped people and their families in events of the family disruption or restoration and helplessness. The care assistant and social care workers also have to provides companionship, personal care and help in adjusting new lifestyles to handicapped or disabled people and their families.

Instruction and advisory

The care assistant and social care workers have to instruct handicapped or disabled people on issues such as nutrition, personal hygiene, and house hold cleanliness. The care assistant and social care workers also have to advise handicapped or disabled people on issues such as nutrition, personal hygiene, and house hold cleanliness.

Participating and consulting

The care assistant and social care workers have to participate in case reviewing and consulting with responsible people to evaluate the handicapped or disabled people needs and planning for their future services.

Transporting

The care assistant and social care workers have to facilitate the handicapped or disabled people transportation from their location to other location such as physician’s place, or any outing or using vehicles.

Conclusion:

The needs of people vary from one to another, as similar to this the needs of three groups also vary such to children, physically challenge people and old age people. Similar to needs of these three different groups the roles of care assistants and social care workers is also different. It need to be evaluate for development of clients.

PART 1Introduction

As individuals we work with people, interact with them and might disagree or agree with them on issues. Conflict management means putting in place ways that reduces bad aspects of conflict and raising the good aspects of it at standards the same or higher than the place where the conflict took place. Additionally, conflict management seeks to improve learning and group results, that is capability or performance in a business environment (Ra him, 2002). People might disagree in decision making because they might have ideas of their own. Conflict may be important to groups and businesses, when managed well, it increases group results (e.g. Alpert, Osvaldo, & Law, 2000; Booker & Jame son, 2001; Ra-him & Bono ma, 1979; Kuhn & Poole, 2000; Church & Marks, 2001). Part 1 of this paper explains conflict, it’s types and my experience of it at Mining Building and Contractors Ltd ( MBC,Obuasi), Ghana and a conclusion at the end. Part 2 of this paper explains building trust, relationships and communications, the importance of these skills to an organization as well as a personal reflection on these skills and a conclusion.

Conflict may be defined as a basic variance between individuals due to differences of opinions, ideas, beliefs, values, needs or objectives.

Types of Conflict

Intrapersonal It is a conflict that develops within an individual when he argues with himself about something. It could be simple as wanting to use office item for personal use when he knows he should’t be doing that.

Interpersonal It is a conflict between two separate individuals, this form of conflict is what people typically have in mind when they think of conflict.

Functional Ambiguity and role specifications in organizations could create problems.

Intergroup This conflict normally happens in the cases of various ethnic or racial groups. Each group could feel threatened and may feel that their respective culture is not duly respected.

Conflict Management

Conflict management is about helping improve the positive aspects of conflicts. It does not necessarily mean doing away with conflicts.

Personal experience

I worked at MBC Ltd, Obuasi with a colleague at the Accounts Office. My colleague’s uncle was the Marketing Manager but wasn’t in good terms with Mr. Ocloo, the Accountant, who was our boss. I got to know our boss was someone who was really passionate about his work and disliked lazy and insolent people. I built a strong relationship with my boss and always listened to and respected his views. My boss observed my colleague most of the time missing at the office, this continued for a few weeks. My colleague had been visiting his uncle during periods which there were no work at the office. One day I returned from an errand to find out my colleague had had a confrontation with our boss because of his continuous absence during working hours. He also had reported the case to his uncle who had come and exchanged words with our boss and had worsened the situation. I quickly called my colleague and spoke to him about the way our boss had observed him for a long period before voicing out his frustration. I recommended to him outside apologizing to our boss. I also advised him to go back to his uncle’s office to calm him down. I then ensured he explained things to his uncle and admit it was his fault to make peace. I later talked to my boss for hours explaining that, my colleague was at fault but he really left when we had finished with our work. I wanted to make sure the case does not escalate to higher levels and wanted it solved that day. It wasn’t easy because we had to stay behind after office hours when everyone had left to resolve the issue. Both my colleague and his uncle came back with my colleague apologizing and acknowledging the mistake that brought about the conflict. I helped solve the solution because it would have really developed into a real mix-up which would have brought other parties and disciplines into the matter.

