Category: Free Essays

In the context of Social Work practice learning (Children’s Services Assessment Team) and the social work role discuss a particular piece of practice, giving consideration to the skills and models of communication and empowerment that were used.

Introduction

Organized under the United Kingdom’s Department of Health, Children’s Services represents a division of Social Care which is administered in each region under the auspices of the Children’s Commissioner (Children Act 2004). Children’s Services is committed to the safeguarding and rights of children through high quality services over a broad array of provisions. The Children’s Assessment Team under the Department of Health has the responsibility for the handling of children and their families who have benne either referred and or have contacted their respective Child Care agency (London Borough of Barking & Dagenham, 2006). The preceding includes the offering of advice and help while ensuring that the correct decisions are rendered with regard to the urgency dictated by the circumstances along with the proper response level.

The preceding represents an ‘assessment’ as carried out in each individual circumstance, which requires skills, communication and the powers to carried the aforementioned out. This examination shall look into a particular area of practice concerning Social Work in the Children’s Services Assessment Team, giving consideration to the skills, models of communication and empowerment involved.

The Referral and Assessment aspect of Children’s Services represents one of the most important areas of the many services offered by this Department in that it is responsible for acting upon referrals concerning children and their families that are in need of assessment (Southwark Council, 2006). The Referral and Assessment Team provides intervention as well as support and is responsible for the initial intake process covering the assessment of need and urgency, prioritizing said cases on an individual basis (Barnett London Borough, 2006). One of the most important areas, which includes child protection, legal proceedings and that children in need are looked after, is the initial process which identifies a child in need as opposed to child protection (Wrexham County Borough, 2001). The manner in which the referral was initiated has a bearing upon the type of skill, communication and application of techniques involved. In this instance, this examination shall utilize the example of an abused child that has been brought to the attention of Child Services through calls made by a concerned citizen, or other means. The data and information gathered in the initial contact, regarding the allegation, requires immediate follow up to assess the truthfulness of the allegation and thus whether further action is warranted (Barnett London Borough, 2006). Said referral can come from a number of sources, such as neighbors, teachers, school nurse, and other sources (Barnett London Borough, 2006). Once the process has been initiated the most important aspect entails the skills, and communication techniques employed.

The core mission of all social work is the promotion of social justice through its practice (Healy, 1998, pp. 897-914). Within this framework, social workers are in a system that promotes collaborative approaches representing analysis and prioritization (Healy and Mulholland, 1998, pp. 3-27). Once the decision has been made to see the child in question, as a result of either the suspicion or proof regarding action being warranted, the skills in communication as well as observation come into play. Thompson (2003, pp. 10) advises that the importance of communication is that it permits us to transmit information from one person to another and it represents “… a complex, multilevel event”. In communicating with children as well as adults, social workers need to be well versed in interaction that accompanies communication and contact, and the complexities entailed, as well as the messages on a verbal and non verbal plane (Thompson, 2003. pp. 10-12, 33 – 34, 182-183).

In those instances where there is an absence of external physical evidence or medical examination, the social worker has to be able to ascertain from conversations and observations with the child as well as the adults involved regarding tone of voice, eye movements, reactions, and other behavior whether truthful replies are being given. The preceding represents areas that encompass theory as well as practice. Adams et al (1998, pp. 253-272) state that the context of social work has changed over the past twenty years as a result of new public management systems that have decreased the value of theory along with the value driven aspects involved in human social work.

In the context of children’s services the Referral and Assessment Team intercede on behalf of the child through policy decisions and active support when the initial interview uncovers need, depending upon the circumstances. This aspect represents item number six under Article Two, General Function, of the Children Act 2004 (Children Act 2004). The Department of Health (2006) provides for advocacy safeguards for children to protect them from abuse as well as poor practice. This aspect provides for children themselves to be a part of the process, having and active voice that can be and is heard to participate in reaching determinations (Department of Health, 2006). Under provisions as set forth, the standards and core principles that children can expect are identified as (Department of Health, 2006):

The role of children in advocacy,
policy context,
equal opportunities,
confidentiality,
publicity,
accessibility,
independence,
complaints,
procedures, and
the management and governance of services

The preceding along with empowerment provides the child with a real voice as well as organization that is committed to ensure their well being as found under the Children’s Services Regulations 2005 of the Children Act 2004 (Children’s Services Inspection Regulations, 2005). Through a formalized inspection, review and analysis process involving “… two or more inspectorates and commissions, the process is ensured of impartiality as well as adequate oversight. Articles 2.3 under this provision sets forth “… that relevant assessments, inspections, reviews, investigations and studies … are conducted on cases. These measures are a part of the framework of checks and balances incorporated into the process for the safeguarding of the child who comes to the attention of Children’s Services. Empowerment also provides for the offering of assistance, counseling and advice to parents in need of help in order to safeguard a child’s well being. The formalized process sets forth specific guidelines in all of the indicated areas, as well as a broader scope for a matter of such national importance.

Conclusion

Owing to the sensitive nature of services involving children, specific case studies or references to such are not available, for the obvious reasons. Under the context of the Referral and Assessment Team of social work, a hypothetical example was used as the broad framework for the examination of practice learning and the social work role with consideration given to the skills and models of communication and empowerment. The Children Act 2004 and the Children’s Services Inspection Regulations, 2005 set forth specific procedures, guidelines and framework for the handling of child cases providing oversight safeguards through redundancy features.

Each regional Council works in partnership with the departments of Education and Health, as well as other social work teams to “… ensure the co-ordination of assessment of needs …” leading to the “… formulation of individual care plans and support packages” (Beacon Council, 2006). The process of referral and assessment is conducted under procedures that are of course subject to the individual expertise levels of the interviewers and case workers. However the safeguards of a multi-level internal review and follow up process catches any potential instances whereby a child might slip through the system due to any number of reasons. As is the case with any process involving humans and organizations, there are those occasions when the system or the person fails, however, given the multi level review and follow up process, such mistakes do not last too long.

Bibliography

Adams, R., Dominelli, L., Payne, M. (1998) Social Work: Themes, Issues and Critical Debates. Houndsmills Macmillan

Barnett London Borough (2006) Supporting Families Division. Retrieved on 10 December 2006 from http://www.barnet.gov.uk/index/health-social-care/children-and-family-care/supporting-families-division.htm

Beacon Council (2006) Children and Families. Retrieved on 12 December 2006 from http://www.bexley.gov.uk/service/social/childrenandfamilies/disabilities.html

Children Act (2004) Children Act 2004. Retrieved on 10 December 2006 from http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2004/40031–b.htm#1

Children’s Services Inspection Regulations (2005) Children’s Services Inspection Regulations. Retrieved on 12 December 2006 from http://66.218.69.11/search/cache?p=uk+children%27s+services+assessment+team&fr=yfp-t-501&toggle=1&ei=UTF-8&u=www.dfes.gov.uk/consultations/downloadableDocs/Children’s%20Services%20Inspection%20Regulations%20Consultation%20Document%20-%20PDF.pdf&w=uk+children’s+services+assessment+team&d=IY3kv5IFNg0E&icp=1&.intl=us

Department of Health (2006) Department of Health: Children’s Advocacy. Retrieved on 11 December 2006 from http://www.dh.gov.uk/Consultations/ResponsesToConsultations/ResponsesToConsultationsDocumentSummary/fs/en?CONTENT_ID=4017049&chk=vFWybl

Healy, K. (1998) Participation and Child Protection: The Importance of Context. