Category: Free Essays

Design or evaluate any practice within the field of Community Development aimed at managing race and diversity.

Introduction: According to the International Federation of Social workers, the definition of social work is given as follows:

“The social work profession promotes social change, problem solving in human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being. Utilizing theories of human behaviour and social systems, social work intervenes at the points where people interact with their environments. Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work” (from IFSW General meeting, Canada, 2000 in ifsw.org).

Social work can be theoretically represented as an interrelated system of values that uses a mix of theory and practice to address the communication and transaction of people with their society and environment. Social work and social policies aim to fulfill people’s goals and wishes by helping them to develop their full potential and to either overcome or prevent any kind of dysfunction. Ethics are important as social workers promote equality and work for the oppressed to facilitate their social inclusion (Mullender, 2003). Social work research and practice have provided knowledge and means of evaluation of social work practices, which are specific to situations. Individuals are affected by multiple bio-psycho-social factors in the society, family and environment (Donald et al, 1992). Theories of human development and behaviour help in the analysis of the influences of social and cultural changes on behavior highlighting the injustice and inequality in society. Social workers thus help in affecting changes in societies, families and in people’s lives. Social work and policy is based on the universal humanitarian and democratic ideals promoting Human rights and Social justice. Social workers also respond to crises and emergency situations and also provide counseling and advise to help people overcome their personal, social and long term problems. Thus a social worker is expected to be skilled and should focus on the holistic development of the individual or society. Social work and policies can affect individual psychological processes or can involve planning and development for society at large. Some of the common activities that social worker engage in are counseling, group social work, clinical work, family therapy and treatment, education and advise, and emergency relief work. Social workers are also involved in administration and policy making along with political involvement for economic and social development of the community. Although promoting human rights, justice and equality are universal aims of all social policies, the way social workers engage in community development tend to vary from one place to another depending on cultural, historical and social factors (Arredondo, 1996).

In this essay we will discuss community development considering the perspective of racial diversity and focus on the cooperation between mainstream groups and minority ethnic groups that should be necessary aspect of social work. We discuss inter-racial interaction and community participation as important in social development and promoting more interracial interaction seems to be a crucial practice in social work that can help change attitudes of people towards other ethnic groups.

Race and Community Development

White (2002) challenges the intentional ‘colour-blind’ attitude towards community development, which he says is impractical and masks and at the same time highlights the centrality of race in any community development agenda. White identifies three dimensions of development namely, the material outcomes, the techniques of transformation and the modes of knowing. He emphasizes on an analysis of racial diversity and fluidity between racial groups and citing Omi and Winant’s work suggests that development comprises of racial formation which is made up of a vast range of diverse and contradictory racial projects linking the meaning of ethnic, racial and national identities.

Akdere (2005) suggests that the meaning of race, social class, culture and ethnicity have changed considerably in the last few years and continues to evolve considering the rapid changes in social structure. There has been tremendous growth of diverse populations in neighborhoods and administrative policy changes have forced community leaders to approach organizational engagement with great diversity. Akdere used appreciative inquiry method to achieve a satisfactory participation level among community people to encourage dialogue between participants and promote systematic thinking and practice. The paper supports the use of Appreciative Inquiry method as an appropriate method of systematic practice.

Problems associated with the current empirical measurement of ethnic diversity within economic development have been examined by Okediji (2005). Ethnic diversity variables include race, religion, and the measures on these aspects are compared with other variables on ethnicity. The study cites related results to suggest that disparities and differences in ethnic diversity among countries are not as great as assumed generally. Okediji suggests that a comprehensive and accurate measure of ethnic diversity is not just related only to a linguistic measurement that defines ethnicity butt there are other factors as well.

Diversity and race differences are closely related as a proper understanding of racial variations sometimes serve as the basis of both racial classifications and also ethnic diversity. Barbujani (2005) suggests that all humans belong to a few biological types or races and evolved in isolation although modern genetics have not been able to find any significant differences in the genetic structures of humans belonging to different racial types. Thus racial labels have not been associated with clear genetic structures. Most scientists however still insist that racial classifications have a genetic and scientific basis and this fact may be even indispensable in epidemiology. However all classifications of race based on the smallest genetic evidence have been useless or controversial and there is still no proper consensus on the number or definitions of different human races. The author highlights that there is a geographic structure in human genome diversity and it is also possible to infer the continent of origin of a particular race from an individual’s genotype although any clear genetic boundaries necessary to recognize relatively isolated mating units or races have not yet been identified. Barbujani points out that allele frequencies and synthetic descriptors of genetic variation are distributed over different gradients across the planets suggesting a sort of gene flow rather than isolation of different mating groups. Interracial mixing seems to shape human genome diversity although the paper clearly states that a better understanding of the patterns of human diversity can be understood by examining the evolutionary processes that is absolutely important for the development of diagnostic and therapeutic tools of individual genotypes rather than race specific genotypes which is not yet clearly defined or identified.

Shaw and Barrett-Power (2005) emphasize that diversity is a crucial factor in organizational life as all organizations, whether professional or social are becoming increasingly diversified in terms of gender, race, ethnicity, age, nationality, origin and personality patterns of members of the group. There have been very few studies giving the exact impact of diversity on group or organizational culture or on small group processes or performances. Some influences of diversity on organizational culture are definitely positive although effects may be negative while in certain situations, there may be no effects at all. The developments and influences of diversity in a group may be explained by using the group-development model that helps in examining the impact of diversity on group processes and performance. This model is based on concepts of Jackson et al (1995) and Milliken and Martin (1996) (in Shaw et al, 2005), and shows that diversity does have considerable influence on group development and performance. The aspects and concepts considered in the model are personal attributes of group members which are detectable and underlying as well as cognitive paradigm dissimilarities, costs and rewards, diversity management skills, cognitive performance resources and integration of group behaviour. The components of the model are discussed and the specific hypothesis is that social group performance may be positively or negatively affected by diversity.

Several research studies have tried to understand the exact equation between racial characteristics, neighbourhood contexts and development. Marschall and Stolle (2004) argue that socioeconomic and racial characteristics of an individual’s environment not only influences group consciousness and solidarity but also views of the society towards minority and majority ethnic groups. The paper points out that context, social interaction and inter-racial experiences combine to shape general psychological orientations. The authors conduct a neighbourhood level analysis examining race, racial attitudes, social interactions and residential patterns to study the attitudes towards ethnicity and race issues. Marschall and Stolle emphasize that the neighbourhood context plays an important role in shaping civic orientations although diversity and interracial interaction and settings o promote such interaction seems to be crucial to develop a generalised inter-racial trust for the development of the community.

Increased sensitivity towards diversity and interracial interaction is important to promote social and community development. This is also true in college campuses and in a study by Chang et al (2004) national longitudinal data from a set of college students was used to examine the educational relevance of cross racial interaction and the way the campuses can best utilise such opportunities. The results of most similar studies suggest that cross racial interaction has positive effects on students intellectual, social psychological and civic development. Chang and colleagues suggested that a large proportion of students of colour should be enrolled in institutions and students should be offered more opportunities to live and work on campus. The paper suggests that white students definitely gain in psychological and social experiences when they interact with students from the ethnic minority although cross racial interaction may not be completely advantageous for students of colour. However, despite these differences, cross racial interaction remains an important component for development of attitudes of tolerance and this is an essential aspect of social development of the community in general.

More on the relationship of adult learning, especially in universities with ethnic and cultural diversity has been studied by Osler and Starkey (2000). This study focused on distance learning students of French language and culture highlighting the political importance of language learning within the European context. All foreign language learning policies are meant to have an impact on the development of democratic participation and citizenship rights. Few students are asked to give opinions on questions of identity and treatment of racism or different races suggesting the links between racism and discourses on modernity and identity. Language learning has been considered as a reflexive process and through learning, students gain their own perspectives on their own culture as well as other foreign cultures. Students are encouraged to present their own views and actively participate in understanding foreign cultures to promote diversity in study situations. However the authors argue that ‘positive representations of multiculturalism within language learning courses are likely to prove inadequate in enabling students to identify the barriers to democratic participation’. The different themes that are considered here are immigration, integration and identity although the structural barriers of participation are also identified. The paper stressed on the need to encourage students to deepen their understanding of race, modernity and identities in their own society.

In another relevant and similar study, Shields (2000) argue how curriculum development in school is closely related to the portrayal of the school as communities. Shields suggests that in the modern complex and heterogeneous public schools, where all types of students with different ethnic and racial backgrounds interact, the notion of schools as complete homogeneous communities with shared beliefs, norms and values seem inadequate. Ethnic and racial differences must be used as a resource, according to the author and ideas of feminism, multiculturalism and inclusive education have to be used to develop the concept of school communities. The advantages of multicultural and racial diversity are highlighted here and the major advantages are that increased interaction between racial groups whereas the disadvantage is that there are possibilities of increased fragmentation and polarisation as well. However on a positive note as pointed out in the paper the differences can be used as basis or foundation for community development so that marginalisation of others can lead to barriers. Shields points out that, ‘Explicitly embracing the need to identify and respect difference, being open to new ideas without taking an exclusionary position, and committing to ongoing participation in dialogical processes may help schools to develop as more authentic communities of difference’(Shields, 2000, p.275). Thus communities of difference can still be communities that can live and work together learning from and respecting each other and this co-existing culture should be promoted in climates of turbulent educational culture and new reforms based on tolerance and co-existence can help restructure schools to ensure that all students regardless of race have the same opportunities and quality of instruction.

Some of the proposals of improving interaction in student community and improving the status of schools as communities involve modifying leadership in the community and government structures, as well as overcoming existing power bases, developing mechanisms of accountability, enhancing professionalism and coordinating for adequate distribution of community resources. Citing Barth 1990, Fuller 1993, Shields suggest that the focus on schools as organizations should change to recognize schools as communities by themselves, given the diversity of students enrolled. However as argued there is very little understanding of the concept of community and what it looks and how the concept of community can be implemented in a school setting and what has to be done about it. Theories of schools as communities have been drawn from Tonnies’ concept of gemeinschaft which however is based more on a romanticised view of the past than on improving education in modern dynamic, complex and heterogeneous schools which can be seen as communities (Shields cites Beck and Kratzer, 1994). Several other writers cited by Shields are Fine (1997) and Furman (1998) and they have also advanced notions of communities, of racial coexistence as well a cultures of differences of otherness among different ethnic groups. Many authors have suggested that rather than considering schools as communities because of its affiliation to established norms, values or traditions, schools should be considered as communities by virtue of its racial and ethnic diversity. A school community in which differences are highlighted can add to community development and mutual sharing of values and ideals only when there is a common core principle established to negotiate and iron out differences and disparities in beliefs and values as participants would learn to respect and listen to each other. Bonds and boundaries among school students of different racial backgrounds are constructed, not forcefully but via respect and open communication.

Shields, as other many researchers have worked with many schools to address the needs of diverse student bodies and have become increasingly aware of the limitations of the concept of community which is described with an emphasis on shared values, norms, beliefs and highlight a question by Barth (1990): ‘How can we make conscious, deliberate use of differences in social class, gender, age, ability, race, and interest as resources for learning?’ (p. 514). Shields points out that gender, race and ability are the three elements of differences that can define or help understand an educational community. As the author points out , both theory and practice should be used to suggest how the implications of reflections on theory and practice can help to reconceptualise and improve social policy making, community development and social work practice. Shields paper aims to give an analysis of schools as communities of difference as well as communities of diversity. Differences and diversity are both dealt with from the perspective of changes in society although there may be many problems inherent in such inter-racial coexistence. The use of diversity as a means of thinking about or defining community makes differences an essential part of an interactive society and social workers seem to have an important role in promoting unity and interaction in diversity and difference.

Evidence of Racial Diversity

Racial diversity and cultural differences are issues not just in schools and smaller communities but also in many workplaces, hospitals and clinical settings. Racial diversity is part of women’s social issues, in technical work groups, in developing leadership qualities and management programs. Several practices to manage racial diversity within the community aims at improving intercultural relations, along with promoting improved communication and interaction among different ethnic groups (Rutherford, 1990). This in turn improves leadership and management skills of people and serves the greater goal of community development.

Feminist theories and perspectives are in focus when we discuss workplace differences and many scholars realize that to increase potentialities and opportunities for women in the workplace gender awareness has to be replaced by multicultural awareness. Betters-Reed and Moore (1995) emphasize the need to explain the current management development paradigm that does not recognize diversity among women. They suggest a new all-inclusive paradigm for establishing a successful multicultural organization where opinions of all women as well as members of ethnic communities could be brought to light. The initial stages of individual and organizational awareness of understanding yet reconciling with differences is followed by the recognition that women also need to be treated equally in the field of management. There is a growing need to shift new approaches, attitudes and paradigms that recognizes women’s roles to replace older values in existing management development practices.

Case Study: For our case study we conducted interviews on 150 social members, all British citizens from the northern part of Yorkshire in the UK. Among the 150 community members 50, were from the Muslim faith of Arabic origin, 50 from Christian community within Europe, and the remaining 50 from Asian Hindu faith. The attitudes of all community towards members of other communities were studied using a questionnaire and a five-point scale. The questionnaire consisted of 100 questions and the answers ranged from strongly agree to agree, to neutral to disagree and strongly disagree. The questions were targeted to find out about the attitudes, whether positive or negative towards other different racial, ethnic or religious groups. All the responses were taken on a five-point scale and scores were then put through statistical analysis to get the results. Questions ranged from ‘you feel comfortable in the presence of members of other religious groups’ to ‘you are completely against inter-racial or inter-religious marriage or relationships of any kind’. Following statistical analysis of the results we aim to promote inter-racial interaction by designing community programs that would necessitate or encourage participation of all ethnic, racial and religious groups.

Our inter-cultural and inter-racial interaction program is thus aimed at promoting social harmony and friendship and positive relations among different ethnic and religious groups within the particular region of northern Yorkshire in Britain. As we have seen from all the research evidence discussed, greater and more central role of women, developing leadership and management perspectives as well as an open racial policy in schools and hospitals can actually help in leading a community towards improved community development and evolved inter-racial relations. Our social work practice community program was based on the following features:

Promoting inter-racial group activities
Promoting and encouraging inter-racial and inter-cultural programs
Encouraging women to take initiative in community development
Developing active leadership programs
Inter-racial culture and interactive associations to be promoted ion community centers, clubs, hospitals, libraries, workplaces, schools and religious institutions.