Conclusion

Every day we work with people, who might wrong us or rub us in a way. I personally think conflict is unavoidable but can be managed. At the workplace individuals should always be thoughtful and always try to negotiate with fellow workers to resolve conflicts. Workers must be sensitive to the feelings of other workers and understand that individuals may react to anger, fear and frustration. Workers should provide viable solutions to problems amongst themselves. Mangers should identify and analyse the reason for conflict to understand the root cause of conflict. Any solution for resolving the issue should be aimed at doing away with the root cause. Managers need to have good communication skills to be able to empathize with all the concerned parties and put across their solutions convincingly. Conflicts should be resolved in a healthy way without favouring any individual; all parties involved should be treated with respect and spoken to politely. Managing conflict effectively is valuable in the progress of an organization.

PART 2
Introduction

Nowadays, businesses are looking for ways to help maintain trust, build good relationships and acquire communication skills in helping them achieve growth in their workplace. Trust is explained as the condition of preparedness for an interaction with something or someone without protection (Duane C. Tway, Jr.,1994). Trust, relationships and communication at the workplace is very essential to the success of a business and wellbeing of people at work. Trust is seen by others as equivalent to trustworthiness, explaining trust in the subject of individual traits that stimulate positive expectations on other individuals behalf(e.g., Butler & Cantrell, 1984; McKnight et al., 1998).Organisational relationships can be grouped into functions, departments and teams; union, staff and the management. These relationships are influenced by how people individually treat each other in the workplace, http://www.dol.govt.nz/er/bestpractice/prc/infosheets/GPG-WP-RELATIONSHIP.pdf (Accessed on 03/12/12). Culture of trust is beneficial in disorganized and uncertain places, (Bjerke, 1999).

Why the need for Building Trust, Relationships & Communication?

Effective communication, trust and good relationship with workers is an organization is vital in attaining results, eliminating stress and providing a vibrant atmosphere where workers feel free to ask for help, share opinions and also actively contribute in progress of organization. These skills help encourage team members encourage each other and work efficiently and effectively. Fostering these skills in the workplace enhances decision making and implementation in an organisation. Trust gives way to developing a relationship more effective between the trustor and trustee (Blau, 1964). To build successful relationships in workplaces involves trust. Trust brings about efficient communication, healthy relationships and employee motivation in an organization. Having these elements at the workplace motivates employees to work harder. The existence of these skills in the workplace makes organizational goals easy to achieve. Any organisation that excels in these skills is able to get things done progressively and successfully.

Personal Reflection

When I started work at MBC Ltd, (Obuasi), the first thing I did was to learn and quickly adapt to the organisational behaviour and culture. The next thing was to win the trust of fellow workers and build good communication levels and relationships with them. I was humble, obedient and was always eager to work. I became more involved in issues of workers in the company. This made me my boss favourite and made him sometimes go to the extent of discussing his personal issues with me. I had already won his trust and had built a vibrant relationship with him. As a new worker of the company, it was not done overnight but through hard work I was able to achieve it. If I saw workers not in good terms at work, I will quickly try to address it. I will have a conversation with the people involved and if it was still not working, I will try a higher authority. I always made sure that no party felt betrayed or offended but it was always a win-win case. I also kept private information from others confidential. When we had finished with work and the place seemed boring I would suggest a group meeting where we thrived on issues to be addressed at the office. We did this at least two times and really helped us a lot and always brought the best in us. I suggested this to fellow workers but did not work at start because some managers did not agree with the idea. Gradually interest for it grew and the company now holds a special meeting once every month where selected workers from various departments share views and discuss problems facing them to managers. This really improved communication and enhanced good relationships and trust in the organization.

