Category: Free Essays

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.0Introduction

Violence is the use of physical force to injure people or property. Violence may cause physical pain to those who experience it directly, as well as emotional distress to those who either experience or witness it. Individuals, families, schools, workplaces, communities, society, and the environment all are harmed by violence. Violence is a social and health problem for all who experience and witness it. Violence takes many forms, including Family violence, often referred to as domestic abuse, child abuse, child maltreatment, spouse abuse, and wife battering. Other than that, sexual violence, media violence that is the violence that been shown on television, in film. Plus, this era people can see violence through video games and many other examples.

Research indicates that violent behaviour may have many different causes, some of which are inborn but most of which are learned from experiencing or witnessing violent behaviour by others, particularly those who are role models. (Daniel, 2007) Moreover, media violence can lead to real violence in multiple ways. Watching television violence is an important predictor of aggressive behaviour. Children’s cartoons and music videos in particular often portray violence. American children see about 16,000 simulated murders and 200,000 acts of violence on television by age 18. In nearly 75 percent of those cases, punishment is not shown to be a consequence of violent behaviour. (U.S. Surgeon General and the U.S. National Institute of Mental Health, 2006)

Nevertheless, a research done by Albert Bandura (1961) found that, if children observe violent behaviour at home, in school, or on television, they may come to believe that turning angry feelings into angry actions is acceptable behaviour. When these children become angry themselves, they will display the behaviours they have observed, and they even may create new angry behaviours that go beyond what they have learned from their models.

1.1Background of the study

Media violence is recognized as a potential contributor to the increase of antisocial attitudes in children and adolescents (Ledingham, Ledingham, & Richardson, 1993). Considerations about media violence go back to the 1920s. At that time the earliest coordinated social scientific research investigation into the impact of media violence began in the western countries. It was intended at studying the harmful impacts of media on society. The development of television as a common mass entertainment and information medium during the 1950s encountered similar concerns about potential harms, especially in connection with young audiences (Gunter, 1994). The most important concern in the debate about media violence has been whether or not it promotes aggressive behavior among viewers (Van Evra, 1990). The relationship between heavy exposure to media violence and later aggressive behavior has been studied for more than thirty years. A large body of experimental and longitudinal research on this question has been evaluated, and it has been determined that there is a link between viewing TV violence and aggressive behavior (APA, 1993). There is also research indicating that heavy exposure to screen violence can cause problems in other domains of social behavior. For example, it can make people become both fearful of the world around them and more accepting of violence in the real life as displayed by others (Singer & Singer, 1980).

Nowadays, many concerns have been raised about the kinds of values and attitudes that may be inculcated by exposure to certain kinds of media content, especially violence in movies (Kubey & Larson, 2005). During the last decade, accusations towards the media have also been made against violent computer and video games, the popularity of which among adolescents is rising (Scott, 2000).

While social scientists work on determining the major causation of violence, such as social environments, cultural factors, family instruction, and group membership (Fraser, 1996; Staub, 1996), parents, teachers, politicians and school administrators continue blaming the media for increases in violence attitudes among adolescents. For instance, school principals, mothers, and young people were surveyed for their perceptions of factors influencing violence among youth. The results showed that violent messages in rap music and violence in the movies are perceived as the factors influencing violence (Kandakai, Price, & Telljohann, 1999, Pryor, Sard, & Bombyk, 1999). Moreover, the results indicated that media violence was perceived to be one of the major causes of violence in 47-54% of the questionnaires. Clearly, media violence is not in itself a sufficient cause of real world violence (Zuckerman, 1996).However, as the numerous studies show, parents’ and school personnels’ concerns about media violence are justified.

1.1.1Attitudes toward Violence

Attitudes toward violence are viewed as having a significant mediating role in the translation of aggressive feelings into aggressive behaviours (Velicer, Huckel, & Hansen, 2003). Furthermore, researchers have identified social attitudes that could be responsible for cultural variations in rates of violence (Cohen & Nisbett, 1994).

It is asserted that attitudes are governed by internal value systems. Person develops his/her attitudes through a complex and particular evaluative procedure based on cognitive and affective reactions to life experiences (Eiser & van der Pligt, 1988).

From a social cognitive approach, attitudes are believed to guide individual differences in social information processing. For instance, beliefs that violence is compulsory to achieve desired results may lead a person to focus more to aggressive aspects of social cues or anticipate positive outcomes for violent behavior (Dodge, 1993). It is commonly admited that attitudes have a significant power on behavior, especially violent behavior (Kxaus, 1995). Relations have been found between specific attitudes and violent behavior in children and adolescents. Huesmann and Guerra (1997) detected that through middle childhood, children’s beliefs that violence is acceptable.

Another study by Vernberg, Jacobs and Hershberger (1999) investigated attitudes about violence as a possible influence on the frequency of commonplace aggression toward peers. The results demonstrated that the relation between attitudes favoring violence and self-reported aggression toward peers was significant in the sample of 1,000 youth. A positive relationship between proviolence attitudes and actual violent behavior has been also found in a sample of youth from juvenile detention and school settings (Slaby & Guerra, 1988). It was found that a belief about the acceptability of aggression was significant and independent predictor of aggressive behavior. Violence related beliefs were related to self-reported violent behavior in a study of low income African American youth. An intervention designed to change violence-related beliefs resulted in decreased aggressive behavior in adolescents incarcerated for violent offences (Guerra & Slaby, 1990). Given that attitudes influence behavioral predispositions, changing attitudes should contribute to behavioral change (Shapiro, Dorman, Burkley, Welker, & Clough, 1997). In turn, this means that attitudes are an appropriate target for violence prevention programs.

Media are believed to be potential contributors to the development of antisocial behavior in children. One can identify several ways that media violence could affect social behavior. First, TV violence could provide the original aggressive scripts which children store in memory. Secondly, TV violence might affect behavior by changing a person’s attitudes or emotional responses to violence. Thirdly, it may arouse a person, which in a short-term may have serious outcomes, for example, physical risk-taking (Potts, Doppler, & Hernandez, 1994). Educators and researchers are especially concerned with children and youth, because their attitudes, beliefs, ideas about the world, as well as social skills, are beginning to take form. Given the fact that children and youth are often exposed to media which “glorify” violence, and that the young viewers are still in very active developmental stages, it is reasonable to argue that there might be a relationship between extensive exposure to violent media and subsequent development of antisocial behavior.

1.2Problem Statement

Although much of the research has focused on exposure to media violence as a factor contributing to antisocial behavior (Groebel, 1998), some effects of media violence have been examined more extensively than others. Woodfield (1989), in her review of the literature, asserted that the major concern has been the causal relationship between TV violence and aggressive attitudes, and there were fewer studies that focused on the cognitive and affective outcomes of exposure to media violence. The same notion was stated by Rule and Ferguson (1986), who declared that there seemed to be “sparse research regarding the relation between media exposure and attitudes toward aggression” (p.39).

Upon reviewing the literature for this study, it has become obvious that research directly investigating the relation between media violence and attitudes has tended to focus on the acceptance of violence toward women (Malamuth & Check, 1981; St.Lawrence & Joyner, 1991). Only a few available studies considered the special effects of exposure to media violence on attitudes toward violence. Furthermore, outcomes of these studies are mixed. Some researchers found that the greater the level of exposure to television violence, the more the child was willing to suggest violence as a solution to conflict, to perceive it as effective, and to become more accepting of violent behavior displayed by others (Dominick & Greenberg, 2001).

Others did not find any significant support for the hypotheses that high exposure to television violence caused adolescents to accept violence as a way to solve their problems, and that exposure to television violence made them more callous in relation to near or distant violence in the world around them (Woodfield, 1989).

Despite the fact that there is little research evidence to confirm attitudinal changes as a result of exposure to media violence, it is a pervasive theme throughout the empirical literature that heavy exposure to violent messages conveyed in the media influences and shapes individual attitudes toward violence in the real world. For example, it is often encountered that heavy viewers of TV/video violence tend to accept violence as a solution to conflicts and perceive it as an effective means of settling disputes (Potter, 1998), that viewers might believe that it is fairly common for people to fight, and that aggression is proper and acceptable in many different real-life situations (Berkowitz, 2001). Thus, more research is needed to test the empirical evidence.

It should also be mentioned that the majority of research presented above was experimental, and it is clear that the results could be different in the natural environment. In addition, research was conducted mostly with children, which makes it difficult to make generalizations on other age groups. Since adolescent boys are the main audience of movies with violent content, and their culture also includes violent computer and video games, often human-directed (Funk & Buchman, 2002), it is considered worthwhile to conduct a study exploring adolescents’ attitudes toward violence on the basis of their exposure to screen violence, both passive (movies) and interactive (video/computer games)

1.3.1Research Objectives

The general objective of this study is to identify whether there is an effects of watching violence movies on the attitudes concerning aggression among secondary schoolboys. The specific objectives of this study are intended to:

1.3.1.1To determine the habits of SMKDTHO secondary schoolboys in watching films.

1.3.1.2To examine the level of affection of SMKDTHO secondary schoolboys to watch violence movies.

1.3.1.3To identify the relationship between affection toward violent movie and attitudes concerning aggression among SMKDTHO secondary schoolboys.

1.3.2Research Questions

Based on the problems mentioned, the key questions to be studies are:

1.3.2.1What are the habits of SMKDTHO secondary schoolboys in watching films?

1.3.2.2What are the levels of affection of SMKDTHO secondary schoolboys toward violence movies?

1.3.2.3Is there a relationship between affection toward violent movie and attitudes concerning aggression among SMKDTHO secondary schoolboys?

1.4.1 Conceptual Framework

Figure 1.4.1

1.4.2Conceptual Definition

Hypothesis 1

H1: The SMKDTHO secondary schoolboy’s habit in watching violence movies is watching violent movies with their parents.

Hypothesis 2

H1: The level of affection of SMKDTHO secondary schoolboys is high in watching violent movies.

Hypothesis 3

H1: There is a relationship between affection toward violent movie and attitudes concerning aggression among SMKDTHO secondary schoolboys.

1.5Scope of Study

The scope and coverage of this study will be targeted at the Form One until Form Five secondary schoolboys that is age between 13-17 years old in Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Desa Tun Hussein Onn (SMKDTHO) in Kuala Lumpur. The main reason is because they have the potential to expose the research which is the effects of watching violence movies on the attitudes concerning aggression among secondary schoolboys. In this school, the entire students have different kind of attitudes and skill level toward the effect of violent movies. Some of them have their own perspective and preferences in watching violence movies. The expected amount of targeted respondents is 50 people and it is important to find out the relationship between affection toward violent movie and attitudes concerning aggression. This research will focus on quantitative method with questionnaire.

1.6Significance of the Study

Presentation to violence in the media can affect adolescent’s forceful conduct. The presentation to brutality in viewing the violent films can have on forceful conduct and dreadfulness on the teenager’s. Ann Cami (2008) talk about that even there is no proof supporting the thought that rough media can truly really increments violence wrongdoing, still research has mulled over that when a teen have watch a violent films, some may carry on forcefully, they may attempt to be a copycat, bully other individuals or may experience apprehension, create doubtful observations concerning the roughness that exists in this present reality, or grow less propelled good thinking methodologies. There are numerous cases we can see in our county Malaysia. So the primary reason is to know the impacts of viewing violent movies on the state of mind concerning hostility. Here, parents, teacher, the school administrators and the counsellor play important roles to help the teenagers about this.

1.6.1 Parents

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.0Introduction

A quantitative methodology is felt as the perfect system to be utilized for this study. This is on account of the writing audit has obviously demonstrated that this methodology is generally utilized as a part of the field of examination on media and their impacts on the general public. Moreover, a quantitative examination outline is relevant to the motivation behind the present study: to think about and foresee savagery related state of mind among pre-adult young men on the premise of their introduction to media roughness. In particular, the study utilizes a review examination outline technique that permits the incorporation of an extensive number of specimen (respondents) while considering a few mediating variables. Review procedure has a few qualities that make it more proficient to intercultural studies.

The area of this study was seven universal schools in Kuala Lumpur. The seven universal schools chose were The Alice Smith School, Mont’Kiara Worldwide School, Utama Global School, Arrangement Universal School, Fairview Global School, Sayfol Universal School, and Worldwide Indian Universal School. The point of interest of these worldwide schools has been gotten from Kuala Lumpur Instruction Office. As per rundown there were 10 Global schools in Kuala Lumpur of which three of them are elementary schools.

This study utilized the comprehensively 4-scale Likert sort instrument as the primary strategy for information accumulation. Likert is a psychometric scale habitually used in surveys structures, and is the most generally used scale in study mull over too. In the wake of offering an explanation to a Likert survey, specialist can recognize their level of consent to a subject. The information was gathered utilizing four instruments: the Demographic Poll, the Media survey Propensities Poll, the fondness to film viciousness scale, the State of mind concerning Hostility Scale.

3.1 Population and sample

The specimen estimate that has been utilized for this examination is taking into account the Krejcie, R.V and Morgan D.W (1970). Consequently, taking into account Krejcie and Morgan (1970) out of 865 schoolboys in Kuala Lumpur universal schools, the example was 260. Since the quantity of understudies in chose schools was unequal, circulating the polls was in view of the extent of number of schoolboys in each one school to the aggregate populace of understudies. Thusly, 30 to 45 polls were conveyed in diverse schools in light of the specified extents.

The choice to target guys can be portrayed by the way that immature young men are the fundamental crowd of activity motion pictures with abnormal amounts of brutality (Roe, 1995). They are additionally the most continuous feature films/PC diversion players (Griffiths, 1991). What’s more, since the past studies show, young men are more inclined to pick films with dream and human savagery as their top choice (Buchman & Funk, 2003). As the present study is gone for surveying youth demeanour to savagery on the premise of presentation to media brutality, this decision of the example of the study is sensible.

The testing system utilized for this study is methodical inspecting strategy. The fundamental concern in the utilize of precise inspecting with a consistent dispersing is that the things to be examined ought not to be set in an organized style which may compare to the dividing along transect or the network. (Carter & Gregorich, 2008) Methodical inspecting is regularly utilized and easy to apply; it comprises of taking each Kth testing unit after an arbitrary begin” (Kish 1995)

Structurally instituted social inequalities, in addition to conflicts of inheritance, poorly implemented gender equal policy attempts for land and its systems of administration make ownership expensive for the average person thereby excluding many citizens from the prospects of acquiring a permanent shelter. This leads to the mushrooming of informal and often unsafe temporary settlements in major urban cities. Unclean rivers polluted by wastage makes the water available to slums unhygienic and is a great contributor in illnesses especially found in children. There exists a lack of policymaking to address poverty alleviation or mitigation which allows the excluded people of the citizenry to resort to such abodes, and this lead to slums being built in the Sub Saharan Africa.

Regardless of the nature or origin of slums they are characteristically similar in terms of the poor quality of lands, the size of its construction, and the conflicts of vague communications of when signing lands over. The crime rates are seen to be escalated in areas of greater poverty. Also as time has progressed, one major obstacle to growth of this situation is these benefits that accrue to the slums which have now become commercially beneficial to both the dwellers as well as corporations who get easy access to their labours in return for the labour to find employments as well as a housing arrangement. This helps in the development of the society organically. The authorities responsible of instilling change and appreciation of the situation are local landlords whose interests lie in leasing or renting their lands to desperate citizens seeking slums. Due to the strategic placement of these residences the labour seeks the houses while in turn create an informal market for the apparent demand. The otherwise employed majority population of Sub Saharan Africa commute through public transportation system of the bus or railway which does not contribute much to their health but takes away from development and convenience due to the time and energy opportunity costs.

