Category: Free Essays

Introduction

At its most basic social work is a consistent and organised approach to the social problems of families and individuals. It is an approach that focuses on helping people to help themselves (Moore, 2002).^[1]Most practitioners enter social work because of a commitment to social justice, or at the very least a desire to help others and to see improvement and positive change in people’s lives. Modern social work, along with other public services, is being increasingly run along business lines and market principles. Today’s social worker therefore is confronted with the managerial approach, performance indicators, care managers and care packages. Given the current state of things where everything is guided by budgets and the need to satisfy those in charge by processing a case as quickly as possible one wonders whether a social worker has time to be guided by general ethical principles, let alone a specific code of practice. In the current climate it is easy to forget that social workers are committed to the view of the intrinsic human worth of each individual, and the concomitant view that each person deserves the best care and advice possible.

In 1948 the Universal Declarati^[2]on of Human Rights came into being. The declaration encapsulates a view of the inherent worth and dignity of the human person. The declaration espouses the notion of individual freedom on the basis that such freedom did not infringe the rights of others, these are the rights on which much of social work practice is based. This paper will begin with a general definition of ethics. It will then look at the ethics and values which underpin social work practice. There will be an assessment of social work values and of their relevance to anti-discriminatory and anti-oppressive practice.

Ethics

Ethics are general moral principles that are intended to inform the governing of human behaviour. Thus, most people would hold to the view that some things such as cruelty and murder are always wrong, or unethical. Ethical codes, however, may be based on moral principles, but are not as generalisable or universally applicable. This is because they refer to particular professions and the way in which professional behaviour is governed. Such ethical codes cannot be said to be neutral or value free because they are contextual. They arise within a certain context and are applied to a particular purpose as such, ethical codes are influenced by the ideologies held in that context (Butler, 2000). The context being examined here, is that of social work practice. Codes of practice and ethics are often idealistic, because they may be seen as providing a blueprint for how a social worker should act when it is impossible to legislate for every situation, and this may result in a false sense of security (Banks, 2003). Social workers therefore, need to be able to recognise when the code of practice within which they are required to work, does not operate within a framework that is informed by human rights and social justice (Husband, 1995).

The Client’s Needs

Shon (1991) has argued that:

Professionals claim to contribute to social well-being, put their clients’ needs ahead of their own, and hold themselves accountable to standards of competence and morality. (Schon, 1991:11-12).

Some critics maintain that the way in which social services often operates is self-serving rather than serving the needs of the clients, yet social workers do police themselves and their profession. The way in which they do this is to think critically about what they are doing, why they are doing it, and what moral implications this may have. Certainly social work ethics should not lead anyone to believe that the social work profession should serve itself, rather the needs of the client should be most important. One of the ways this is achieved is by establishing clear relationship boundaries early on. This is because involvement with a client that is too personal is contrary to what the BASW has to say about social work ethics and values.

The social work profession promotes social change, problem solving in human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being. Utilising theories of human behaviour and social systems, social work intervenes at the points where people interact with their environments. Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work (BASW,2001). ^[3]

Social work practice, in order to be ethical practice must be centred on the needs of service users Social workers of necessity intervene in people’s lives and have an influence on situations, ethical decision making is therefore a vital component of social work practice (Osmo and Landau, 2001). The Association is there to give advice to social workers on what constitutes ethical decision making in different contexts.

Ethical Decision Making

Decision making has to be grounded in the values and ethics of social work. Some of the issues that social workers have to deal with and that involve them in ethical decision making centre around balancing the rights of one individual against others, around public welfare and issues of institutional and structural oppression. This can make life difficult because the social worker has then to identify when institutions and structures are being oppressive and how the values of social work may be used to combat this. Decision making is also problematic because social workers are committed to confidentiality with respect to the people they work with. Sometimes a social worker is faced with a situation where he or she may, for the greater good, be forced to break the ethic of confidentiality because the client may be a danger to themselves of someone else. This causes a conflict of values and the social worker has, with the help of his/her supervisor, to balance the needs of the individual against the needs of the greater good.

At the very least social work should begin with a clear commitment to social justice which seeks to challenge poverty and discrimination in all its forms because social work has its roots in the nineteenth century moves to eradicate poverty and unemployment.

Everyone has the right to be protected from abuse and to be treated with respect. This is not easy when Government discourses express concern for inclusion and equality e.g. for those with mental health problems, then employ discourses which ignore factors such as race, gender and class and social circumstances, that are pertinent to any proper understanding of a person’s condition. The Human Rights Act of 1998 makes it mandatory for local authorities to act in ways that are conversant with the Act. Social workers help with the problems faced by people with disabilities. Social workers have a duty to be conversant with the Human Rights Act and the Community Care Act of 1990. Social workers are faced with making decisions concerning what defines a person with disabilities and also how to assess their needs. If the wrong form of care is prescribed, e.g. detainment under the Mental Health Act for a person who does not fulfil the specified criteria, then this could be an infringement of human rights.

Social workers are duty bound to base their practice on concepts of human rights and social justice but at the same time they need to be more aware of how the inequalities that they see in society might affect their practice (Cemlyn and Briskman 2003). Society does not always operate in the best interests of the individual person, furthermore, the introduction of market principles into social care can mean that the legal framework within which a social worker has to act may also (however much it is unintended) work against individual rights. Some commentators e.g. Challis (1990) maintain that prior to market principles and managerialism being introduced into social care, social workers operated with a much greater degree of freedom. It is arguably the case that the social worker is duty bound to act in accordance with a process that is informed by the valuing of the human person and the concept of human rights, and may, therefore, need to be prepared to work outside of a framework that (albeit unintended) prevents them from working according to this ethic (Cemlyn and Briskman, 2003). Wolff (2002) speaks of virtue ethics being the root of social work practice because of its concern with a just society and justice for individuals. Bearing this in mind social workers seek to engage in anti-discriminatory and anti-oppressive practice in all that they do.

Anti-discriminatory and Anti-oppressive Practice

An emancipatory and anti-oppressive attitude is a critical component of ethical social work, social workers should be people enablers, enabling people to stand up for their rights and giving them a voice. Horton and Pattapen (2004) argue that in contemporary society individuals are often disempowered in numbers of ways and feel unable to cope with the rules that guide their lives. Social workers deal with the distress that results from this and in their practice should question social systems wherein an increasing number of people suffer from injustice, oppression, and exclusion from mainstream society. Anti-discriminatory practice means taking account of structural disadvantages i.e. how the structures of society often work against certain groups e.g. those with disabilities, women, and ethnic minorities. It also means that the social worker takes care not to use discriminatory language and to do their best to promote the dignity and self-worth of service users.

The ethos of the worth of individual human persons is often counteracted by current social work practice. Under the guidelines for social care social workers help individuals to choose what is best for them, in practice however, care managers are the people who hold the budgets and budgetary concerns can often be discriminatory disenfranchising the person that the social worker is trying to help (Postle, 2000). Social workers try to avoid this happening but they work in a state institution that often inadvertently works against the best interests of service users. This is why social workers need to be trained to view the world from the perspective of others so that they more easily recognise how the system oppresses (Moore, 2002)..

Conclusion

The ethics and values that underpin social work practice are dedicated to social justice and recognition of the inherent worth of each and every individual. Social workers do their best to work in partnership with service users and to do this in a way that includes and empowers people. Social workers are dedicated to help people move forward and take control of their lives, the idea is to shift the power balance away from the social worker and towards the person that needs help. The structures of society are, in some ways, discriminatory and oppressive and social workers recognise that white masculine values disadvantage people and they are therefore committed to anti-discriminatory and anti-oppressive practice in their work.

Bibliography

Banks, S. 2003 From oaths to rulebooks: a critical examination of codes of ethics for the social professions European journal of Social Work Volume 6 No. 2 July 2003 p. 133-144

British Association of Social Workers (2002) The Code of Ethics for Social Work.http://www.basw.co.uk/.

Butler, I 2000. A Code of Ethics for Social Work and Social Work Research http://www.elsc.org.uk/socialcareresource/tswr/seminar6/butler.htm

Cremlyn, S and Briskman L. 2003 “Asylum, Children’s Rights and Social Work” Child and Family Social Work 8 (3) pp. 163-178

Husband, C. (1995) The morally active practitioner and the ethics of anti-racist social work. In: Ethical Issues in Social Work (eds R. Hugman & D. Smith), pp. 84–103. Routledge, London

Ife, J. (2001) Human Rights Social Work: Towards Rights-Based Practice. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Postle, F. (2000) ‘The social work side is disappearing. I guess it started with us being called care managers’, Practice, 13(2), pp. 13-27.

Ring, C. 2001 “Quality assurance in mental-health care: A case study from social work” Health and Social Care in the Community 9(6) 2001 pp. 383-390

Schon, D. A. (1991) The Reflective Turn: Case Studies In and On Educational Practice, New York: Teachers Press, Columbia University

Slote, Michael. From Morality to Virtue. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992

Wolff, J. 2002 “Contractualism and the virtues” Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy Volume 5 No. 2 June 2002 p. 120-132

1

Introduction

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the social policy on homelessness “Housing First”. In this paper I will include the history of this policy, how it was created, when and the basic elements of this social policy. To every issue there are opposing views and I will present those views along with the policy. No social policy is perfect and along with the strengths I will also expose weaknesses, the points will be explained throughout this paper. First I will discuss what homelessness is and then what are the factors that lead a family, child, vet or anyone for that matter into the category of homelessness.

Homelessness

What does being homeless mean? It means not having shelter, a place to sleep, eat and be protected against nature’s elements. This issue is a concern to social service providers, government officials and policy professionals. Homelessness has been a major social issue In America but it is during financial crisis that this problem raises. The word itself “Homelessness” has a bad connotation, when the word homeless is uttered the immediate thought is that of a substance abuser, vagrant or a person with a mental illness. Although these are contributing factors they are not the sole reasons why a person ends up homeless. There are also other contributing factors such as poverty, unemployment, social exclusion (such as sexual orientation), natural disasters, foreclosures, war or disability. Now in 2012 and as of recent years we have seen the U.S economy decline economically a result from the housing bubble burst, bank crisis and wars. These events have skyrocketed chronic homelessness, it is of no surprise that the precursors to the U.S recession are a major contributor (Szep, 2008).

Beyond Shelter

In order to understand the social policy called Housing First we must first discuss the history behind it.” Housing First” was introduced by a nonprofit organization called Beyond Shelter, this organization is based in Los Angeles. The non-profit organization Beyond Shelter was founded in 1988 in Los Angeles to fight poverty and homelessness within families with children (retrieved from http://www.beyondshelter.org/aaa_about_us/aaa_about_us.shtml). This organization introduced a model system called Housing First aka “rapid rehousing”. In 1996 the United Nations selected this model as 25 U.S best practices.

Housing First

Housing First is a public policy it is an alternative to a system of emergency shelter/transitional housing progressions(http://www.beyondshelter.org/aaa about us/aaa about us.shtml).It focuses homeless families to be able to move back into permanent housing. This is done first acquiring housing as soon as possible then providing counseling. It also focuses on intervention providing social services after the housing has been acquired rather than providing temporary shelter or transitional housing first (http://www.beyondshelter.org/aaa about us/aaa about us.shtml). In contrast to other programs where the issues that lead the person to homelessness are addressed first before helping the person acquire housing hence the name given to this public policy Housing First. For example many social or public policies function first by getting the homeless person from the street to public shelter, from public shelter to transitional housing program and from there to their own apartment. In the housing first or rapid housing the homeless person is first placed in an apartment or house then pin pointing the issues that lead to become homeless. The federal government uses this to guide federal policies in attacking the problem of homelessness by rent assistance, housing stabilization. In 2009 The Homelessness Prevention and Rapid Re-housing Program (HPRP) provides homelessness prevention

assistance to households that would otherwise become homeless, and provides rapid re-housing assistance to persons who are homeless as defined by section 103 of the McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act (42 U.S.C. 11302).In 2008 Congress appropriated $25 million in the McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Grants for 2008 to demonstrate the effectiveness of rapid re-housing programs to reduce family homelessness( retrieved from http://www.endhomelessness.org/pages/housing_first ).