Conclusion

Communication, trust and relationships can be improved in all workplaces, no matter the size of the company. The basis of an individual’s interaction in the workplace is through these skills. These skills are very important and should be amalgamated into team building in every organization. Individuals should be encouraged to stop engaging in activities that will reduce trust existing between workers. Workshops and meetings should be organized to prepare and educate workers on developing good communication skills and fostering healthy relationships among themselves. It is never easy to impress or satisfy everyone at the workplace because we are human but we must also know that it takes a lot of effort to fix a broken relationship or trust that existed between workers than to prevent it from happening. If any company wants to move from being just a working group to a high performing one these skills must be taking seriously. None of us is perfect but we can be much more effective and efficient if we work on building good relations, having easy and simple communication systems and being trustworthy. This will inspire and influence others to help build a successful business environment.

Various theories have been significant in forming and recognising organisations. Throughout the twentieth century, the theory and practice of organisations have been modified from a more traditional management approach were efficiency and profits were the main goals to a more networked approach where service and user satisfaction are the focal points (Hughes and wearing 2007). Each organisation is different. Differences relate to varying missions, demographics, location, physical environment, management style, levels of funding and financial conditions, and whether the organisation is public, nonprofit, or for-profit, among other factors. This essay will discuss the importance of organisational mission/vision statements, structure, resourcing and service in distinguishing human service organisation from one another as well as provide theoretical analysis on how this can influence the organisations practices and services.

Human service organisation is the word often used to describe health, welfare, and educational organisations, and is generally identified as organisations whose goals are to provide some kind of service for people individually or communities (Gardner 2006). Human service organisations set out influence in structuring the nature of social work practices. The agency provides the decree and authorisation for carrying out societies order in regard to the health and well-being of the citizens and regulates the resources essential to accomplishing this work (Hanson, 1998).

Human service organisations obtain their purpose from community needs and priorities, as characterised by the social settings at any given time. In many ways social work practice is established , facilitated, and at the same time controlled by the purposes and operating modes of human service organisations. In theory , purpose is comparatively consistent across all human service organisations in that in a broader sense “meet the needs and contribute to the well being of consumers , and to contribute to the overall social welfare (Jones and May 1992,pg.84 , as cited by Gardner 2006).It is imperative that the overall vision does conveys the broad hopes of the organisation as well as comprehend the intricacy of its purpose.

Womens Domestic Violence Crisis Service (WDVCS) is a Victorian State-wide service for women enduring violence and abuse ‘from a partner or ex-partner, another family member or someone else they are close to’. Women Domestic Violence Crisis Service acknowledge the diversity of women and children’s experience and supplies a response that respects the unique needs of the individual woman and their children. WDVCS will ensure that the response meets the requirements of the organisation’s funding and service agreement and its legal obligations. The organisation through feminists realised the importance of servicing woman who have been experiencing domestic violence, and the wants for those women to be safe. At the beginning, WDVCS started from several individuals houses, were they would answer phone calls to service the community, to what is now classified as an organisation. The philosophy of the organisation is that violence is not acceptable on the basis of human rights and that women experiencing domestic violence have the right to be safe. Domestic violence does not affect one certain type of individual but in fact affects a vast array of individuals from across all levels of society and from all types of religious, ethnic and race groups.

The Women’s Domestic Violence Crisis Service of Victoria (WDVCS) acknowledges that the staff of the organisation are a vital and valuable resource. WDVCS has an obligation to supporting the growth and preservation of a demographically diverse workforce that is highly skilled, motivated and resourced to ensure quality and continuity of service delivery. All staff of WDVCS are expected to work within the Philosophy, Policies and Procedures of the organisation and abide by the Code of Conduct.