We conducted surveys of women in Dhaka slums to establish the struggles caused to the most vulnerable socio economic group that is victimized despite urbanization. These revealed insights to the earning, saving, and expenditure behaviour of families residing in the slums. They also revealed how economic growth and infrastructural development have contributed nothing to the development of the underprivileged whose conditions remain as they always were.

The reason why slums have been populated, at the core of those mentioned above is the prevalence of the urban dream in the city. Low earning unskilled individuals from the rural areas migrate to the cities pursuing development efforts aspiring to get consistent and secure jobs that will secure them. Once in the city however, they find their capabilities unmatched with the needs of job roles. The lack of education, vocational training, and finances restrain these individuals into the cities and force them to dwell in the slums by doing menial labour work which due to the oversupply of labour fetches very low and mostly inhuman wage rates. This creates a poverty spiral whereby they neither have the means to go back nor the ability to afford a dignified living in pursuing their ambitions even though all members of these households work temporary wage jobs regardless of their sex or age. Results of the survey revealed the following:

Expenditure on Food: Naturally, one of the main expenditure of the families is on food. 33% respondents claimed that they spend an amount of up to BDT. 2500 per month, on food related expenses. This amount varies from family to family as per their income level. The highest amount spent on food exceeds BDT. 10,000 and this too is affordable to only 1 of the households of the slums. This means that more than one third of the socioeconomic strata live on a food budget of $ 31.25 per month as a family. Since most of these families on average comprise of 5 members so per person expenditure on food in a day is barely 25 cents which does not even buy one full meal a day. Under these situations it is only natural for them to be malnourished, feeble, and prone to many diseased. It also explains their disinterest in striving for hygiene or education in their spending habits as supported by the data below.

Expenditure on Non-food Items: As opposed to the expense on food items, the ratio of the amount spent on non-food items is very low. For example, the highest amount paid in terms of non-food is BDT. 10,000 dispensed by only 1% of the families. Usually this amount is BDT 2000 spent by almost all the families on items such as payment of bills, house rent, etc. So, the spending that takes first and only possible priority after food for these households is that on the essentials contingent to their shelter i.e. rent and utilities. Due to the nature of these dwellings however, these utilities are still not available at all times, and so they have to ration their water, electricity and gas by sharing kitchens and toilets. In spite of this, the expenditure possible for the majority remains at $25 a month per household which for the average family member translates into 16.67 cents per day. Usually after these basics, most families exhaust their entire incomes.

Workplace Culture

The nature of the work that runs the slum dwellings are twofold, mostly designated by gender. So women mostly work in garment factories on a daily wage basis where their work varies according to training and years on the job, while keeping extensive work hours, and unsafe, uninsured workplaces constant. So much so that when there are factory fires which are not very uncommon, workers numbering over hundreds die and most of them are found to be women. Despite some social and labour union support these factories have taken no measures in protecting the employees who subscribe to the exploitation due to the dire necessity of survival. Even where there have been successful efforts with administration and inspections, factories were found to be only placing empty fire extinguishers for show of safe work environments while remaining oblivious to the appreciation of the lives of their workers.

The men do not have any more privileges than their female counterparts. They are mostly rickshaw pullers because this is the least skills requiring job. These pullers are second to the working women in the garment factories who make up the greatest number of employments in Dhaka. The 200,000 rickshaw pullers of Dhaka work all day for a bare $1 a day, and that too in fierce competition between the licensed and unlicensed ones, both of whom are harassed by police who not only seize their only means of earning i.e. the rickshaws but often burn those which are found illegal. The female counterparts of these rickshaw pullers on the other hand travel as far as 37 miles on foot to work and back, amid traffic and pollution which the city is best known for.

A third group of workers bringing money into the households of Dhaka slums are unfortunately children who number in 750,000. Boys between the age of 10 and 14 spend their days in generating incomes by any means they can find. Usually these are in the likes of a “help” in shops and restaurants, or in pulling rickshaws or carriage vehicles known as vans. Otherwise they are seen selling items by roadsides and in signals. A portion of children as small as 7% aged 5-16 pursue schooling despite their troubles. Sometimes, little girls are sold into prostitution as sex slaves to repay debts to heads of brothels who charge high commissions from these under aged girls. Since prostitution is legal in Bangladesh, the demand for these girls from clients is not questioned legally, and their desperate conditions at home allow them to be exploited and pushed into sex slavery.

To further the analysis of the findings, the following variables: age of respondents, education, Income, Marital Status, Sources of Income and Total Income, Savings on Sources and Total Savings, and Type of Training were found to be significantly correlated with a number of variables using the Pearson Chi-square at 0.05 P-value. These findings can be considered as having a valid basis for identifying actions for empowering women particularly in the socio-economic life both in the family and in the community.

Position in the Society: Interestingly, the participants want to work as they believe it will help them in alleviating their position in the society and their voices will also be heard. Working not only will bring additional income to their families but will also entail more empowerment and freedom to them.

Assets: In the case of assets, the highest response was 284 representing an 88.2% of the sample who own furniture. At the opposite end, 2 respondents representing 0.6% of the sample are owners of business land. In addition to these, cattle owners make up 2.5% and agricultural landowners make 4.7% of the surveyed sample.

Savings of respondents in various sources: The sources of savings for the respondents are inferred to be quite limited as the highest participation was seen at 35 responses affirming a mere 10.9% savings due to NGOs or Rural Cooperatives. Even less popular with 4 responses was the 1.2% savings that comes from crop. On the other hand, bank as a source accounts for 9.9% of savings and cash does so for 3.4% only.

Total savings: When total savings are assessed, it can be deduced from the responses of 262 participants that in a rather alarming 81.4% cases, no savings occur. In contrast, 8responses helped deduce that 2.5% of the sample saves a total which is within Tk. 1001-2000. The data helps assert that among the 269 responders, 83.5% save between tk. 0and 20000. The percentage of responses for above tk. 60000 for households is still as low as 0.6%, as shown by the 2 responses received for the range of tk. 60001-80000. The middle amount of tk. 20001 to 40000 made up 14.3% of the cases.

Sources of income: 156 responders showed that a decent 48.4% of their incomes are generated by the effective delivery of service. Also, at the lower extreme of income generation is the 0.3% contributions made by the handicrafts market or beyond that, the good 23% of women working as maids who develop and manage the household activities.

The data helps assert that among the 269 responders, 83.5% save between tk. 0and 20000. The percentage of responses for above tk. 60000 for households is still as low as 0.6%, as shown by the 2 responses received for the range of tk. 60001-80000. The middle amount of tk. 20001 to 40000 made up 14.3% of the cases.

Facilities and service Available: Total 322 responses delivered that in 100% cases, 3 Health clinics, 3 police stations and water pumps are unavailable to the survey participants. The water pumps were not available for the subject’s area as were not many other crucial amenities which are required for the quality of health and life.

Type of training: Of the 288 people approached about training, 89.4% reported that they have received no training. The lowest response came from 1 person and helps infer that 0.3% people received the training for women empowerment. Training in tailoring occurred for 4.7% cases and that of garments stood at 3.4%.

Awareness: It is seen from the data that awareness in general is quite high in the sample studied. 258 responses presented that 80.1% are aware about human rights, and the lowest response of 226 people shows that 70.2% are aware about property rights. In this sample, awareness for family rights was 73.3% and that of violence against women stood to be at

Regarding day to day expenses: 41.6% of the daily expenditure is spent by the women on themselves according to 134 responders. In the lowest case, 2 responders show that 0.6% expenditure occurs by the consultation of the respondent but the needs of her husband and son are prioritized.

Regarding other matters: The survey conducted with 216 responders revealed that 67.1%were spending for the purpose of clothes. Additionally, 198 responders revealed that 61.5% is spent on festivals donations. Also, 65.5% of expenses are spent for educating children.

Borrowing details: The borrowing sample shows for the 36 responses11.2% occurs from Cooperatives while the lower response of 10 individuals presented that 1.1% borrowing occurs through NGOs. The greater response of 206 participants revealed that borrowing does not apply to the practices of 64% people.

Recommendations:

Based on our study these are the recommendations that we would suggest:

The migration to urban parts of the country is motivated mainly by the negligence and despair in the rural side where the permanent abodes of people and their workplaces i.e. the agricultural lands are prone to climatic catastrophes. When their backs hit bottom, these people migrate for hopes of a better living standard and for availing more secure lives for their children. So, the issue of migration and how urbanization affects the lives of migrants should be dealt with meticulous planning which incorporates them into economic development policies that provide social protection and integration so as to drive social change from them. Many NGOs and development related organizations are already expending their efforts and finances into the slums of Dhaka for improving the livelihoods of the people who dwell there. Such efforts were largely based on provision of micro credit loans which allowed the residents to pay off their dues without having to be dependent on the brothels, or without having to sacrifice the education of the children. In addition, extensive trainings and awareness campaigns regarding liquor, evacuation at times of threats and the like have also been conducted in these impoverished areas. Much more effort is still critical for the desired outcomes to be produced. Training of vocational nature should be provided so as to develop skills that have better job prospects in order to generate higher incomes for the households. These can range from machine using to making handicraft items that will allow the adults of these households to create products. Also, they need to be honed and encouraged for small business start-ups, starting from creative business strategies to the execution of them. These would also entail leadership and managerial training in the long run. In these efforts, NGOs alone will not be enough. So, government, local banks, and other private organizations should collaborate to help the people in their own capacities. Banks could provide less costly loans, while businesses can help train and agencies can help execute and teach so as to make the people of such slums independent and self-sufficient. The need for social campaigns about women empowerment and child rights also need to gain momentum to eradicate the prevalent abuse of the two vulnerable groups.

The government should also institutionalize change by active policy making and administering. This could be done in attempts in the likes of building safer, more hygienic, more facilitated housing facilities for those who have already migrated to Dhaka and are susceptible to dangers of earth quake, fire hazards, or illnesses. The government may also create better job opportunities in the rural areas so as to discourage or omit the reasons which force people to migrate in the first place. Rural development projects should also be undertaken with equal focus and allocation of resources. These would include well defined action plans that teach farmers about their rights, train them about their crops, and yield, aware them against exploitation by the middlemen and market prices so as to secure their incomes. Furthermore, efforts are required to equalize the salary gap that exists between the two sexes of the lower income socioeconomic strata, because this would not only help increase overall earnings for most families, but also facilitate the lives of households which are run by females working in labour using jobs.

Needless to say that neither government, nor NGOs and development agencies can hope to be successful on their own. There needs to be collaboration of these parties for their common stakeholder group so that they can use specialized knowledge, and resources in specific areas and bring effective changes everywhere instead of segregating their efforts which is found to help a few while ignoring many others entirely.

In what ways is inequality detrimental to the life chances of children and young people? How can practitioners address inequalities in their work with children and young people?

Being discriminated against and suffering inequality (lack of equal treatment) can be detrimental to children and young people’s life chances, such as their education, qualification attainment and future employment. People can be discriminated against because of their age, religion, ethnicity, background, lifestyle and sexuality which can have a huge impact on their life depending on how these issues are addressed and how they are supported by their family, friends and practitioners. In this essay I am going to discuss how inequality can be detrimental to the life chances of children and young people, and how practitioners can help address these inequalities in their work. I will explore diversity, discrimination and the barriers which stop society being more inclusive. I will also explore the important role of practitioners and the support they are able to offer to those subject to discrimination.

As a practitioner working in Scotland you must abide by the Scottish Social Services Council’s (SSSC’s) Codes of Practice. “TheCodes of Practice for Social Service Workers describe the standards of professional conduct and practice required of social service workers as they go about their daily work.” (The Open University, 2013a). There are also four key capabilities in child care and protection that practitioners must follow: values and ethical practice, knowledge and understanding, effective communication and professional competence and confidence. By following these four key capabilities and abiding to the SSSC’s Codes of Practice, this allows practitioners to make the right decisions and work and communicate appropriately with children and young people. By doing this they are addressing inequalities by using their professional values, and not allowing their personal views and beliefs to overshadow what is right.

Diversity is a distinctive feature of contemporary life in Scotland. “The term ‘diversity’ explains the ways in which people as individuals and as members of groups differ from each other; and that there is a variety of differences. It is evident that today a range of differences exist in the UK” (The Open University, 2013b). These differences range from people’s social class, family dynamics and values and beliefs. These differences can cause discrimination however diversity should be celebrated rather than being seen as negative. Children, young people and families whose lives are affected by discrimination and inequality need to be supported. Practitioners must have a social ecological perspective which is “a way of working with individual children, young people and families that keeps them at the centre but applies knowledge and understanding of the bigger picture when trying to understand their lives.” (The Open University, 2013c). Having this perspective helps practitioners address inequalities in their work with children and young people and offer the appropriate supports.

There are barriers stopping society from being more inclusive, such as the attitudes of people towards others who are seen as ‘not normal’, however “Social attitudes and legislation have successfully tackled discrimination and have, arguably, created a more inclusive society in the UK.” (The Open University, 2013d). Although there are barriers which stop society being more inclusive it has been argued that over the past 50 years in the UK diversity has developed, alongside increasing liberal ideas about how individuals and families arrange their lives, therefore factors such as age, social class, gender, disability, and religion should not be barriers to people’s life chances. Although diversity has developed it is still affecting people’s lives. As seen on the module website (The Open University, 2013e), a young person discusses her own personal experience of suffering racism and how this affected her life, which could possibly be detrimental to her life chances. Although the perpetrator was charged by the Police, the young person’s self-esteem has suffered and she is in constant fear of being at risk of harm while out in the community. The young person also speaks about not receiving appropriate support from her family nor a practitioner, however if the young person had received the appropriate supports after the incident this could have had a positive impact on her and helped alleviate the young person’s fears. This highlights how important the role of a practitioner is in order to address inequalities in their work with children and young people.

“Sociological theories suggest that socialisation is the process by which we learn from the society into which we are born” (The Open University, 2013f). Initially for most people socialisation takes place within the family as children and young people will adopt the views and beliefs of their parents. There are other social structures which provide socialisation and may interfere or change a person’s opinions such as school, the media and peer groups. Thomson’s PCS Model analyses socialisation and the inequalities that are raised within it. Thomson’s model suggests that people have their own Personal views or beliefs which are interlinked with theCulturalvalues that exist in a person’s community or belief system. This is also interlinked on a Structural level which includes society as a whole such as tabloids, institutions and governments.

Children and young people who are looked after and accommodated can suffer inequality as their education may be influenced by their socio-economic background. Although the Guidance to the Children (Scotland) Act 1995 states that “Children who are looked after should have the same educational opportunities as all other children for education, including further and higher education, and access to other opportunities for development.” (The Open University, 2013g), this is not the reality of it. Children and young people who are accommodated tend to be under a great deal of stress due to their circumstances. They might be missing their family, they may have to move school, they may not live as close to their friends and they may have uncertainties about their future. Using Thomson’s PCS model, society has their own personal views and cultural values of children and young people who are in care such as assuming they are badly behaved or that they deserve to be in care. As well as the children/young people trying to deal with the views/beliefs of these people and the community as a whole, they can also be judged on a structural level and are trying to cope with how the media view them. This negative perception of children and young people in care is a form of discrimination and could be detrimental to their life chances due to the effect it can have on their mood, social life and learning ability.