Strengths

The strengths of this policy is that homeless people get a housing as soon as possible without conditions. Thereby, afterwards getting the necessary help to assist them in maintaining a permanent residence. The common practice of assistance to family homelessness is some kind of temporary housing. The problem is, when that runs out, people are still homeless. “; This approach is simply to get homeless people off the street and into a stable, more permanent environment (http://www.beyondshelter.org/aaa about us/aaa about us.shtml)”. The idea is that a person can do better once placed in a permanent housing. Then receiving the services they need to maintain that permanent housing. This policy also helps to foster self-reliance instead of dependence (http://www.beyondshelter.org/aaa about us/aaa about us.shtml).Also, Intervention services, housing options, and transitional support for the foster care system are strategies to end youth homelessness.

Weaknesses

The federal policy formed on the model of housing first is a good idea but economically how long can the federal government sustain this program. The burden falls on state and local funding to non-profit organizations to support these services. Now with the current state of economy can this realistically continue to financially support this policy? There is a need for all types of housing for all kinds ‘of homeless people, families with children, elderly and individuals with disabilities or addiction. When you champion one methods then what about the other programs that have transitional housing or shelters you create a competition for funds. The roots of the problems must be attacked first not the other way around and opposite of the “Housing Readiness” philosophy, which believes that people need to address issues that may have led to their own homelessness before they enter permanent housing. If anything in social work it is known and practical t used different methodologies .Housing first seems to ride on the idea that it is better to do the opposite. I don’t know about this because I think I would rather attack the problem that has caused homelessness for example if the reason for being homeless is finding a job to sustain oneself, finding services to a mental issues or substance abuse then that is more viable than getting a house first . How can one maintain the cost of paying even if it subsidized by the government without being able to keep a job because of substance abuse lack of employment or perhaps a mental disease. I understand that the model of Housing First also assist with these social services after they have a permanent home but again the root of the problem should be taken care of first. I believe that one must learn to become long term self-sufficient before being placed in the responsibility of permanent housing. Also what about immigrants? How would an immigrant homeless person be able to even participate in such a program? They would be ineligible to participate in such program without being a citizen or permanent resident. According to Paul Boden executive director of Western Regional Advocacy Project, he quotes “How can they cut Section 8 but believe in Housing First as a concept? They’re cutting housing but doing Housing First. It’s not just ironic; it’s hypocritical (Law, 2007, NHI)”.

My Interview

Now as far as the person I interviewed as part of my homeless policy project I would not see how this policy would apply to him. My interviewee would not be able to participate in this program for the simple fact that he is an illegal immigrant. If are undocumented, you are not be eligible for federal programs. Perhaps he would be in a separate category because of immigration status. I think in his case immigration policy would have to change in his case before the homeless policy does.

Conclusion

This policy is a very good policy in my eyes but there are shortfalls regardless of these shortfalls it does not fall short form being innovative. When attacking social problems there are variables and different perspectives. Scenarios are case by case and a one size shoe fits all is not realistic nor is it practical. What works for one population may not necessarily work for the other. Now our public, social and federal policy on homelessness is well intended it is not perfect. Affordable housing is a must and in order for that to occur our economy must be stabilized. It is like a domino affect the fall of one chip knocks the rest down and to get these chips back up it must be done one at a time. It is a long ardous time consuming process that must be done carefully and patiently. Every policy that we instill must be carefully reviewed evaluated and make sure that it applies to everyone and not just a certain population.

Social policy is a governments application for welfare development and social protection carried out in the community. The Margret Thatcher’s conservative administration and Tony Blair’s labor administration had different approaches towards the issue of community mental health care policy. The policy made vital steps towards the right direction but met obstacles on the way complicating its sustenance and achievement of desired goals. Generally it is believed that the policy did not meet its desired goals of helping the mentally ill patients in the communal setting.

Community care is the British policy of, deinstitutionalization treating and caring for mentally disabled people in their homes rather than in an institution or hospital. Institutional care was the target of widespread criticism prompting the government of Margaret Thatcher to adopt a new provision of community mental health care. This was after the Audit Commission published a report called making a Reality of Community Care which outlined the advantages of domiciled care (Baker, 1986).

Social policy is influenced by a number of factors that include needs of the population; demands from groups, priorities of the community, specific societal issues and critical incidents. The major intend of social policy on community care is to keep people in their homes where possible, instead of giving them care in other institutions. “It was almost taken for granted that this policy was the best option from a humanitarian and moral perspective. It was also thought that the policy would be cheaper” (Baker, 1986). Therefore this paper will focus on Margaret Thatcher’s conservative government and Tony Blair’s labor government to see how their different policy approaches have impacted upon the provision of community care of mental health. The paper will also be analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of both parties to ascertain where they have helped and where they have displayed poor services. Finally the paper will conclude by giving an insight on the impact of the current social policy on community mental health care.

Margaret Thatcher’s administration and community health care policy

When Margaret Thatcher came to power in 1979, she made it clear that she would reduce public expenditure and make drastic changes for the betterment of the country. She was acutely aware that Britain’s welfare state system needed urgent restructuring as it was costing the country too much money in the event putting the country into economic free fall. Between 1979 and 1990 she successfully introduced changes to social policy, the organization and delivery of services and the role of the state welfare provision. As a result the era became known as Thatcherism.

In 1983 the Mental Health Act was introduced by Margaret Thatcher’s government to put in place safeguards for people within the hospital system. Section 117 of that act imposes a duty on district health authorities and social services departments in conjunction with voluntary agencies, to ensure that after Care service is provided for people after discharge from hospital.

The approach taken by the conservative government to social problems was known as the market liberalism or neo-conservatism, and this was very influential in the way it operated. Thatcher believed in having a ‘market economy’ allowing people to create their own wealth in the event taking care of themselves and their families without the interference of the government. This approach was evident in the health care and community care reform brought on board in 1990. The aim of this act was to standardize and improve community care and establish duties for the English Health Authority. This piece of legislations not only led the way in developing the new ‘internal market’ system in health and social care but divided the organization of care into “purchasers and providers of care” thus creating an artificial market to increase efficiency. It then caused a major development in the 1989 White Paper (Caring for people) as a response to the Griffins report. This was effectively putting the responsibility firmly at the doors of the health authorities and families thus freeing up more money to be put back into the system. However, due to flaws within the assessments, lack of funding and the failing of community care, people were being discharged into the community without proper supervision, care, help and support. As a result of this some individuals became homeless ending up on the streets while some are being cared for by overstretched family with financial difficulties.

Despite of the positive approaches on Margaret Thatcher’s implementations she had some bad sides too. As a result of these policies, a number of changes started to appear in the society, where members of families who suffered mental health had to rely on children to take care of them, which consequently put burden on them causing isolation, social exclusion and to some extent extreme poverty. Because of these negative impacts and lacking of a proper system in place for home care (proper monitoring and provision of communal health care officials to treat patients at home), Margaret Thatcher’s government was unable to adequately address the issue of community mental health care.

Community mental care act 1990

In the act passed in 1990 on community care health services (NHS ACT 1990), individuals with mental problem difficulties were able to stay at their homes while being treated. This state of affairs raised concerns especially after some individuals with mental health problems were involved in violent behavior against members of the public. Even though the community has recorded a few murder cases caused by people having mental health difficulties, it is more probable that healthy individuals can as well attack the mentally ill.

Mental Health is always portrayed in the media as negative but nothing has ever really been highlighted about the way people with mental ailments are being subjected to attacks and abused on a daily basis from the general public. It is sad to note that no one seems to take account of their plight, not even the government. So as much as this act made it possible for patients to be personally assigned specific community workers to monitor and take care of them, it posed a major risk in the community. These patients were under risk of being abused, attacked, neglected and untreated making the act look inefficient. Mental health patients eventually became uncontrollable ending up on the streets. These issues are usually prompting arguments between the public administration, health services officials and the department of social service on who should be held responsible of the whole matter. One such lack of help to detrimental effect was when Christopher Clunis, a mentally ill patient, stabbed and killed Jonathan Zito, an innocent person, in Finsbury Park tube station. This could have been averted had there been proper home care and supervision provided. These types of cases are common but there seems to be very little done to alleviate such tragedy.

There ought to be no contentment therefore in ensuring good quality community care for patients with mental problems. “The main challenges to the policy of the rundown traditional psychiatric hospital are the concern that homelessness is being increased among the mentally ill and the fear of public safety because of homicides by psychiatric patients” (Mathews, 2002). Other issues involve appropriate assignment of social workers who would take care and monitor these patients. Over the last few years activists in opposition to community care have diverted their aggression to the concern of public safety. These has prompted the government of Britain to put into practice a key review on mental health policy. It is also apparent that issues on public safety are the ones driving the review.

Tony Blair’s government’s approach on community mental health care

When Tony Blair was elected the people had high expectation that he would put in order the NHS system. Although he did not have any viable alternatives to the existing policies of Margaret Thatcher, he ridiculed them. He even used the same strategy to in his campaign resulting in a NHS historian, Charles Webster, calling it “the meanest spending package on the health service since the second world war”. His promise to the people of the country was that he would not cause any structural upheaval to the NHS but he would carry out some reform which would be gradual involving consultation and experimentation.

Unlike the decentralization that Margaret Thatcher adopted in her era which was against the ‘nanny state’ mentality, the approach adopted by Tony Blair was that of a democratic society. Despite his belief that the government should play a greater part in monitoring what goes on in the society and intervene when necessary to ensure that fairness, he was tolerant with the idea of free enterprise.

It has now been a decade since Tony Blair’s government vouched that they would tackle the NHS mental health service with vigor promising that equal priority would be given to mental health issues as that of heart disease and other ailments. This is what was stated by the then health secretary Frank Dobson in 1999. The National Services Framework for mental health 1999 (ten years plan) promised seven standards of care and treatment, these standards included primary care, access to services, prevention of suicide and caring about careers.

Regardless of this the labor government under Tony Blair made some changes within the health service. His successor Gordon Brown is worse as he has not made much with the NHS. He set his sight on more cuts and closures which effectively caused more damage to an already damaged NHS. He has not carried out the National Service Framework 1999 that had been promised by the labor government, so together they have failed to effectively implement the policies even though they have been in power considerably long. Their failures are also manifested further as the national frame work for mental health deadline expired last month and yet it still did not meet its targets. However the department of health announced a package of measures in January 2009 for the design and development of single sex accommodation within the health system. This will include a ?100 million Privacy and Dignity Fund for improvements and adjustments to accommodations. The new initiative came into effect as of April 2010 which was a big step in ensuring privacy needs of male and female patients are fully met.

Still some changes have been made by the two previous governments and their respective leaders (the Margaret Thatcher’s conservative party (1979) and Tony Blair’s 1997 labor party), with regards to the implementations of the Mental Health Act 1983 the NHS and Community Care Act 1990, and the National Service Framework Act 1999. Even though it still appears that not much has been done to help especially members of the ethnic minority groups. There are still disparities in the way services are being distributed and how they are being treated as patients compared to their white counterparts. For example, they are discriminated against more and are more likely to be given higher dosages of anti-psychotic drugs or sometimes even put into seclusion.

The Community Care Act 1990 was put in place mainly as a cost effective measure, thereby moving people with mental health issues out of hospitals into the community. However, some people are still not receiving the necessary care that was promised by the government, although to some extent they are being empowered by being encouraged to be more proactive in their own assessment and care plans. Of late these provisions are ineffective as they do not meet the required specification.