Considering these features and results from our initial study which suggested that there are huge cultural differences in how other communities are perceived by ethnic or racial groups, we suggest that promotion of a ‘dialogue culture’ and greater interaction among community members in all walks of life is essential for promotion of diversity and cultural unity.

Conclusion

In this essay we highlighted several studies that have emphasized on the need for promoting an interracial culture to encourage diversity in all aspects of life. A case study discussed here shows the differences in opinions of different cultural and racial groups in their perception of other ethnic groups. Following the initial study, we mentioned the importance of women’s role, leadership, management goals, and focus on group discussion and interracial participation in cultural and social programs as important in promoting diversity and racial sensitivity. We stressed on the need for ‘interaction’ and suggested that a practice of group discussions, organized community work, and regular meetings of different community members promoted by social workers can go a long way in changing a society of differences and diversity, into a society of unity, sharing and intercultural dialogue.

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A Project Intervention Plan Hung Hom
Li Ka Tik

The following paper is going to suggest an intervention plan on the Hung Hom community of Hong Kong’s Kowloon District. It briefly introduces the situation of Hung Hom and identifies the issues about inequality between rich and poor residents. Also, an intervention strategies and empowerment plans are propose based on the social action approach. The roles of CD worker in those plan and the foreseen challenges are mentioned in the last part.

About Hung Hom

Hung Hom is belonged to Kowloon City Districtand bordered by Hung Hom Bay in the east, No. 12 Hill, Hok Yuen and the valley Lo Lung Hang in the north, King’s Park in the west,Victoria Harbour in the south. It is a well-resourced community with over 17 social service agencies (Social Welfare Department), 28 educational facilities, 52 health clinics (www.lifein.hk), communal facilities, recreational facilities and business activities. The location of the community is near the cross harbor tunnel and is well connected by minibuses, buses and MTR, including the link from Shatin to Central which will be constructed soon.

Identifying Key Social Problems in Hung Hom

The problem of inequality between upper/middle class and grassroots is one of obvious social problem in Hung Hom. According to Rawls (1971), social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity. Moreover, for the second principle of justice, all social goods including opportunity, income, wealth and the bases of self-respect should be distributed equally unless an unequal distribution of any or all of thesegoods is to the advantages of the lease favored. Marshall (1963) indicated that equality not only mean the equality of income, but it also is a general enrichment of the concrete substance of civilized life, a general reduction of insecurity and risk as well as an equalization between the more and less fortunate at all levels so the equality of status is more important.

Hung Hom includes both of public estates and wealthier neighborhoods, which imply there is a large poverty gap. The 2011 Population Census Statistics for Hung Hom indicated the level of income inequality or socioeconomic gap between the upper class and the middle and lower classes which was probably a potential source of inequality.Despite its wide range of resources in Hung Hom, the resources are unevenly distributed in various parts of estates. Therefore, there is a potential inequality between those without and with access to the enough resources and the most obvious examples arethe health clinics and the kindergartens which concentrated in the wealthier neighborhoods such as Whampoa estate. Moreover, the majority of them is privately operated and targets the middle and upper class residents. Eventually, lower income residents in KaWai and Hung Hom estate need to seek the affordable services in other nearby districts because those services charge very high fees which are beyond the means of them. The equality of opportunity is also referring to ‘social mobility’. If there is an oppression of the education resources from the higher income residents, it is hard for the children from a grassroots family to elevate to a higher social status.

Therefore, an intervention planshould be created for victims of inequality in Hung Hom, the residents with lower income, to fight for reasonable resources distribution.

Rationales and objectives of using social action

According to Rothman (1984), there are there models of community practice and social action is one of the intervention approaches. It is the practice of taking action and usually as part of an organized group or community. The objective is to shift the power relationships and resources, in order to create positive change and generally in the direction of greater equity of economic and social justice.Social action relies on forcing the government to change aiming at benefiting the poor, such as the lower income residents in Hung Hom, and disadvantaged the oppressed.Social action gets people moving and makes them feel strong that they less submit meekly those who oppressed them. It gives them responsibility for their own lives and actions as well as their leadership potential so it leads a long-term positive social change.

Specific intervention strategies and empowerment plans

In order to have an effective and impactful intervention, a confrontational organizing approach is used that a campaign is going to be organized for the social action().

The vision of the campaign is that everyone in Hung Hom can enjoy an equality community, and the goal is creating an appropriate distribution of resources, especially on the educational and medical resources. The objective is to empower the grassroots in Hung Hom to fight for resources for themselves; to make a dramatic statement that will focus public attention on the situation of them; to request the government taking action on the issue of inequality in Hung Hom. Moreover, a slogan of the campaign is “Growing in Hung Hom, studying in Hung Hom!! Living in Hung Hom, Medical consultation in Hung Hom”.

Empowerment helps the populations that have traditionally been powerless or haven’t understood their potential to exercise their power. For example, grassroots residents in Hung Hom did not aware that they are oppressed to accept the limited medical and education resources and just thought that they are not rich enough to enjoy services so they should go to other nearby districts. In fact, they have the right to request the government to provide an enough public resources for them. Thus, the community education is very important, especially the Liberating education which is the most suitable method for social action, including a process of conscientization, a development of a critical thinking and an awareness of the hidden assumption of the policy. Moreover, empowerment motivates people to take other kinds of positive action, such as voicing out their collective opinions on other unequal resources allocation in their community.

Therefore, at the beginning of the campaign, the focus is to gather grassroots residents in Hung Hom and promote the right which they originally have and aware them they have the choices. For instance, they and their children can enjoy affordable public medical and educational services in their own community. The second step is to encourage them to attend, as a group, a public meeting at which an issue of interest to their community is being discussed, in order to let them understand the policy related to their needs more, so that they can think more and propose the idea to the policy marker. A well communication channel and platform is very important to express the needs and requests. Thus, once they have built in the concept, communications, such as letters, phone calls, email, etc, with policy makers and others in authority (such as the Chief Executive, Secretary of Education) are organized. It is not enough to affect the policy marker if the voice is limited in the grassroots residents in Hung Hom. Therefore, encouraging media reporting is the next step, which helps to find a support from the public for this social action, by persuading the media to cover events or to publish stories that highlight particular issues or embarrass politicians and others in power who refuse accept the reasonable suggestion advised by the grassroots residents in Hung Hom. In order to make a larger impact on public’s mind for the issues, a street theater will be held at the last part of the campaign, which is meant to ridicule the opposition and to convey profound message in a way that is easily understood and entertaining. Finally, if the social action gains an initial success, there will be aevaluation section including the effective of the empowerment, the assessment of the modified resources allocation and the situation of inequality in Hung Hom as well as the coming planning on the prospect of equality community in Hung Hom.

Roles of CD worker in those intervention strategies

As a CD worker, there are four roles including enhancing the social interactions and functions of individual and their groups and communities; educating public on economic and social injustice that may hinder community functioning; initiating an advocacy for policy changes in response to needs identified by the community and the society and help them to articulate their common concerns and needs to the public, the government; and formulating and implement social policies, services, and programs that support the development of human capacities.

Foreseen challenges and difficulties

The redistribution of resources in Hung Hom is obviously beneficial to the grassroots residents. On the contrary, the interest of residents with higher income is affected, so they will oppose the policy proposed by grassroot. Moreover, Hong Kong is a free-market society with a lower tax system that government is unwilling to spend too much money on education and medical services in Hung Hom avoiding the affecting of free-market system.

In conclusion, there are lot of difficulties, created by upper class and government, on reaching an equality community. Therefore, based on confrontational organizing approach, the campaign with social action is the most suitable method and it help to empower the grassroots resident in Hung Hom and make an advocacy to ask for resources for them.

References

Census and Statistics Department Hong Kong. 2011 Population Census – Fact Sheet for Kowloon City District Council Hung Hom (G14-G20). Accessed online from http://www.census2011.gov.hk/en/district-profiles/ca/kowloon-city/g19.html on 24 Feb 2014.

Chui E., Ho L., Law C.K., Lee K.M., Lee V. & Wong Y.C.. (2010) Report of The Study of The Future Directions of Providing Social Work Services within the New Urban Renewal Strategy to be Formulated

Cox, F. M., Erlich, J. L., Rothman, J., & Tropman, J. E. (Eds). (1987). Strategies of community organisation. (4th ed). ITASCA, IL: PEACOCK Publishing, Inc.

Marshall, T. H. (1963) ‘Citizenship and social class’, in T. H. Marshall (ed.), Sociology at the Crossroads (London: Heinemann), pp. 67–127.

Rawls, J. (1971). A Theory of Justice. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

Websites

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www.lifein.hk

It is widely documented that Indigenous Australians have poorer health outcomes than non-Indigenous Australians (Dempsey & Zhao 2006; Germov 2002; Zhao, Guthridge, Magnus & Vos 2004). According to the Australian Indigenous Health InfoNet website (2009), Indigenous Australians have the poorest health status of all populations living in Australia with contributing factors, including but not limited to, education, employment status and socio economic status. There are also a number of social determinants which contribute to poor health outcomes such as dispossession, social supports and gender (Germov 2002). Community development and public health play significant roles in the promotion of health and in the reduction in the health disparities which exist between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians.

Community development, has been found to be a successful method to improve public health and health outcomes in places of poverty where populations have extreme health disparity (Baum 2008). Conversely, there have been many examples where community development has been aversive to improving public health (Ife & Tesoriero 2006 p 234). In answering the question: ‘what is the meaning of community development and public health?’, this essay will explain the various existing definitions of community development and related terms such as community building, capacity building and social capital; provide examples of how community development approaches to public health have been implemented in Indigenous communities; and how Government and non-Government Organisations utilise these methods in practice.

As evidenced in this essay, community development as an approach to improving public health is an effective method where it is implemented accurately. One must question how often community development approaches to public health are effectively implemented due to the disheartening life expectancy of Indigenous Australians, which is up to 20 years lower than that of non-Indigenous Australians (Oxfam Australia 2007). We need to stop and listen to the Traditional Owners of this land; this country we call Australia. They will guide us, show us and teach us the way to improve their health and wellbeing.

Defining Community Development and Public Health

Community development within public health seeks to empower individuals and groups within communities to take control over and improve health outcomes through working with community members from the ground up, referred to as a “grassroots approach” (Ife & Tesoriero 2006, p. 121; Ife 1995, p. 96-97). It is a contemporary practice used by practitioners to promote wellbeing and enhance lifestyle and has been shown to play an important role in developing public health across Indigenous populations of Australia (Campbell, Pyett & McCarthy 2007).

Community development is a strategy which can be used in public health to improve health outcomes through the implementation of programs and projects within communities. Baum (2008) views community development as the ability to improve health among populations by working directly with communities to empower them to take control over circumstances that play a role in effecting health outcomes. Successful community development involves identifying needs then working with members of the community to promote empowerment to make long term sustainable development changes. In support of this statement, Campbell, Pyett & McCarthy (2007) promote the idea that developing healthier Indigenous communities involves enhancing existing community capacity through empowerment. Laverack (2006) reinforces this notion through his use of the ‘domains’ approach, with one domain focussing on encouraging local leadership through enhancing existing community capacity. Ife (2005) supports this idea with the application of a number of principles which must be applied in practice including empowerment, sustainability, ownership and participation. Community changes must take place from the very local level and can therefore be a very long and intricate process.

In defining community development, social capital is a term often used in a positive sense to enhance community development practice. It is believed to bring about change by bringing community members together, creating engagement and social support which can promote public health and enhance community development (Baum 2008). In promoting community development it can therefore be said that the utility of social capital can improve health status among communities. Carson et al (eds. 2007 p. 110) discusses the potential of social capital to provide insight into improving health standards of indigenous populations despite varying contentions surrounding the notion. Creating positive social engagement of community members assists in the development of relationships between people and the ability to work together to achieve a common goal, an important aspect of defining community development.

In following from this, Bryson & Mowbray (2005) associate social capital with the term community capacity building, another concept related to community development in public health. The term is used by individuals as a strategy to improve community development and or as a similar alternative to community development initiatives and interventions. The Australian International Health Institute promotes community capacity as increasing health by ‘strengthening the ability of a community through increasing social cohesion and building social capital’ (Arole, Fuller & Deutschman n.d) Community capacity building enhances the capacity of community members to take control in bringing about change. The use of these strategies and its approach can pave the way for health improvements in Indigenous communities.

Community Development and Public Health in Indigenous communities

Community building is used by individuals and organisations to enhance the process of community development. Ife & Tesoreiro (2006) explain that community building is an important factor in influencing successful community development which involves bringing community members together through small projects. The idea that community members are joining together to work towards a common goal contributes to ‘group process, inclusiveness, building trust and developing a common sense of purpose…critically important in community building’ (Ife & Tesoreiro 2006, p. 185). Community building is often used to promote public health within Indigenous communities through bringing individuals together to identify a problems or needs. Community members therefore share a common goal and work together to address the issue.

Senior & Chenall (2007) demonstrate the way community building can enhance community development in ‘Stopping Sniffing is Our Responsibility’. The Aboriginal community members identified petrol sniffing as a health and social problem so a common goal was identified and the people developed a program to help combat the problem, contributing to development of the community. Although success of the intervention was not long lived, due numerous factors, including lack of resources it demonstrated to the community members that they were able to work together to make positive changes. Community development in relation to Indigenous communities requires specific, intricate approaches. Approaches must be conducted in a culturally sensitive manner which ‘enables indigenous people to have genuine control over their own community and their own destiny’ (Ife & Tesoreiro 2006, p. 2350). If community development approaches in indigenous communities must therefore incorporate cultural understanding.

The definitions and approaches evident in Many Ways Forwards: report of enquiry into capacity building and service delivery in Indigenous Communities, House of Representatives standing committee on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Affairs, June 2004

The government report Many Ways Forward, the Report of the Inquiry into Capacity Building and Service Delivery in Indigenous Communities (2004) provides a political view of community development in relation to Indigenous health. The report looks at the effectiveness of and ways to enhance and increase in the participation of services delivered to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders within their communities through building community capacities.