“‘Biological citizenship’ refers to the attempts by parents of children with disabilities to engage in activism and community participation to increase the citizenship rights of their children through links with groups such as Scope, Mencap and ENABLE Scotland.” (The Open University, 2013h). As discussed in Goodley and Runswick-Cole, 2010, p. 73-75, Gayle and Shelley are both mothers of children who are affected by a disability and although they have had very different experiences, they both resorted to using groups as a form of support. Gayle’s son Simon is eleven years old and has been diagnosed with asbergers, and Shelley’s daughter Chloe who is sixteen years old has been diagnosed with a rare genetic syndrome. Gayle found that Simon’s label allowed her to access support whereas Shelley found Chloe’s label as ‘useless’ because there were no supports that could be offered to her. Eventually both parents turned to ‘real’ parent support groups where biological citizenship is acted out. They found these groups positive overall and were able to relate to other parents who had similar experiences, however Shelley felt that “tensions could arise within the parents group, particularly when it came to making choices about mainstream or special provision” (Goodley and Runswick-Cole, 2010, p. 78). When discrimination affects a child or young person’s life chances it ultimately affects their parents/family, as it did Gayle and Shelley who felt the need to join a group to gain support and understanding. If Gayle and Shelley had received the appropriate support from a practitioner they may have felt that a group was unnecessary.

In conclusion, inequality can be detrimental to the life chances of children and young people, affecting their social lives and their education. They could be discriminated against because of their age, religion, sexuality, gender or background and this could have an impact on their life as a whole. When children and young people are discriminated against this can also have an effect on their families, for example Gayle and Shelley who required the support of parent support groups. Practitioners can help address these inequalities through their work by abiding by the SSSC’s Codes of Practice and following the four key capabilities. By doing this it helps them to make the right decisions and work and communicate appropriately with children and young people to support them through discrimination.

References

The Open University (2013a) ‘Section 1.4: The module areas of study’ K229 Learning Guide 1 [Online]. Available at www.learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=350865&section=5 (Accessed 12 November 2013).

The Open University (2013b) ‘Section 2.1: Families, diversity and social change’ K229 Learning Guide 2 [Online]. Available at https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=350871&section=2 (Accessed 12 November 2013).

The Open University (2013c) ‘Glossary’ K229 Resources and Forums [Online]. Available at https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/glossary/showentry.php?concept=&courseid=202246&eid=116725&displayformat=dictionary (Accessed 12 November 2013).

The Open University (2013d) ‘Section 2.2: Barriers to a more inclusive society’ K229 Learning Guide 2 [Online]. Available at https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=350871&section=3 (Accessed 12 November 2013).

The Open University (2013e) ‘Section 2.3: The impact of discrimination and inequality’ K229 Learning Guide 2 [Online]. Available at https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=350871&section=4 (Accessed 12 November 2013).

The Open University (2013f) ‘Glossary’ K229 Resources and Forums [Online]. Available at https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/glossary/showentry.php?courseid=202246&eid=116715&displayformat=dictionary (Accessed 12 November 2013).

The Open University (2013g) ‘Section 2.5: Addressing discrimination and inequality’ K229 Learning Guide 2 [Online]. Available at https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=350871&section=6 (Accessed 12 November 2013).

The Open University (2013h) ‘Section 2.5: Addressing discrimination and inequality’ K229 Learning Guide 2 [Online]. Available at https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=350871&section=6 (Accessed 12 November 2013).

Goodley, D. and Runswick-Cole, K., (2010) Working with Children and Young People: Co-constructing Practice, ‘Disabled children, their parents and their experiences with practitioners’.

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This study seeks to look at whether drug and alcohol interventions are of benefit to that of the service user, especially from an adult perspective. It will seek to address the help that is out there to help individuals who might recognise the need to be rid of their addiction and to be restored back to their normal routine life, before the addiction gets a hold of them any further. Qualitative researches tend to concentrate on specific issues that are health related, and that such matters are fundamental to the temperament of our thoughts and feelings. Issues that a qualitative approach might find much easier to address, such is not the case when dealing with quantitative data. Therefore it is not a matter of asking whether or not qualitative research is better than quantitative approach, but rather what is the best approach to gather information for a specific research question such as their lived experience which is what this research is based upon. Because I aim to investigate the benefits of interventions treatment provided by the healthcare and social care sectors therefore the best approach would be to use a qualitative approach. A qualitative approach will be used; this is to best understand the experience that they have faced, and the method of interviews will be used to help gather concrete data. When an individual becomes addicted, the user no longer consumes just for the fun of it or to get high. But in actual fact, the person with the addiction now relies on the alcohol or the drugs in order to perform on a day by day basis. One might say in some circumstances, the addicted person’s daily life will revolve around fulfilling their need from the substance on which they are now hooked. This study aims to help those who are not aware of services provided out there, to gain knowledge and know that there are different sectors as well as inter-professionals whether it be healthcare or social care intends to help them fight their fears. By talking about their experiences and feelings they are now faced with and the required actions they now should take in order to tackle their addiction, will best help one to understand what best intervention treatment is benefit able for each individual as others might be more severe and likewise not so severe.

Literature Review

Intervention is the course of action for which an individual take advantage of when all other options has been exploited in an attempt to help a person conquer a drug or alcohol problem. (Drug alcohol addiction-recovery). It is an intentional method used by which change is introduced into an individual’s thoughts, that of their feelings and behaviour. The process of drug intervention normally seeks reinforcement from a wide variety of service providers. In addition to specialist addiction services, this may include general practitioners, pharmacists, hospital staff, social workers, and those working in housing, education and employment services, who sees it crucial to approach individuals whom they recognise are self-destructing themselves. The National Treatment Agency for Substance Misuse (NTA) is a special health authority within the NHS, established by Government in 2001, to improve the availability, capacity and effectiveness of treatment for drug misuse in England (NTA, 2007). The NTA has reasoned that there is absolute need for combined and harmonised input from a diverse range of professional groups. However in such case it should be that the local regions offer substance misuse individuals the choice of generic and specialist interventions (NTA,2006).

“Illicit drug users have multiple and complex needs, including high levels of morbidity and mortality, domestic and family problems, homelessness, physical and sexual abuse, and unemployment” (Neale 2002).

However in order to get help the person struggling with the addiction must first of all recognised the need for help. Habitually, an individual with substance misuse issues finds it hard to come to terms in accepting the fact that they do have a problem, by acknowledging this it is as if the world around them is at fault or that one’s causing a commotion over nothing. Individuals who are uncompromising in regards to their addiction do not recognise the gravity of their problem. What matters to them is attaining the drug, despite the consequences. Neither health nor Legal implications are taken into considerations.

The International Treatment Effectiveness Project (ITEP) is branch of the National Treatment Agency’s Treatment Effectiveness strategy, which acknowledges matters for improving the excellence of treatment interventions. ITEP employs intervention to support care development which is referred to as “mapping” in the structure of a changing pattern guide. ‘Mapping is a visual communication tool for clarifying shared information between client and key worker. It helps clients to look at the causes and effects of their thinking and also assists in problem solving’. (NTA, 2007).

“Alcohol & Drug Services has valued its involvement with ITEP. The project has delivered immediate and tangible, benefits for clients though mapping interventions that are clear, straightforward and meaningful.” Hogan. T. 2007. (Alcohol and Drug services)

This is used by qualified key workers along with their services users; this is in the format of maps which consist of five different stages and it shows the phase by which a client go through in order to get to the point where they then acknowledge that they may have a serious drug problem. Besides the mapping, the treatment manual included a concise intervention designed to change clients thinking patterns. This helps them to explore self and recognise the stage in which they are at, it highlights their strengths, things that matters to them most in life for example decision making, social relationships, careers and there morals and beliefs and how best they can improve their life It was envisage that services instigating this treatment manual would see a improved and encouraging change in service users self assessments of their treatment understanding over a period of time, in comparison to that of clients in services who had somewhat or no mapping. Research shows that the alcohol and drug services has valued the involvement with ITEP, it claimed that the project has provided direct and substantial assistance to that of the service users.

Another programme that works alongside National Treatment Agency is that of the Drug interventions programme. This plays an important role in dealing with drugs and the decline of crime. Instigated in the year 2003, it was aimed at adult substance misuse criminals who specifically use Class A drugs, like for example heroin and cocaine and this is was aimed at helping them to get out of crime and to get on treatment and other support that is available to them. (DIP, 2003). It is stated in the Drug Intervention Operational Hand Book that above ?900m overall has shown interest in DIP since the programme has been established and readily available is constant financial support to guarantee that Drug Intervention Programme progression grows to be the reputable way of working with drug misusing offenders across England and Wales. (DIP, 2003). Majority of these offenders who makes use of the Drug Intervention Programmes are amongst the most difficult to reach and most challenging drug misusers, and are offenders who have not formerly had access to treatment in any significant way before. The advantage of DIP is that it concentrates on the requirements of the offenders by sighting innovative ways of inter-professional working, whilst linking pre-existing ones, across the criminal justice system, healthcare and drugs treatment services along with a variety of other assistance and rehabilitative services. It is stated that the Drug Intervention Programme and the Prolific other Priority Programme (PPO)are similar in their joint intention to diminish drug associated wrong doing by switching Prolific and other Priority Programmes into treatment, rehabilitation and other support services. The Improving Tier 4 provision quality service is a fundamental part of the National Treatment Agency’s (NTA) Treatment Effectiveness strategy. This associates the responsibility that the entire stakeholder sectors can participate in cooperation with finding solutions and improvements. The provision and quality programme consists of two different but related categories of service provision as defined by Models of Care: they are inpatient treatment (IP) and residential rehabilitation (RR). Aftercare (AC) is a closely related category of service provision. (NTA, 2008) The credentials investigate the types of provision that are being referred to at any time appointed by the IP, RR and AC. The NTA Improving quality “Tier 4” is referred to when the instruction may exercise all interventions treatments. It suggests that all indications to Tier 4 provisions ought to have incorporated care approach amidst Tier 3 or Tier 2 provision and with aftercare. (NTA, 2008). The Tier 4 service provision offers supportive responses to drug misuser’s whose consume has been ongoing, intake is quiet a substantial amount, individuals with complicated needs, and this can allow the drug users to move forward in the direction of long-term self-restraint when and where convenient. Institutionalise services can also admit and support disordered clients. However some Tier 4 service arrangement may perhaps also have a significant function to participate in whilst entertaining individuals aside from continual substance misusing livelihood by intervening early. In accordance with this, the NTA has already produced guidance on commissioning Tier 4 service provision, specifically the Models of Residential Rehabilitation for Drug and Alcohol Misuser’s (NTA, 2006d) and Commissioning Tier 4 Drug Treatment. (NTA, 2006b).

Inpatient treatment and residential rehabilitation are evidence-based interventions and have been shown to be effective in improving client outcomes across the range of domains. The NTA’s forthcoming review of the evidence base for drug treatment outlines the effectiveness of residential rehabilitation and detoxification. NTORS (2000) demonstrates the effectiveness of residential rehabilitation treatment in achieving positive outcomes in reducing both drug use and crime for clients, many of whom had more severe problems than those in community services.

Specialist in-patient interventions have traditionally been focused at and work well with clients who have complex drug, alcohol and other health needs, those in crisis, those requiring medication stabilisation e.g. on injectable or high dose opioids, or for effective detoxification. Recent evidence also indicates that they may be effective in providing detoxification for younger drug misusers who wish to be drug free. Evidence also indicates that inpatient detoxification is cost effective in achieving drug-free status. Drug-specific aftercare is normally required to maintain abstinence, together with appropriate housing and other support.

In-patient detoxification followed by residential rehabilitation is the most effective way for drug users to become drug free, if they are motivated to be drug free and this is the agreed objective3.

Commissioners should develop local drug treatment system plans annually in line with Models of Care, which outlines the now well established four-tiered model of drug and alcohol treatment interventions for adults. Commissioners should also commission in line with the Treatment Effectiveness Strategy, particularly the emphasis on whole treatment journeys and commission full pathways of care, including aftercare and other support to enable clients to maintain positive outcomes achieved in treatment.

One of the key principles which underpins the commissioning of the four-tiers is that drug and alcohol treatment services should be planned strategically. This means that the impact of the commissioning of any one intervention could be viewed in the strategic context of the drug and alcohol treatment system for a locality or region.

These key principles are a major feature of the treatment planning process5 led by the NTA, which forms the basis of effective strategic planning and commissioning. This is expected to be an integral part of local treatment planning and should be used by partnerships and commissioners to address local population needs in line with the national priorities and on the basis of evidence of what works.

Aim

To investigate the drug and alcohol interventions in health and social care benefits on service users?

Research Question

How do drug and alcohol interventions in health and social care benefit service users?

Methodology
Qualitative data

Qualitative data refers to expression or images, method used for interpretation. Qualitative data does not survive ‘out there’ waiting to be exposed, but are shaped by the way they are interpreted and used by the researcher. The character of qualitative data is seen to be wholesome and intact by the act of research itself. Qualitative approach investigates the importance of in depth understanding for a research topic as experienced by the participants of the research. The qualitative approach has been used to study extremely complex experience which can be understood without being expressed in words (Bradbury & Lichtenstein, 2000), others have suggested studies that justify answers like ” what” or “how” type questions would be careful in using qualitative approach (Lee et al.,1999). Qualitative research usually does not seek to calculate or evaluate objects under examination using numbers, as this is an approach which deals within the quantitative domain. The profundity of qualitative data develops on or after the conversation between the researcher and the participant; the insights achieved throughout this course of action can only be achieved given the interaction between the two.

Research Strategy:

The research strategy chosen is the plan of answering the research questions (Saunders et al, 2000). It is a choice on the methodology to be used and how it is to be used (Silverman, 2005). The research strategy seeks to classify the alternative strategies of inquiry according to quantitative, qualitative and mixed method approaches (Creswell, 1998). From this research strategy a phenomenology approach is used. A phenomenology sample comes from the word philosophy and it provides a framework for a method of research. ‘It is based within the Humanistic research theory and follows a qualitative approach’ Denscombe, 2003. The aim of phenomenological sampling is to investigate fully and describe ones lived experience. ‘It stresses that only those that have experienced phenomena can communicate them to the outside world’ . (Todres et al, 2004).

The phenomenological research strategy as a result answers questions of significance in accepting an experience from those who have experienced it. The phenomenological term ‘lived experience’ is identical with this research approach. ‘Phenomenology consequently aims to develop insights from the perspectives of those involved by them detailing their lived experience of a particular time in their lives’ (Clark, 2000).this sampling is about searching for meanings and essences of the experience. It gathers descriptions of experiences all the way through hearing the first-person accounts during informal one-to one interviews. These are then transcribed and analyzed for themes and meanings (Moustakas, 1994) allowing the experience to be understood. Husserl’s phenomenological enquiry originally came from the certainty that untried methodical study may perhaps not be the best to use to revise human phenomena and had become so detached from the fabric of the human experience, that it was in fact hindering our understanding of ourselves (Crotty, 1996). He then felt driven to start up a thorough discipline that found truth in the lived experience (LoBiondo-Wood and Haber, 2002).

Quantitative v Qualitative:

Quantitative data lend themselves to various forms of statistical techniques based on the principles of mathematics and probability. In contrast, qualitative research is suited to investigating and seeking a deeper understanding of a social setting or an activity as viewed from the perspective of participants (Bloomberg and Volpe, 2008).

Qualitative research is concerned with the nature, explanation and understanding of phenomena. Unlike quantitative data, qualitative data are not measured in terms of frequency or quantity but rather are examined for in-depth meanings and processes (Labuschagne, 2003). Silverman (2006:42) warns that quantitative research can amount to a “quick fix” approach involving little or no contact with people or field and has been deemed inappropriate for understanding complex social phenomena.