WDVCS is not an auspice, it is a corporate association in its own right which means WDVCS has its own board, CEO, coordinators and staff .WDVCS has four coordinators, Telephone crisis coordinator, accommodation coordinator, communication coordinator and Quality committee coordinator. All of whom supervise the phone team and accommodation team. The Communication coordinator works on community development and media projects which was established by WDVCS in 2008, the aim of the project is to educate women on how to share their experience in domestic violence to the public via the media and also to empower women to respond to media in a self-assured way. The board of WDVCS is responsible to set all WDVCS strategic plans of the organisation. The board insures all the risk managements of the organisation, as well as ensures that the CEO utilises the organisation resources, budget in order to carry out the strategic plan. WDVCS has nine female board members who came from diverse factions of the community.

Organisational structure frequently involves an array of values and beliefs about the roles and responsibilities on how decisions should be made by using a criterion. The Women’s Domestic Violence Crisis Service of Victoria (WDVCS) has a commitment to feminist, democratic work practices. It is essential that decision-making authority be informed by processes that are participatory, democratic, transparent and responsive to the needs of women who use the service. There are two ways decisions can be made ,formal and informal, the formal part is governed by board .WDVCS is not a very hierarchical organisation as such. The organisation has regular meeting, quality committee which involve staff member who have inputs to the organisation policy and procedures via quality meeting and they make recommendation for same policy to be taken for further discussion on staff meeting, CEO of the WDVCS stated in the interview that ‘they take a more democratic and concise of organisation decision making but the end of the day the final decision lies back to CEO’. Worker’s involvement and input to worker meeting and quality meeting result in less frustration with organisational superiors as participation allows workers to feel somewhat accepted. The community does not have much input on the organisation decision making process , however if user or community member were interested in the organisations decision making process they can be nominated to join the board that way they can become more involved. The only way the organisation receive input from community is the feedback from their clients via telephone service and through women who access the accommodation but it is an area the organisation is working on to improve via WDVCS website. So the community can have an opportunity to have an input and provide feedback.

The Women’s Domestic Violence Crisis Service of Victoria (WDVCS) is committed to a rights advocacy direct service delivery model. The service model emphasises a crisis intervention response, which prioritises safety, informed choices and the rights of women to control decision making about available alternatives. This service model offers high quality crisis intervention, counseling, advocacy, support, information, referral and emergency accommodation services to women and their children who are victims of domestic/family violence. The service model is primarily focused on reinstating women and their children’s right to live safely in the community. This service delivery model supports the unique role of the WDVCS as the only statewide telephone crisis service and supported emergency accommodation service provider for women and children who are victims of domestic/family violence. The Women’s Domestic Violence Crisis Service of Victoria (WDVCS) recognises the basic human rights of all women and children to: safety, shelter and food; live free of fear and violence; and dignity and respect. WDVCS is committed to providing responses that respect the rights of women and their children to be supported in their efforts to be free from violence in an environment that is safe from physical, sexual, emotional/psychological, economic and verbal abuse.The primary service users of WDVCS are women and their children who are victims of domestic/family violence.

The Majority of the WDVCS service users are self referral, however they might get a hold of WDVCS information from other services in the sector such as the police, other domestic violence services, community health or the yellow pages. WDVCS has a policy to empower women even if other service do initial referral WDVCS staff will make sure to speak to woman to hear her story with empathy

Today, viewpoints toward how organisations should be run vary considerably from the classic bureaucracy expressed by earlier theorists. Efficiency has culminated to have its appeal as the most crucial goal or characteristic of organisations.

The work environment itself is seen as a critical variable in how much and how well organisations function to attain their purposes.

In today’s view organisations are dynamic, developing and changing in interaction with external stimuli. Partnerships within and between organisations form and restructure among employees and interest groups as each searches for to improve its own interests. Within this framework, each organisation cultivates a unique philosophy that influences how it functions (Hanson, 1998).

Human service organisations are so different; it is not feasible to touch on all the aspects that affect the organisational base of practice. Internal factors have to do with decisions largely made within the organisation about how it will accomplish its business. External factors include social welfare laws and regulations, judicial decisions, funding allocations, and the level of competition among similar agencies in the community. These and other factors determine the parameters in which the organisation functions and set the boundaries for social work practice within them.