Throughout the report a number of organisations express their own views on the meaning of community capacity. The Department of Family and Community Services (FaCS) define community capacity as incorporating four elements including commitment, resources, knowledge and skills. Whilst Aboriginal Affairs Victoria define community capacity as ‘strategies/programs/initiatives which seek to empower, motivate and enable individuals, families and communities…to pursue their own development goals’ (House of Representatives Standing Committee On Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Affairs, 2004 pg 15). This is just a small example of a number of definitions, which emphasises that the practice of community development can mean different things to individuals.

The utilisation of community development in practice by Governments & non-Government Organisations (NGOs)

The political report ‘Many Ways Forward Report of the Inquiry into Capacity Building and Service Delivery in Indigenous Communities’ identifies a number of government approaches to community development and the need to enhance government capacities including the ‘COAG Trial,’ Indigenous Whole of Government Initiative. The program is aimed at improving the delivery of programmes and services to Indigenous communities, based on a concept of ‘shared responsibility’ where ‘condition and wellbeing of Indigenous communities is one shared by the community, its families and individuals with Governments’ (Department of Education, Employment and Work Place Relations website, 2010). The commencement of this trial took place in 2002. Another whole of government approach is The Waterloo/Redfern Partnership Program which has a number of smaller programs including community strengthening activities designed to develop communities of Redfern and Waterloo (NSW) which advocate the implementation of social capital (Redfern-Waterloo Community Safety Plan, 2004). Along with these programs there are a number of state and territory government programs including ***

Along with the small example of government programs, The Northern Territory Government’s Emergency Response (NTER) has had a big impact on Indigenous public health within communities and should not go without mention. The NTER was established in 2007 by the Howard government which has implemented a number of measures with a target of five years to improve future prospects of Indigenous Australians living in the NT and promote community safety and the protection of children (Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs website, 2009). As part of the program the government implemented eleven measures in order to reach goals with the addition of another measure involving the NT only, abolition of the community development employment program (CDEP) (Altman, 2007). Whilst the intervention has been put in place to develop Indigenous communities many individuals and organisations have either supported or strongly criticised this approach.

Oxfam Australia is one of the organisations which made a critical response to the intervention, in particular relation to proposed amendments to the Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976. Oxfam Australia argues the effectiveness of implementing two of the measures, (measures 5 and 10) reporting that they will hinder development in the form of empowerment among communities (Altman, 2007). Oxfam Australia is a non government organisation which promotes development through implementation of programs providing community members with knowledge and the resources to assist community members to identify problems and encourage them to find their own solutions through sustainable development (Oxfam Australia website, 2009). Oxfam have a number of community development projects focused on developing the capacities of Indigenous communities within Australia. An example of this is through working alongside Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisations and supporting Aboriginal Health Workers with a focus on promoting community ownership of health issues (Oxfam Australia website, 2009).

World Vision Australia adopts similar approaches to community development in practice. The organisation is focused on improving living conditions of people living third world circumstances. The organisation advocates core principles of community development including working with communities to promote self-sufficient, sustainable development. World vision conducts work in Australia to assist in community development in Indigenous communities with a primary focus on developing long-term community development programs and enhancing future prospects of young Indigenous Australians through training and education programs (How World Vision works, 2007).

Problems associated with the various definitions, such as difficulties concerning feasibility or inconsistencies between the terms of the definitions and actual practice

As can be seen there a various definitions to concepts surrounding community development in public health. A number of authors illustrate the problems which can exist in the theoretical idea of community development and putting the process into practice. The term ‘community’ alone proves to offer differing meanings to individuals and organisations, often conflicting (Baum 2008; Bryson & Mowbray 1981; Ife & Tesoreiro 2006). Makuwira (n.d) discusses how the term community capacity building can have many discourses and often contradiction in meaning and practice and how this can negatively impact on capacity development of Indigenous communities. The Community development Resource Association (Makuwira n.d, p. 3) poses the question that perhaps a lack of written meaning on the term community capacity building contributes to the poor ability to effectively implement the processes. The House of Representatives Many Ways forward report emphasises that a number of different definitions of community building and community capacity building exists and is recognised to have cause implications in moving forward with community development within Australia.

It should also be noted that difficulties concerning the feasibility of implementing the principles of community development can be observed through the way organisations, both Government and non-Government, work in the NT. It can be noted anecdotally that attempts at community development occur through a centralised support system. Most organisations operate from central locations, such as Alice Springs, Tennant Creek, Katherine, Gove and Darwin, with staff ‘visiting’ communities to provide support. Yes, this system can work effectively, but it is not implementing principles of community development in their raw intentions. These intentions are to work alongside people to enable them to take control over their lives and to and promote sustainable changes. The support is often temporary providing a bandaid approach which is inconsistent and therefore limits the effectiveness of long term sustainable changes occurring.

Conclusion

Community development is a term which possesses a variety of different definitions with associated concepts and practices. The discourse highlights the conflict which results from the confusion associated with a variety of definitions and practices. Too often, community development practitioners become too engaged in the rhetoric and lose sight of the meaning behind the principles and way of working. As evidenced in this essay, there is a lot of theory on community development practice, however limited evidence of success in developing Indigenous communities. Community development practice needs to focus on consistent methods that do work and how these can be implemented across the board if we are to see improvements in public health and the health outcomes of Indigenous Australians. Ultimately, where community people (who are involved in the community development process) are starting to take control over factors affecting their health, community development in practice is working.

From a service users perspective, critically evaluate people with substance misuse who live in supported housing.
Introduction

This paper discusses some salient aspects of community care of people with substance misuse who live in supported housing in the UK. Some of the issues that would be discussed include community care provisions with reference to legislative enactments; policy and practice initiatives in service sectors; a short review of the developments of community care policy and practice; an evaluation of the experiences of community care in a district and on different service users and carers– all these keeping in mind the requirement of anti-oppressive practice in working with service users and carers in community care.

To keep the arguments within the ambit of the meaning and implications of the topic of discussion, and to impart clarity and precision to them, it is thought prudent to define at the outset the terms and concepts used in the course of discussion. A contextual definition of ‘service users’ adopted from the one given by Hanley et al in their 2003 INVOLVE report is that ‘service users’ are ‘patients; unpaid carers; parents/guardians; users of health services; disabled people; members of the public who are the potential recipients of health promotion/public health programmes; groups asking for research because they believe they have been exposed to potentially harmful circumstances, products or services; groups asking for research because they believe they have been denied products or services from which they believe they could have benefited; organisations that represent service users and carers” (Hanley, B et al, 2003, p.13). The words or the phrase “substance misuse” means the use of illegal drugs, or the improper use of alcohol, or prescribed medication, or over-the-counter medicines, or volatile substances such as aerosols and glue. ‘Substance misuse’ has become as much a serious problem among older adults as among the young; causing physical and mental health problems for them. Substance misuse has also the wider impact of affecting not only the lives of those directly involved but also those of their families and the communities in which they live. Gavin defines supported housing as “accommodation wherereceipt of housing supportservices is a condition of residence” (Gavin, n. d.) He continues to say that such “accommodationcan be grouped individual self-contained flats, or may be shared housing, with or without shared communal facilities. Support staff may be based on-site or be visiting staff. This type of housing is usually provided for groups of people with similar needs, e.g. older people, homeless people, people with mental health problems or those recovering from alcohol problems. People can live in supported housing for varying lengths of time, dependent on their individual needs and the type of service” (Gavin, n.d).

Government Policy in respect of service and care

In one of its published documents (DH 2002), the Department of Health has given detailed guidance about the regulation on ‘Supported Housing and Care Homes’. The document begins by saying that “Government policy for community care aims to promote independence, while protecting service users’ safety” (DH 2002). Contextually, here ‘independence’ would obviously imply the freedom for individuals to choose on their own the housing, the care and support, including the embedded choices in respect of risk and protection. One objective of the Care Standards Act, 2000 has been to ensure high standards of care and to protect vulnerable people. The Act, however, has not changed the definition of a care home and matters implicit in that definition. “In respect of “personal care” the specified types of care include assistance in physical activities such as feeding, bathing, toileting, and dressing; in non-physical tasks such as encouragement, advice and supervision relating to physical activities; and emotional and psychological support in social functioning, behaviour management, and assistance with cognitive functions” (DH 2002).

Anti-oppressive stance in service users and carers in community care

In a multi-racial and multicultural society such as that of the UK, it is imperative that service users and carers should rise above common prejudices and discriminatory practices to be true to the requirements of their profession. To assist voluntary adherence to such practices, the UK has enacted legislation mandating anti-discriminatory practices in the provision of ‘social services’ and care facilities. This requirement is incorporated in the Sex Equality Act 1975, the Race Relations Act 1976 and the Children Act 1989; and reinforced by other legislations such as the Disability Discrimination Act 1995, the Race Relations Amendment Act 2000 and the Human Rights Act 1998. Anti-oppressive practice demands knowledge of the legislation and an understanding of the personal values of service users. An Open University document says that some of the ways in which anti-oppressive practice enter into practice include “‘colour-blindness’ (or blindness to other aspects of identity): ‘multi-culturalism’: thinking that it is enough to learn about other people’s culture and to celebrate diversity without examining our own attitudes; concentration on one aspect of identity to the exclusion of others; failing to ask service users how they like to be thought of, in other words asking them to define their own identity; cultural relativism: excusing abusive or criminal behaviour on the grounds of culture or other aspects of identity; failing to act for fear of being thought racist (or sexist, ageist or disablist). Social workers need to examine and question the sources and nature of their own power and the ways in which this is exercised in their relations with children and families and service users” (OUL, p. 107). It is also necessary to encourage the use and implementation of the GSCC’s Codes of Practice to social care workers, service users and carers (GSCC, 2002).

Service users relation with anti-oppression practices (AOP) need a little further elaboration, as it is a much debated issue and an equally ‘sore’ one in the repertory of the social workers’ kitty. It can be said that in recent years public conscience has been outraged at an all-pervasive emergence of AOP in the work of service users and a simultaneous emergence of the ‘philosophy of ‘anti-oppressive practice’ in social work challenging discrimination in all forms and along all lines of disparity, including race or ethnicity, culture, sexuality, gender, disability and age. It is to the credit of ‘social work providers’ to have pioneered this development and to come in for the brunt of much criticism (Wilson and Beresford, 2000). We find that in 1970 an influential document, The Client Speaks did not include in its sample service users people not born in the UK “since the reaction of ‘non-natives’ to social work are likely to be complicated by cultural

differences, language problems and so forth” (Meyer and Timms, 1970). However, despite social work’s ‘commitment’ to AOP policies and practices, equal access to services and support, and the provision of “culturally appropriate services and support have continued to be qualified” (Watson and Riddell, 2003). Inadequate access, or repeated denial of it, to important social work and social care services were reported by minority ethnic service users, who also said to have been ‘pushed’ as it were to the use of less valued areas of intervention in care services (Beresford and others, 1987; Vernon, 1996). Morris (1996) says that there is a wide prevalence of ‘inappropriate assumptions about BME (Black and Minority Ethnic) service users’; “for example, the levels of informal support available to them, continue to be reported (Morris, 1996). Some issues relating to refugees and asylum seekers, “where social work may be expected to be part of the policing and control processes introduced where citizen rights have not been granted or have been refused” were also said to worrying issues. (Shah, 1995). Other issues pointed out by service users in which they experience problems relate to their social work practice on the basis of gender, disability and age (Morris, 1991).

Another issue concerning community care, although not directly related to AOP, has been the ‘inordinate pressure’ for people to be placed in residential care. Large number of people is estimated to be living in such provisions and they include older people and disabled people of younger age, who according to service users could be supported to live in their own homes n accordance with the objectives of the community care paradigm. Along with the increase in the number of people in supported housing, another development has been that the service users have been able to impact on policy (Thompson, 1991). This has been evident from the introduction of direct payments schemes with new legislation in 1997 (Glendinning and others, 2000). People receiving direct payments have steadily increased in number along with the expansion of the range of service users receiving direct payments. (example, Newbigging with Lowe, 2005). It may be recalled that direct payments were pioneer by the disabled people’s movement. The aim was to put the individuals who received support to be in charge of the cash that the support would cost; and for them to decide on what support they wanted; from where to have that support (from disabled people’s organizations, for instance); to initiate and run such schemes; and for the support to be sufficient to make it possible for them to have ‘independent living’; that is to say for people to live their lives as far as possible on equal terms to non-disabled people or non-service users (Barnes, 1993). Direct payments scheme, however, met with serious problems and obstacles which undermined it. Local Authorities officials opposed it because they in the scheme a steep erosion of their control over their own services. In many instances the prescribed budgetary limits have meant that direct payments have often not been sufficient to ensure independent living. Further,

“frequently there has not been equity between service users; the process of assessment has continued to be dominated by traditional professional values, direct payments appear often to have been understood officially in consumerist terms (as if people were just buying services), rather than as a means of empowerment, requiring infrastructural support; and contracts have increasingly been placed away from disabled people’s organisations to commercial organisations which have undercut them and offered an inferior service. The cumulative effect has been to subvert direct payments as a truly different approach to personal and social support (Beresford and others, 2005). The government has reiterated its policy of individualised approaches to support a central plank in social care policy by bringing together different funding agencies to provide support for service users (Duffy, 2004, 2006).