Approach:

Typical methods used in qualitative research are structured interviews, surveys, structured observations and potentially a focus group. This is where the researcher places his or herself in the midst of the participant for a while, learns from that persons only when in the presence. Silverman (2006) recommends a qualitative philosophy to be appropriate when the researcher seeks to investigate an incompletely documented phenomena and aiming to provide a better means understanding of social phenomenon where processes are involved. Even without wanting to shift entirely away from a purely quantitative view of health, many people now appreciate that a basic understanding of qualitative research can have a positive effect on our thinking and practice. It offers new ways of understanding the complexity of health care, new tools for collecting and analysing data, and new vocabulary to make arguments about the quality of the care we offer. As a consequence of our enhanced learning, we come to realize that qualitative research is neither a sham science nor a poor substitute for experimentation.

Interviews:

Interviews will be my method by which to gather data for this research. They are generally used in assembling data in qualitative research. ‘They are typically used as a research strategy to gather information about participants’ experiences, views and beliefs concerning a specific research question or phenomenon of interest’ (Lambert and Loiselle, 2007). Important types of interviews are identified by Babbie (2007) they are known as standardized interview, the semi-standardized interview and the unstandardised interview. The distinctions regarding each type are predominantly concerned as to how the interview is structured.

Interview process:

Individuals will be chosen from a population 200 service users who attend on a weekly basis the local drug drop in centre for counselling, rehab or to be signed posted to other agencies who might be of help. Such individuals might be undergoing drug or alcohol interventions treatment to help them steer away from their addiction. Sample target will be aimed towards adults who may be institutionalised or living at home, but are faced with the challenges of been an addict and are trying to seek help. The size of participants will be 10 and have residency within the Northamptonshire area. Interviews notifications were sent in advance, as to prepare participant. A consent form prior to interviewers visit was sent (see Appendix A), and participants were provided with an outline of the types of questions (see Appendix B) that might be asked at the interview. This was to enable that they had adequate time to prepare and reflect what it is they would like to share and also to ensure interviewer collected the right information from interview. In a qualitative interview it is important that the questions capture the interviewee’s perceptions and not those of the researcher (Perry, 1998). This is mostly to verify that the responses given were not probed by the interviewer.

The interview was carried out the local drug and alcohol drop in center in a room away from other clients. This was to enable full concentration and for them to be more open, as they might feel embarrassed about the issue at hand. The researcher asked questions at the interview scheduled which can be found in (Appendix B).During the interview a soft approach was taken to give the participant a chance to settle down and relax. For such reason an easy question was asked to start off with, something which the interviewee might have had time to formulate views on already. The interviews took twenty five minutes per participant and notes were recorded during the interview. A convenience sample best represents the direction of this research as it generally assumes a consistent population, and that one person is pretty much like another.

Data Analysis

The presumption, by which qualitative data produce, ought to be honest. It is essential that there are evidence and reasonable argument to prove. The procedure carried out must be trustworthy and able to convince one that that the results obtained was not false. This is because the information that was gathered from the interviews ought to have value in order for inter-professional bodies to make use of it.

“Qualitative research must meet our expectations for rigorously conducted research and reliable information, but must be true to its underlying philosophies and methodologies”. (2009). International Journal of Therapy and Rehabilitation.

The data will going to analysed key themes from the ten respondents, and it is hope that this will help answer the research question. Thus the data gathered from the interviews shows concrete evidence in relation to that of the information shown in the literature review. Though not a sufficient amount of data from the literature review to speak on behalf of the service users as to how they felt whilst going through the different treatments, the interviews really helped in shedding some light as to what they thought. When asked the question how they recognised they needed help, some raised the issue that they recognise that their family lives were a mess, were not able to hold down employment and other issues. Responses received from the interviews where somewhat shocking, as some found they were still struggling to be rid of their addiction whilst others were trying to get back to norm within society. The individuals who shared that they were still finding it a bit difficult was due to the fact that the environment which they still remained in, did not help them to refrain but rather tempted them more, for some this was the challenges they faced. Others recognised that the intervention treatment centres out there were readily available to help them which one can say is a good sign for them.

Ethical Consideration

Qualitative research confronts ethical issues and dispute exclusively to the study of human beings. Standard knowledge in areas such as physics, chemistry and biology permits the researcher to presume a point of view separate from the purpose of study occurrence in questioning.

Confidentiality is an important ethical concern for most when considering a rehab program or other drug interventions treatment. Each individual in recuperation may have experiences they may not feel comfortable sharing with everyone. It is therefore important for not just doctors, but for other inter-professional members to respect the confidentiality of each person that they are treating. Giving permission for the individual to come to terms with their experience which is part of the rehab procedure, and it is not somewhat to be hastened or taken for granted. Permitting the individual who might be feeling emotional the opportunity to heal their wounds from the drug and alcohol abuse is vital for recovery. This is why it is imperative that a client enquire what the confidentiality policies are before registering unto a treatment program. Likewise one can pose a risk of harm to that of the client and this is not by being aware of the restraint imposed by the institutions order. The professional team has to ensure that their influence over the clients is not predominant and they have sufficient knowledge in regards to the plan of their treatment. Though the individual might not have the capacity to make choices, conduct them self in terms of their personal values and beliefs, however if all has failed that guardian has to attempt to reach a decision as best as the individual would do if they were able.

“The ethical principle of beneficence, the desired to do what is considered best for the clients and promoting their growth and wellbeing, is essential to the practise of rehabilitation counselling”, ( Howie et al, 1992).

Conclusion

The confrontation of providing best care for every service user at the towards the end of their treatment are considerable. Success is vital, and works best when all services and practioners understand each other’s roles and find means of working together. It is anticipated that the information received from the research will be used to improve inter- professional working and improve services. In-patient and residential rehabilitation drug and alcohol services should be commissioned as part of Integrated Care Pathways..These Integrated Care Pathways should be commissioned with clear routes into inpatient services, which seamlessly lead to residential rehabilitation (if required) followed by a community-based substance misuse support package,.

Housing, education and employment support is important for individuals who have completed treatment and returned to the community if they are to sustain the gains made from Tier 4 treatment. Commissioners of drug treatment systems, should have in place the appropriate local links to work in close liaison with other local commissioners in the development of health, social care and housing strategies to ensure those leaving in-patient and residential rehabilitation services have access to the wide range of services necessary to provide comprehensive and effective packages of care. A key issue is the availability of housing support services and move-on accommodation for drug and alcohol users leaving in-patient and residential rehabilitation services. The data gathered showed that

Appendix A

August 2010

To whom this may Concern,

My name is — a researcher from the University of Northampton. I got hold of your information from the organisation which you attend daily drop in sessions, so therefore I decided to contact you. My research requested access from you in order to conduct it, as I understand that you fit my criteria for my area of study.

As part of my research, I am undertaking an examination to see whether the interventions provided by the healthcare and social care services are of great benefit to you, and does it help you steer away from your addiction. The objective of my study is to best understand what it is like for you to deal with the addiction once it has gone so far.

In order to undertake this research, I would be really grateful if you could give consent for me to carry out my research in the form of short interviews which will last up to 45 minutes with just myself been the researcher in your own domain. Notes will be taken at the interview and everything said will remain confidential between us.

I look forward to your reply and for us to discuss the matter at hand further.

Yours sincerely

(NAME)

Appendix B
Interview schedule

How did you recognise you needed help to stop taking drugs or drinking alcohol excessively?

What support did you get from the inter-professional workers?

Explain the challenges you faced in your decision to stop taking the drugs or alcohol?

What benefits do you think you’ve gained from the interventions been introduced to you?

What has been your experience from using the interventions services?

Do you think there are enough services around to help you, if and when you do decide to refrain drugs or alcohol?

This dissertation is based around the role of corporate parenting in looked after children. It will discuss and explore the role of corporate parenting in general with the exposed group: looked after children as this is relevant to practice experience as it is based upon 80 days work placement.

The concept of Corporate Parenting was first introduced in September 1998 by the Secretary of State for Health Frank Dobson, as one part of the government’s Quality Protects program to make over children’s services. It emphasized the key role that chosen members would play.

The Government’s Quality Protects Initiative (1998) requires local authorities to identify children with additional family burdens and to provide services that are geared to ensure these children’s education and general development do not suffer.” (www.doh.gov.uk/qualityprotects)aˆ?

When a child becomes ‘looked after’, the responsibilities of their parent become the liability. And it is required to serve everyone working for the council as elected members of the council.

This is known as ‘corporate parenting’ and it is the collective responsibility of the council to provide the best possible care and protection for children who are ‘looked after’. As a corporate parent, we should act in the way we would if the child were our own. (http://www.southglos.gov.uk/NR/exeres/b10f32d0-3db1-4b38-980d-147f4ad1f6d4)

1.2 Who are Corporate Parents?

Corporate parenting contains any person who has responsibility for the care and security of children. The concept of corporate parenting relates to the collective duties and responsibilities of the Local Authority for looked after children’ safeguard and to promote the life.

Corporate Parenting’ is a collective responsibility of the Council, with Councillors having a distinct role to play in ensuring that the outcomes and life chances of looked after children are maximized ( The Role of Councillors as Corporate Parents May 2005 Scrutiny Review Group).

The essential principle of Corporate Parenting is that all councillors and staff employed by the Council should parent the Looked After children and young people in their concern as they would their own children.

All selected members of the Council have a duty to act as a Corporate Parent to children in the care of that Council. The function of the Corporate Parent (Councillors) is to make sure that the services provided by the Council as an entire contribute to achieving constructive outcomes for kids in care.

Specifically, they must guarantee that children in their care are:

healthy

safe

enjoy and accomplish in life

make a positive input to society

achieve economic security

In order to implement this responsibility, Councillors must be:

Should be well informed about the children for whom they are responsible

Need to think about how they are affected by council decisions

Must listen to what children and young people say

Must be a supporter for children and young people.

1.3 Who are looked after children?

The phrase “Looked After” was commenced by the Children Act 1989 and refers to children and young people:

under the age of 18

who live away from their family or parents

are supervised by a social worker from the local council children’s services department.

The term ‘Looked after children’ applies to those children who are looked after by a local authority when either:

They are accommodated by the LA at the request of a person with parental responsibility, or because they are lost or abandoned, or because there is no person with responsibility for them (S. 20 Children Act 1989)

They are placed in the care of the LA by a court (part IV Children Act 1989) Interim Care Order or Full Care Order

In very rare cases children and young people may also become ‘looked after’ via Ward ship proceedings (High Court’s exercise of its inherent jurisdiction independent of stature (Children Act 1989)

Thais topic will initiate with the below questions and answers with brief explanation and references to be sorted out the focus upon right direction.

They are subject to emergency orders to secure their immediate protection, (Part V Children Act 1989) Emergency Protection Orders or Police Orders or are remanded by a court to the care of the LA (S. 23 Children & Young Persons Act 1969)

In very rare cases children and young people may also become ‘looked after’ via Wardship proceedings (High Court’s exercise of its inherent jurisdiction independent of stature (Children Act 1989)

For most children, care is proposed to be time-limited with the mean that the child will return home as soon as possible. (The Children Act 1989) aims to get a balance between the need to protect children from destruction and the need to protect children and families from unnecessary intervention.

It encourages arrangements for services to children to be agreed between the parents and the service providers whenever possible. The Act embodies the belief that children are best looked after within the family unit without legal intervention unless this is inconsistent with their welfare and safety.

1.4 Why is corporate parenting necessary?

Children may be looked after for many different reasons, including protection from harm and abuse. Children have had a long history of being looked after away from home, in such places as institutions, orphanages, foster homes, approved schools and borstals (Department of Health 1998a).

Parents who are unable to look after their child may ask a local authority to do so. Children can become “looked after” for a numerous reasons; some children may have been abused or suffered distressing experiences, some may be in care due to family illness or the death of a parent. Others may have complex needs or disabilities and be unable to be cared at home. Often children who become “looked after” for a short time period due to family problem like some children do not have a parent or relative to look after them, possibly because of death or serious illness or because they have been separated.

Young people aged over 16 years may choose to be looked after for a variety of reasons, including abuse, domestic violence or stress at home. Local authorities must provide accommodation for children who are lost, abandoned, or whose parents are unable to care for them. Authorities shall provide accommodation for any child in need in their area who appears to them to require it as a result of there being no person with parental responsibility for him, or because he is lost and abandoned, or because the person who has been caring for him is prevented from providing suitable accommodation or car (Section 20 (1) CA 1989)

Section 20(3) of the Act gives local authorities a duty to provide accommodation for a child age 16 and 17 years if the authority considers that his welfare will be seriously prejudiced without such a service

A local authority may provide accommodation for any young person who has reached the age of sixteen but is under twenty-one if they consider that to do so may safeguard and promote his welfare, even if their parent objects. (Section 20 (5)-(11) CA 1989)

The Government’s aim is for every child, whatever their background or their circumstances, to give the support they need to:

Improving outcomes also involves narrowing the gap between disadvantaged children and their peers. The Government is focusing particularly on improving outcomes for looked-after children

Ed Balls says in his letter to looked-after children: 2009

“We want to make sure you have the same chances as other children to fulfill your dreams and to be happy.”

When there is breakdown and a child has to be removed from its family, the local authority is then expected to act as the corporate parent and to provide substitute care.

The job is delegated to a local authority department, and its paid professional agents social workers, foster carers or residential staff act on behalf of the wider community.

And when they leave care, they are on their own, having to find their way in the world. It is no wonder that a high proportion of care leavers end up in prison, or with mental health problems, or with unplanned pregnancies, or in abusive relationships.

Chapter 02:
METHODOLOGY

The study aimed to discover from children their views on being looked after and the degree of power they felt they had to manipulate decisions made about them. Total fifteen looked after children were interviewed. Social workers were asked to identify children who met the criteria of between ten to seventeen and having been in care for at least two years. The children were given a questionnaire from the researcher to explain the purpose of the study and asked if they were ready to be interviewed.

The method was selected, however, because confidentiality prohibited the researcher being given names and addresses without the children’s permission. It is not clear how many children were carry forwarded and rejected. Of those who initially said they would participate, later on dropped while arranging their interviews, leaving a total sample of fifteen. This comprised:

Gender: Girls: 7 Boys: 8

Age:

10 years

1

14 years

4

15 years

4

16 years

3

17 years

3

Length of time in care (based on children’s report):

2 years

3

3 years

3

4 years

3

5 years

3

7 years

1

13 years

2

Type of care: only two were in residential care, the remainder in advance care.

Children were given a common view of the research aim. But the interviews were decided to be conducted in unstructured way. They were informed that the examiner wanted to hear their vision on how much they are told about what is happening to them, whether they feel their standpoint is listened to, and whether they are supposed to feel as they are involved in decisions made about their lives.

Research involving children creates particular moral dilemmas in that they are typically less powerful than the adult researcher (Thomas and O’Kane,1998). The unstructured interview was chosen in that it gave them maximum control over the research process and ensured that each child talked only of those topics that mattered to them and could avoid personal issues they did not want to discuss with a stranger.

2.1 Findings:

Because of the promise of confidentiality, care has been taken in reporting the findings to ensure that no individual can be identified.

The importance of the social worker

All mentioned the importance of the social worker in their lives. The social worker was seen as very powerful and, when the relationship worked well, as a very strong ally. One described the qualities needed in a social worker as:

Someone who can talk to children, get to know them, take them out, and phone regularly so they keep in touch with what is happening.