The organization of health services concerned with mental problem was simple previously before the current NHS and social reforms came into play. The government was responsible of the NHS and controlled fund allocation, functionality, and supervision of these health services. Local government played a very small role in the care for mentally ill individuals, there main was in housing and social work sustenance. Initially, it was the responsibility of sanatorium community divide.

In the 1980s important reforms were made to both the NHS and social services. These reforms were largely aimed at changing the management arrangements for delivering general health care in the NHS and at reforming the community care of elderly people provided by social services. Little thought was apparently given to how the reforms would affect the care of mentally ill people. We believe that these changes, each of which on their own might have been valuable, have combined to damage provision of care, at least for severely mentally ill patients (Mathews, 2002).

Mental health policy defines the vision for the future mental health of the population, specifying the framework which will be put in place to manage and prevent priority mental and neurological disorders.

Therefore as shown in this paper the approach to the social policy on community care and mental health should focus on communal mental health problems and generate solutions for curbing these predicaments. The primary aim of this policy is to identify the most useful and efficient measure to successfully address these issues. On other hand the bringing of new policies in the mental health sector has totally transformed mental community care provision. “Simple systems have been replaced with complicated organizational and financial structures requiring almost impossible feats by local health and social service staff to coordinate care for patients to whom continuity of care is critical for their survival in the community” (Mathews, 2002). Critical mentally ill individuals are ensnared by these problematical issues. The formation of a community care authority that is localized which is accountable for the issue at hand could be the best solution.

This essay will discuss ‘Poverty and social exclusion’. There will be a brief explanation of the terms that will be used throughout the essay. As we know, there are many writers who express their views; therefore references will be used to explore different writers’ understanding on certain subjects. Firstly it will focus on poverty and discuss different meanings in relation to poverty. Then secondly, it will look at different policies that have been an influence on poverty and social exclusion. Thirdly, it will consider all different factors that link to poverty and social exclusion. Finally, it will summarise the answer to the original question and discuss what has been covered throughout the essay.

Social Policy is a subject that relates to the welfare state, human well being and other factors that influence human well being. It includes many policies relating to: housing, education, benefits and other related policies that are put in place for the welfare of state and its people. Social Policies have been changing from time to time; therefore as social workers, it is important to be up-to-date. Policies are implemented by all people: employees, workers and general public. They promote and improve the welfare state as well as human living. This will be looked at in more detail later on.

The concept of Poverty can be described in two ways: the state of an individual whom may not be able to acquire the basic necessities such as: food, shelter and warmth. Another definition of poverty is when a certain part of society feels or is ‘excluded’. Blakemore and Griggs discuss that: “One way of seeing poverty as relative is to say that people who have incomes below half the national average are poor” (2007 p: 98). This could mean that one may have the basic necessities but lack involvement within the community, social life or living a luxurious lifestyle, which is also known as ‘Relative’ poverty. It is important that society is made aware of what poverty is and the role of different Social policies that are administered to tackle poverty and related issues such as social exclusion.

Social Exclusion itself is the result of poverty in most cases. One of the best definition that describes social exclusion was expressed by ‘Child Poverty Action Group’ by Walker and Walker(2007): Social exclusion refers to the dynamic process of being shut out, fully or partially, from any of the social, economic, political and cultural systems which determine the social integration of the person in society”.

Social policies were created for the purpose of stability and equality in society. One of the main aims was to change the environment the individuals live in and to enhance their lives, through which social inclusion would be applied. Although there are different Policies, there principles remain the same throughout all administered policies, which is to promote ‘Equality’ through three processes: ‘Fairness, Equity and Equal of Opportunity’.

In the early 1940’s, Beveridge report was put in place to reform social policy. Beveridge introduced child benefits, taxation and benefits for those who are unemployed. This was done through a weekly contribution of those who worked. “It shows with admirable clarity and directness how involuntary poverty can be abolished from British social life by a redistribution of about one-tenth of the national output of goods and services in favour of those citizens whose needs are greatest” (Owen, 1943, p743).

Another policy that was introduced later in 1990’s was ‘The Third Way’. This policy focuses on two aspects: ‘to make work pay’ and ‘to strengthen responsibility and community’. “It conveys the message that the reform of welfare systems is a moral enterprise that requires personal and emotional commitment by those engaged in its implementations” (Jordan, 2000). This involved focusing more on means- tested benefits’ and provide more support to low- wage workers through a tax system. The welfare programme looks at reformation by adopting tough enforcement methods in which the public is directed towards getting trained, qualifications and employment.

Bailey (2006) looks at the employment, poverty and exclusion. He touches upon the topic of welfare benefits and labour market. He discusses that ‘Organisation for Economic Cooperation (OECD) policy statements have increased its focus on individuals having positive financial motivation to work, and move away from welfare benefits. They have introduced support through personal advisers for those who are unemployed. Also, Levitas (1998) mentions that although unemployment has had a negative impact on individual welfare, the Government argues that it is encouraging people to work, as it promotes the necessity of social inclusion through paid work.

Social exclusion is the result of poverty, as mentioned earlier. However poverty is linked to many complex factors that play a huge part in people’s lives. Majority of the factors are linked to one another, this creates more of a cycle that is hard to break unless policies are not implemented. Pierson mentions that “Social exclusion is a process that deprives individuals and families, groups and neighbourhoods of the resources required for participation in the social, economic and political activity of society as a whole” (Pierson 2002:7). Some of the components to social exclusion are: low income, unemployment, poor housing, and poor environment.

Adams (2002) discusses that ‘the higher risk of unemployment and low pay, the more likely they are to face poverty’ in comparison to other population. Several people who are unemployed suffer from deprivation in many areas. “For many people, employed work and its loss have great significance, since they define themselves, and achieve social status”. Vast people and families do care if they earn money and provide for the family. This involves the self esteem as well as their perception of their own status. In relation to this, Adam also discusses that unemployed people are more likely to experience poverty than others, all because of their low benefit entitlement, which would disable them from social activities. Since social workers are asked to develop a critical understanding of employment policies, it is important to understand such issues that relate to unemployment.

Sheppard (2006 p: 17) mentions that there are factors such as: neglect of proper care, drug abuse, crime as well as families and parents that are single and broke contribute towards excluding people socially. Those people were classed as ‘outsiders’ due to the amount of inadequate socialisation. He emphasised on the fact that parents are the central and that more commitment in childcare should be made to tackle the social exclusion issue. Sheppard also includes the argument that poverty brought many excluding effect: low levels of food and nutrition, mental as well as physical poor health and not to mention deprived environments. Therefore even if they maintained their hopes and desires to enter a more socially accepted lifestyles, it would be with such great difficulty. He uses the example of a homeless person applying for benefits without an address.

Payne (2006) focuses on the mental health element. She relatively talks about how Department of Health identifies mental health problems as one of the factors that influence poverty that associate with social exclusion. Payne also explores people with mental health should be included rather than excluded as social exclusion and poverty will only increase the mental ill health, therefore through this way, mental ill health could be decreased. In relation to this, strategies are set out to identify ways of getting people with mental ill health to explore the working environment; housing and community involvement, which may influence their mental ill health in a more positive way.

As we can see, Social Exclusion is a widespread subject that covers many areas of Poverty. The question still arises: ‘Are Social Policies the product of history and not logic’. This essay has looked at different policies and approaches that have been made to improve the welfare state. This essay may have justified that it is the product of history and not logic. However, some may argue that Social Policies are the product of history and logic combined together. Either way, this essay surely proves that policies have been and will change from time to time for the purpose of a better welfare state.

Since the earliest times of humanity, the social issue of childhood abandonment, and further the social planning for this problem, has been a reality. The issue, although a fairly common occurrence in society, is a rather understudied trend. Additionally, children are a particularly vulnerable population who are often thought to be the “property” of their parents. This fact alone makes children of less importance in research as they are thought to be under the care and guidance of their mother and/or father. On the contrary, however, most prevalently documented in existing reports on children is the variations of abuse and neglect, even though physical abandonment is just as relevant, if not more important. For example, “Who speaks for Joshua?” was a question raised by Supreme Court Justice Harry Blackmun in his discussion of the plight of three-year-old Joshua DeShaney who had been beaten by his parents until permanently disabled (Ashby, 1997). What people should be asking, but aren’t, is who speaks for the millions of orphans? Adults can speak for them, of course, but with varying interests and agendas and usually not within the interest of the actual children (Ashby, 1997). There is a much stronger focus on the physical, sexual, and emotional abuse of children than on their complete desertion.

This problem is of particular importance because the number of children looking for families in orphanages, foster care, and on the streets is astonishing. It is also concerning that the children who are orphans have no control over their current situation, destiny, or fate. Sociological research has shown family to be one of the most important foundations of life; it is the first social group an individual is a part of, and the impact of the family system on an individual is crucial and wide-ranging. Social workers should better acquaint themselves with the issue of social planning for abandoned children to improve the current and future practice and policy in this area.

Introduction

“Currently there is no one central source which monitors the number of children abandoned across America” (Edwards, 2000). While the parental reasons for abandonment are wide ranging, the act of desertion most often results in the child becoming a responsibility of the state, in a child welfare agency, or can at times end in death. Childhood abandonment does not have one clear all inclusive definition. The act of abandonment itself can be as harsh as leaving a child on a door step, in front of a hospital or church, or simply leaving them on the streets to fend for themselves. It could also be seen as “parent’s neglect of a child over an extended period of time” (Mason, 2009, p. 29). While the issue of childhood abandonment remains a vast problem in itself, the social planning for abandoned children is also of immense concern. Children can no longer fend for themselves on the streets; orphanages and foundling homes are not sufficient for the individuals’ attention and stimulation either (Burstein, 1981). Thus, the move from the streets to foster care, relative guardianships, or adoptive families is necessary, yet remains extremely difficult for a variety of reasons to this day. There are many problems and difficulties encountered within orphanages, foster care, and ultimately the adoption of a dependent child that need be addressed by current policy.

History

The social issue of childhood abandonment has been prevalent throughout history and is quite possibly the most extreme form of child neglect. There have been accounts in ancient Greece, from the Hebrews, from Europe and many other ancient civilizations (Burnstein, 1981). In the book History of Childhood (1974), author Lloyd Demause, concluded that love for children did not exist in ancient society; he stated child abandonment was common among the poor until the fourth-century B.C. Perhaps one of the earliest documentations of child physical abandonment is with Moses, who was left by “his mother in a conscious effort to save his life” (Burnstein, 1981, p. 214). Childhood abandonment can be seen in virtually every society. As early as the colonization of North America, homeless, orphaned children were already running rampant.

As much of the literature illustrates, social planning for childhood abandonment was not considered a problem until the nineteenth-century. LeRoy Ashby notes in his book Endangered Children: Dependency Neglect and Abuse in American History (1997), “concerns about endangered and needy children have been particularly evident during times of social stress” (p. 2). He also notes that most often those who “discovered” childhood abandonment were only concerned of the disorder and squalor of the growing cities and not the children themselves (Ashby, 1997). This is because children were the “hope-or threat-of the future” and thus need to be protected (Trattner, 1998). The recognition of neglect like child abandonment was not seen in North America for some time, mostly due to the fact that children remained indentured servants and “property” of their parents; childhood was not considered a crucial development phase (Trattner, 1998). A transformative view of children came in the 1700s when society began to see children “as innocents whoaˆ¦deserved special attention and protection” (Ashby, 1997, p.16). Much of the initial response by the colonies in child welfare matters was the result of the 1601 Elizabethan Poor Law, which had significant implications for dependent children (Ashby, 1997). Similarly, the doctrine of parens patriae affirmed “the state is the ultimate parent of every child” (Ratliff, 2000). However, throughout the colonial and early national times, the extent of laws against child neglect crimes, and furthermore social planning for dependent children, remained rather unclear.