Care-service in Bradford

To examine a representative district-centred programme to tackle the ‘evil’ of alcohol misuse, a brief account of the Bradford district’s ‘alcohol harm reduction strategy’ is considered here. According to a ‘Draft Status Report’ on the subject, “Bradford is in the highest (worst) quartile for all three types of alcohol-related crime (all crimes; violent offences; sexual offences) included in the 2006 Local Alcohol Profiles for England (NWPHO). The number of all crimes in Bradford attributable to alcohol in both 2004-5 and 2005-6 was just over 12 per 1000, down from nearly 15 per 1000 in 2003-4; alcohol related violent offences for all three years was fairly stable at between 8 and 9 per 1000 population. Alcohol-related sexual offences increased significantly in 2005-6 to a three-year high of around 0.16 per 1,000 (NWPHO, 2006 – this data is based on the Government Strategy Unit’s formula for alcohol attributable fractions for each crime, which was developed from survey data on arrestees who tested positive for alcohol). 20% of Penalty Notices for Disorder (PNDs) issued by WY Police in 2004 to 16 and 17-year olds, and 24% of those to adults, were for alcohol-related disorders” (Smith, 2006). To tackle this problem of alcohol misuse Bradford District has put in place ‘the Bradford District Alcohol Harm Reduction Strategy’ based on the 2004 National strategy for the purpose. The Bradford Strategy has the objective of “continually reducing alcohol misuse and the personal and social harms it causes, so enabling ever-increasing numbers of Bradford residents and visitors to live healthy and fulfilling lives, free from crime, disorder, intimidation, anti-social behaviour and avoidable health problems” (Smith 2006). Specifically the strategy aims to “reduce the number of people who drink alcohol above recommended limits; to reduce alcohol-related crime, disorder, nuisance and anti-social Behaviour; to reduce the harm caused by alcohol misuse within families; to reduce the prevalence of harmful drinking by children and young people aged under-18; to reduce alcohol-related accidents and fires; and to ensure that Bradford City Centre and outer town and village centres are areas that the local population and visitors can enjoy without fear of alcohol-related violence and victimization” (Smith 2006).

The Bradford Metropolitan District Council APA Impact Analysis 2007, says that “134 young people in substance misuse treatment (April – Feb 07) shows 54 YP currently Receiving substance misuse treatment from Specialist CAMHS [Centre for Addiction and Mental Health Service]; 100% of young offenders are screened for substance misuse in 2006/07, and 92.9% of those testing positive were referred for specialist assessment, an improvement of 16.4% on the previous year. The figure for entry to treatment also increased by 9.6%. In 06/07 there have been 4 substance related admissions to hospital in young people aged under19 years mirroring figures for 2005/06” {Bradford Metropolitan District Council APA Impact Analysis, 2007).

Development of community care policy

The UK community care policy is based on three planks of ‘autonomy’, ‘empowerment’ and ‘choice’ (Levick 1992). There have been disputes going on since the introduction of the NHS and Community Care Act (1990). On the one hand, the Act and its policy guidance have been seen as a significant development in the care reform for older people.

Three factors have contributed to the enactment of the legislation: first ‘the marketisation’ of the public sector from 1979 onwards (Means and Smith 1997); second, in theory, joint planning between health and social services promoted integrated and multidisciplinary community services; in practice, such arrangements failed to realise such services and were criticised as pedestrian and ‘patchy’; and third, the government policy of privatisation encouraged people to enter private residential homes through a system of social security financing different from that of local and health authorities. (Mooney 1997). This policy essentially channelled public sector funds into the private institutional sector while leaving the domiciliary sector chronically under-resourced. It is the older people who were adversely affected in a serious manner by the policies of the 1980s in respect of community care. The Audit Commission (1986) pointed out the principal fallacy of the ‘perverse financial incentive’ which supported the development of private institutional care at the expense of community care, through the income support system. In 1989 government accepted the findings of the Griffiths Report of 1988 and came out with a three-pronged policy: user choice, non-institutional services promotion, and targeting. In 1990, the Community Care Act was put on the statute book.

Conclusion

In concluding this essay it may be recalled that this paper has been an exercise in delineating some important aspects and issues relating to people with substance misuse who live in supported housing in UK. In the course of discussion issues relating to the various concepts and concerns of the subject matter of the discourse have been explored and analysed. It was seen that service users want to see social work which will be non-discriminatory and which will intervene on their behalf, offer support to secure their rights and needs. It has also been seen argued that “social work could be more effective in safeguarding service users (both adults and children) from the risks that they currently encounter in the social care system, including serious risks of neglect, abuse, denial of rights, bullying, racism, etc” (Beresford and others, 2005; Branfield and others, 2005).

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COMMUNITY ASSESSMENT

Introduction

The community of Mocksville, North Carolina comprises a vibrant neighborhood with over 5,000 residents (Town, 2015). Mocksville’s town center has a well-established organization for economic opportunities, and is enclosed by four large oak trees, which anchor the center of town, and offer a beautiful sight as their branches extend over Main Street. Mocksville also offers education opportunities with state of the art technology. The system runs from pre-school through high school and early college. Civic clubs, recreational activities, performing arts and a strong respect for values are also aspects that make Mocksville, North Carolina a great place to call home or to visit (Town, 2015). Through collecting community data about the citizens, and conducting a windshield assessment and an interview, a need was discovered within Mocksville, and a plan to address that need was formulated.

Community Data

According to census data (2010), the population of Mocksville, North Carolina was 5,051. When it comes to gender, 2,770 (54.8%) people out of the total population were female, and 2,281 (45.2%) were male (Census, 2010). The primary race in Mocksville was Caucasian, with 3,734 people identifying as white. African American’s comprised 14.6 percent of the population, with 736 people identifying as such. 12 percent of the population identified as Hispanic and Latino, which is 607 people (Census, 2010).

The age ranges in Mocksville are not even. The bulk of the population, 56.8 percent, is between the ages of 18 and 64. 18.3 percent are 65 years of age or older, and 24.9 percent are under the age of 18 (Mocksville, 2015). According to economic information in the census (2010), the median household income was $40,553, and 18.7 percent of the population are below the poverty level.

When it comes to geographic parameters, Mocksville is 7.54 square miles (Mocksville, 2015). Mocksville’s history is rooted in tobacco and farming. Back in that time, Mocksville was home to a few famous residents, such as Daniel Boone, who lived near Mocksville from 1750 to 1759, Thomas Ferebee, who was a Hiroshima bombardier, J. D. Gibbs, son of Joe Gibbs, Hinton Rowan Helper, and Roy L. Williams (Mocksville, 2015).

Next, the average family size in Mocksville is 3.02. There are 884 husband-wife family households, 200 single males, and 401 single females. Education is an important part of Mocksville’s structure. In the census (2010), 78.9 percent of the population were said to be a high school graduate or higher, and 23.4 percent were said to have a Bachelor’s degree or higher. Despite the levels of education possessed by the citizens of Mocksville, the unemployment rate is 5.8 percent, and only 2,270 people above the age of 16 are employed (Mocksville, 2015).

Government data shows that the political systems in place are primarily republican, however there is also democratic, and libertarian sway in Mocksville (Census, 2010). The city has a political structure and representation. The state senate and house both have a member from Mocksville representing Davie County as a whole. They are Andrew Brock and Julia Howard (Elected, 2015). The next level on the government tier are the Davie County Commissioners, then comes the Clerk of Superior Court and the register of Deeds. The Sheriff and District Court Judges come next followed by the Mayor of Mocksville, and Mocksville Commissioners (Board, 2015). When it comes to Mocksville’s relationship to law enforcement, there are 21 full time law enforcement employees who live in the city (Mocksville, 2015). The Mocksville Police Department is located on Main Street close to the town center. Mocksville has plenty of government services that are provided. There are 42 full time government employees, who live in Mocksville (Mocksville, 2015). The city provides parks and recreation, streets and highways, police protection, firefighters, financial administration, water supply, and sewerage.

Windshield Assessment

Mocksville has a lot of character when it comes to its physical features. The houses are well-kept and not dilapidated or boarded up. The streets are paved, with very few pot holes, and there are streetlights and sidewalks all the way down Main Street. The communities condition is old but well maintained. With it being a small town rooted in farming, there are a lot of old Plantation, and Victorian style homes. The community is visibly bifurcated, which means it is stratified into higher and lower income areas. The old, large, plantation homes are on one end of Main Street, and smaller dwellings, and brick homes are on the other end of Main Street.

There are many small businesses along Main Street in Mocksville, and very few big businesses. Some smaller businesses include a music instrument store, ice cream parlor, local bars, florists, a book store, and an antique store. Three of the bigger businesses on Main Street are the Davie County Enterprise, Boost Mobile, and NAPA Auto Parts.

There are three different houses of worship on Main Street. These include a Methodist, and Presbyterian Church, as well as a Life Christian Church. Along with places to worship, Mocksville has public facilities such as parks, recreation centers, schools, and human service agencies. Rich Park is located right off Main Street, and the Brock Center for the Arts is a recreation center located close to the Methodist Church near the town center. Mocksville is home to four schools, which are South Davie Middle School, Davie High School, Davie County Early College High School, and the Davie County Community College. The human service agencies in Mocksville are the Department of Social Services, Davie County Hospital, Davie County Health Department, and the Davie County Senior Center.

While driving down Main Street, doing the windshield assessment, the people in Mocksville were seen walking, and talking on cell phones, driving older vehicles, looking in store windows, going into the town hall building and the license plate building, and a few landscapers were seen mowing and trimming yards. Essentially, Mocksville is a busy town during the week.

Interview

An interview was conducted with an older member of the community of Mocksville, on March 11^th, 2015, to discuss the resources in the town. Her name is Angela Cope, and she was born in 1955, making her 60 years old (personal communication, March 11, 2015). She stated that she has lived in Mocksville her whole life and has watched it grow from a rural farm town into, the city it is today. The first question asked was “what are the community’s resources within the community?” Mrs. Cope stated “well there’s a lot of things like that. The police and fire stations are nearby and the hospital is right down the road here. I have neighbors that are a big resource for me and my husband, in case of things like emergencies” (personal communication, March 11, 2015). The next question asked was “what resources are used by the community outside the community, and how are they accessed?” Mrs. Cope stated “The only thing I can think of are the hospitals in Winston. My husband had a stroke a few years ago and had to be taken there by ambulance. My doctors are over in Winston to, and i drive myself to my appointments” (personal communication, March 11, 2015). The next question was “are there any informal human services available in Mocksville?” Mrs. Cope asked for that to be clarified, so a few examples were given such as neighbors, and charities. Mrs. Cope stated that “oh yes, my neighbors have been a big help to me and my husband. The people around here are really nice.” When asked who the leaders were in Mocksville, Mrs. Cope stated “You know, I’m not sure. I know Andy Stokes is the Sherriff, but I don’t know anyone on the town board. We have a mayor though” (personal communication, March 11, 2015).

The next question asked was “do you know about Mocksville’s communication patterns?” She stated, “The only thing like that I know about is 911. I think the building is over by the hospital. I hear the fire stations sirens going off sometimes, and we have a weather scanner in the kitchen. I hear about Davie County being under weather alerts sometimes like during thunderstorms” (personal communication, March 11, 2015). When asked what the general feel is of Mocksville to its residents, Mrs. Cope stated that “Oh, Mocksville is a great place to live. Everything I need is close by and the people are nice.” Next asked was “how do you think Mocksville is perceived by outsiders?” She stated, “Well I hope they think it’s nice. It’s got this historic look to it that people like” (personal communication, March 11, 2015). The next question was, “Does Mocksville have any traditions?” Mrs. Cope said, “Yeah, we have a Christmas parade every year. There’s the bed races, and the lights they put on the big oak trees at Christmas time. It’s really pretty.” The next question asked was, “What are the strengths of the community?” She stated, “I think the people are a strength, and the resources we have” (personal communication, March 11, 2015). The last questions asked was, “what are the human service needs of the community?” In response, Mrs. Cope stated that “The only need I can think about are things for seniors. We have the senior resource center, but when I was taking care of my mom before she passed, I would have liked some more help. It was hard on me and my husband” (personal communication, March 11, 2015).

Plan

After the interview, the next step for this community assessment is planning an intervention that a social worker could do with the community, which meets a need identified by the community. Based upon this assessment, a need discovered was more senior services, particularly helping caregivers who are caring for their parent or loved one. To form an intervention based on this need, Asset Based Community Development, or ABCD, was used. It is a strategy for sustainable community driven development. ABCD builds on the assets that are already found in the community and mobilizes individuals, associations, and institutions to come together to build on their assets– not concentrate on their needs.

An asset Mocksville already has, when it comes to the older adult population, is the Davie County Senior Resource Center. The center already has many activities and programs for seniors; however, the center could house and do more for this population. An intervention to propose is an elder daycare center. The senior center is located in the heart of Davie County and could offer a great location for such a program. An elder daycare center would simply be adding on to the services already offered at the senior center, and would help give caregivers a reprieve for a few hours during the day to relax or run errands. Simply, the elderly population is growing not only in small towns like Mocksville, but all over the United States. As these numbers increase, the resources for this population will need to increase as well.

Conclusion

In conclusion, through collecting community data about the citizens, and conducting a windshield assessment and an interview, a need was discovered within Mocksville, North Carolina, and a plan to address that need was formulated. With a population of over 5,000 and almost 20% being older adults, the need of a resource for caregivers in Mocksville became apparent, and even more so after an interview with a citizen of the town. By using an ABCD approach, the strengths of the community were assessed, and the possible intervention of an elder daycare center was formed. To end, community resources are vital for all populations to thrive. Mocksville has met that need, but will need to continue to grow its assets to meet the needs of a growing elderly population.

References

Davie County, NC Appointed Board Members. (2015). Retrieved from http://www.daviecountync.gov/index.aspx?NID=483

Davie County, NC Elected Officials. (2015). Retrieved from http://www.daviecountync.gov/DocumentCenter/Home/View/25

Mocksville Town, North Carolina QuickLinks. (2010). US Census Bureau. Retrieved from http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/37/3743720lk.html

Mocksville, North Carolina Profile. (2015). Retrieved from http://www.city-data.com/city/Mocksville-North-Carolina.htm

Town of Mocksville, NC. (2015). Retrieved March 31, 2015, from http://mocksvillenc.org/

In the context of Social Work practice learning (Children’s Services Assessment Team) and the social work role discuss a particular piece of practice, giving consideration to the skills and models of communication and empowerment that were used.

Introduction

Organized under the United Kingdom’s Department of Health, Children’s Services represents a division of Social Care which is administered in each region under the auspices of the Children’s Commissioner (Children Act 2004). Children’s Services is committed to the safeguarding and rights of children through high quality services over a broad array of provisions. The Children’s Assessment Team under the Department of Health has the responsibility for the handling of children and their families who have benne either referred and or have contacted their respective Child Care agency (London Borough of Barking & Dagenham, 2006). The preceding includes the offering of advice and help while ensuring that the correct decisions are rendered with regard to the urgency dictated by the circumstances along with the proper response level.