Most could remember at least one social worker with whom they had got on particularly well and who had made them feel well cared for and supported.

‘She would sort out anything that was bothering me’.

The biggest complaint about social workers (from eight children) was the high turnover and the subsequent interruption for them.

Social workers were also criticised for their reliability in everyday matters such as keeping appointments on time or holding reviews on time. Children interpreted this carelessness as a sign of their low priority in the social worker’s life.

However, Butler and Williamson’s research bears out both the approving and critical opinions. They report that many children are seeking a ‘more emotional, empathic level of interaction’ but that the experience for many is, in contrast, an ‘almost technical, allegedly ‘robotic’ nature of professional interventions in children’s lives'(1994, p.84).

Confidentiality

It is essential to share information for good planning and care but, from the child’s point of view, this can seem very intrusive. Again, the problem reflects the normal processes of growing up. Teenagers develop autonomy and increasing privacy as part of maturation but, for a child in care, it is difficult to achieve that same sense of privacy. Several of the older teenagers complained of the lack of confidentiality and, hence, a reluctance to share their thoughts and feelings because it would all get written down in their file and read by strangers.

Butler and Williamson’s research also highlighted the importance and perceived lack of confidentiality to children: ‘there is a pervasive feeling amongst children and young people that even a commitment to confidentiality is, too often, a ‘false promise’ and that information divulged will then be ‘spread around’ without the consent of the individual concerned’ (1994, p.78).

2.2 Anti-discriminatory practice:

Only one young person spoke his experience of racism. He was a seventeen year old black man who complained that he was continually stopped and questioned by the police and that white women looked fearful and crossed the road to avoid him. Since he had no record of crime or violence, he felt this was completely unfair and due to racism.

2.3 Debate

This is only a small sample so the responses cannot be taken as representative of the views of looked after children in general. However, it is possible to examine the issues they raised and discuss the challenges they pose to professionals endeavoring to listen to their voices whether or not they are typical.

Chapter 03:
Literature Review

There are approximately 61,000 children and young people in care in UK, with boys comprising 55% of that population. These statistics are almost a quarter higher than those of a decade ago. Of this group, more than two out of three children live in foster care, and just over one in ten in residential care (children’s homes). An estimated 1% of care leavers progress to University, compared with 37% of young people in the population as a whole (Jackson et al 2003).

The outcome nationally is poor for looked after children and there is an over-representation of previously looked after children amongst those who are homeless, unemployed or in prison. In 2002, 6% of all school leavers were unemployed. Of this figure, 25% were young people in the care of were unemployed. Of this figure, 25% were young people in the care of Local Authorities. There is a high proportion of these children who suffer from poor mental health or become teenage parents with looked after children being 5 times more likely to develop mental illness than their peers. If the child also has a disability or comes from a black or minority ethnic background they face a double jeopardy and are at greater disadvantage. There remain a disproportionate number of disabled children accommodated by local authorities. Only one per cent of Looked After Children go to University.

3.1 THE ROLE OF CORPORATE PARENTING

The role of corporate parent is defined in ‘Think Child’ (1999) as the following:

Finding out getting the facts and follow them up, Make decisions by playing your part in the business of the council, Listening to children and young people also finding out from them how council’s services work for them and remembering that children are citizens too. To be a champion for children by taking a lead in the community in putting children first. This strategy embeds the following core values that all Children in Care should benefit from:

A positive sense of identity and self-worth.

Belonging to a family ‘in the widest sense’ and also a community.

Good health.

A safe, healthy, child-friendly environment, including appropriate housing, play and leisure facilities.

Freedom from bullying.

A right to privacy.

Equal access to services.

Respect

Children in care have a unique relationship with the state. The local authority fulfils some, or all, of the traditional parenting role – this can happen on many levels, from decisions about their day to day care through to decisions about where a child will live and which school they will attend. This responsibility has become known as ‘corporate parenting’ in recognition that the task must be shared by the local authority as a whole, from lead members to frontline practitioners. Strong corporate parenting arrangements are central to improving services for children and young people in care.

Improving the role of the corporate parent, as part of children’s trusts, is key to improving the outcomes for children in care. It is with the corporate parent that responsibility and accountability for the wellbeing and future prospects of children in care ultimately rest. A good corporate parent must offer everything that a good parent would, including stability. It must address both the difficulties which children in care experience and the challenges of parenting within a complex system of different services. Equally, it is important that children have a chance to shape and influence the parenting they receive.

3.2 WHERE ARE THE PROBLEMS?

The circumstances and experiences of looked-after children and young people have shown that they can experience many disadvantages. Research indicates that looked-after children experience poorer outcomes than other children across a range of measures, including health and education.

To achieve these outcomes, councils must demonstrate their commitment to helping every child they look after – wherever the child is placed to achieve their potential.

The complicated role of parenting happens on many levels – from basic decisions about their day to day care and the quality of the emotional support they receive, through to big decisions about where a child will live and what school they attend as well as imparting values which help to shape their future aspirations and ambitions.

For most children, these different levels are fulfilled by the same people but it is more complex for children in care. And children and young people in care themselves have told us repeatedly that they want and need stability and continuity of care so that those who look after them do not change so frequently. The challenge, therefore, is to ensure that the quality of care which children experience meets their need for a secure attachment and promotes their resilience and that this is achieved as far as possible without the need for a series of placements before finding the right one.

For the first time, the Department for Children, Schools and Families presented data on the emotional and behavioral health of looked-after children and young people, finding that about 60% of those looked after in England were reported to have emotional and mental health problems. It also reported that a high proportion of looked-after children and young people experience poor health, educational and social outcomes after leaving care (Department for Children, Schools and Families 2009c).

A government strategy for children and young peopleaˆYs health noted that a third of all children and young people in contact with the criminal justice system have been looked after (Department for Children, Schools and Families and DH 2009).

3.3 EVERY CHILD MATTERS

Green Paper, 2003, led to the Children Bill, which was presented to Parliament in March 2004 and is now enacted as the Children Act 2004. The Act sets out a long term programme for change for children’s services across the country. It places a duty on all Local Authorities to produce a plan which addresses disadvantage, raises achievement and safe guards children and young people in their area.

This legislation is the legal underpinning for Every Child Matters, which sets out the Government’s approach to the well-being of children and young people from birth to age 19.

The aim of the Every Child Matters program is to give all children the support they need to:

be healthy

stay safe

enjoy and achieve

make a positive contribution

achieve economic well-being.

The Every Child Matters agenda has been further developed through publication of the Children’s Plan in December 2007. The Children’s Plan is a ten-year strategy to make England the best place in the world for children and young people to grow up. It places families at the heart of Government policy, taking into account the fact that young people spend only one-fifth of their childhood at school. Because young people learn best when their families support and encourage them, and when they are taking part in positive activities outside of the school day, the Children’s Plan is based around a series of ambitions which cover all areas of children’s lives.

The Plan aims to improve educational outcomes for children, improve children’s health, reduce offending rates among young people and eradicate child poverty by 2020, thereby contributing to the achievement of the five Every Child Matters outcomes. http://www.dcsf.gov.uk/everychildmatters/about/

This strategy reflects many of the initiatives recommended in the Children Bill and subsequent Act and demonstrates the commitment of the Council to discharge its duties and improve children’s services. The development of Children’s Trust arrangements will bring together representatives from key agencies and Primary Care Trusts. Whilst the Council’s responsibilities towards looked after children are discharged primarily through the and Young Person’s Department, the Council recognises the significant contribution to the well being of looked after children and their carers to be made by other Council departments and therefore requires, as part of this strategy, the effective and executive engagement of all service departments in meeting the needs of this group of vulnerable children and young people.

3.4 WHAT IS THE GOVERNMENT DOING ABOUT THIS PROBLEM?

In 2003, the Government published a Green Paper called Every Child Matters alongside the formal response to the report into the death of Victoria Climbie. After a thorough consultation process, the Children Act 2004 became law. This legislation is the legal underpinning for Every Child Matters, which sets out the Government’s approach to the well-being of children and young people from birth to age 19.

The aim of the Every Child Matters programme is to give all children the support they need Looked-after children have a right to expect the outcomes we want for every child.

These are that they:Enjoy the best health and live a healthy lifestyle .Are kept safe from harm and neglect and feel secure at all times .Are given the chance to learn and achieve, and enjoy leisure time .Are given the opportunity to make the most out of life and take a full part in the community .Grow up in a strong and secure family situation and achieve rewarding adult lives .( The Charter for Children and Young People )

( Every Child Matters Agenda)

To practice without a theory is to sail an uncharted sea; theory without practice is not to set sail at all Susser 1968 cited in Lishman, 2005 pg 87. Therefore, this essay uses the task centred approach and the solution focused therapy to explain what is happening in the Banks family and how it affects Mark. It will predict Mark’s future behaviour and it will suggest a plan of actions for intervention in order to make a difference in Mark’s life. The problems identified in the banks family are; Mark’s bullying behaviours, both at school and at home, his failure to form relationships with his counterparts, and lack of progress in his education. The essay will discuss the similarities and differences in the identified theories. It will also investigate the advantages and disadvantages of each of the theories. At the same time, the essay will explain how the concept of the anti discriminatory practice can be employed to underpin the interventions whilst using the identified theories.

Theoretically, Social work is influenced by the relationship between theory and practice from different perspectives in meeting the client’s unique needs in a desired situation and at a particular period of time (Coulshed, 1988). Again, applying theory to practice involves different schools of thought whereas practitioner-client relationship maybe a difficult subject (Taylor and Devine, 1993). However the mandate here is to explain two major theories or approaches but highlights on a third is necessary. Firstly, ‘Solution focused approach’ developed by Erickson’s (1963) and De Shazer (1972) at the therapy centre in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The theory is regarded as a positive solution building approach focusing on the client. Clearly the aim is to explore the principles of anti-oppressive practice and involving the client in finding a solution to their problems. This approach does not focus on the past but what is happening in the present and future. It is focusing on two important issues, supporting clients to preferably explore their own future and taking into consideration when, where, with whom and how is it all happening to reach the desired outcomes in a shortest route. The features of solution based approach is to keep the client at the centre of their activity and encouraging them to bring about problems that need attention, furthermore, move from the problems to make slight changes in their behaviour and make some improvements. Nevertheless, it is assumed that clients feel part of their problems. The key concept of this approach is that focus is based upon the here and know with positive thinking and avoiding pre-judgmental. Above all solution based approach has no time limit as it tries to move from the centre to where clients can feel happier by reducing the problems step by step.

In another of school of thought, task-centred approach has been considered as a structured way of working with clients in a time limit framework. The most important part of the task-centred approach is partnership and empowerment; this involves two or more people working with a common purpose. Moreover, this theory builds on client’s strength and avoids talking about their faults by providing the necessary help they need. According to coulshed (1988), those trying to bring about models for ethnic-sensitive practice favour task-centred approach that promotes anti-oppressive practice (Doel and marsh, 1992). Task centred is unique in that it breaks down the problems into small manageable components, it involves the social worker and the service user identifying the main problem(s) and then working out how to reformulate them in to easily manageable tasks. After the tasks have been agreed the next step is to divided them between the social work and the service user and then decide who is going to work on which task and over what period of time. Using this approach the social worker and service user look very closely at the presenting problem(s) and reformulating them into a range of small practical tasks. The task centred approach fits together well with anti discriminatory practice because it encourages the social worker to do what they do best by bring their expertise into the relationship and work alongside the service user. Okitikpi et al, (2010) argues that the core aspects of the task centered approach that include working with partnership, collaboration, service users strengths, building on confidence, systematic and responsive communication are the same core elements that characterise ADP.

Task-centred approach is seen to be effective with interpersonal concerns like those of mark. (Ramos and Tolson 2008 cited in Hepworth 2010 pg 379) Says that this theory is, “incompatible with mandated clients who refuse help or are unable to identify changes that they wish to change”.

By direct contrast, the third approach, ‘Attachment theory’ by Bowlby (1973) which grew out of rejection of some aspects of psychoanalysis and childhood raring with no separation could have been used but it is not relevant in this case study.

Examining the influence of the ‘task-centre approach’ and the solution-focused therapy’, there are similarities and differences which have to be highlighted. Firstly, the case scenario of the Banks family clearly indicates that there need to be an intervention process by using the task-centred approach or solution-focused approach. Ride and Epstein (1972) hypothesised on the task-centred approach as effective and more durable. Time-limit on the approach shows that changes could occur rapidly as all participants are motivated (Maslow, 1943). This involves eight areas of concern among which Behavioural problems, reactive emotional distress and difficulty in role performance are selected target problem areas. However, there are steps to be taken in task-centred approach: The first step is problem exploration, Agreement; second step is, formulating an objective, achieving the task(s), and finally terminations stage. To start with there were behavioural problems identified in the case of Mark, like yelling, fighting and disruptive. But as required the focus here is to move from what is wrong to what is needed to be done. Similar to the task centred approach is the solution focused approach; it is action oriented and uses a number of strategic questions to find out the solution to a series of problems that the client has. (Trepper et al 2006) cited in Hepworth (2010. Pg. 356). When using TCA with minors like Mark, the tasks involved in this are that there is need to work with the parents and teachers in a collaborative and anti-oppressive way to solve the problems, discuss basic care needs interest in how to help Mark to do his work in class, and work on his tantrums and arguments, discuss with parents how to get Mark to interact with other children and make arrangements for Mark to visit his father in order to came him down. (Enos 2008) cited in Hepworth (2010. Pg. 357) argues that lack of mandated contact from a family member can cause fear, a sense of failure, concerns about status and use the attitudinal weapons at their disposal may react with anger and a minimum refuse to cooperate.

Mark’s parents need to reduce his inappropriate behaviour by developing skills to improve parent-child relationships for instance, listening and negotiating skills, teach Mark skills of approaching others, how to introduce himself, interact with others by engaging in conversations.

In evaluating the two approaches in the scenario there are advantages and disadvantages. In the ‘solution-focused therapy’, Mark is the focus and his self esteem is promoted. The problem is the primary concern not the client. SFA offers a positive approach working with the service users. The emphasis of engaging the service user to talk about solutions not just problems is an empowering method. The commitment to service users’ empowerment, a focus on strengths and service users’ capacities towards improving their situations and reaching solutions is a significant contribution. In contrast, there is negative focus and there will be problem as poor communication skills will lead to poor practice by social workers. Some aspects of the SFA have been criticised for being directive in nature in particular the assessing of tasks and the emphasis on solutions. “Research conducted by the family therapist using the approach revealed discrepancies between the client’s experiences and the observations made by their therapists related to the outcomes”, (Metcalf et al 1996) (Cited in Hepworth 2010 pg.406). Storm (1991) and Lipchik (1997) cited in Hepworth 2010 pg. 406) maintain as a result of their work the primary focus on adherence to solution was embarrassing to some clients. The positive trust of the approach prevents the service user from discussing their real problems and to avoid talking about their concerns.

‘In the task-centred approach’, the problem is the main concern not Mark. He is empowered, considering his self esteem and independence. The approach is short termed and time-limited. In contrast, there is lack of motivation in this approach, the underlying problem has not been addressed, there is tendency that social workers might force Mark through coaching as to complete tasks.

Payne (1997) cited in Wilson et al (2008 pg371) suggests task centred approach may not be effective in situations where there are constant difficulties, where long-term psychological problems are the main issues or where users do not accept the right of the social worker or the agency to be involved. Reflecting in this case scenario it is seen that Ken comes from a dysfunctional family which made him spend most of his teenage life in the care of the local authority and this may have affected him psychologically and he may not want to cooperate with the social worker in order to make the approach effective.