Some literature suggests that abandoned children have always been a concern in this country, but this fact is not well documented. The social problem of planning for these neglected children is not well recorded or detailed by any particular person or group of individuals seeing as its existence dates as far back to the earliest man. From the time of man’s arrival in the western world, “indenture and outdoor relief dominated the seventeenth- and eighteenth-centuries policies” regarding child dependency (Ashby, 1997, p. 14). However, for orphan and needy children in the 1700s, officials, fellow citizens, and familial networks responded with sympathy and concern; although their first interest remained with their own families and affairs (Ashby, 1997). Almshouses were established few and far between in the 1700s as small, emergency-only, traditional forms of child welfare (Ashby, 1997). The introduction of such almshouses and orphanages demonstrated that, by the nineteenth-century, new responses to child dependency were apparent. Many social work researchers would attribute the recognition of the social planning for dependent children to early-nineteenth century reformers who saw children as “the possibility for constructive altruism” (Trattner, 1998, p. 108). It was at this time that the child welfare movement swept into the beginning of the twentieth-century (Trattner, 1998). Although indenture systems were the way of early colonial times, they also contained suggestions of child welfare strategies which integrated a shift in values towards foster care and adoption (Ashby, 1997).

Values & Societal Institutional Arrangements

Values played a large role in identifying both the problem and possible resolutions with the issue of social planning for abandoned children in early America. First, the sensitive realization of children as more than property has been essential to the steps toward planning for dependent, neglected children. A change in early America came when society began to recognize children as “posing a sort of social problem [that can]aˆ¦produce legal responses” (Dingwall, Eekelaar, & Murray, 1984, p. 208). Charles Brace, the nineteenth-century’s most effective helper of children on the streets, was quoted in saying “the child, most of all, needs individual care and sympathy” (Olasky, 1994, p. 46). Although Brace is cited much more recently in the literature on dependent child, his thoughts and values are the same upon which the first institutions combating child dependency were founded. In addition, Fredrich Froebel posed that children needed to “exercise their minds and bodies” (Trattner, 1998, p. 111). Reformers began initiating institutions, such as the orphan asylum, as a solution for the mounting crisis of parentless children (Ashby, 1997). Society had finally begun to recognize the special needs of children and unearthed a new concern for “the best interests of the child.”

The recognition of family values and the family as an elemental social institution also helped interventions, which came about on behalf of the welfare of the child. Charles Brace’s goal was to find adoptive homes for the orphans “to get them under the combination of love and discipline that parents can provide” (Olasky, 1994, p. 46). Childhood abandonment is actually first mentioned in the literature “in relation to providing basic care for parentless children” (Burnstein, 1981, p. 214). Herein lies the fact that social planning for abandoned children has been an issue for many years. In 1729 the first orphanages in the United States were founded by nuns “to provide care for a group of children whose parents died in an Indian massacre” (Lewis & Solnit, 1975). This institution, as well as many others that have since developed, served as a somewhat “replacement family” for poor neglected children. In some instances, almshouses served to keep poverty stricken families together, allowing families, most often mothers and children, to sleep in the same ward (Ashby, 1997). Many more social agencies similar to these were formed all over North America throughout the 1800s. Another value set forth in this revolutionizing era was that of reforming poverty and unrest in society. Children sheltered in the orphanages were supposed to “learn virtue and pietyaˆ¦industry and cleanliness,” they were educated and taught the importance of hard work (Ashby, 1997, p. 17). Religious values were also on the rise at this time; evangelical religious beliefs and humanitarian attitudes began sweeping across America (Trattner, 1998). Of the 150 orphanages founded between 1820 and 1850, nearly all were tied to religious groups (Ashby, 1997). The combination of the familial, societal, and religious values assisted in the institutions established for the abandoned children in society.

Both the values and social institutional arrangements have influenced the understanding of this problem. Family, one of the most fundamental institutional arrangements for a young impressionable child, is nonexistent to an orphan. This has contributed to our understanding that each child is entitled to grow up within a family, “they need a safe, nurturing environment with at least one adult figure” (Rosenberg, 1992, p. 171). As a society that respects the welfare of children, it is thus the responsibility of individuals to set up well-running safe havens for these orphans. Furthermore, it is society’s responsibility to provide the utmost care and protection for neglected, dependent children; whether this is in an orphanage, foster care, or with an adoptive family (Rosenberg, 1992). Due to the familial focus of the almshouses and orphanages, society further realizes that these small, drab institutions are no place for a dependent child to spend their entire young life. Institutions set forth to house dependent children, as described previously, were intended to provide basic care for parentless children. Furthermore, it thus comes to one’s attention that these institutions can quickly become overcrowded and fall short of a real family. Many almshouses, as described by historians and social work researchers, “were vile catchalls for victims of every sort of misery [and] misfortuneaˆ¦herded together and badly mistreated” (Trattner, 1998, p. 113). In fact, most orphanages began as “temporary homes for children who had lost one or both parents” (Ashby, 1997). This raises the question of what to do once institutions won’t suffice as home to an orphaned child or is not a safe place for a youth to reside in; the issues with social planning for orphaned children are wide-ranging and never ceasing. Our understanding, therefore, is that the social planning for dependent children needs revamping.

Further Descriptions of the Problem

The problem of childhood abandonment affects over 400 million children who live on their own on the streets of hundreds of cities around the world (ISK). The Department of Social Welfare and Development documents over 100 abandoned children turned over to them every 2 months (100 kids abandoned every 2 months). It has also been recorded that a child becomes an orphan every 2 seconds, leaving the number of dependent children looking for families and homes at an alarming, increasing rate (ISK). The population most affected by the social planning for abandoned children is most directly the orphans themselves; however, the problem also affects society at large. With an ever increasing number of dependents, the state has an obligation to care for the growing number of parentless children. Organizations and institutions must sustain their moral values and keep up their work while at the same time receiving and/or raising adequate funds (Rosenberg, 1992). Agencies can often wither away from lack of finances and loss of morale; it is important to remember the welfare of the child and attempt to sustain almshouses, orphanages, and foster homes (Dingwall, Eekelaar, & Murray, 1984). Mothers of abandoned children are also being affected, psychologically and emotionally, dealing with the loss of a child they could not afford, did not plan for, or simply could not keep. The future of society is also affected, many fear that if the practice and policy surrounding child welfare does not improve, it is feared that the destiny of America is a national catastrophe; after all, children, even dependent, neglected, and poor children, are today’s future (Trattner, 1998).

The problem of social planning for abandoned children is namely impacted socioeconomically, by societal values, and by power, or lack thereof. The problem of childhood abandonment tends to persist most often when mothers are frightened that they simply cannot provide for their offspring (Burnstein, 1981). In this case, they will desert the child due to a lack of resources to sustain the child’s well-being. Similarly, the state struggles to afford the cost of the ever increasing number of orphans who are turned over to their care (Dingwall, Eekelaar, & Murray, 1984). The issue is initially presented, however, because society values family and the protection of parentless children. Furthermore, lack of power in society, related with economic problems can create a less than desirable outcome for caring for these dependent children. Varying child welfare agencies including almshouses and orphanages have continually struggled for funds to support orphan children, and furthermore, foster homes are few and far between for a variety of reasons. There is a serious lack of families willing and wanting to adopt, therefore leaving orphans to permanently reside in institutions that were meant to be only temporary. The problem of social planning for the abandoned child originated mainly because of the lack of sufficient funds and the power to raise these funds. It is difficult to make a difference, or even bring the problem to the attention of powerful individuals that could make a difference, thus perpetuating the issue. Societal values, as mentioned before, have contributed to the impact of childhood abandonment; family values and the welfare of society are both concerns that sparked the onset of social planning for dependent, neglected children (Ashby, 1997).

Society’s Response to the Problem

In response to the problem of social planning for abandoned children society has long had a desire to help “the immense number of boys and girls floating and drifting about our streets” (Ashby, 1997, p. 39). In terms of governmental action, several policies have been designed to remedy the social problem. From the year 1641, legislation has continually been passed to protect the rights and lives of innocent dependent children (Ashby, 1997). In the 1700s dependent children and orphans were not cared for but, on the other hand, were considered indentured work for families (Ashby, 1997). The first establishment of orphanages, as stated previously, came about from religious institutions in the 1800s; half a century later, “concern about growing up in orphanages, private agencies began placing orphans in foster families” (Murray & Gesiriech, 2004). Starting in the early 1900s, the first state laws “preventing child abuse and neglect were passed and the first federal children’s bureau was established” (Murray & Gesiriech, 2004). Mainly, the transformation of social services at the start of the early 1960s has affected the social planning for dependent children (Gilbert & Terrell, 2010). Since the first gain of financial support in 1962, there have been changes concerning social allocations, both selective and universal, aid in functioning and economic independence in families, income maintenance, and financial grants for services (Gilbert & Terrell, 2010). However, most of the continual of these policies’ focus has been on “maintaining the family unit” (Gilbert & Terrell, 2010).

The Social Security Act of 1935 authorized the first federal grants for child welfare

services, under what later came to be known as Subpart 1 of Title IV-B of the Social

Security Act (Murray & Gesiriech, 2004). More recently, in 2008, the Fostering Connections to Success and Increasing Adoptions Act of 2008, P.L. 110-351 was enacted. The purpose of the Act is to amend certain aspects of Title IV-B (Aid to Families with Dependent Children) of the Social Security Act in order to “connect and support relative caregivers, improve outcomes for children in foster care, provide for tribal foster care and adoption access, improve incentives for adoption, and for other purposes” (Fostering Connections to Success and Increasing Adoptions Act of 2008). The major provisions of the Act are as follows:

Allowed states to provide payments, and Medicaid, for kinship guardianship assistance under title IV-E for children whose relatives were taking legal guardianship and hence removing them from foster care

Provided stricter criminal background checks, including child abuse and neglect registry checks of relative guardians, and adults living in the guardian’s home.

Allowed services to continue for youth who left foster care, kinship guardianship, or adoption after age 16 by amending the Chafee Foster Care Independence Program

Helped at-risk children in foster care reconnect with family members through a variety of programs authorized by grants to state, local, and tribal child welfare agencies and

Doubled the incentive payment amounts for special needs adoptions to $4,000 and older child adoptions to $8,000 by extending the Adoption Incentive Program to the year 2013

Obliged child welfare agencies to notify all adult relatives of a child within 30 days of their removal and inform them of the options to become a placement resource for the child, and also required siblings to attempt to be put in the same placement

Required that all children receiving foster care, adoption, or guardianship payment to be enlisted in school full-time unless they were otherwise incapable due to a documented medical condition

Demanded the integration of healthcare services for children in foster care, including dental services and mental health

Required that caseworkers develop a personalized transition plan as directed by the child, 90 days prior to the child’s emancipation (Fostering Connections to Success and Increasing Adoptions Act of 2008)

The coordination and focus of this policy, along with other statutes currently in place to combat the issue of social planning for abandoned children alleviates some of the adverse effects on the children.

In conclusion, the problem of the increasing number of abandoned children is neither a new issue, nor is the concern of social planning for orphans something newly relevant to the times. The historical overview of the social problem, including who first identified the issue, can provide a context with which to understand and provide groundwork for new directions possible in practice and policy. By examining the role of values and societal institutional arrangements, the problem can be better understood and combatted.

Examine the case study above and analyze the potential conflicts in values between the school, parent and the police. On the basis of your professional value base what could you suggest as a social worker to help and support Allen, his father and the school.

Allen, who is 15 years old, has a special needs statement for learning and behavioural difficulties and attends a referral unit (a special school with smaller class sizes and varied learning experiences) to meet these needs.