The preceding represents an ‘assessment’ as carried out in each individual circumstance, which requires skills, communication and the powers to carried the aforementioned out. This examination shall look into a particular area of practice concerning Social Work in the Children’s Services Assessment Team, giving consideration to the skills, models of communication and empowerment involved.

The Referral and Assessment aspect of Children’s Services represents one of the most important areas of the many services offered by this Department in that it is responsible for acting upon referrals concerning children and their families that are in need of assessment (Southwark Council, 2006). The Referral and Assessment Team provides intervention as well as support and is responsible for the initial intake process covering the assessment of need and urgency, prioritizing said cases on an individual basis (Barnett London Borough, 2006). One of the most important areas, which includes child protection, legal proceedings and that children in need are looked after, is the initial process which identifies a child in need as opposed to child protection (Wrexham County Borough, 2001). The manner in which the referral was initiated has a bearing upon the type of skill, communication and application of techniques involved. In this instance, this examination shall utilize the example of an abused child that has been brought to the attention of Child Services through calls made by a concerned citizen, or other means. The data and information gathered in the initial contact, regarding the allegation, requires immediate follow up to assess the truthfulness of the allegation and thus whether further action is warranted (Barnett London Borough, 2006). Said referral can come from a number of sources, such as neighbors, teachers, school nurse, and other sources (Barnett London Borough, 2006). Once the process has been initiated the most important aspect entails the skills, and communication techniques employed.

The core mission of all social work is the promotion of social justice through its practice (Healy, 1998, pp. 897-914). Within this framework, social workers are in a system that promotes collaborative approaches representing analysis and prioritization (Healy and Mulholland, 1998, pp. 3-27). Once the decision has been made to see the child in question, as a result of either the suspicion or proof regarding action being warranted, the skills in communication as well as observation come into play. Thompson (2003, pp. 10) advises that the importance of communication is that it permits us to transmit information from one person to another and it represents “… a complex, multilevel event”. In communicating with children as well as adults, social workers need to be well versed in interaction that accompanies communication and contact, and the complexities entailed, as well as the messages on a verbal and non verbal plane (Thompson, 2003. pp. 10-12, 33 – 34, 182-183).

In those instances where there is an absence of external physical evidence or medical examination, the social worker has to be able to ascertain from conversations and observations with the child as well as the adults involved regarding tone of voice, eye movements, reactions, and other behavior whether truthful replies are being given. The preceding represents areas that encompass theory as well as practice. Adams et al (1998, pp. 253-272) state that the context of social work has changed over the past twenty years as a result of new public management systems that have decreased the value of theory along with the value driven aspects involved in human social work.

In the context of children’s services the Referral and Assessment Team intercede on behalf of the child through policy decisions and active support when the initial interview uncovers need, depending upon the circumstances. This aspect represents item number six under Article Two, General Function, of the Children Act 2004 (Children Act 2004). The Department of Health (2006) provides for advocacy safeguards for children to protect them from abuse as well as poor practice. This aspect provides for children themselves to be a part of the process, having and active voice that can be and is heard to participate in reaching determinations (Department of Health, 2006). Under provisions as set forth, the standards and core principles that children can expect are identified as (Department of Health, 2006):

The role of children in advocacy,
policy context,
equal opportunities,
confidentiality,
publicity,
accessibility,
independence,
complaints,
procedures, and
the management and governance of services

The preceding along with empowerment provides the child with a real voice as well as organization that is committed to ensure their well being as found under the Children’s Services Regulations 2005 of the Children Act 2004 (Children’s Services Inspection Regulations, 2005). Through a formalized inspection, review and analysis process involving “… two or more inspectorates and commissions, the process is ensured of impartiality as well as adequate oversight. Articles 2.3 under this provision sets forth “… that relevant assessments, inspections, reviews, investigations and studies … are conducted on cases. These measures are a part of the framework of checks and balances incorporated into the process for the safeguarding of the child who comes to the attention of Children’s Services. Empowerment also provides for the offering of assistance, counseling and advice to parents in need of help in order to safeguard a child’s well being. The formalized process sets forth specific guidelines in all of the indicated areas, as well as a broader scope for a matter of such national importance.

Conclusion

Owing to the sensitive nature of services involving children, specific case studies or references to such are not available, for the obvious reasons. Under the context of the Referral and Assessment Team of social work, a hypothetical example was used as the broad framework for the examination of practice learning and the social work role with consideration given to the skills and models of communication and empowerment. The Children Act 2004 and the Children’s Services Inspection Regulations, 2005 set forth specific procedures, guidelines and framework for the handling of child cases providing oversight safeguards through redundancy features.

Each regional Council works in partnership with the departments of Education and Health, as well as other social work teams to “… ensure the co-ordination of assessment of needs …” leading to the “… formulation of individual care plans and support packages” (Beacon Council, 2006). The process of referral and assessment is conducted under procedures that are of course subject to the individual expertise levels of the interviewers and case workers. However the safeguards of a multi-level internal review and follow up process catches any potential instances whereby a child might slip through the system due to any number of reasons. As is the case with any process involving humans and organizations, there are those occasions when the system or the person fails, however, given the multi level review and follow up process, such mistakes do not last too long.

Bibliography

Adams, R., Dominelli, L., Payne, M. (1998) Social Work: Themes, Issues and Critical Debates. Houndsmills Macmillan

Barnett London Borough (2006) Supporting Families Division. Retrieved on 10 December 2006 from http://www.barnet.gov.uk/index/health-social-care/children-and-family-care/supporting-families-division.htm

Beacon Council (2006) Children and Families. Retrieved on 12 December 2006 from http://www.bexley.gov.uk/service/social/childrenandfamilies/disabilities.html

Children Act (2004) Children Act 2004. Retrieved on 10 December 2006 from http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2004/40031–b.htm#1

Children’s Services Inspection Regulations (2005) Children’s Services Inspection Regulations. Retrieved on 12 December 2006 from http://66.218.69.11/search/cache?p=uk+children%27s+services+assessment+team&fr=yfp-t-501&toggle=1&ei=UTF-8&u=www.dfes.gov.uk/consultations/downloadableDocs/Children’s%20Services%20Inspection%20Regulations%20Consultation%20Document%20-%20PDF.pdf&w=uk+children’s+services+assessment+team&d=IY3kv5IFNg0E&icp=1&.intl=us

Department of Health (2006) Department of Health: Children’s Advocacy. Retrieved on 11 December 2006 from http://www.dh.gov.uk/Consultations/ResponsesToConsultations/ResponsesToConsultationsDocumentSummary/fs/en?CONTENT_ID=4017049&chk=vFWybl

Healy, K. (1998) Participation and Child Protection: The Importance of Context. Vol. 28. British Journal of Social Work

Healy, K., Mulholland, J. 81998) Discourse analysis and activist social work: Investigating practice processes. Vol. 25, Number 3. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare

London Borough of Barking & Dagenham (2006) Children’s Services Children’s Assessment Team. Retrieved on 10 December 2006 from London Borough of Barking & Dagenham

Southwark Council (2006) Children’s Services. Retrieved on 10 December 2006 from http://www.southwark.gov.uk/Uploads/FILE_10982.pdf

Thompson, N. (2003) Communication and Language: A Handbook of Theory and Practice. Palgrave Macmillan

Wrexham County Borough (2001) Assessment Framework for Children in Need and their families. September 2001. Wrexham Social Services Department, Directorate of Personal Services, Wrexham, United Kingdom

According to Schneider et. all 2001 and Rogers Maslow , humanistic theory every human being has exceptional and inborn identities and natural potentials. These are the goals that direct them to achieve their full potentials. Maslow defines that individuals have specific requirements and needs which must be met in a hierarchical style and it happens from bottom to top. Another author Rogers has noted that every individual has a particular frame of reference according to their self concept or self regard. These are one’s own perception or faith about themselves. It is a theory that highlights on individual’s capacity for self track, understanding, basic needs, achievement needs, self-actualization, safety needs etc. According to Maslow, individual should achieve Hierarchy needs in order which are shown below:

Lattal and Chase (2003) has noted that behaviorist theory means the way of conditioning through interaction with the environment with no consideration to the mental state. According to them it is a theory related to psychology and it is based on the proposition that behavior can be researched with evidence with no recourse. Behaviorism is mainly relevant to skill development and the substrate of learning. Usually phobias and neurosis treatment can improve individuals’ behavior significantly.

According to Fritscher 2003, it is a theory that attempts to explain human behaviour by understanding the thought processes. In 21st century Greene brothers (2008) have noted that this theory explains social environment in learning. They showed that environment and self have a reciprocal relation. In addition, this theory fix which environmental factors should be observed, when should be observed, what should be conferred on them or whether they have any long lasting effects or is there any emotional or motivating power etc. Another important thing is, usually human beings make the decisions by thought processes. A diagram of cognitive is given below:

In 1998, a famous author Nasio states that psycholanalytical theory defines that human mind is compared to an iceberg: we only see a little bit of it (the conscious) peeking out above the vast depths of the unconscious. According to this theory, there are many inner forces outside of people’s awareness those direct their behavior. For example, (assume) Dominika has built up a relationship with a boy recently. Suddenly she started calling him by her ex-boy friend’s name. the reason of this may be Dominika misspoke her ex-boy friend because of misgiving about new relationship. another author Friedlander (2003) has noted that it is a theory which defines the dynamics of personality, psychoanalytic, psychodynamic and psychotherapy development. This theory helps to treat people with psychological problem in different ages especially who live in multi-cultural societies.

Review the application of a range of communication techniques for different purposes used in health and social care work.

At this age, proper communication techniques in health and social care are becoming more and more important as service users from different cultures are being added continuously (Moss, 2007). Also effective communication is essential to have good productivity. Windsor and Moonie (2000) define that, communication techniques can be verbal, nonverbal, written, facial/ body language or listening.

Verbal: it is way of communication where people communicate face to face. Sounds, words, speaking, and language are the key elements of verbal communication. For social care work verbal communication style is very important as it influences the service users. Social workers should speak slowly, clearly and politely. They should have softness in speaking.

Non-verbal: non-verbal communication can be used in Health and social care workplace as well. It is a communication process through sending and receiving wordless messages. Gestures, facial expression, body language, using meaningful symbols, sign languages, touching, vocal nuance etc. are also included in non-verbal communication. It is important because it repeats verbal messages, regulate interactions, become complement to verbal messages etc.

Written: written communication is also important like non-verbal and verbal communication. Preservation of our memories can be influenced significantly by written communication. Many researchers think written communication is the most effective and most useful way to communicate in Health and social care workplaces with verbal language as it prevents misunderstanding, helps to remember all important details or, helps to keep important data, helps to educate others, helps to deal with negative feelings, and helps to share knowledge with others and many more.

Listening: It is also important. If the social workers do not listen to the service users properly, misunderstandings can happen. Social workers should listen with full concentration of the service users as it is included in codes of practice.

Discuss the ways in which communication influences how individuals feel about themselves.

Moss (2007) has stated that different types of communication can influence individual’s feelings differently. Impersonal and interpersonal communications are two of them. Impersonal communication means the way to treat people as objects or respond to their roles rather than to who they are as unique people which is normally impersonal and superficial. Usually people communicate by impersonal way. It can make a rational choice to protect people willingly but it doesn’t get them too close. People do not feel very good by this communication method.

Conversely, according to Greene and Burleson (2003), interpersonal communication is a special form of unmediated human communication that occurs when we interact simultaneously with another person and attempt to mutually influence each other, usually for the purpose of managing relationships. It usually occurs simultaneously while people are talking and listening. For example, it can be observed by their- eye contact, clothing, body posture, and facial expressions. People usually feel happy with this communication method and it is very useful to apply in health and social care workplaces.

Describe ways of dealing with inappropriate interpersonal communication between individuals.

According to Stacks and Salwen (2008), inappropriate interpersonal communications between individuals’ begin usually from incorrect use of vocabulary or use of passive vocabulary. It also arises from cultural insensitivity or misinterpretation of body language which can lead to communication gap. There are a few ways to deal with inappropriate interpersonal communication and those can be:

Rephrasing or using the simplier words while speaking or communicating.

Repeating the words with meaningful gestures.

Analyzing the communication gap that has been occurred, spotting and fixing the cultural faux pas and remedying that without delay.

Staying Focused and listen carefully.

Trying to see their point of view

Responding to Criticism with Empathy

Using “I” Messages: Rather than “We”.

Look for Compromise Instead of trying to ‘win’ the argument, look for solutions that meet everybody’s needs.

Analyse the use of techniques and strategies for supporting communication between people with specific communication needs.

In the UK there are many people like deaf, blind who need specific communication needs and these can be lip-reading, speech to text, electronic notes, sign languages, Braille etc. Anon (n.d.) states that around 242,000 people are deaf-blind and two million people are suffering from hearing loss in the United Kingdom. Research has shown that almost 1.4 million people are using hearing aids regularly. Around 50,000 people use sign language as their preferred language. Many British are using interpreters as well but the ratio of interpreters and service users are significantly low in the UK. Pomegranate mobile phone and these technologies can be used to support these persons.

Evaluate workplace strategies, policies and procedures for good practice in communication.

According to Best et all (2003), in health and social care workplaces, there must have good practice for workplace strategies, policies and procedures for communication. Good procedures in communication means to follow the privacy policies, not to spread personal information to unauthorized persons, Keeping confidentiality, consent, disciplinary procedures, protecting hharassment, maintaining equal opportunities, having paternity and maternity leave, playing by rules, following data protection acts, not to reveal any data without taking permission etc. Good communication policies and strategies include adoption policy, complaints policy, whistle blowing policy, grievance policy etc. These policies, procedures and strategies help to build up a smooth and friendly workplace.