Doel and Marsh (1992) suggest the service user’s ability to think and reason is a key ingredient to the success of the approach. “In those cases where social work is appropriate but where the reasoning is impaired such as people with considerable learning difficulties or great degree of confusion, task-centred work is often not possible in direct work with that person”, (Doel and Marsh 1942 cited in Wilson et al 2008 pg 99). However in the case scenario all the family members are in sound mental state so the approach is suitable.

A further disadvantage of task-centred is that where a wide range of problems is experienced, each of which interacts with other problems which threaten to over whelm the family the approach seems rather a weak response. It is argued that unless one is able to deal with problems on many fronts, the combination of these problems will continue to undermine the functioning of family members. For example if one family member has the capacity to reason, but when other members of the family are not prepared to engage in the same process and consistently undermine the efforts of the social worker and service user, the approach may not achieve much. In relation to the case scenario the approach will not be effective if Mark who has multiple problems refuses to cooperate.

In conclusion effective social work practice is based on principles and the application of theories or ‘approaches give to different explanations and lead to different practice’ (Howe, 1987). According to research in to service-users’ views of social work practice has highlighted that effective practice depends on the combination of good interpersonal skills and clear, organised practice. It is argued that when social work activities are clearly focused, problems clearly identified and specified goals set with service users, then studies produce positive results. This essay has looked at two approaches and how they can be used by a social worker to help engage the Banks family in order to get the necessary support to improve Marks behaviour problems.

A 6000 word literature review project which critically analyses and evaluates the effectiveness of family support services aimed at reducing stress and poverty for the parents of children in need.

Introduction

The whole issue of parents and children in need is a vast, complex and ethically challenging one. This review is specifically charged with an examination of those issues which impinge upon the stresses and strains that are experienced by parents of children in need.

A superficial examination of these issues that are involved in this particular area would suggest that there are a number of “sub-texts” which can all give rise to this particular situation. Firstly, to have a child in need is clearly a stressful situation for any parent. (Meltzer H et al. 1999)

This can clearly be purely a financial concern and a reflection of the fact that the whole family is in financial hardship, perhaps due to the economic situation or perhaps due to the actions of the parents themselves. Equally the need of the child can be a result of a non-financial need, so we should also consider the child who is in some way handicapped, ill, emotionally disturbed or perhaps in need in some other way. This produces another type of stress on the parent, and these stresses are typically longer lasting and, in general, less easily rectified than a purely financial consideration of need. (Hall D 1996).

It is part of the basic ethos of the welfare state that it should look after its less able and disadvantaged members. (Welsh Office 1997). Parents of children in need will often qualify in this definition. We shall therefore examine the various aspects of this problem.

Literature Review

We will make a start by considering one type of child in need. The first paper that we will consider is that of Prof. Vostanis (Vostanis 2002), which looks at the mental health problems that are faced by deprived children and their families together with the effectiveness of the resources that are available to them.

It is a well written and well researched paper, if rather complex and confusing in places. We will consider this paper in some detail as it provides an excellent overview of the whole area.

The paper starts with a rather useful definition for our purposes. It qualifies the deprived child, initially in terms of a homeless family, that being :

A family of any number of adults with dependent children who are statutorily accepted by local authorities (housing departments) in the UK, and are usually accommodated for a brief period in voluntary agency, local authority or housing association hostels.

This period of temporary accommodation can vary enormously depending on the time of year and the area considered, and can range from a few days to perhaps several months. The target in Greater London is currently to rehouse homeless families within 4-6 weeks. In London particularly, the homeless families can be placed in Bed & Breakfast accommodation. (D of H 1998)

In this respect, the immediate family support mechanisms do appear to be in place. Vostranis however, goes on to make the observation that despite the fact that the definition of the homeless family is rather broad, it does not cover all of the potential children in need, as those children and their carers who have lost their homes but have managed to live with relatives, on the streets or perhaps live as travellers, are not covered by the statutory obligation to provide housing. The official figures therefore, he observes, are generally an underestimate of the true situation. The official figures for the homeless families are put (in this paper) at 140,000. (Vostanis & Cumella, 1999)

The authors give us further information in that many families will become homeless again within one year of rehousing and the typical family seen is the single mother and at least two children who are generally under the age of 11 yrs. They also observe that the typical father and adolescent child tend to be placed in homeless centres. (D of H 1995)

In exploration of the particular topic that we are considering, the authors give us the situations that typically have given rise to the degree of parental stress that may have led to the homelessness. They point to the fact that a homeless family is usually homeless for different reasons to the single homeless adult. Vostanis (et al 1997) is quoted as showing that 50% of the cases studied were homeless as a direct result of domestic violence and 25% as a result of harassment from neighbours. The authors observe that the numbers in this category (and therefore the problems), are rising. (Welsh Office 1999).

There are a number of section to this paper which are not directly referable to our considerations. We shall therefore direct our attention purely to those parts that have a direct bearing on the subject. One particularly useful and analytical part of the paper is the section that details the characteristics and needs of the target group. This is a very detailed section, but it makes the point that the children in need in this group are particularly heterogeneous, generally all with multiple and inter-related needs. Homelessness is seldom a one off event. This particular observation, (say the authors), is crucially important for the development and provision of services.

Most families have histories of previous chronic adversities that constitute risk factors for both children and parents (Bassuk et al, 1997). Such events include family conflict, violence and breakdown; limited or absent networks for family and social support; recurring moves; poverty; and unemployment. Mothers are more likely to have suffered abuse in their own childhood and adult life and children have increased rates of placement on the at-risk child protection register, because of neglect, physical and/or sexual abuse.

If we specifically consider the health needs of this population, the authors categorise them thus:

The children are more likely to have a history of low birthweight, anaemia, dental decay and delayed immunisations, to be of lower stature and have a greater degree of nutritional stress. They are also more likely to suffer accidents, injuries and burns. (BPA 1999)

Some studies have found that child health problems increase with the duration of homelessness, although this finding is not consistent. A substantial proportion of homeless children have delayed development compared with the general population of children of a similar chronological age. This includes both specific developmental delays, such as in receptive and expressive language and visual, motor and reading skills, as well as general skills and educational status (Webb et al. 2001).

It is for this reason specifically, that it has proved extremely difficult to assess the effectiveness of the family support services because of the multivariate nature of the problems that are presented.

The authors point to the fact that one of the prime determinants of the degree of support available, is the actual access that the families have to these services. Many sources (viz. Wilkinson R 1996), equate the poor health of the disadvantaged primarily with the lack of access to services. One immediate difficulty is the current registration system in the UK. In order to be seen in the primary healthcare team setting, one must be registered with a named doctor. In the majority of cases that we are dealing with here, they have moved area and registration is probably not high on their list of priorities. One can argue that there is the access to the A & E departments of the local hospitals but there is virtually no continuity here and they are no geared up to provide anything other than immediate treatment. (Hall D 1996).

This fact restricts their access to primary healthcare team procedures such as immunisations and other preventative medicine health clinics. (Lissauer et al, 1993) . By the same token these groups also have restricted access to the social services, whether they be the access teams, the family teams or the family support units and other agencies.

The authors also point to other more disruptive trends in this group such as an inability to attend a particular school for fear of being traced by an abusive partner. It follows that these children do not have a stable social support of a school. They are denied such factors as peer groups, routines and challenges which are both important protective and developmental factors. (Shankleman J et al 2000).

The summation of all of these factors, and others, is that the effectiveness of the family support services is greatly reduced by the mobility and the transient nature of the family unit. Quite apart from the difficulties outlined above relating to the problems of access to avenues of help open to the child in need and their families there are the problems engendered by the fact that social service departments in different areas of the country may not have immediate access to the previous records giving rise to many potential, and real, problems with continuity of care. This problem is brought into more immediate focus when one considers the increased frequency of child protection registrations in this particular group. (Hall D et al 1998).

One specific analysis of the family support services of this particular group comes in the form of the psychiatric services. In the context of the title of this piece, it demonstrates how these particular services, (but not these alone), are failing to deal with the totality of the problem.

All of the aspects that we have outlined so far are conspiring to dilute the effectiveness of the services provided. The fact that they are a mobile population with no fixed address means that some of the services may choose to invoke this as a reason for not making provision for them, particularly if resources are stretched. If more resources are given, then they are typically preferentially targeted at the single adult homeless population where the need is arguably greater.

The authors of this paper point to the fact that this may not actually be true as some studies have shown that homeless single mothers and their children have a 49% psychopathy rate and only an 11% contact with the support services. (Cumella et al, 1998). The impact of this fact on the children can only be imagined. To an extent however, it can be quantified as the authors cite other studies which show a 30% need rating for children, (they do not actually define exactly what their perceived level of need was), contrasted with a 3% contact rate for children and adolescents in this area. (viz. Power S et al. 1995).

Putting these considerations together, the authors outline a set of proposals which are designed to help improve the access to some of the essential services. The model that they propose could, if successful and with a degree of modification, prove suitable for adaptation to other areas of the family support services. It is not appropriate to discuss this model in detail, but suffice it to say that it has a tiered structure so that the degree of distress and need is titrated against the degree of input generated.

One of the reasons that we have selected this particular paper to present in this context is for its last section. It proposes a “family support services model” which has been developed and pioneered in the Leicester area. In the context of our review, it is worth considering in some detail.

A service provided through a family support team (four family support assistants).This is designed to detect a range of problems at the time of crisis; manage a degree of mental health problems (behavioural and emotional); provide parenting-training; support and train housing (hostel) staff; co-ordinate the work of different agencies; and provide some continuity after rehousing by ensuring intake by appropriate local services.

The family workers are based at the main hostel for homeless children and families. Other, predominantly voluntary, services have established alternative posts, such as advocates and key workers. Whatever the title of the post, it is essential that the post-holder has some experience and ongoing training in mental health and child protection, so that he or she can hold a substantial case-load, rather than merely mediate between already limited services.

The family support workers have direct access to the local child and adult mental health services, whose staff provide weekly outreach clinics. Their role is to work with the family support workers and other agencies, assess selected children and families, and provide treatment for more severe problems or disorders such as depression, self-harm and PTSD. A weekly inter-agency liaison meeting at the main hostel is attended by a health visitor, representatives of the local domestic violence service and Sure Start, There are also close, regular links with education welfare and social services. The aim is to effectively utilise specialist skills by discussing family situations from all perspectives at the liaison meeting.

A bimonthly steering group, led by the housing department, involves senior managers representing these agencies, as well as the education and social services departments and the voluntary sector, and they oversee and co-ordinate the service.

This appears to be something of an exemplar in relation to services provided elsewhere. The paper does not provide any element of costings in this area neither does it provide any figures in relation to its success rates, contact rates or overall effectiveness. In conclusion this paper is an extremely well written and authoritative overview of the situation relating to the stresses of the homeless parent with children and the effectiveness (or lack of it) in its ability to reduce the stresses experienced by the homeless children in need and their parents. It proposes remedies but sadly it does not evaluate the effectiveness of those remedies.

In order to address these shortcomings we can consider another paper by Tischler (et al 2000). This looks at a similar outreach set up which has been designed to capture the families of children in need who might otherwise slip through the net. This paper is written from a different perspective and specifically analyses the effectiveness of these services as they pertain to an entry cohort of 40 families.

This particular study was set up after preliminary work was done in the Birmingham area with 114 homeless families and this study defined the needs of the families but did not quantify their support systems.(Vostanis et al 1998). This paper set out to identify and measure the support systems available and their effectiveness as far as the families were concerned. The stresses encountered were partly reflected by the incidence of psychiatric morbidity. The mothers in the group were found to have over 50% more morbidity than a matched control group. The children in the group were found to have “histories of abuse, living in care, being on the at-risk protection register, delayed communication and higher reported mental health problems.” All of which adds to the general background stress levels. (Kerouac S et al. 1996).

This particular study found that despite the psychiatric morbidity in the children, (estimated to be about 30%), and the psychiatric morbidity in the parents, (estimated at about 50%), only 3% of the children and 10% of the parents had had any significant contact or support from the social services. In this respect, this paper is very useful to our purpose as it quantifies the levels of intervention and access to healthcare resources that this particular group has. By any appreciation, it would be considered woefully inadequate in any society that calls itself civilised. In the terms of the title of this piece, the effectiveness of the family support services is minimal.

Like the last paper discussed, this one also considered how best to tackle the problem, and this one is of much greater value to us, as it specifies a response, or intervention, to the problem in much the same way as the Vostranis 2002 paper did, but it makes the same measurements as it did prior to the intervention, and therefore allows us an insight into the actual effectiveness of the intervention.

The way this particular study worked was to assess the problem (as it has been presented above), devise an intervention strategy and then to measure its effect. This particular study goes to great lengths to actively involve all the appropriate agencies that could help the situation by having a central assessment station that acted as a liaison between all of the other resources. In brief, it actively involved liaison with the following:

Education, social services, child protection, local mental health services, voluntary and community organisations to facilitate the re-integration of the family into the community, and particularly their engagement with local services following rehousing; and training of staff of homeless centres in the understanding, recognition and management of mental illness in children and parents. This is essential, as hostel staff often work in isolation and have little knowledge of the potential severity and consequences of mental health problems in children.

It was hoped that, by doing this, it would maximise the impact that the limited resources had on reducing the levels of morbidity and stress in the families of the children in need.

The post intervention results were, by any estimate, impressive considering the historical difficulty of working with this particular group (O’Hara M 1995). 40 families (including 122 children) were studied in detail. The paper gives a detailed breakdown of the ethnic and demographic breakdown of the group. By far the biggest group were single mothers and children (72%)

The results showed that the majority of referrals were seen between 1-3 times (55%), with a further 22% being seen 4-6 times. It is a reflection of the difficulty in engaging this type of family in need that over 25% did not actually keep their appointments despite the obvious potential benefits that could have been utilised. The authors investigated this group further and ascertained that a common reason for non attendance was the perception that the psychological welfare of the children was not actually the main concern. The families perceived that their primary needs were rehousing and financial stability. Other priorities identified were that physical health was a greater priority than mental health.

The authors also identify another common failing in the social services provision, and that is the general lack of regular contact. They cite the situation where some families cope well initially, apparently glad to have escaped an abusive or violent home situation, but a prolonged stay in a hostel or temporary accommodation may soon precipitate a bout of depression in the parents and behavioural problems in the children of such parents. (Brooks RM et al 1998). They suggest that regular re-visiting of families who have been in temporary accommodation for any significant length of time should be mandatory.

This paper takes a very practical overview by pointing out that workability of the system is, to a large extent, dependent on the goodwill of a number of committed professionals. The authors state that this has to be nurtured and they call for sufficient funding must be given to enable this particular model to be extended to a National level.

Thus far in the review we have considered the effectiveness of the service provision in the support of the families of the children in need in one specific target grouping, those who are stressed by virtue of the fact that they are homeless. We will now consider the literature on a different kind of family stress, and that is when a parent dies. This leaves the children with a considerable amount of potential emotional “baggage” and the surviving parent with an enormous amount of stress. (Webb E 1998).

An excellent paper by Downey (et al 1999) tackles this particular problem with both sensitivity and also considerable rigour. It is a long and complex paper, but the overall aims and objectives are clear from the outset.

The structure of the paper is a prospective case study which aims to assess whether the degree of distress suffered by a family during a time of bereavement is in any way linked to the degree of service provision that is utilised.