Recently Allen has stopped attending the unit, complaining of boredom, bullying and lack of teachers support to stop the bullying. Added to the concerns Allen has also been arrested on a couple of occasions from shoplifting, during school time, with others from the same referral unit.

Alan’s father, Peter, is concerned about him not going to the referral unit, but has not been into school to sort things out. He tells you (The Social Worker) he does not believe Alan’s story about the bullying but at the same time he does not appear to have done anything to challenge Allen’s absence.

The head teacher from Allen’s referral unit is clear in saying there is no bullying. He is keen for the education Department to prosecute Peter for failing to get Allen to attend school.

What Specific Elements of the GSCC Code of Practice and Social Work Values Are Relevant and Comment on How This Can Help in Applying the Law and Good Practice.
How notions of human rights, utilitarian and Kantian Philosophies Might Apply to this Situation.
How anti discriminatory practice can inform your working with the situation. Protect the rights and
The power that young people have in relation to school/social work agency and how other viewpoints can be balanced alongside the wishes and feelings of the young person.
Initial Assessment

Allen is 15 years old and currently displaying behavioral difficulties in school. He attends a referral unit, which is designed to attend to the needs of children with special needs such as Allen. He is also presenting with anti-social behaviors in that he was caught committing theft. This occurred during school hours. Additionally, Allen allegedly told mistruths about being bullied by other students, thus his reason for leaving school. It appears that the school is reaching out to Peter, Allen’s father, with no success. Peter has not been to the school to address Allen’s current behaviors.

Foremost, it is important to reflect on the differences in views and values caused by the current situation to better understand the complexities within it. Firstly, the school may not be able to provide additional services without parental consent and collaboration. Therefore, the school is limited in what services can be put in place. Additionally, school personnel may desire that discipline be applied at school and home in a consistent manner, which requires school involvement by parents. Another concern for the school is whether it can safely contain a child who is displaying high-risk behaviors. Although the school is required to work with Allen on his behavioral issues, the school’s resources are limited to children who are able to defray from harmful situations. In the case of this particular child, the school may not have appropriate staff that can provide additional safety and security so that Alan does not hurt himself within school property. There is also the chance that he may attempt to leave the school premises as he has done in the past. Without parental support and possible lack of services to contain Allen, the school may be concerned about liability. Eventually, if he becomes involved in a situation that is either harmful to himself or others, the school may opt to recommend he attend a lock-down facility.

Peter, on the other hand, may feel that school should be equipped to handle Allen’s behaviors, especially being that it is a school for children with special needs. Peter may be a single parent and/or have a very demanding job, which may make it difficult for him to attend school meetings. Despite these obstacles however, he is Allen’s legal guardian and is ultimately responsible for providing him with an appropriate educational environment. This entails collaborating with the school. His lack of presence in the school is a display that he is not adequately providing for Allen’s educational needs.

Police is obligated to keep Allen safe and at the same time required to enforce the law. Police is also the neutral force amidst the school system and Allen’s father. However, if Allen continues to break the law, the police department will be in the position to support the school’s recommendation for a more restrictive environment.

Although it is sometimes difficult for collaterals in a child’s life to work cohesively to provide the best level of care possible, it is all involved adults’ legal and ethical responsibility to do so. Therefore, while working with Allen, Peter and school staff should keep in mind that Allen is protected by stringent laws pertaining to children with disabilities. For instance, in my work with Allen, I must keep in mind the General Social Care Council Code of Practice and Social Work Values that specify the level of care participants such as Allen should be receiving. According to social work practice, I should remember the important principles set forth in this code. First, I should promote Allen’s interests. To do so, I must prove to Allen that I am invested in his well-being and in alliance with him. I should also strive to develop and maintain a relationship of trust and confidence with Allen. Otherwise, he will not be willing to work with me. I am also responsible for promoting Allen’s independence while also ensuring that he is not vulnerable to harmful situations, harmful to himself or to someone else. I am also compelled to respect Allen’s rights at all times. Following these guidelines ensures that I am adhering to legal and good practice standards.***********

Similarly, the school should also adhere to guidelines regarding how Allen is treated within the school environment. School staff should pay particular attention to laws set forth for children with disabilities. Due to Allen’s behavioral disability, the school cannot expel him, but rather should work with him in an attempt to resolve any concerns.

Allen’s father, Peter, is also responsible for Allen’s care and well-being. Peter is bound by child protection and welfare laws, which include specifications regarding parents’ responsibility to provide children with the appropriate educational opportunities. The fact that Peter is unable or unwilling to attend the school to address Allen’s behavioral and truancy issues can constitute as neglect due to the severity of Allen’s behaviors. In addition, Allen is engaging in high-risk behaviors which are potentially putting him in harm’s way while truant. This causes concern of liability by both the caregiver and the school.

Clinical Recommendations

Fortunately, Allen is protected by child laws which state that he cannot be expelled from school due to his behavior. This law was created specifically for children who suffer from learning disabilities ()********. They acknowledge this and many times use this, very rightfully, to their advantage. For instance, Allen may be well aware that he will not be expelled for the current behaviors he is displaying. Additionally, he appears to be manipulating the situation by falsely stating that he is being bullied. In spite of his acting out, however, Allen has the right to be treated fairly. Thus, the bullying should be investigated despite Peter and the head teacher’s feeling that it is not occurring. Additionally, appropriate services for educational and emotional advancement should be implemented, according to the guidelines specified by the Special Education Needs Code of Practice (2001).

It appears that Allen has been acting out behaviorally for some time. It is important to investigate what it is that is causing him to manifest his feelings through negative behaviors. It is vital that Allen begin to see an individual therapist so that he may have a safe environment to discuss his current stressors. I am a licensed Social Worker and would like to work with Allen on a weekly basis. Currently, Allen is socializing with others who are also engaging in the self-damaging behaviors. He is in need of a positive support system.

Peter is also in need of supportive services. I will refer Peter to a support group for children with learning and behavioral issues so that he may understand that other families also deal with similar struggles. If Allen is willing to attend, it may benefit him to view other children’s perspectives on their attitudes toward their educational and emotional difficulties (Social Care Institute for Excellence Research briefing 14).

Peter may not be cognizant of the severity of Allen’s behavior, which may be the reason he is not willing to collaborate with the school. It may be useful to provide outreach support by sharing pamphlets, making phone calls to the home and providing Internet resources so that Peter may be educated properly regarding Allen’s current needs. It is unsure whether Peter has a strong support system on which he is able to rely. It would be fruitful to explore family and friends that could assist him in caring for Allen when Peter is feeling overwhelmed.

The school may also benefit from social work services. Teachers and staff that work with Allen may need to discuss their struggles with someone who could provide clinically sound feedback. I recommend that personnel meet with me and the school psychologist once a week to discuss Allen’s behaviors and help teachers think through effective methods of intervention. Further, teachers may benefit from collaborating with each other and discussing methods of providing consistency for Allen throughout his school day. A mentoring program may also be valuable to Allen. A program that provides Allen with a mentor who is a little older and more mature may assist Allen in understanding perspectives other than his own. In the most ideal situation, Allen should be provided with a mentor who is just slightly older than he, so that Allen can confide in someone who understands his adolescent culture; yet is also a resource who could model positive, responsible behavior.

References

http://society.guardian.co.uk/scperformance/story/0,11025,629574,00.html

Code of Practice for Social Care Workers and Code of Practice for Employers of Social Care Workers. GSCC Code of Practice General Social Care Council Goldings House 2 Hay’s Lane London SE1 2HB 020 7397 5100www.gscc.org.uk

Special Education Needs Code of Practice (2001). The Education Act, 1996.

Banks (2004) Ethics, Accountability and the Social Professions.

Becket and Maynard (2005) Values and Ethics in Social Work.

Clark (2000) Social Work Ethics.

Hugman and Smith (1995) Ethical Issues in Social Work.

Jordan, B (1990) Social Work in an Unjust Society.

Payne and Littlechild (ed., 2000) Ethical Practice and the Abuse of Power in Social Responsibility.

Shardow, S.M. (2002) Values and Ethics in Social Work.

Spratt, T. & Callan, J. (2004) Interventions in Child Welfare Cases. British Journal of Social Work, 34(2), 199-224.

SCIE Research briefing 14: Helping parents with learning disabilities in their role as parents

Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Background

Playing computer games or video games becoming a dominant part in most people life especially teenagers. A survey by the Kaiser Family Foundation in 2005 (Cheryl, 2013) found that on any given day, 65% of 8 to 10 year old and 63% of 11 to 14 years old play video or computer game in US. Nowadays, due to the development of technology, people slowly diverted to social networking game. As there is a huge increase of number of teenagers playing social network over the year and create an opportunities for multibillion business to be growth. As continuity grown in social networking site also stimulate the growth of social networking games. According to a new statistic gather by Parks Associates, revenues in the social games market will increase by 500% from 2010 to 2015 (Parks Associates, 2011).Besides, according Datamonitor (2008), the value of the global online game market has rapidly expanded from US$3.4 billion in 2005 to US$13 billion in 2012. On average, there were over 4000 thousand new games being launched in the app store and play store (Miczaika, 2013). In other word, it is a big business industry that attracts many game developers to join in and it also showing that it would be essential to understand what motivated people to play and success in getting a significant share in the industry.

A social networking game can also know as casual game as due to its distinctive feature which using social networking as a platform such as Facebook and LINE which require user to login with social networking account before proceed to the gaming. According to Fields & Cotton (2012), social games can defined as games that use an external social network of some type to facilitate the user’s interaction with other players and these social interactions can help drive adoption of the games and retain players. One of the best examples to be use is the Farmville which record 60 million users (The Guardian, 2009). This once again indicates that social games have become very popular in recent years. One of the possible reasons for being such is due these games enable user to interact with other through sending gift or chat and competition among other gamer where different with traditional games which can play alone. Other than that, according to the White Night Mobile Game Conference (2013), there were over 64% diamond dash gamer login through Facebook to have access to the popular social networking games and the COO of Wooga, Jan Miczaika also saying that on average, gamer on Wooga play average 2 game on a given day. Over the year many research done to find out what is the impact of this phenomena as study how the social networking games bring what consequences to teenager on playing it such as drop in academic study and other. Most research that is conducted is mainly interested and focuses on how games are influencing the teenager’s behaviour such as how gaming lead to aggressive and violence behaviour which closely related how people behave.

Social networking games in these day providing people with a brand new insight of gaming to gamer. As social networking games offer a wide range of games from traditional games, casual games to skill games that meet various interests of gamers. However, the social networking games now has turn over become a multibillion dollar business, it also shown that there is a need to understand what actually make it some interesting to attract people to play on it especially teenager. According to Playfish (2009), the social gaming publisher, almost 80% of their gamer is 18-34 years old and male and female fairly divided. At the same time, another popular social gaming, Diamond dash which develop by Wooga is receiving 1.9 million visitor come each month through Facebook Request (Miczaika, 2013).Thus in this research we would like to focus on what motivates teenagers to play social networking game that provide better knowledge for the future development in the industry.

The rapidly growth on this social networking games industry has making it attractive enough to attract other game developer to develop social networking games. This once again shows that social gaming is today world the dominant in gaming industry to be developed in coming year times. In other word, this also shown that, this area of research is highly interested by many researchers. As to avoid and protect the platform users from spamming effect from other user especially game request, Facebook has introduced a new policy and setting of game as one of the approach to prohibit the spamming effect to be viral and this make difficult for developer to recruit new gamer and it would be more easier for them to understand what motivated people to play and help in the marketing and developing of game (Clipperton, 2013).