Question 2

Describe physical, cultural and legal influences on communication in health and social care by:

2.1 Analyse how methods of communication are influenced by individual values, culture and ability.

Littlejohn Foss (2005) and Samovar et al (2009) have stated that individual values, culture and ability can influence the communication methods significantly in health and social care. Value means the principles, standards, or quality which guides human actions. It also defines the acceptable standards which govern the behaviour of individuals within the organization. Without having such values, individuals will pursue behaviours that are in line with their own individual value systems, which may lead to behaviours that the organization doesn’t wish to encourage. Another thing is organizational values which are the beliefs and ideas about what kinds of goals members of an organization should pursue and ideas about the appropriate kinds or standards of behaviour organizational members should use to achieve these goals. It influence communication as it develops organizational norms, makes sense about things are good or bad, which things are more or less important. It also promotes anti discriminatory practice and diversity, protects people from abuse, keeps confidentiality, gives peoples rights to dignity, autonomy, independence and safety, understanding other peoples beliefs and identities.

According to them, culture can influence communication method as well. Culture means the values, traditions, worldview, and social and political relationships that are created, shared, and transformed by a group of people bound together by a common history, geographic location, language, social class, and/or religion. It is a dynamic, constantly changing process that is shaped by political, social and economic conditions. It manipulates communication by guiding people in their thinking, feelings, and acting etc.

Describe legislation and charters governing the rights of individuals to communicate.

There are specific law, legislations and charters governing the rights to communicate and these can be NHS and community care act 1990, sex discrimination act, Disability discrimination act (DDA) etc. Research from Mandelstam (2008) has shown that NHS and community care act 1990 ensures the full independence of the individuals among these legislations and charters,. According to this act, every service user should be shown respect. No one can be discriminated at any way whatever their race, sex, origin, religion, age etc. In addition, everyone including patients with mental health, learning disability, children should be treated as an individual while communicating. everyone should have their communications needs valued and respected, whether they are verbal or non-verbal. The charter sets out the rights for disable people in terms of their disability which includes information, Support and training, Time to communicate, Access to services, Inclusion in social networks, Services from Employers etc.

In addition, according to him and Disability act 2006, every person with a communication disability has a right to receive information in a way that they can receive and respond. A wide range of recognized and meaningful symbols, materials, signs, alternative communication methods should be available everywhere for disabled people. employers must provide training for customer-facing staff to offer alternative communication at help desks and service points, e.g. a map, pencil and paper, pictures.

Also we know that Every person with a communication disability has a responsibility to identify how they can communicate to exchange information. To do this, they can carry carry a card explaining what the difficulty is, in plain English or explaining what they need to help them at the outset. They should be given enough time to understand as well. In the same time, they should be given positive support from their family, friends and care workers.

Discuss the implications in health and social care contexts of legislation and codes of practice relating to records and communication of information about people.

According to Dziegielewski (2003) and Trainor (n.d.), keeping record of information in health and social care is very important and sensitive. There are specific law, legislations and codes of practice relating to records keeping and communication of information about people. They can follow European, national or UN law, charters and codes of practice while keeping records. But service providers should keep information by following data protection act 1998. According to this act Personal information must be stored on the case files or in the recording books and it should only be available to those who are directly involved with the care of the Person and to those responsible for the maintenance of good practice and standards. Both Manual and computer records should be stored against unauthorised access. Also, it is not allowed to copy of any documents (including medical records, personal records, political views etc.) for any purpose other than for the purpose of the well-being of the service users. For example, a social worker may need to send a client’s details to a doctor. So, he/she may need to do some copy of his/her client’s documents. So, it is allowed by the contexts of legislation.

Analyse the effectiveness of organisational systems policies in relation to good practice in communication.

Usually organizational systems, policies and procedures are very effective for the good practice in communication. Keyton (2005) noted that every organization has different communication policies in relation to good practice. It builds confidentiality and good relationship among the stakeholders, employees and service users. In addition, communications Policy ensures to use the organizational communications facilities, including internet, email, fax, phone, sms etc. It also guides to use fast and reliable way of communication which has significant advantages for health and social care workplaces. In the same time, it warns to it’s employees about the dangers and misuse of communication. It also inform to it’s employees that none can be discriminated during communicating. For example, some people may have difficulty to understand some communication methods. So, good organizational policies will provide a framework or a way to overcome these problems. Values, personal moral qualities, respecting service user’s dignity and autonomy are also included to good practice in communication and these are usually mentioned in organizational policies.

Suggest and justify ways of improving communication systems in a health or care setting.

Effective and constructive communication is vital as it helps to support, achievement and well being of our society. The ways to improve communicating systems in health and social care are given below:

Having enough employees to accomplish their jobs smoothly. If there is shortage of employee, people may not do their jobs in time. In addition, additional work load may put stress on the staff. As a result, they may not communicate with service users and staff properly.

Effective and constructive communication method must be built up among the GP practices, dentists, pharmacists, NHS, emergency services, care trusts.

Using both electronic (e-mail, text message, fax, phone etc.) and paper messages (letters, newsletters, leaflets etc) for day to day communication. In addition, having common software to share information or a database system among the partnership organizations can also help to improve communication system.

Health and social care officials as well as normal staff should arrange regular meeting among themselves to share their views regarding their progress, future plan etc.

Proper implementation of data protection act can also help to improve communication.

Demonstrate ability to communicate appropriately using range of techniques.

According to Marincek (2001) and Jones Cregan (1986), there are many people in the United Kingdom who need to communicate by special communicating techniques. Especially, children, elderly people, hearing disabled people use these techniques which are given below:

Text messaging, using sign language, lip reading, converting speech to text can be used to communicate with deaf people. Probably sign language is the most effective way to communicate with deaf people as it has it’s own right. It also covers the whole system of communication. On the other hand, text messaging is the easiest way to communicate as almost everyone can read it. But people may not be able to express their emotions by this way.

Blind people prefer to use voice recorder, speaking or listening to communicate. Technology can give lots of benefit to blind people. For example, if there is a blind employee in an organization and she/he has to gather data from internet then she/he can be benefited by using voice or audio system. Further, if anyone wants to leave some information to someone who is blind then he can convert his message to voice so that blind receiver can receive it.

Basically, I have to be very careful while communicating with communication disabled people. For example, my body position, speaking style, listening style have to be well-developed and I have to be patient so that they can understand me without any difficulty.

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Explore the use of information technology in communications in health and social care by:

Demonstrate ability to access and use standard IT software, used routinely, to support work in health and social care.

Harlow and Webb (2003) stated that every health and social care worker should have good knowledge regarding IT software to support their daily activity. To support my work, I use Microsoft office, Microsoft power point, Microsoft excel, Microsoft access, Microsoft word, spreadsheet, Microsoft outlook, internet, notepad etc.

According to Shaffer et al (2007), Microsoft office is very useful to manage day to day activities. I can preserve almost all the documents, work history by using Microsoft office word. Notepad is also useful to take and save the short notes.

I use Microsoft office access to create normal database solution, tables, forms, reports, queries, graphs etc. I have to use spreadsheet to support my work as well. It is software by which I can access multiple cells. I can find out any individual’s details within a click. For example, I can access to service users’ details if they just provide me their surnames or dates of birth.

Microsoft outlook and internet are one of the most useful software that I use. I use outlook to send and receive any electronic mail. I can save my mails as well if there is no internet connection. I can send those when I get internet connection. I use internet to collect data.

Analyse how the use of IT in health and social care benefits service users.

Leathard (2003) and Cnaan Parsloe (1989) have shown that information technology benefits both the service users and service providers in various ways in health and social care. Disable people, mental health patients, blind people, deaf people, speechless people and even sometimes healthy people are being benefitted by use of information technology. The ways are described below:

Disabled people: According to Hawkridge et al (1985) and Anogianakis Association for the Advancement of Assistive Technology in Europe (1997), information technology has added new scope to disabled people’s life. Now, those who are deaf can use hearing aid to overcome their listening barriers. Blind people are being benefitted by using audio system. Now, they can conduct their day to day activities by this method. Even, now language converter is being used for those people who are not efficient in a common language like English. So, service users can describe their problem elaborately without facing any hassle.

Developed service: Now-a-days, all the health care specialists who are authorised can access to patient details. So, they can exchange their views and knowledge regarding their service and patient’s treatment. As a result, better and improved services are provided to the clients. In addition, patient can get various services from one person.

Treatment and medicine: Slee et al (2001) have stated that, now patients can gather data regarding their disease and can get information about the potential medicine. So, patient can discuss with his doctor if there is any mistake in the prescribed medicine. As a result, patient can get escape from a great problem. In addition, e-medicine can boost the knowledge of doctors. All the health care specialists including social workers and service users can gather lots of information by using website as well as internet conferences.

Critically evaluate how the IT supports and enhances the activities of care workers and care organisations/agencies.

According to Cnaan Parsloe (1989), the activities of a care worker or a care agency’s activities can be significantly enhanced by information technology. For example, a care worker can preserve any medical data digitally which is quick and cost effective. Next time, another care worker does not need to waste his or her time to look for client’s medical report or medication history. She/he can get it easily and quickly if she/he is efficient in IT. It also reduces work load and care workers or care organizations can concentrate on other tasks quickly.

Another important thing is, doctors can be benefited from IT significantly. For example, the GPs can use a software where all medical and drug information will be pre-saved. So, all information regarding to that drug will be shown automatically while prescribing that to a patient. It can save lots of time because doctors or care workers then will not need to look for the information regarding any medicine. To implement this, a very good network and communication between pharmacists and doctors is essential.

Analyse health and safety legal considerations in the use of IT.

The health and safety legal considerations should come to light in the use of information technology because inappropriate use of IT can damage employees’ health. Even it has a long term effect on physical condition. According to Koreneff (2005), employees’ health and safety matters must be considered in the workplace. Those who usually work in front of computer screen or anything like that may suffer from eye strain, headache, back pain, fatigue etc. Employee’s should take regular break or change the activity for 10 minutes after doing one hour works to prevent this. They should keep their body in a right posture to prevent back pain. Right posture includes keeping back side supported, head up, hands relaxed, knees are leveled with hip, feet are flat with floor, screen is directly in front and not in angle etc. Hands and wrists are usually most comfortable when forearm is nearly at a right angle to upper arm and wrist is in a straight line with hand and forearm. Complain should be made against an organization if that fails to provide these types of workplace. Employers must provide a workplace for the employees which will meet all the requirements of health and safety to use IT.

INTRODUCTION

Language in particular and communication in general, permeates every aspect of people’s lives. It is important in everything that a person does, in whatever profession an individual might be in. It fosters greater understanding as well the possibility of establishing better relationships between the parties which are communicating. This paper seeks to address the issue by the provision of the theories of communication which are applicable in health and social care, how to use effective communication skills in such a context, methods of dealing with inappropriate communication practices, strategies for effective communication, and the benefits and need to be engaged in effective and efficient communication practices, especially in the context of the said profession.

The author will stipulate significant factors which are assumed to be highly influential in the process of communication include culture, values, legislations, and other regulations which govern the practice of the profession. The author will also provide suggestions on how the communication process can be improved so that it can be more useful in the field of health and social care.

Furthermore, the author will discuss the standard software which are used by the health and social workers in their profession, an analysis of the benefits which were brought about by such applications, provide an analysis of how such technology enhances activities in the profession, and evaluate the legal considerations which are critical to be understood in the application of the information and communication technology.

The author will further discuss the nature of the workplace where the author is working. The organization provides care services for clients with physical and mental disabilities and for clients with dementia.

USE OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN HEALTH CARE
THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION

Four theoretical approaches in the practice of health and social care will be highlighted in this section: psychodynamic, behaviourist, humanistic and cognitive. The main foundation of the psychodynamic theory to communication is grounded on the works of Sigmund Freud. This does not involve only a single theory but stems to a number of other theories which were all grounded on the foundations of the work of Freud. This theory combines those which are associated to “psyche” which includes not only the mind but the entire inner feelings, thoughts and experiences and “dynamics” which refer to the notion that psyche is not stable, rather active. According to this theory, communication with the individual’s self is very critical as it is the foundation of that person’s communication practices to others. One of the basic assumptions on this theory is that the individual is the author of his own history; therefore, the individual’s earliest experiences form the foundations of how that person deals with others. Such can be modified along the process. Another basic assumption is that the individual lives in two worlds at the same time, internal and external. The internal world is unconscious while the external is controlled. The theory also assumes that all behaviour is logical and acted upon with purpose. These factors are highly influential with how the individual communicates in health and social care setting (Ellis et al., 2003).

Another theory which can be noted is the behaviourist theory. The main foundation of this theory is the notion that all behaviour is largely based on learnt responses about specific stimuli. This can be able to explain the method of language acquisition such as that of the echoic response wherein the infant imitates the sound which is made by the health or social professional, who, on the other hand, reinforces the behaviour of the infant. This theory focuses on behaviour and highlights the present and the future (Ellis et al., 2003).

The third theory which will be considered in this paper is the humanistic approach. Under this theory, the person is the highlight of interest rejecting the significance of behaviour and the unconscious impulses which result from the past. Two of the theories which are under this approach are the person-centred theory and the transactional analysis. The former highlights the importance of childhood and current experiences in life while the latter reiterates the significance of personality, child development, social psychology, and psychopathology (Sully & Dallas, 2005). According to Carl Rogers (1902-1987), “People are essentially trustworthy, that they have a vast potential for understanding themselves and resolving their own problems without direct intervention on the therapist’s part, and that they are capable of self-directed growth if they are involved in a specific kind of therapeutic relationship.” In relation to health care context, the goal of this theory is to make the clients become more open in their own personal experience, to accept themselves in all aspect, and to minimize things that might challenge their concept of self. To achieve this, there must be a good relationship between the therapist and the client. The therapist must be realistic but not offensive, accepting but critical to the misconduct of the client. Trust between the therapist and the client is important so the client will not feel social distance scale. It is basically understanding and accepting the client as a whole being, not judging the client’s impurities.

The fourth is the social cognitive theory. According to Bandura (1986), individuals obtain more information through observational learning. At home, how a parent would nurture their child can be an environmental factor that influences the child the way he behaves. Learning starts from the home whereby a child imitates the people around him. Behaviour then is being shaped and as the child grows; his natural curiosity is reinforced by his motivation to learn. The social cognitive theory explains the interaction between the person and the environment which involves cognitive competencies such as achievement that are developed and modified by social influences and structures within the environment such as parents and society.