The base line for this study is set out in its first two paragraphs. Parentally bereaved children and surviving parents showed a greater than predicted level of psychiatric morbidity. Boys had greater levels of demonstrable morbidity than did girls, but bereaved mothers showed more morbidity than did bereaved fathers. Children were more likely to show signs of behavioural disturbance when the surviving parent manifested some kind of psychiatric disorder. (Kranzler EM et al 1990).

The authors point to the fact that their study shows that the service provision is statistically related to a number of (arguably unexpected [Fristad MA et al 1993]) factors namely:

The age of the children and the manner of parental death. Children under 5 years of age were less likely to be offered services than older children even though their parents desired it. Children were significantly more likely to be offered services when the parent had committed suicide or when the death was expected. Children least likely to receive service support were those who were not in touch with services before parental death.

Paradoxically the level of service provision was not found to be statistically significantly related to either the parental wishes or the degree of the psychiatric disturbance in either the parent or child. (Sanchez L et al 1994) The service provision did have some statistical relationships but that was only found to be the manner of the parental death and the actual age of the child at the time.

The authors therefore are able to identify a mismatch between the perceived need for support and the actual service provision made. Part of that mismatch is found to be due to the inability of the social services and other related agencies to take a dispassionate overview. Elsewhere in the paper the authors suggest that there are other factors that add to this inequality and they include lack of resources and a lack of specificity in identifying children at greatest risk. (Harrington R 1996)

The authors examine other literature to back up their initial precept that bereaved children have greater levels of morbidity. They cite many other papers who have found distress manifesting in the form of “anxiety, depression, withdrawal, sleep disturbance, and aggression.” (Worden JW et al. 1996) and also psychological problems in later life (Harris T et al. 1996).

In terms of study structure, the authors point to methodological problems with other papers in the area including a common failing of either having a standardised measure or no matched control group (Mohammed D et al 2003). They also point to the fact that this is probably the first UK study to investigate the subject using a properly representative sample and certainly the first to investigate whether service provision is actually related to the degree of the problems experienced.

The entry cohort involved nearly 550 families with 94 having children in the target range (2-18). With certain exclusions (such as two families where one parent had murdered the other etc.) and non respondents, the final cohort was reduced to 45 families and one target child was randomly selected from each family.

It has to be noted that the comparatively large number of non-respondents may have introduced a large element of bias, insofar as it is possible that the families most in need of support were those who were most distressed by the death of a family member and these could have been the very ones who chose not to participate. (Morton V et al 2003) The authors make no comment on this particular fact.

The authors should be commended for a particularly ingenious control measure for the children. They were matched by asking their school teacher to complete an inventory of disturbed behaviour on the next child in the school register after the target child.

A large part of the paper is taken up with methodological issues which ( apart form the comments above) cannot be faulted.

In terms of being children in need, 60% of children were found to have “significant behavioural abnormalities” with 28% having scores above the 95^th centile.

In terms of specific service support provision, 82% of parents identified a perceived need for support by virtue of the behaviour of their children. Only 49% of these actually received it in any degree.

Perhaps the most surprising statistic to come out of this study was the fact that of the parents who were offered support 44% were in the group who asked for it and 56% were in the group who didn’t want it.

The levels of support offered were independent of the degree of behavioural disturbance in the child.

As with the majority of papers that we have either presented here or read in preparation for this review, the authors call for a more rationally targeted approach to the utilisation of limited resources. The study also provides us with a very pertinent comment which many experienced healthcare professionals will empathise with, (Black D 1996), and that is:

Practitioners should also be aware that child disturbance may reflect undetected psychological distress in the surviving parent.

While not suggesting that this is a reflection of Munchausen’s syndrome by proxy, the comment is a valid reflection of the fact that parental distress may be well hidden from people outside of the family and may only present as a manifestation of the child’s behaviour. (Feldman MD et al. 1994)

The conclusions that can be drawn from this study are that there is a considerable gap in the support offered ( quite apart form the effectiveness of that support) in this area of obvious stress for both parents and children. (Black D 1998). This study goes some way to quantifying the level of support actually given in these circumstances.

We have considered the role of the effectiveness and indeed, even the existence, of adequate support services for the children in need and their parents in a number of different social circumstances. The next paper that we wish to present is an excellent review of the support that is given to another specific sub-group and that is women and children who suffer from domestic violence. Webb and her group (et al 2001) considered the problem in considerable (and commendable) depth

The study itself had an entry cohort of nearly 150 children and their mothers who were resident in a number of hostels and women’s refuges that had been the victims of family violence at some stage in the recent past. The study subjected the cohort to a battery of tests designed to assess their physical, emotional and psychological health, and then quantified their access to, and support gained from, the primary healthcare teams and other social service-based support agencies. This study is presented in a long and sometimes difficult to read format. Much of the presentation is (understandably) taken up with statistical, ethical and methodological matters – all of which appear to be largely of excellent quality and the result of careful consideration.

The results make for interesting and, (in the context of this review), very relevant reading. Perhaps one of the more original findings was that nearly 60% of the child health data held by the various refuges was factually incorrect. This clearly has grave implications for studies that base their evidence base on that data set (Berwick D 2005).

Of great implication for the social services support mechanisms was the finding that 76% of the mothers in the study expressed concerns about the health of their children. Once they had left the refuge there was a significant loss to the follow up systems as 15% were untraceable and 25% returned to the home of the original perpetrator.

The study documents the fact that this particular group had both a high level of need for support and also a poor level of access to appropriate services. In the study conclusions, the authors make the pertinent comment that the time spent in the refuge offers a “window of opportunity” for the family support services to make contact and to review health and child developmental status.

This is not a demographically small group. In the UK, over 35,000 children and a parent, are recorded as passing through the refuges each year, with at least a similar number also being refered to other types of safe accommodation. Such measures are clearly not undertaken lightly with the average woman only entering a refuge after an average of 28 separate assaults. One can only speculate at the long term effects that this can have on both the mother and the children.

In common with the other papers reviewed, this paper also calls for greater levels of support for the families concerned as, by inference, the current levels of effectiveness of the family support services is clearly inadequate.

Conclusions

This review has specifically presented a number of papers which have been chosen from a much larger number that have been accessed and assessed, because of the fact that each has a particularly important issue or factor in its construction or results.

The issue that we have set out to evaluate is the effectiveness of the family support services which are specifically aimed at reducing the stress levels for the parents of children in need. Almost without exception, all of the papers that have been accessed (quite apart from those presented) have demonstrated the fact that the levels of support from the statutory bodies is “less than optimum” and in some cases it can only be described as “dire”.

Another factor that is a common finding, is that, given the fact that any welfare system is, by its very nature, a rationed system, the provision of the services that are provided is seldom targeted at the groups that need it the most. One can cite the Tischler (et al 2000) and Downey (et al 1999) papers in particular as demonstrating that a substantial proportion of the resources mobilised are actually being directed to groups that are either not requesting support or who demonstrably need it less than other sectors of the community. Some of the papers (actually a small proportion) make positive suggestions about the models for redirecting and targeting support. Sadly, the majority do little more than call for “more research to be done on the issue”.

In overview, we would have to conclude that the evidence suggests that the effectiveness of the family support services in reducing stress and poverty for the parents of children in need is poor at best and certainly capable of considerable improvement.

References

Bassuk, E. Buckner, J. Weinreb, L. et al (1997), Homelessness in female-headed families: childhood and adult risk and protective factors. American Journal of Public Health, 87, 241–248 1997

Berwick D 2005 Broadening the view of evidence-based medicine Qual. Saf. Health Care, Oct 2005; 14: 315 – 316.

Black D. 1996, Childhood bereavement: distress and long term sequelae can be lessened by early intervention. BMJ 1996; 312: 1496,

Black D. 1998, Coping with loss: bereavement in childhood. BMJ 1998; 316: 931-933,

BPA 1999, British Paediatric Association. Outcome measures for child health. London: Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health, 1999.

Brooks RM, Ferguson T, Webb E. 1998, Health services to children resident in domestic violence shelters. Ambulatory Child Health 1998; 4: 369-374.

Cumella, S. Grattan, E. & Vostanis, P.

Within this essay I am not going to list the reasons to believe in the effectiveness of the early intervention approach. The usefulness of early intervention itself is not in dispute. I will, however, be discussing the strengths and weaknesses of different types of early intervention. I will discuss the reasons to believe that some intervention schemes are better than others concerning ways to handle social issues. This essay will discuss the definitions of the terms used in the title. I will look at the motivations behind the schemes and discuss ways of analysing their effectiveness. In relation to the importance of child participation and the amplification of children’s voices, I would also like to look at children’s views on their own situations and why they feel like they should engage in acts that would qualify as a social issue.

Defining the key words

Using the term ‘social issue’ in reference to children and families tends to suggest childhood delinquency, drug abuse, violence, teenage pregnancy, crime and etcetera. The word ‘issue’ implies that there is a problem that should be dealt with; an issue is not an acceptable or desired means of behaviour and it opposes the social ideal. However, many questions arise concerning who has created the definition of this ideal. The language used in the title suggests that the ideal consists of the eradication of all social issues. (which the Government has highlighted.) Used in CTC??

Effectiveness is an expression that is used by the Government when evaluating early intervention. In the UK, The government drives forward the need for evaluation and assessment of early years practices (Lewis & Utting, 2001). It is a commonly held assumption that to achieve the goals of evidence-based practice and cost-effectiveness, “evaluation is a necessity, not a luxury” (Ghate, 2001, p23).

Preventative early intervention initiatives have become more common since the arrival of the New Labour government in the late 1990s (Ghate, 2001). Whether they are led by the government or by other organisations, an early intervention programme generally has the aim of reducing negative social outcomes the children may contribute to when they grow up. Within this essay, I will be using examples of two different types of early intervention scheme: government-led and community-led.

Different types of intervention

Government-led

Throughout the 1990s, there was a growing recognition that wider social, political and economic factors were negatively influencing the families and communities that children grew up in (Hannon & Fox, 2005; Glass, 2001). Shortly after New Labour was elected to power in 1997, Tony Blair stated that by 2010, the number of children living in poverty within the UK would be halved and by 2020 it would be eradicated ( ). As a result of this, the New Labour government introduced a number of early intervention initiatives with the aim of reducing social exclusion due to poverty (Clarke, 2007).

The New Labour government has shown a serious commitment to the early intervention approach, having invested hundreds of millions of pounds into one initiative in particular: Sure Start (Hannon & Fox, 2005). To begin with, Sure Start was targeted primarily at working with parents of young children from the most socio-economically deprived areas in the UK. By doing this, therefore, the government aimed to potentially tackle future ‘issues’ that their children might create. One statement of Sure Start’s intentions is described by Clarke (2007); “(Sure Start aims to avoid) social exclusion in adulthood, primarily by enabling children to realise their potential within the education systemaˆY (p.699). Sure Start reflects its aim by working both directly and indirectly with the child; directly by providing such things as pre-school childcare; and indirectly by providing services for parents and the wider community (Belsky & Melhuish, 2007).

Other government early intervention approaches that have been introduced since 1997 with the aim to break the cycle of poverty include: child tax credits, working tax credits and child benefits. Government policies and green papers such as Every Child Matters (2003) support the early intervention approaches by outlining the standards for child well-being and suggesting guidelines to help professionals reach these standards. The 2007 Children’s Plan recognises the importance of providing support for parents, in order to gain their enthusiasm for their child’s education. Parental enthusiasm and involvement is a key factor when trying to initiate an intervention scheme ( ).

Government programmes and large scale intervention programmes such as Communities That Care (CTC) are not the only types of early intervention. Communities themselves have long developed programmes that tackle issues important to them. “Sure Start was to be focussed on relatively small areas of need, reflecting… the desirability of action at the level of communities” (Hannon & Fox, 2005, p3)

Community-led

Non-government led organisations have been set up all over the country in response to different communities’ needs. One example is ‘Kids Company’, a charity which aims to “provide practical, emotional and educational support to vulnerable inner-city children and young people” (Kids Company Website, 2008). This statement seems very similar to the one Sure Start uses. Kids Company’s methods of early intervention, however, differ significantly from those of Sure Start.

“Kids Company’s effectiveness lies in its provision of innovative, flexible and child-centred services. Kids Company provides targeted therapeutic and social work interventions, and universal class and group access to the arts.” (Gaskell, 2008, p4)

Personal relationships with people they are reaching.

Self-referal.

Accessibility is an important factor for intervention schemes. If parents or children do not access intervention (whether it be through choice or lack of knowledge)

“The assumption is that behind every child is a responsible adult, who will navigate the path to services” (Camilla Batmanghelidjh, 2006, p15). Sadly, the truth for many children who would benefit most from intervention services is that their main carers are not willing or cannot be bothered (uninterested?) to allow their child to attend (Batmanghelidjh, 2006).

Motivations behind intervention schemes

Politics

Children’s welfare?

Money

The intention for the Sure Start initiative was that it “should be based on the best evidence of what works” (Glass, 2001, p14).

Lack of funds can mean that some children get overlooked by local authorities and social services. In her book, Camilla Batmanghelidjh (2006) describes coming into contact with children who were suffering from lack of food and neglect, referring these children to social services, but discovering that they were not eligible for help due to lack of resources and too many cases of sexual and physical abuse.

Many children drop out of the education system and are never pursued by the ‘system’ because the behavioural and emotional difficulties of the children are too much of a burden to school staff (Batmanghelidjh, 2006).

Many interrelated factors place children ‘at risk’ of adopting behaviour that could be seen as a social issue. Many children who already practice such behaviour are likely to have been conditioned by their family’s socio-economic circumstances. Socially unacceptable behaviours can lead to social exclusion, which can, in turn, result in the next generation’s social exclusion (Clarke, 2007).

Children’s attitudes, achievements and behaviour are shown to be linked to the environment in which they grow up in. The largest influence is shown to be that of the family (Parton, 2007). Talk about EPPE. The key, when looking at dealing with social issues, lies in tackling the underlying factors. This could be by the means of providing services and/or resources.

These factors include poverty, poor nutrition, emotional neglect and underachievement. There is an overall understanding that these factors cannot be isolated from one another (find evidence).

Intervention is a term that suggests that an outside source will come ‘in’ to intervene with whatever is going on and disappear again once too ‘issue’ is fixed or eradicated.

Analysing effectiveness (research)

Evaluating larger scale early intervention programmes

Early Effects of CTC (Hawkins et al, 2008)

Reports positive effects, but the results are quantitative – looking at if the children have taken drugs or shown signs of ‘delinquent’ behaviour.

Not looking at the children’s views of how the project may have changed their lives – issues such as being listened to, valued and feeling part of the community.

“if services cannot specify what changes they expect to see for `successful’ users, evaluators certainly cannot measure them, let alone pass judgement on whether the service has proved effective.” (Ghate, 2001, p25)

Strengths of early intervention approaches imply that these are the reasons for perceived effectiveness. Contrary to the strengths of early intervention projects, their weaknesses reveal the space for improvement within the services.

The New Labour government has introduced several interventions that aim to benefit families. Much research would support the idea that early intervention schemes such as Sure Start have a positive benefit on children’s well-being ( ), but how far can research reflect the true picture of what is happening to under-privileged children in this country?

This pressure to measure a setting’s effectiveness can detract from the amount of time practitioners can spend with the children: “Time and energy is, therefore, increasingly sapped from those providing services to fill in forms for external purposes, rather than supporting children.” (Lewis and Utting, 2001, p4). Ironically, this could negatively affect the ‘effectiveness’ of the intervention.

Accessibility- If many people are accessing services, then the likelihood of them having an impact is increased. Alternatively, if there are not enough staff members to meet the needs of the attendees, then the likelihood of effectiveness is inevitably decreased.