According to the perception of Self-Determination Theory, motivation can came from various intrinsic and extrinsic sources as it also focus on how the social and cultural factor influencing people’s motivation on engaging themselves in activities. Individual’s experience such as autonomy, competence,andrelatednessare one of the forms of motivation to engagement for activities (Self-Determination theory, n,p).Thus in the research, we would conceptualise and categories the motivation into few type so that it is measurable. For example, goal or reward, excitement, interesting graphic, peer effect, leader board. Leader boards can be one of the motivations that motivate teenager step into playing social games. As anyone who grew up in the video game generation they will never realise that leader boards are the invisible encouragement to motivate players try harder in the games (Mashable, 2011). Players will desire to do better to achieve high ranking in the leader boards as they may compete with their friends or nationwide.

1.2 Statement of Research Problem

As mentioned above, the purpose of doing this research is to investigate the reason that bring by the social networking games and their motivation towards the teenager to play the games. From our observation and searching, we found that there are a lot of researches have completed the study in this gaming scope. But we found that, most of the researches were more focus on the study of the impacts or the influences of playing games instead of what the reason behind that make them to play games. So, this is one of the reasons why we are conducting a research to figure out the actual reason that attaches the teenagers with the games. There are a few factors that motivates or connecting them with the game in their daily life. According to Scoresby and Shelton (2011), a computer game environment creates motivation through emotionally linking the player to the content. It is the interaction between sensory stimulation, environmental factors and a player’s internal tendencies that encourage involvement and enable immersion (Witmer and Singer, 1998). People are motivated by various factors such as own self-interest, care and also to satisfied their curiosity as well. According to the Self-Determination Theory, Intrinsic motivation can be characterized by free choice, interest, optimal challenge and psychological needs, such as reflectance, personal causation, competence, autonomy and social needs (Deci and Ryan, 1990). These intrinsic motivations are not necessarily internally rewarded but nonetheless they can sustain passion, creativity and efforts.

Besides, as the technology grows time by time, games on the internet especially social networking games are becoming popular as the generations nowadays tend to engage themselves on it. The social networking games such as the Facebook games, are one of the type of social networking games that loved by the teenagers. Social networking game functions by letting the players interacting with each other through various ways. The uniqueness of game study is its focus on the process rather than the results of game use (Barr et al., 2007). Games also possess interdisciplinary integration and interaction with player through multidimensional elements such as set, character, animation and music. So we can see from here, game study it involve a very complicated and extensive field that merits more attention from researcher (Kai-Shuan Shen, 2012). We found that previous researches mostly were study on the video games or other type of game but social networking game is still fresh for the researcher to investigate what is the attractive characteristic that linked the teenagers to the social networking games. The factors that engage teenager with the video games or other games type are different compared to the social networking game as this game type are new.

Different social networking game in different region has different cultural background which may have different motivations that lead those teenagers to engage to the game. Although there are few researches have done the study on this motivation’s perspective, but the research couldn’t represent the study in Malaysia. In Malaysia, there is still fresh for the research to study the reason why the social networking is interesting enough to be played by those teenagers. People in Malaysia may have different reason of motivation when they engaging with the social networking game compared to the other western country. This is because cultural background is different for those people from different country. They may have different interest towards social networking games. Sometimes a person engage with a particular online game is because he or she feels that the game is closely related to his or her cultural background, and thus, he or she will feel motivated to play the game. So, we will specifically study about why the teenagers in Malaysia are motivated to play the social networking game.

1.3 Research Objective

To investigate the motive behind playing social networking games

1.4 Research Questions

1.) What motivates college student to play social networking game?

1.5 Significance of study

In this 21st century, social media become part of life in this world and the people who get influence are increase complexly. Most of the people interact and use social media for different purpose. In this research, we want further explore the motivation behind the social networking games that motivate teenager to play and get a better understand and knowledge in this major industry.

1.6 Research Scope

The focus scope of this research is to analyse what are the motivation that motivate college student towards the social networking games. We will focus our study about what is the motive behind that makes college student o involve in social network games. As such, our primary target audience of this research would be college student who fall in between the range of age around 19-25, which is the people who born from early 1989 until 1995. Audience in these range of age are our targeted sample as they are those college students which is highly participated in playing games no matter in in the form of online or offline and they were most likely those core target audience of game developer.

From social media platform, such as Facebook, Google Plus, college student can get motivation to involve themselves to the use of information technology such as social media and social gaming with both motivation factors which including intrinsic and extrinsic reason. (Davist al., 1992). Social media and games have a powerful yet invisible power to keep all of us engaged and connected with each other in this world. In this research, we would use non probability sampling method to make a sample size that consist 200 people that age between 19 – 25 as to be accurate is all college student that play social network game.

1

Conviction before an Investigation Takes Rights away from both the Victims and the Accused

A recent uproar at the Dalhousie Dentistry educational institution is leaving both sides of the argument feeling wronged. The controversy is based on the supposed remarks posted on a private Facebook page for a group referred to as the “Class of DDS Gentlemen” which includes 13 members. It recently came to light that some of the students have been accused of posting violently sexual remarks directed towards women on that Facebook page. Some of the comments directly reference students from that dentistry class. The editorial argues that the partial suspension is only beneficial for the culprits and in no way helps to support the victims in which the harmful sexual comments were directed towards. I support this editorial’s perspective about the way the school handled this case which illustrates a lack of consistency. The attention given to the perspective of the victims that are involved with this case is not justified but I will be critiquing the author’s reasoning and arguing that the accused students should be suspended. I will argue that not all 13 students should be reprimanded based on the information provided within this editorial as this piece illustrates a complex view of which members are truly the wrongdoers. I will also argue that a variation of classes should be offered based on the partial suspension the school has initiated to honour the idea that no suspect should be deemed guilty before a proper evaluation of all the information.

The author of this editorial strongly argues that all 13 members of this Facebook page should be suspended based on what was posted on Facebook. The author clearly states. “the violent, misogynist comments posted by some of the members of the private Facebook page called “Class of DDS Gentlemen”” (Thestar.com). Comments referenced some female students from the class, asking “‘who would you like to hate f—k?’ — where they rated their choices. Other posts joked about using chloroform on women. In another post, a woman is shown in a bikini with a caption that says ‘Bang until stress is relieved or unconscious (girl)’” (Thestar.com). The severity of the supposed postings by some members of this class illustrates the violent sexual content illustrating the need to investigate those who posted this information. Not all 13 students should be punished if they did not all make any comments connected with this harmful content. The first thing that must be reviewed is exactly which members of the group directly posted the comments or supporting discussion that was linked to a sexually violent nature of conversation.

The author’s argument that the school did not handle the situation properly is relevant, however the outcome that is proposed defies the legal system that is meant to operate in a fair and just manner. Firstly the author is correct in indicating anger that it was “nearly a month after women complained” that something was done by the school. In support of following the proper procedures of a justice system the school should have acted immediately. The author indicates that the action should have been a full suspension. The argument that is offered indicates “so far. Dalhousie has gone a long way towards balancing the rights of the accused and those of potential victims. However, it has fallen short on one important point: it should suspend the 13 men involved from classes as well as clinics” (Thestar.com). The point is not well argued as it defies the very idea of rights that entitle the accused to a fair proceeding. The school has suspended the

students partially indicating a grave concern that these men are in contact with innocent patients within the clinical component of this semester. The author argues, “the partial suspension is serious. 13 fourth-year students cannot work with patients or classmates in the school’s dental clinic, a requirement for graduation this spring” (Thestar.com). The fact that the school has taken action to protect patients is a strong argument that is presented by the author. In agreeing with this opinion, the lack of attention to the female students in the class is alarming, as they have either directly or indirectly have been spoken about within a violent and sexualized context by those accused fellow classmates. The author’s concern is valid, however, I will argue that they should not be suspended from class but should be offered an independent study period while the accusations are being investigated.

The first issue that is recognized within this editorial is the wrongful grouping of all members of this Facebook group as being regarded as directly involved with the accusations that are being made. The author argues that some of the members posted those comments. It is recognized that simply being a part of a group does not make everyone necessarily responsible for the deeds that may be performed by several members of that party. The author of this editorial indicates that those who are guilty of posting such degrading and violently abusive comments should be punished. This is justifiable; however, the need to ensure that those who are guilty of these very actions that are being described must be clarified. This editorial continuously calls for the suspension of all 13 men; however, this is a flawed argument. The need to act in a just manner as argued in the editorial on behalf of the victims should also be extended to those who may be in the group but may not have offered any of the negative remarks being reviewed. The recognition that there could be members of the group who may not have added comments must be acknowledged. It is important to ensure only those connected with posting those comments face the ramifications of being investigated and facing the temporary rules issued by the school during this process.

The second argument offered reinforces the necessity of issuing a fair trial to ensure that both sides of this conflict are treated in a just manner. The editorial suggests for the immediate suspension from all classes of the 13 members of this Facebook group. That is unfair to the rights of those who currently have been accused of this action. The need for a fair trial is necessary before such extreme and final action can be made. That direct suspension could jeopardize the school career of these students. Should they be found innocent, or connected to foul play this represents an unfair situation for the students. The editorial indicates that the victims should be treated with respect and that a balance needs to be struck between the opposing parties. That being said the author is correct that the balance of justice should be maintained. The proposition that should be offered is a compromise between what the editorial has suggested as well as the actions that the school has taken. To suspend the students is to illustrate that they are guilty but this has not been determined as yet as the investigation is still under way. The school has already acted in a harmful manner by taking action a month after the information was brought to their attention. The suggestion is to let the accused student’s remain connected with the professors (outside of the classroom) based on the current scenario. They have paid their tuition and are entitled to be educated until this matter is fully investigated and resolved. The school feels that they should not be able to interact with clinical patients to protect those individuals should these students be found of wrongdoing. That being said, that same courtesy must be extended to the other students in the classroom. Specific females in the class were ridiculed and referenced in a sexually violent manner that is quite disturbing. Their rights must be protected as they may feel threatened and the school must act accordingly. Another example that may be used to offer a correlation to this case could be reviewed in the case of a parent who may be accessed of abuse. The children are removed from custody to ensure that they are protected while the matter is investigated. The school must also protect these female students during this time. The suggestion, however, of suspending the accused students fails to ensure the rights of those men. The editorial argues for the balance of rights to be performed within this scenario. To ensure the women are offered a fair set of rights also means the accused men should also be treated in a fair manner. Justice can only work if everyone is treated equally. If the justice system does not adhere to that model of equilibrium, then no one is safe, undermining the freedom of everyone. The editorial does not offer a sense of balance as suggested by the need for suspension as that illustrates a commentary of guilty before a trial has even begun. The women must be protected and creating an alternative level of study for the accused students becomes pertinent as further investigations are completed.

The editorial takes a strong stance on the actions that Dalhousie has taken in light of the postings that have been made public. The necessity to be ready to properly deal with these types of concerns swiftly and justly illustrates the need to protect victims at the centre of these cases. The editorial rightfully highlights an imbalance between the victims and the suspected culprits. The flaw in this work indicates the passing of judgment before a rightful investigation has been made. Accusing all 13 men and saying they must be suspended undermines the integrity of the justice system. To use the justice system to protect these women means adhering to the rules that govern that very system. Firstly, the determination of the men who are connected to the comments should be found. Only those men should be offered another form of schooling outside of the current parameters of class lectures and clinical practice. The school’s failure to immediately address this issue is where the tension of being perceived as flippant about the safety and well-being of the victims is recognized. One month is far too long to take action against the allegations of sexually violent comments being made against classmates. The school must set an example that they will immediately act in a fair manner to both sides to ensure that the reputation of the school is not tarnished. Suspending the students before a full investigation of the case fails to respect the justice system. The fulfillment of the guidelines that promote justice is necessary to protect these women as well as those only suspected of this crime. The responsible thing to do is to act right away and prevent any emotional turmoil, which results in the suspected students being investigated while continuing their classes in a diminished and altered capacity. The threat of sexual violence, even in a joking manner, is unethical and to combat that problem acting in an ethical and just way is necessary and can only be achieved by fulfilling a thorough investigation and maintaining the rights of all parties at all times.