USE OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS

There are many ways to communicate; it could be verbal, non-verbal, writing and listening. Verbal communication is used when giving information or doing trainings, on the telephone, hand over and when talking face to face with a client. For verbal communication, there are things to consider like the tone of voice, pitch and talk on the same level, never talk with your back on your client. Non-verbal communication is used for clients who have difficulty hearing, deaf and mute. Factors to bear in mind are facial expression, hand gestures, physical appearance and body posture. Aids that might help communication are the use of symbols, picture cards and communication board or writing pad. The art of good listening is practiced by letting the clients talk in their own pace and giving them time to express themselves. Transmission of information becomes effective by getting the message across clearly and reflects on how the message was conveyed.

The benefits of effective and efficient communication skills in the practice of health and social care can be highlighted by how it is used in the profession. One of the uses of communication in this field is to foster the growth and development of the practice. It must be noted that communication does not only exist between the health professional and the client. It is also evident between health professionals themselves. Communication can be used in this field to be assured that innovative ideas, trends, and best practices are shared amongst the healthcare professionals and social workers for the betterment of their profession (Santy & Smith, 2007).

Communication can also be used in the context of health and social care to be able to promote an advocacy. This kind of communication is often utilized in mediums like advertisements on print and other channels. The use of media for health promotion campaigns is very convincing that people understand healthy living and what is best for them.

Lastly, it has also been noted that communication can be used in the health and social care setting to be able to foster partnership with clients or patients, treat them with respect, provide patients with self-esteem, provision of practical help and advice regarding their condition, stimulate their intellectual development, improve the client’s sense of self-being or self-worth, satisfy the physical, emotional, and social needs of the patients and to be responsive of their needs (Haworth & Forshaw, 2002).

DEALING WITH INAPPROPRIATE INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

To be able to reap the benefits of a good communication practice, health and social workers must be able to properly deal with any inappropriate communication practices. For instance, any barrier to communication should be resolved as such can result into misunderstanding in the professional practice. An example of a factor which can be a hindrance to good communication practice would be culture and language itself. Professionals in the field of health and social care should see to it that both parties understand each other, especially when decision making is involved. The use of jargons should be limited as it can lead into inappropriate communication leading into misunderstanding. Another factor which can be considered as an inappropriate practice in communication in the context of health and social care is privacy. Patients are private individuals, their records should therefore be held with confidentiality and there should be no presence of breach of contract as well between practitioners or professionals. Health and social workers have the inherent duty to not disclose any information without the knowledge of all the parties which are concerned. The lack of trust of the patient to the medical worker can also be a barrier to effective communication. Lastly, the lack of knowledge can also serve as another barrier to communication (King & Wheeler, 2007).

STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT USERS

To be able to be potentially engaged in efficient and effective communication practices, as a carer

VARIOUS FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE COMMUNICATION PROCESS IN HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE
VALUES AND CULTURE

Two of the factors which are assumed to be highly influential in the communication process, specifically in the field of health and social care, are values and culture. These may include factors which are related in demographics such as age, gender, race, educational and economic status, and also beliefs, among others. Culture, which can be defined as the “identifiable integrated pattern of human behaviour that includes customs, beliefs, values, behaviours, and communications” (Servellen, 1997), is said to be highly influential in this field basically because they arise from almost every group that are involved in the communication process. In tackling the issue of culture and its influence in the communication process, one of the factors which should be understood are the sub-groups, for instance, Asian. Among the Asian cultures, people from different countries have various approaches to communicating. For instance, in the Vietnamese culture, talking is customary. Professionals who are working with people who are accustomed to the Vietnamese culture must be able to take such cultural factor into account so that the communication process can be carried out more efficiently and more conveniently. Another factor which should be understood on this note is cultural identity. One of the inclusions in this identity is the fact that all people are influenced by cultural programming which makes it essential to have an understanding of that culture so that communication can be carried out better (Servellen, 1997).

As mentioned earlier, one of the dimensions of culture and values which influence the communication process is gender. Men and women are naturally equipped with differences and such can be reflected in the way they engage themselves into the process of communication. Having different communication styles base on gender, interpretation may also vary in both sexes. Health and social workers should be aware of these differences so that they will be sensitive on how to deal with each patient or client. One of the key to understand these differences is to be an active listener so that the professional can be able to better understand the patient. The same is true with age and ethnicity. Communication with elderly should be done on a different approach wherein the health or social worker should demonstrate more respect. A different approach is also given when communicating with the younger ones. Furthermore, each nationality also has different approaches to communication. Some verbal and non-verbal communication techniques might be appropriate for other cultures while it may prove to be rude for some. These should be understood clearly so that there will be no misinterpretation and confusion with regards to the transmission of the message (Basavanthappa, 2004).

LEGISLATION, CHARTERS, AND CODES OF PRACTICE

Despite the fact that communication in the field of health and social care is highly influenced by culture and values, it has also influenced the existence and stipulations which are provided by legislations, charters, and codes of practice. The institution is often left with no option but to follow such stipulations as it is a legal requirement in the context of their practice.

One of the most important factors by which legislations and charters influence communication techniques can be demonstrated by the fact that such allows the provision of equality. The existing laws which govern the practice of health and social care are based on the principle of equality which does not allow discrimination of any party, be it a patient or a health or social worker. For instance, legislations such as those which provide fair employment, sex discrimination acts, race relations, and others are some of the laws which demonstrate and influence in professional practice. These laws serve as the foundation of the behaviour of the healthcare professional and form the basis of how they act and how they communicate. The serious consequences of going against such legislations will be undeniably a critical factor in the observance of a good communication practice (Cambridge Training & Development, 2000).

The Data Protection Act 1984 is a good example which demonstrates legislations in good communication practice in the field of health and social care. This can be able to provide protection to information which are assumed confidential and should be used solely for the purposes known by the persons involved. Service users could possibly demonstrate loss of trust from the service providers if confidential information are leaked making it important for laws to provide protection for such. Certain legislations are also made available to provide equality and anti-discrimination in the workplace. These factors are highly influential in shaping the communication practice and activities of people in health and social care (Moonie, 2005).

Furthermore, the stipulations in the code of practice and ethics in a certain institution are also highly influential in communication practices especially in consideration of the fact that they can affect confidentiality and privacy of information. For instance, the use and access to the internet for health and social workers are often limited and defined by codes of conduct, depending upon the institution, to be assured of good communication practices and work ethics. The use of other technological aids can also be regulated by existing rules and regulations to be able to protect the rights of the institution, the workers, the patients, and the public in general (Martin, 2003).

ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEMS AND POLICIES

For all concerned parties to be engaged in effective and efficient communication practices, one factor which can be considered as essential would be effective organizational systems and policies. These systems and policies will be able to shape the communication activities and will make it more appropriate and meaningful. Health and social care institutions need to develop systems and policies which can foster good communication. This can include factors which are related to documentation, information systems, establishment of procedures and practices. For instance, the development of a dynamic and advanced information system can demonstrate effectiveness and efficiencies in the various activities which are undertaken. In the absence of such systems, it will be highly impossible to transmit and share information which might prove to be significant in the profession. For instance, at Ashleigh Court Rest Home, policies are strictly implemented. Stated below are some of the policies that the home adheres with:

Whistle Blowing Policy – this document has been written to comply with the Public Interest Disclosure Act 1998, which was introduced to protect employees who “blow the whistle” about any wrongdoing. The policy gives clear guidance to all members of staff regarding the correct procedure for bringing to attention any wrongdoing or suspected wrongdoing which they feel could affect the reputation of the home, other members of staff, visitors, residents or any other organization or persons connected with the home. The policy outlines commitment to openness and good communications.

Bullying In The Workplace – The home believes that all staff have the right to work in an environment that is free from bullying, harassment or intimidation, from either colleagues or management. The home seeks to enable staff to enjoy their work and fulfil their personal and professional potential, by creating and sustaining a stimulating and supportive work environment. It is recognised that staff who feel powerless, vulnerable or even persecuted will not be able to give of their best work or work successfully.

Prevention of Accidents – The home fully accepts the responsibility to ensure that all reasonable steps and precautions are taken to provide and maintain safe and healthy working conditions, which comply with all statutory requirements and codes of practice. The home fully supports and complies with the relevant National Minimum Standards and Regulations, which relate to the promotion and protection of the health, safety and welfare of service users and staff. It is recognised, however, that even in the safest of working environments, accidents will occur, from time to time. Where and when this does happen, the Registered Providers (employers) will abide by the requirements of The Health and Safety at work Act 1974. As such, employers must, by law, notify certain categories of accidents, specified cases of ill health and specified dangerous occurrences to the Health and Safety Executive or the Local Authority to comply with the Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations 1995 (RIDDOR). By undertaking these notifications, the home will not only be meeting the legal requirements but will be able to determine local patters and causes of accidents, so that preventive measures can be put in place to prevent recurrence. A written record such as Accident/Incident Report will be kept, of any accident, however minor, which occurs in the home.

Policy on Racial Harassment – Every Service User has the right to live and every staff member has the right to work in the home without the threat of racial harassment, discrimination or abuse. Any occurrences of this nature will not be tolerated and perpetrators will be subject to disciplinary procedures. The home fully upholds the principles and guidance of the Race Relations Act 1976 and the Protection from Harassment Act 1997. Racial harassment is any behaviour, deliberate or otherwise, pertaining to race, colour, ethnic or national origin, which is unwanted by the recipient and creates an intimidating, hostile or offensive environment. It may include racist jokes or insults, abusive comments about racial origins and skin colour and ridicule of an individual on cultural and/or religious grounds.

IMPROVING COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Health and social workers must be perpetually engaged in the improvement and development of the communication process to be better in their profession. One of the ways by which such can be improved is through the provision of security of information. In this way, privacy and confidentiality can be achieved and it can to help prevent any misunderstanding and confusion in the communication process. Furthermore, the communication process can also be improved through the provision of dynamic and sustainable rules which relate to documentation, presentation, and use of outputs and reports so that their purpose can be maximized by its users and providers. The provision of technological aids and communication tools can also help improve such process. Furthermore, the following are other ways by which communication can be improved in the health and social care setting: provide communication access to persons with difficulties; be aware of the various communication barriers and develop strategies by which they can be minimized or reduced at an acceptable level; teach workers about ethics and values related to communication practices; and rigorous training and education to enhance workers’ knowledge about effective and efficient communication. There is a need to make service providers understand what are the processes and activities involved in the complex communication process and the need to teach them to be active listeners. By doing the earlier mentioned, the health and social care workers can have an improved communication process and it can foster greater understanding and build better relationships between providers and users (Malone, 2005).

EXPLORING THE USE OF INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE
STANDARD I.T. SOFTWARE

The activities in the provision of health and social service would not be possible to carry in the absence of various I.T software and applications. Some of these include: word-processing, spreadsheets, presentations, internet, intranet, and email. These tools are assumed to have critical significance in the profession as it helps in the completion of day-to-day activities in the organization.

Word processing is important because it allows the creation, editing, reading, and amendment of various documents which might prove to be vital with health and social care work. If these documents are handwritten, there is no form of standardization and it will be hard to understand as well as too slow to accomplish. Therefore, word processing is considered as one of the most significant I.T. software package as it allows ease in work and reduces the intensity of labour in the creation of documents. Spreadsheet, on the other hand, allows them to do mathematical calculations with ease as it has formulas which can make their works easier while presentations allow them to prepare and present visual presentations in order to communicate better. The internet and intranet is also a good tool as it allows connectivity between the network of users within the organization and through the globe using the internet. Lastly, emailing would allow them to exchange information within each other and share documents in the workplace (Cook, 2006).

One of the most advanced application of information and communication technology in the field of health and social care is through telecare which is a business-to-consumer service provision without personal interaction as it just completed on channels such as telephones and computers. This includes services which are related to health and social care such as automated appointment reminders and client monitoring services at home. Traditionally, these things are done by trained professionals at the client’s home until the inception of technology which defies distance and allows greater interaction between the users and providers (Niman et al., 2006).

BENEFITS OF USING ICT

The use of information and communication technology would have not proliferated in the field of health and social care if it did not bring numerous benefits and advantages to the organization, users, providers, and the general public. One of the benefits is the accuracy of records. Because of the use of the various applications of information and communication technology, it will be easier to have readily available information about the condition of the client and it will be easier for the staff to provide an answer to the concerns of the patients. The health professionals are also able to enjoy the benefits of information and communication technology because such allows them to have safe, modern, and speedy IT systems which can help them in their routine, it allows them to utilize time more efficiently, and it allows the possibility of remote monitoring (Gillies, 2006).

Information and communication technology is also beneficial in the field of health and social care because it allows the possibility of meeting individual needs, it provides ease in the administration of treatment procedures, it makes the administrative practices more efficient, records and documentation can be more accurate, it fosters better communication, and it promotes independence. Information and communication technology also provides collaboration among users and providers which inevitably leads into more efficient service delivery (Leathard, 2003).

ENHANCING ACTIVITIES OF HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE WORKERS

Information and communication technology demonstrates the possibility of enhancing the activities by which health and social care workers are engaged. This is assumed to be done through the following ways: efficiency in business administration, meeting the needs of the employees, improving the quality of service, accountability, and meeting what is required from them. Because of information and communication technology, the field of health and social work is able to experience increased efficiency. The use of various tools associated to such form of technology has allowed them to be engaged into better practices in their profession. For instance, the internet and the intranet, along with the methods by which documentation has improved, are all seen as highly contributory to the improvement of business administration. Service has also seen a dramatic improvement because of the applications of the said technology. Because of such, it is easier to access records and information, although such has also been limited by existing legislations to protect privacy and to promote confidentiality.

LEGISLATIONS

To be assured that the use of information and communication technology is maximized and not detrimental to the society, certain legislations, both internal and external to the company also exist to govern information and communication practices in the field of health and social care. The Data Protection Act provides restrictions and limitations on the use and access of personal information, especially those of the clients or the patients. Some of this information includes personal information, medical records, treatment history, and credit information. Record keeping is very important and should not be underestimated. Disclosing of information is tantamount to breach of confidentiality.