“Before an educational outcome there needs to be an emotional one” (Batmanghelidjh, 2006, p23). Successful outcomes or effectiveness of an intervention service are not instantly noticeable. It may take years for disturbed children to engage in behaviour they were previously unable to. “Their outcomes are personal, and their successes are often individual and emotional first, before they become visible in the world of academia and work.” (Batmanghelidjh, 2006, p 22)

“The problem with presenting outcomes in the way that they are being demanded is that clinicians try and exclude children from their services who are likely not to provide positive outcomes.” p.23 – This is not through cruelty, though, but because the clinician relies on the money they earn for doing their job ‘effectively’. Money is essentially the reason why so many children do not receive the services they should. Children are being dehumanised by being treated as statistics that keep adults in their jobs.

“So many of our current interventions with vulnerable children come from the perspective of the well-adjusted adult, needing to preserve our own sense of safety.” (p 153)

Short-term initiatives, where the practitioner enters the child’s situation, offers a ‘quick-fix’ cure and then disappears again, are merely cosmetic. This kind of intervention offers no real solution to the issues that disadvantaged children face. The government thrive on statistics that have been distorted to reflect their political goal (find some). The public want statistics to show them that issues are being resolved.

It is to do with how committed people are to seeing change. Short-term initiatives are ineffective, due to the fact that people are complex beings. Effective early intervention programmes have recognised the need to build relationships with the people behind the ‘issues’.

Conclusion

Children who carry out anti-social behaviour are sometimes referred to as being ‘delinquent’ (Hawkins, 2008). This reflects the medical model of disability, that which implies that the fault lies within the child and needs to be fixed.

The aim of some early intervention programmes can be to benefit wider society rather than the child. Blair (2008) spoke of a new political initiative that would identify those most at risk of offending at birth. This kind of intervention would not be beneficial to the child. Being labelled from birth as a potential offender could produce a self-fulfilling prophesy.

The most effective early intervention programmes are those that make a commitment to the children themselves; that aim to make them feel valued as members of society and offer them the best opportunities.

Many of the ‘early intervention’ programmes explored, such as Communities That Care (CTC) concentrate on notions of bringing the community together and building social capital from within the community. We cannot expect children to act as responsible members of the community unless they are treated as such. Not just gathering their views but involving them, involving them in planning and developing of programmes – as will see constant criticism from the children is ‘nothing actually happens’

Disenchantment

The ‘delinquent’ child (Hawkins, 2008)

Looking at how the child is framed within early intervention programmes. Is it to make them feel valued, important and give them the best opportunities? Or is it to sort them out for the sake of wider society?

Government initiatives: Identifying those at risk of offending at birth (Blair, 2008). Fits with governments crack-down on anti-social behaviour and ASBO’s.

More positive: Sure Start, parenting programmes.

Want to prevent the problems before they start, but such approaches label the child before they have even offended. This is likely to alienate them further from society. Not helpful!

Distribution of power

CTC

Programme is systematically applied from the outside

Community driven and the community identifies problems they believe need addressing

But, research by (Brown et al 2007) into the ‘Community Youth Development Study:’

Leaders were those who already held leadership positions i.e. mayors, city managers, police chiefs, school superintendents. These were the people who were interviewed, alongside five ‘referred leaders’

No effort to break down power relationships. Study itself is not representative. We do not hear the views of different community members.

‘Older respondents and those from law enforcement were more likely to report higher baseline levels of collaboration’ than younger respondents or those from other community sectors’ (Brown et al 2007). So again criminal justice system taking the lead.

Ultimately, people sacrificing their time and finances can do such impressive things for the need of their communities….

“And I think that’s what our world is desperately in need of – lovers, people who are building deep, genuine relationships with fellow strugglers along the way, and who actually know the faces of the people behind the issues they are concerned about.” – Shane Claiborne (The Irresistible Revolution, 2006)

Define what can be meant by social issues in this essay.

What does it mean to ‘deal’ with social issues?

What is effectiveness? How can we measure such a relative/ idiosyncratic thing?

What types of early intervention are there?

Government programs – Surestart

Voluntary sector- charity work/ people choosing to live in disadvantaged community to help change for the better.

Education?

Therapists?

Health? – NHS, midwives, health visitors etc.

What reasons are there to believe that these methods work?

CTC data (large no.s of opinion surveys – do these fully reflect true picture?)

Case studies?

Government studies (truly reliable? Short term? Who are they financed by and for what purpose?)

What alternative approaches are there to early intervention?! (What are we comparing early intervention to to make the assumption that it is the most effective approach to deal with social issues?

Other countries (Norway and Sweden)

Are families engaging with intervention projects?

Non-engagement (Anning and Ball 2008)

Intervention or need of resources??

Arnold et al (2003):

Specific needs of communities and the individuals themselves within such communities need to be addressed. Great diversity of needs

It is the environment that needs changing not the individual.

Brown et al (2007) ‘CTC organizes the adoption of a science-based approach to prevention into five stages that correspond to Rogers’ (1995) stages of innovation diffusion. Each stage is guided by a set of “milestones” and benchmarks” that are used to monitor CTC implementation’ p181

Diffusion is the process through which (1) an innovation (2) is communicated through certain channels (3) over time (4) among the members of a social system (Rogers, 1995).

Most individuals evaluate an innovation, not on the basis of scientific research by experts, but through the subjective evaluations of near-peers who have already adopted the innovation. Diffusion is essentially a social process through which people talking to people spread an innovation.

Work-life balance is defined here as an individual’s ability to meet their work and family commitments, as well as other non-work responsibilities and activities. Work life balance, in addition to the relations between work and family functions, also involves other roles in other areas of life. In this study, due to its more extensive associations, the concept of work -life balance is preferred.

Work-life balance has been defined differently by different scholars. In order to broaden our perspectives, some definitions will be presented. Greenhaus (2002) defined work -life balance as satisfaction and good functioning at work and at home with a minimum of role conflict. Felstead et al. (2002) defines work-life balance as the relationship between the institutional and cultural times and spaces of work and non-work in societies where income is predominantly generated and distributed through labor markets.

Aycan et al. (2007) confined the subject only with work and family and put forward the concept of “life balance” with a more whole perspective. Scholars defined life balance as fulfilling the demands satisfactorily in the three basic areas of life; namely, work, family and private.

Work demands work hours, work intensity and proportion of working hours spent in work. Additional work hours subtract from home time, while high work intensity or work pressure may result in fatigue, anxiety or other adverse physiological consequences that affect the quality of home and family life( White et al.,2003). Family demands include such subjects as the roles of the individuals (e.g. Father, mother, etc.,) family responsibilities (e.g childcare, house chores, etc) looking after the old members, children. Besides this, there are some other demands in work life balance than family and work live relaxation, vacation, sports and personal development programmes.

Work -life balance is not the allocation of time equally among work, family and personal demands. In literature, it is also emphasized that work-life balance is subjective phenomenon that changes from person to person. In this regard, work-life balance should be regarded as allocating the available resources like time, thought and labor wisely among the elements of life.

While some adopt the philosophy of ‘working to live’ and sees work as the objective, others consider “living to work” and situated work into the centre of life.

DETERMINANTS OF WORK-LIFE BALANCE

Many things in life are the determinants of work life balance. The subjects in the literature that are related the most with work life balance are grouped here.

INDIVIDUAL:

An individual is the most important determinant of work -life balance.

two American cardiologists Rosenman and Friedman determined two different types of personality depending on heart disorders and individual behaviours: type A and type B. Type A expresses someone who is more active, more work oriented, more passionate and competitive, while Type B is calm, patient, balanced and right minded. It can be argued that since type A is more work oriented, there will be a negative reflection of it to work -life balance.

Yet work holism, which is considered as an obsessive behavior, is another thing that destroys work-life balance. When work holism connotes over addiction to work, being at work for a very long time, overworking and busy with work at times out of work. Since life is not only about work, workaholics suffer from alienation, family problems and some health problems. Porter(1996) states that alcoholics, workaholics neglect their families, friends, relations and other social responsibilities.

FAMILY:

The demands that one experience in family life and that have effects on life balance can be given as the demand of workload and time, role expectations in family and support to be given to the spouse. It is also included in the literature that such variances as marriage, child rising, caring of the elderly at home have effect on work-life balance since they demand more family responsibilities.

Those who have to look after a child or the elderly might sometimes have to risk their career by shortening their working hours, which becomes a source of stress for them. On the other hand, those without children or any elderly to look after at home experience less work-life imbalance.

WORK AND ORGANISATION:

Work environment is more effective in work-life imbalance than the family environment. The job and the institution one works in both demands on his time, efforts and mental capacity. Among the efforts to increase organizational efficiency, one of the subjects managers focus on is to raise the organizational efficiency, one of the subjects managers focus on is to raise the organizational loyalty of the staff.

SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT:

Another determinant of work-life balance is social environment. Especially in countries that stand out with their culturally collectivist characteristics, an individual also has responsibilities towards certain social groups he belongs.

CONSEQUENCES OF WORK-LIFE IMBALANCE

The stress – based conflict occurs when one of the roles of the individual at work or in the family causes stress on the individual and this stress affects the other roles of the individual. The behavior stress occurs when the behavior at work and out of work are dissonant and conflicting.

PERSONAL IMPLICATIONS

According to Lowe (2005), work life imbalance affects the overall well-being of the individual causing such problems as dissatisfaction from life, prolonged sadness, using drugs or alcohol.

FAMILY IMPLICATIONS:

Organization expects from individual to allocate more time for their work while at the same time the family want him to perform his responsibilities too.

Those who can’t sustain work-life balance are bound to experience many problems in their families such as lower family satisfaction, decreased involvement in family roles etc.

ORGANIZATIONALIMPLICATIONS:

Those whose demands of the family and one’s social interest are not met duly naturally prefer sacrificing his working hours, and carry out their personal needs.

ORGANIZATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

In order to decrease the negative consequences of work- family conflict on working individuals, family friendly organizational culture and human resources applications have recently been in agenda of executive. The components of the organizational strategy are flexible working hours , child care and elderly care scheme, home working ,job sharing. Supportive programmes for the family life of employees in an organization contribute to providing work -life balance. Thanks to these programmes, the employees will be encouraged, their attendance will be supported and their efficiency will increase.

Flexible working hours is one of the methods used to maintain work-life balance. For example employees with flexi-time will have to fulfill certain amount of time weekly. Other thing which can be done is to allow employees to work at home away from traditional work environment.

CONCLUSION:

If one has managed to allocate the required time for every aspect of life duly and not to reflect the problems in one part of life to another it means that he has been able to achieve work-family balance. Life as a whole is composed of many other aspects along with work. Those who have achieved a balance among these aspects are sure to achieve the life balance, which does away with any imbalance.

Social work is a professional and academic discipline that pursues to progress the quality of life and wellbeing of an individual, group, or community by intervening through research, policy, community organizing, direct practice, and coaching on behalf of those distressed with poverty or any real or perceived social injustices and violations of their human rights (Cavanagh & Lane, 2012). To make all this happen, social workers have to communicate with the people affected and listen their problems carefully in order to take them out from the painful situation. Social work relies heavily on communication to identify problems and solutions related to social behaviours, including family relations, workplace interactions and substance abuse. Lack of communication can lead to clients shutting down, stepping away from assistance or losing trust in their social worker. Developing strong communication skills helps social workers work more efficiently and effectively with clients, resulting in more positive outcomes with less confrontation and fewer missed opportunities.

Communication is the ability to deliver/convey the thoughts, ideas or message effectively (Pathak & Joshi, 2010). The exchange of thoughts, feelings, messages, or information, as by reading, speech, gestures, visuals, signals, writing, or behaviour is known as Communication.

Despite of the fact, that language is the main element of communication. However the linguistic structure of all the languages are same, although according to cultural differences, they are been expressed differently.

There are several skills for a social work or a psychology profession to communicate with their clients, although this essay will discuss the major communication skills which should be applied by psychological professional or a social worker towards his/her clients. Everybody needs to be heard and understood; active listening is also one of the communication skills which make it possible (Kelan, 2007). Social workers have to focus on his/her client sayings and must answer appropriately. Listening actively will make the client feel more comfortable and in this way he/she can discuss all the issues faced.

Questioning is another technique for healthier communication. It is the way in which the social worker will be able to get as much information as he/she need, to make the right decision for the client and show him/her the right path, which leads him/her towards better future.

Moreover, silence is one of the virtuous types of communication which social workers exercise. Suppose, if the client is too much upset or suffering from something of real anxiety and emotional behaviour, then silence is the skill used by social workers to calm the client down. Once, the client come to normal, then the communication takes place to resolve the issue by providing different suggestion.

Technical jargons or slangs are some of the barriers in communication that the client would not be able to understand. To make the communication effective and realistic, one must not use the slangs or jargons because social workers would not be having any idea, whether the language or technical term they are using is being understood by their clients or is passing over the head of their client.

Approaching open or closed question by the social workers is exercised while interviewing their clients. It is the quicker and easier way found to get quick response from the clients. Statistical interpretation can be assessed easily through close ended questions. Close questions are specific and are cost effective in survey method, although these questions do not offer the clients to express their desires and feelings.

Communication skills every so often focus on picking the suitable words to reflect what they’re projected to convey, especially in social work. However listening remains an important element of effective social work communication. Social workers need to be vigilant about being active listeners while collaborating with clients, who may sometimes struggle to articulate their experiences. Focus attention on what clients, co-workers or controllers are saying by listening without worrying around what your reply will be. Repeat information to make sure you’ve understood, and ask additional questions to clarify information.

When working with clients on a complex problem, non-verbal communication skills are critical for social workers. Sit or stand up straight when conversing to help stay alert. Social workers must lean towards clients when they speak to create familiarity, nodding to affirm that you’re following along. Friendly eye contact should be maintained when culturally appropriate, they should not stare or prevent their eyes in awkwardness if someone begins to weep or cry. Says Pathak & Joshi, 2010 that alteration into people’s breathing helps realize temperament; held breath might specify fear, while shallow, hasty breath might reflect annoyance or a highly emotional state.

It is basically a challenging task to understand the language of the people where one works, because of communication barrier (if any). The basic ttool for social work is communication, although to communicate effectively there need to be some research done. As on average, Social workers have to answer positively when they are asked several questions regarding the work they are doing for the wellbeing society or community.

Social work can be very physically and emotionally demanding work. When coupled with long hours and low pay and benefits, the turnover rate for social work can be quite high, especially among first-year social workers. This can be countered if supervisors use empathetic communication skills to provide support and prevent burnout. Asking your social workers focused questions can help them identify problems and solutions more quickly. Provide constructive feedback to recognize successes and defray negative effects of setbacks. Apologize for mistakes, misunderstandings or instances when you weren’t fully able to address the needs of your staff.

Social workers must consistently undergo self-examinations about beliefs, attitudes, thoughts, feelings, fears and prejudices toward clients or situations to be effective communicators. Unexamined attitudes about drug use, child neglect, cultural biases or language choice may affect how you communicate with clients.

It might be concluded that communication plays an important role in making relationship strong and to help other understand the right meaning to its best. The language social workers and psychology professionals use to communicate in their profession must be easy for the client understand. Psychology professional and social worker must ask questions, remain silent, gestures, communicate empathetically, listen, reflect and build rapport, clarify towards their clients where appropriate. Social workers or psychology professionals must be aware of assumptions held when communicating with clients, supervisors or other social workers related to the case; these may prevent them from seeing the things objectively and helping develop an appropriate solution.