Works Cited

“Dalhousie Should Suspend Accused Dental Students from Classes: Editorial.”

Thestar.com. The Star, 6 Jan. 2015. Web.

Task 1 : Explain how Te Tiriti O Waitangi applies in the social services, you must include an overall explanation as well as giving at least three(3) specific examples of how Te Tiriti impacts in the area of assisting people to resettle in the community following residential care.

One of the important concepts to emerge is that Te Tiriti O Waitangi is a living document this means that it was never meant to freeze iwi and their aspirations at the time of signing, but was intended to continue to protect their interest and status as tangata whenua into the future. Another important concept is that Te Tiriti applies not just to Maori and the crown but to all new Zealanders, guaranteeing us all the right to live here peacefully as actives and develop New Zealand together.

The Treaty ensured that Maori, would be given full authority status and prestige with regard to their possessions and interest, the treaty also states that their possessions would be protected, and also the ‘’Mana’’ to control them in accordance with their own customs and having regard to their own cultural preferences.

The treaty established a partnership, and the treaty partners are under a duty to act reasonably and in good faith with one another, the needs of both cultures must be respected, and compromises may be needed in some cases.

Te Tiriti O Waitangi applies in social services by ensuring that all social services have a bi – cultural perspectives e.g. physical environment, protocols and practises.

Partnership

applies in social services by respecting Maori traditional spiritual rites, it describes a relationship between two parties, the concept of partnership applies to all Maori, and it describes the way in which Maori can relate to each other. Partnership means enabling the Maori voice to be heard and Maori perspective to influence the type of health services delivered to Maori people and the way in which they are delivered. It also ensures that social services have a bi – cultural perspective.
Consultation with Maori leadership and management when organisational policies are being discussed in order to ensure Maori have rangatiratanga rights over taonga,they have equity rights’, to full participation in decision making ,treaty follows that Maori should expect to achieve this outcomes and participate in society .
In good faith between two sides (Maori and Crown) social services organisations ensure needs of Maori are pritorised when engaging with Maori or when creating policy that could affect Maori.

Protection

Is also an other principles which can apply in social services .For Maori, a secure cultural identity depends on access to the cultural social and economic resource of tea o Maori (the Maori world),especially te reo /tikanga the Maori language ,whanau, their lands and natural resources.
Protection of Maori identity is likely to be positively correlated with good health, better educational outcomes ,and greater employment we have to ensure that our work practises and environment are culturally appropriate and comfortable for Maori ,and that Maori have opportunities to pursue their employment aspirations and interest, Maoris to have protected rights to make choices that best serve their culture, that line with tika and kawa,their traditions and customary practises, work in environments that feel safe and nurturing.
Maori should be allowed to exercise their Tino Rangatiratanga overall of their taonga and benefit from these taonga, social service worker must respect the right of Maori where Maori can enjoy their taonga in social service settings.

Participation

Maintaining active lines of communication amongst there people family, participating in the karakia, koranga, kai, Whanau-Hui.
Embracing the four corner stones of health i.e. Te Taha Wairua (spiritual) Te Taha Hinegaro (Mental) Te Taha Tinana (Physical) Te Taha Whanau (the family).
Providing freedom for Maori to speak Te-Reo and to participate in any Maori spiritual or cultural practises.

Permission

Consultations of all levels with MAori perspectives, allowing them to speak in their own language Te reo/Tikanga, involve them with kaumatua’s, families support.
Let them participate in any MAori spiritual or cultural practises, also involvement of MAori models of health i.e. Te Whare Tapa Wha to be applied rather than western models when working with MAori.
Services accessibility for the Maori should be permitted. While engaging with Maori clients we can involve a translator who can translate Te reo with Maori clients, allowing them to practise their own culture.

Task 5 Application of social service theory

Explain how your actions throughout the process of assisting people to resettle in the community following residential care were guided and supported by valid theory for social service practise. Include examples.

As a social worker you have to apply all four principles of Treaty O Waitangi. The four principles are Partnership, participation, protection, and permission

A social worker should ensure that the needs of Maori client are taken into account when interacting with Maori or when creating policy that could affect Maori consultation or having Maori representative on the steering committee or their board while creating organisation policies and procedures to ensure that they allow Maori to rangatiratanga over their Taonga.
Social workers must consider cultural values, principles or beliefs under the guidance of Te Tiriti O Waitangi for Maori.
Working together with whanau Hui, involve families for support, allowing client to do her karakia, mirimiri, and involve the client in Maori culture.
A social worker we should always provide safety and confidentiality for the client, respecting clients dignity and integrity, values and beliefs, social worker should build a trust with understanding each other and should have a holistic approach at all times.

Te Reo/Tikanga and Development of Iwi and Maori

Social workers should provide appropriate cultural supervision ,allowing the client to involve in their maoridom ,events like karakia, mirimiri, Maori community, peer group members, providing clients right to speak their language (Te Reo) involving whanau-hui,engaging the client into marae activities, providing the safety and reassuring the client that he or she is the part of facility.
Social worker need to provide appropriate cultural supervision and training so all social workers provide culturally appropriate and safe practise when working with Maori, they should have integrated approach towards Maori wellbeing models and traditional knowledge within the framework of engagement.

Social work ethics

Social worker should be professional ,always provide clear information’s to the clients and following the ANZASW code of ethics ,promoting the clients wellbeing, involving the whanau, and always maintaining their professional boundaries ,showing respect and all relevant information’s should be kept confidential and provide safety to the client.

Maori models of Practise

Maori models of practise should have a holistic approach, we as social worker have to develop good relationship, understanding health, and wellness of whakapapa, have to understand the Maori models of health, e.g Te WhareTapa Wha-four corner stones of Maori health.

Taha Tinana (physical health) provides safe environment, basic needs and inclusiveness. However for Maori physical well-being is intertwined with spiritual, emotional and family well-being.an example of the connection between Te taha wairua and Te taha Tinana is how for Maori the body and things associated with it are tapu. The concept of tapu (meaning sacred) was the basis of law and order and health in traditional Maori society.

Taha Hinegaro-(mental health) provide education ,brochures in Maori language about the sickness, if possible translate, involve Kaumatua,whanau,friends for support. We need to consider the bigger picture retains the essence of the individual while addressing the needs of the whole, Maori think can be described as being holistic, healthy thinking for many Maori is about relationships, communication through emotions is important and more meaningful than the exchange of words and is valued just as much.

We need to consider Te Taha hinegaro, be aware of the different cultural values and beliefs around health and the individual and whanau.
Being respectful and open to these different beliefs and values will ensure meaningful engagement and connections can occur.
In considering chronic care conditions, need to change the focus from individual management to whanau self – management.

Taha Wairua(spiritual health)-practising culture, going to marae, performing karakia, mirimiri, healing body and mind, using herbal medicines. Te Taha Wairua is more on spiritual wellbeing. We need to consider the spiritual wellbeing and health of Maori people, breakdown of relationship could be seen in terms of ill health or lack of personal identity.

Taha Whanau (family health) consultations at all levels of Maori, they must have equal access to all levels of services provided to Maori’s always have to provide care nurturance, which relates with Maori identity and sense of purpose. Within all whanau there are roles and responsibilities, families contribute to a person’s well-being and most importantly a person’s identity. The challenge for practitioners will be in supporting the change from an individual focus to that of a whanau focus.

Referencing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Wait

http://www.thefreelibrary.com/THE+TREATY+OF+WAITANGI+AND+SOCIAL+POLICY.-a054024005

http://whakapapa.maori.org.nz/archives/viewthread.php?TOPIC_ID=3532&Page=

http://www.maori.org.nz/papapanui//archives/viewthread.php?TOPIC_ID=3532

http://moodle.unitec.ac.nz/mod/page/view.php?id=162

1.0: Introduction

Youth work in the community, which is mainly performed by specially trained youth workers who work with youth at risk in group homes and community centres demands a high level of managerial skills blend with the skill in social work as argued by Mark Krueger (2000)^[1]. The fact that the youth work is a non-profit approach makes it clear that the established management concepts were successful in profit-based organization need necessarily prove effective when deployed. In this report an overview of the theories embracing the management and social work with regards to youth and community work is presented to the reader. The report also demonstrates relevant examples from my previous experience in order to justify that the author of this report is ready to perform as an autonomous and reflective practitioner in the area of youth and community work. Furthermore, the report also presents a critical analysis on the British Social policies and the European Union perspective. A brief review on the global view on the youth work is also presented before concluding the report.

2.0: Overview of the theoretical concepts embracing youth and community work with examples

This section commences with the overview on the management and historical content that reflects upon the youth work is presented to the reader. This is then followed by the analysis of the information and control system where the importance of the planning and information management is presented to the reader. The section is then concluded with an overview on the human resource management concepts embracing the youth work.

2.1: Management and historical content

Peter F. Druker (1990)^[2] says that management in the non-profit context is not only about effective performance and development but mainly embraces the idea of value addition to the society. The fact that the non-profit organizations are increasing in number with the support from government and public as argued by Robert F. Ashcraft (2000)^[3]. This is not only because of the fact that the non-profit organizations are focused upon charity and fund raising but also involves the development of people at risk. The youth at risk development, which is of interest in this report, was given high level of importance only since the dawn of the twenty-first century even though it was emphasised by many researchers as early as 1978 by Paul Osterman (1978)^[4].

As stated before, youth work in the community is a non-profit approach where the aim is to provide support and development to the youth at risk. This makes it clear that the nature of the work involved is varied and hence management skills that embrace the social work and value addition are essential than the effective performance managers who fair well in the profit-based organizations.

Furthermore, it is also interesting to note that the youth work is not always about the social work to revive youth in danger but also to provide value-added service to the community in order to develop the youth of the nation through imparting culture and discipline. Alongside, it is also an intriguing fact that even through the youth work is a non-profit approach, the investment involved with the setting up and the running costs of the community work are relatively high with negligible or no income being generated. The support by the government and the local city council being the major source of the support financially, the management skills of the youth workers should not only embrace the efficient cost management methods but also focus upon developing the effective relationship strategy with the community in order to involve the neighbourhood to support the community work morally or even financially as argued by Mark Krueger (2000).

The fact that youth work is predominantly involves the counselling, teaching and caring for the youth who come to the youth shelter having been abused, or in need of respite from home. In these cases the managerial skills of the youth worker should be more empathetic than focusing upon the development. The soft skills of the management like patience, proactive management to support people in need are the essential elements of management that should be demonstrated by a youth worker as argued by Mark Schoenhals (1998)^[5]. This justifies that the effective management in the social work context is not about performance but mainly about the deployment of the soft skills to support the youth in need.

Alongside it is also essential to mention that the youth worker’s management skills should not only reflect upon the development of the youth but also to focus upon the entire neighbourhood the youth worker is working at as argued by Mark Krueger (2000)^[6]. The fact that the youth worker predominantly working in a volatile environment (i.e.) an unstable work place like the temporary youth shelter, working with the parents, foster parents etc as identified by Mark Krueger (2000) makes it clear that the youth worker management skills should be versatile to accommodate the changes in the environment effectively.

The author’s experience from working with the Coventry Youth service has justified the aforementioned argument where the author gained experience of working with the Asian community youth in Hill-fields are of Coventry. Alongside, the student development programme conducted at Binley area which was focused upon the development of the youth through working with the parents and foster parents of the youth is another justification that the versatile management skills that embrace the soft skills is essential for the successful development of the youth work. It is also critical to state here that the author who led the youth development programme at Binley with a team of six youth workers accomplished the goals of the project (provide support and development opportunity to the youth in the community through working with their parents or foster parents) through the efficient deployment of the management skills discussed above.