Furthermore, another legislation which is assumed to be significant in the use of information and communication technology is the Access to Personal Files Act 1987 which stipulates general considerations with regards to access to personal information, specifically those data which relate to social services. In addition to these legislations, Access to Medical Reports Act 1988 has also been provided to give right to access into medical reports for the purpose of employment or for insurance. The client, under this legislation, is also endowed with the right to see the information before it is supplied and can also be subject for correction. Lastly, another important legislation is the Access to Health Records Act 1990 which is more concerned about records which could be accessed manually. It gives the client or any other representative the right of access to medical records, in whatever form, electronic or manual (Jones & Jenkins, 2004). Moreover, to keep information within the limits of the workplace, bringing of storage devices are also limited so as the providers cannot transfer any information about the service users which can be leaked and used for purposes which are not under the consent of the parties concerned (Moss, 2008).

RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

Technology has brought a number of benefits realized in the health and social care sector such as meeting the individual needs, ease of administration of procedures, making efficient administrative practices, accurate documentation, and fostering a more dynamic communication practice. Information and communication technology also enhances activities of health and social worker such as by improving efficiency of service, accountability, and quality of outputs. To be able to engage in a more meaningful communication practice, there is a need to be aware and to understand the existing differences in culture and values because they will be able to foster better relationships. There is a need for continuous improvement process in communication by being able to identify ways by which such could be improved. The health and social care sector needs to identify, without a halt, ways by which communication can be improved, so that the profession, in general, can also be improved.

SYSTEMS, POLICIES AND PROCEDURES FOR COMMUNICATING HEALTH AND SAFETY

It is important for organisations to understand how to administer health and safety for social care workers in health and social care workplace in accordance to legislative requirements. It is vital for all clients and carers cooperate to categorise health and safety risks and identify the best means to manage them.

Usual changes in health and social care work environments include: health and safety, and it is best to respond to these usual changes which can influence workplace practises. Communication is vital in ensuring the safety or users and staffs. Every worker must the risks faced and prevention methods put in place and any emergency action plans. This information must be provided in concise and non-technical terms for easy understanding.

Good communication between workers and employers includes:

Itemisation of all hazardous substances used or produced within the workplace.
Having a readily available Safety Data Sheets for any confidential hazardous substances in use.
Converting any useful information from Safety Data Sheets into workplace information that provides specific instructions on handling substances that are in constant use.
Ensuring proper labelling of hazardous substances, with hazard warnings for physical and health hazards.
Communicating the outcome of risk assessments.
Regular enquiries from workers about probable health and safety issues.
Providing workers with all applicable instructions, lessons and training on the hazardous substances available in the place of work, and the safety measures they should take to guard themselves and other staffs.
Making sure that every worker has the knowledge of appropriate usage of every control measures provided, who problems should be reported to, and what should be done in the occurrence of a mishap concerning hazardous substances.

Management Responsibilities of Health and Safety relating to Organisational Structures.

Under section 2 of the Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974, it is the obligation for an employer (host employer, contractor, and service provider) to ensure, so far as is reasonably viable, a healthy and safe workplace for themselves, their workers, including agency staff and subcontractors, and anyone else in the workplace.

To meet up with these obligations, service providers must carry out a risk assessment in the care home, before service provision of any kind clients, to discover probable hazards and put suitable controls in place to reduce the threat of injury or illness for clients, carers and other employees. Figure 1 below outlines the five- step risk management process the risk assessment must follow. This assessment must be done in alliance with service users and their families and every other involved client. Developing client’s care plan must be done identifying suitable control measures.

Management has certain responsibilities to employees working in the home environment and should:

Communicate plainly and identify with what services are to be provided.
Consider supplementary services before being performed.
Evaluate any activity that may have altered to guarantee the controls are still working or need to be modified.
Document on a daily basis the monitoring of the service using various methods especially where a particular client has various service providers or community workers.

Managers should engage in the following to ensure quality control in areas of health and safety:

Perform regular audits to guarantee effective controls are in use.
Evaluate client’s condition and the work settings on a regular basis.
Promote timely reporting of hazards, incidents and early symptoms.
Check with with staff and follow-up on issues raised.
Ensure suitable staffing by reviewing staffing levels.
Providing visibly distinct job descriptions, procedures and policies.
Ensuring required competencies of managers.
Managing staffs exposure to occupational stress.
Providing information to clients about expected behaviour and its effects to service provision.
Evaluating organisational and performance management systems.
Putting policies and procedures in place for controlling conflict and workplace harassment.
Providing staff training and approach on dealing with workloads and handling conflicts and job rotation.
Sustaining an unbiased relationship and proper boundaries with clients.
Providing relevant therapy services for employees.
Declining or transforming client services if in high risk environment.

APPROPRIATE HEALTH AND SAFETY PRIORITIES FOR SPECIFIC HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE WORKPLACE SETTING

Employers have a common obligation under section 2 of the Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974 to guarantee, so far as is logically practical, the health, safety and welfare of their workforce. These policies intend to make certain that work settings meet the health, safety and welfare desires of every employee, including individuals with disabilities. Most of the systems involve things to be ‘suitable’. Regulation 2(3) makes it clear that things should be suitable for anyone including those with disabilities. Where essential, parts of the work settings, including in particular doors, stairways, showers, passages, basins, sinks, toilets, bathrooms and workstations, should be made reachable for disabled persons.

Health

Ventilation

Workplaces need to be effectively ventilated. Fresh, hygienic air should circulate and can be from a suitable source outside the work setting, unpolluted by discharges from any process outlets like chimneys and flues, and be disseminated through every room.

Temperatures in indoor workplaces

Individual preference complicates specification of a satisfactory thermal environment for everyone. For organisations with mainly desk activities like offices, the temperature should usually be no less than 16 °C. If the job involves physical effort it should be no less than 13 °C (unless other regulations require less temperature).

Lighting

Lighting should be adequate to permit people to work and move around in safety. If essential, local lighting should be supplied at certain workstations and areas of particular hazards such as passage way to the basement. Lighting and light fixtures should not cause any hazard. Automatic emergency lighting, motorized by an autonomous source, should be supplied in case of sudden loss of power that would generate a risk.

Cleanliness and waste materials

Every workplace and the furnishings, equipments, surfaces of floors, walls and ceilings and fittings must be in clean and hygienic condition. Cleaning and the taking away of waste have to be carried out by a compulsorily effective means. Waste must be stored in appropriate containers.

Workstations and seating

Workstations should be fit for the individuals using them for the job. Employees should be capable of exiting workstations quickly in an emergency. If work must be done in a sitting position, seats should be made suitable for those using them for the kind of work they do. Seating should provide sufficient support for the lower back, and footrests should be available for employees who are unable to place their feet flat on the floor.

Safety

Maintenance

The workplace, and certain tools, devices and equipments should be properly retained in competent operational order for health, safety and welfare. Such protection is mandatory for mechanical ventilation systems; apparatus and devices which pose risk to health, safety or welfare in the event of faults; and equipment and devices proposed to avert or reduce danger.

Floors and traffic routes

The term ‘Traffic route’ is used for any route for pedestrian traffic and/or vehicles, and includes any fixed ladders, gateway, stairs, passage, and doorway, loading bay or ramp. There must be adequate traffic routes, of plenty distance across and headroom, to permit individuals and vehicles to flow effortlessly and safely.

Windows

Operable windows, ventilators and skylights must be able to open and close freely or adjusted safely. In an open position, windows should not be of any unwarranted risk to anyone. Ventilators should be designed so for safe cleaning.

Doors and gates

Doors and gates must be properly built and integrated with safety devices were appropriate. Swinging doors and gates and traditional hinged doors on central traffic ways should have a translucent viewing panel.

Escalators and moving walkways

Escalators and moving walkways should operate in safety, be fitted with the required safety devices. They must be equipped with emergency and panic controls that can be easily identified and are readily accessible.

REFERENCES

Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 (Commencement No.1) Order 1974, 1974/1439, art.2(a)/ Sch.1

The common core of skills and knowledge for the children’s workforce describes the knowledge and skills that people working with children and young people in the United Kingdom are expected to have. There are six areas of expertise involved in the common core of skills, and these six areas offer a single framework aimed at underpinning an integrated multiagency cooperation, training, qualification and professional standards across the children’s workforce. The common core of skills is inclusive of people working with children all the time, as well as those working with the children on a part time basis. It is also inclusive of paid staff as well as those working as volunteers on the children’s workforce.

The common core of skills also sets out common values for childcare professionals, thereby promoting equality and challenging stereotypes, while at the same time respecting diversity. The common core of skills and knowledge was initially launched in 2005, with the goal of enabling professionals and volunteers working in the children’s workforce to carry out their duties more effectively in the interest of the children and young people being cared for. The common core was developed in an effort to underpin successful integration and multiagency cooperation in the United Kingdom.

The Children’s Workforce Development Council identified six areas of expertise that are deemed to be essential for people working with children and their families. These include:

1. Effective communication and engagement with children, young people and families

2. Child and young person development

3. Safeguarding and promoting the welfare of the child or young person

4. Supporting transitions

5. Multi-agency and integrated working

6. Information sharing

Each of these areas contains information about the required knowledge and skills for childcare workers. These basic requirements enable care providers to do their jobs well. Within the common core of skills, skill is defined as the ability to do something, usually through experience or training, while Knowledge is described as an understanding or awareness gained through learning or experience. (The Common Core of Skills and Knowledge for the Children’s Workforce) The common core of skills also sets out that ‘providers should apply these skills and knowledge in their work and take account of the background and circumstances relevant to a situation.’ (The Common Core of Skills and Knowledge for the Children’s Workforce)

Recently, the Children’s Workforce Development Council (CWDC) refreshed and published some new guidance which updates the common core of skills that childcare workers should possess in the United Kingdom. The last update of the common core of skills happened in 2005.

In partnership with some other government organizations, the Children’s Workforce Development Council investigated the relevance of the contents of the common core of skills. Thus, the common core of skills was updated to ensure that childcare professionals possess a common set of basic skills and knowledge that would enable them to do their job in harmony with each other. The common core was also refreshed to ensure that childcare professionals can communicate effectively, so as to be able to support the children and their families better.

Effective communication and engagement with children, young people and their families

Effective communication is vital when working with children, their families, young people and other care providers. Good communication will help in building trust and encourages children in need of childcare services to seek advice and to utilize the care services provided. Appropriate communication is important for the establishment and maintenance of relationships, as well as being an active process which involves listening, asking questions, understanding issues and responding.

‘Effective communication extends to involving children, young people, their parents and caregivers in the design and delivery of services and decisions that affect them. It is important to consult the people affected and consider opinions and perspectives from the outset. Another crucial element of effective communication is developing trust between the workforce and children, young people, parents and care providers as well as within different sectors of the workforce itself.’ (The Common Core of Skills and Knowledge for the Children’s Workforce)

Child and young person development

This area of the common core of skills and knowledge deals with the intellectual, social, linguistic, physical and emotional growth and development of the children and young people receiving care services, it is important to understand the changes that occur during development in children and young people, and how these changes affect the behavior of the children.

Safeguarding and promoting the welfare of the child or young person

People in the children’s workforce are responsible for promoting and safeguarding the welfare of these young ones. This is a very important responsibility which requires paying close attention to the needs of the children. It involves the ability to recognize situations in which a child or young person is failing to reach his or her developmental potential, or when a child’s mental or physical health is impaired. Childcare workers are also required to b able to recognize when a child is displaying harmful or risky or behavior, or when a child is being abused or neglected. Care providers should also be able to identify sources of help for these children and their families. It is important to identify concerns and where appropriate take action as early as possible so that children, young people, their families and caregivers can get the help they need.

Supporting transitions

It is expected that the use of the common core of skills may vary according to the roles of childcare professionals and the sector involved. Thus, different organizations should be able to find the most appropriate ways of expressing the various areas of expertise indicated in the common core of skills. ‘Those who work with children and young people all the time will use the common core in different contexts and to different levels of depth from those who come into contact with children and young people as only part of their job’ (The Common Core of Skills and Knowledge for the Children’s Workforce.) It is also expected that certain roles in the children’s workforce will focus more on certain areas of the common core. Childcare professionals who interact with children on a regular basis will utilize the common core to a different level of depth and in a different context from part-time or voluntary workers who work with the children and young people less frequently.

It should be noted that not every practitioner will be regularly involved in supporting transitions, although all practitioners will have to understand at least the most important aspects of the sections of the common core of skills in a manner that is relevant to their work.

Multi-agency and integrated working

It has been observed that the common core of skills should be more clearly positioned to work in conjunction with the every child matters initiative, the National Occupational Standards and the common assessment framework, although there should be adjustments in order to take care of any future change in laws or programs related to the common core of skills.

There is also the issue of initial training as relates to the common core of skills. This is because currently, the common core of skills applies only in England, and accredited qualifications are based on standards in the United Kingdom. A lot of people believe that the common core of skills should be incorporated into regulation and inspection in order for it to be accepted and embraced by everyone. This is evident in the responses and feedback from questionnaires, and studies carried out about the efficacy of the common core of skills.

Information sharing

In order to be able to deliver quality childcare services to children in the United Kingdom, it is essential to share information in a timely and accurate manner. Accurate sharing of information can actually help in saving lives, so childcare professionals should be able to work together and share information in a proper manner for the safety and wellbeing of the children. Information sharing also enables childcare workers to understand situations better, and more quickly. When interviewed, most parents were happy about the information sharing requirement of the common core of skills. They responded that information sharing among childcare professionals ensured that the caregivers and the parents did not have to keep repeating information many times over.

‘Sharing information in a timely and accurate way is an essential part of delivering better services to children, young people, their families and care providers. Sometimes it can help to save lives. Practitioners at different agencies should work together and share information appropriately for the safety and well-being of children. It is important to understand and respect legislation and ethics surrounding the confidentiality and security of information. It is crucial to build trust with the child or young person and their family from the outset by clarifying issues and procedures surrounding confidentiality, consent and information sharing. Practitioners should adhere to the correct principles, policies and procedures for information sharing, ensuring that the child or young person, parent or caregiver understands the process.’ (The Common Core of Skills and Knowledge for the Children’s Workforce)