2.2: Information and Control system

Information and control in the youth work is a critical element in order to achieve the goal of providing development services to the youth. This is mainly because of the fact that the youth worker having to face a varied environment requires accurate and comprehensive information so as to effectively deploy the development plan. Mark Krueger (2000) argues that the information is a vital element for the successful planning of the development plan in a give youth and community work scenario. This is not only because of the need to effectively deploy the resources but also to accomplish the goal of the youth work that is projected for the day. Alongside, it is also essential to note that the control over the youth work is essential in order to accomplish the set goals of the project on hand without wastage of time and resources.

Sara Banks (1998)^[7] argues that the youth work in a community should be deployed in a controlled manner reflecting upon the ethical conduct and code of ethics mainly because of the fact that the youth work itself involves the deployment of self-discipline and control by the youth worker who strives to set an example of himself to the youth community he/she targeting to reform or protect. The fact that the control in the youth work is not the control of the youth but the stages of the programme being deployed makes it a critical that the information gathered is accurate and effective in nature.

The information being the vital ingredient for the deployment of a plan in the youth work as argued by Sara Banks (1998) further justifies that the youth work should comprise effective background research on the community targeted prior to planning. Sara Banks (198) further argues that the information research and the planning can be accomplished effectively and successfully deployed through closely working with the city council and the local community centres by which the youth worker enjoys higher level of support and help from the community.

Sara Banks (1998) also state that stating the objective of the youth work for a particular project is the critical element for the successful planning itself. This is also justified by the arguments of Abraham Daniel (1999)^[8] who says that the objective of the youth work is the main element that attracts the community to participate in the youth development programme by the youth workers. Apart from the objective setting the factors of planning and evaluation are essential in order to deploy the resources since the plan of the youth work devised can be accomplished only through the effective evaluation of the information and plan in the light of the needs in the community targeted.

The youth work participated by the author at Shotton in North Wales where the major barrier was the language because of the predominant Welsh population in the community. Alongside the cultural differences faced by the author and his team members along with the language barrier was overcome only through the effective information research on the community and closely working with the city council. The objective of the work being the rehabilitation of the youth who were under drug abuse was effectively planned through the effective information gathering on the activities of the youth in the community as well as the involvement of the local community centres to support the planning of the project. Furthermore, it is also essential to mention that the author who was the team member during the deployment of this project was given the opportunity of planning the work along with the team leader. It was clearly evident from the experience gained that the efficient planning is an essential element for the successful deployment of the youth work on hand.

Alongside, the work at Shotton also provided valuable experience on the development of the controls around the project and the targets to meet in order to effectively accomplish the revival of the youth from drug abuse in the community. Since the project was initially misinterpreted as a rehabilitation project than support to the community, the marketing and communication of the project objective as a supporting element to develop the youth in the neighbourhood rather than a rehabilitation school. The process of working closely with the local community centres and the city council was highly supportive to achieve the confidence and support from the parents and foster parents of the youth. This is synonymous to the arguments of Philip Kotler and Kevin Lane Keller (2005)^[9] who argue that the marketing communication is the vital tool for successfully reaching the target customers both in case of the profit-based and non-profit organizations.

The discussions cited above comprise a vital example for the critical nature of the information and control in the youth work.

2.3: Human Resource management in youth work

Human resource in any kind of work is indispensable in nature as argued by Derek Torrington and Laura Hall (2003)^[10]. This is apparently because of the fact that the effective performance of the personnel involved in the project is the kindling element for accomplishing the project goals. This is also evident from the arguments of Michael Armstrong (2003)^[11] who emphasises the fact that the human resource especially in a non-profit scenario is the foundation pillar for the entire project itself.

The fact that the motivation and encouragement in the youth work or in any other form of social work is only through the effective leadership skills of the team leader who has to consider that the motivation is purely moral in nature and does not always include financial benefits. This apparently means that the leadership skills of the manager managing the project should be exemplary and must also demonstrate flexibility along with the authority and control. This is essential because of the volatile nature of the community work and the continuous changes that can affect the performance of the team members in involved in the community work.

Andrew Rothwell and John Arnold (2005)^[12] argue that the human resource management in a non-profit scenario and mainly the performance management are dependent upon the level of authority and control exercised by the manager in deploying the resources. This is also because of the fact that the results are not easily measurable in case of youth and community work, which makes it critical to understand that the performance of the youth workers is predominantly dependant upon their adherence to the controls and effectiveness in deploying the plan.

Alongside, the authority element as argued by Mark Krueger (2000) is also an element of management and influence among the team members mainly because of the fact that the managers in the youth and community work do not have direct supervisory control over the team members since they work in a dispersed nature within the community under consideration itself. This makes it clear that the effective management can be accomplished only through the effective exercise of the authority.

Furthermore, the fact that the youth workers and the youth with whom they work comprise the overall project plan makes it a complex job to effectively manage the youth worker to demonstrate self-discipline and character so as to set an example in the youth community they work. This being an essential element for the success of the youth and community work project is the major element that attributes to the human resource management by the managers in the youth work.

Unlike the profit-based organization the non-profit approach with the need to demonstrate empathy and maintain effective relationship with the community makes it further critical for the managers to deploy a structured approach to the management of the youth and social work as argued by Peter F Druker (1990). A structured approach will not only enhance the performance of the youth workers but also help accomplish the objectives of the project effectively. This is also evident from the need to effectively organize the resources in order to accomplish the objectives as well as establish effective relationship with the community. The fact that the relationship with the community can be effectively nurtured through the structured deployment of the project by the managers emphasises the importance of the structured approach and performance management in youth and community work.

The learning development project by the author and his team members at Tividale, in Dudley port at Birmingham is a classical example for the aforementioned discussions. The author being the team leader not only faced the language and cultural barriers but also a level of non-cooperation by certain community centres. Since the population in the target community was of diverse origin the need for a structured approach was essential to accomplish the planning and information research stages itself. This is not only because of the structured deployment but also through the effective deployment of the human resource (i.e.) management of the team members. The team had an inherent advantage of inclusion and diversity since the members were of different origin working for the same goal. This was effectively utilised to liaise with the community centres and gather required information and involvement to the project. The management of the members through the exercise of authority for example the emphasis on working for target by the author was the factor that contributed to the effective performance among the team members. Furthermore, the planning and deployment of the project through allocating each team member a team of youth and an attached community centre also proved successful to the youth work as well as motivating to the youth worker.

The effective planning process, which provided effective management as well as accomplishment of the targets within the time frame agreed, helped to the success of the project greatly.

From the above discussions it is clear that the author of the report has strived to demonstrate a clear understanding of the management theoretical concepts with examples from this experience gained through fieldwork. In the next section a critical analysis on the big picture of the British Youth policies and comparison to that of the European Union and a global perspective is presented to the reader.

3.0: The big picture

The British youth policies as argued by John A. Calhoun (2002)^[13] is predominantly rehabilitation based (i.e.) the use of law and order to accomplish the youth development can be seen in the system. Although the youth development in the UK embraces the welfare of the youth, the stringent laws present on the Binge drinking and other anti-social activities that results in cash penalties and even imprisonment makes the youth policy a little overstated in the UK.

Bill Katz (2004)^[14] further argues that the policies adhered in the UK is not only the critical element for the successful deployment of youth and community work in the society but also establishes the need to establish trust among the public in order to gain their co-operation. The British youth policies in general even through as stringent laws is focused upon the overall development of the youth community in the UK in order to present an effective and sustainable environment for the future. This approach of the government is necessary because of the increasing diversity in the population in the UK.

The interesting fact that the diversity in the UK population has not tarnished the support by the community to government’s strive to youth development but is also against the use of force and law against youth accused for anti-social activities.

The need for self-discipline and control in the society as stated by John A Calhoun (2002) makes it clear that the need to use force when necessary to accomplish the aforementioned is inevitable. Furthermore, an insight into the Greater Manchester Metropolitan Police report (2004)^[15] makes it clear that the use of force is the last used method to control anti-social behaviour by the youth involved in anti-social behaviour. This further makes it clear that youth policy both at the local and national level use force to control anti-social behaviour of youth as a last sought method rather than using it in the first instance. This justifies the youth policy of the nation, which is focused upon the development of youth and protection from abuse whilst exercising force when involved in anti-social behaviour.

The youth policy proposed by the European Union is similar to the approach of UK except for the emphasis on the use of force on youth. The policy not only reflects upon the need to provide development and support to the youth but also emphasises upon the restricted use of force in by the authorities. Since the approach of European Union embraces the member states it is thus essential to emphasise upon the restriction on the use of force. This is because of the varied nature of the exercise of law and order across European Union member states thus making it essential to prevent the use of force on the youth.

It is also intriguing to note that not only the western countries are involved in the youth development and support but also the countries in the Far East like China and India. The Chinese government approach to youth development as a critical element for the economic growth of the nation makes it clear that the Far eastern countries have realised the importance of youth development in order to sustain the economic growth of their nation.

4.0: Conclusion

Thus to conclude this report, it is clear that the management of youth and community work by the youth workers and managers is a challenging role that requires versatile people skills blended with effective management and planning. The overview on the theoretical concepts and the examples has revealed the author’s understanding and knowledge in managing youth and community work.

The overview on the big picture detailing the British youth policy and the European Union has also justified the extent of research conducted in order to establish as an autonomous and reflective practitioner in the area of youth and community work by the author.

5.0: References
Books

Derek Torrington and Laura Hall (2003), Personnel Management HRM in Action, UK: Prentice Hall

Michael Armstrong and Tina Stephens (2003) A handbook of employee reward management and practice, London Kogan Page

Peter F. Druker (1990), Managing the non-profit organization: practices and principles, London: Butterworth-Heinemann

Philip Kotler and Kevin Lane Keller (2005), Marketing Management 12e, Prentice Hall India

Journals and reports

Abraham Daniel (1999), ESTABLISHMENT OF INDUSTRIAL CO-OPERATIVE UNITS. Annals of Public & Cooperative Economics, Vol. 42 Issue 2, p169

Andrew Rothwell and John Arnold (2005), How HR professionals rate ‘continuing professional development‘ Human Resource Management Journal, 2005, Vol. 15 Issue 3, p18-32

Bill Katz (2004), Youth Policy: The Monthly Report on National Youth Program and Issues. Library Journal, 4/1/89, Vol. 114 Issue 6, p119-119

Greater Manchester Metropolitan Police (2004), Performance Statistics

John A. Calhoun (2002), Claiming youth: A new paradigm in youth policy. New Directions for Philanthropic Fundraising, Winter2002, Vol. 2002 Issue 38, p67-80

Mark Krueger (2000), Presence, Fear, Curiosity, and Other Themes in Community Youth Work. Applied Developmental Science, 2000 Supplement 1, Vol. 4.

Mark Krueger (2000), Presence, Fear, Curiosity, and Other Themes in Community Youth Work Applied Developmental Science, Jun2000 Supplement 1, Vol. 4 Issue 3, p21-27

Mark Schoenhals (1998), The Educational and Personal Consequences of Adolescent Employment. Social Forces, Dec98, Vol. 77 Issue 2, p723-762

Paul Osterman (1978), Youth, Work, and Unemployment. May/Jun78, Vol. 21 Issue 2

Robert F. Ashcraft (2000), Where Youth Work Preparation Meets Higher Education: Perspectives From an American Humanics Campus Program. Applied Developmental Science, 2000 Supplement 1, Vol. 4

Sara Banks (1998), Codes of Ethics and Ethical Conduct: A View from the Caring Professions. Public Money & Management, Jan-Mar98, Vol. 18 Issue 1, p27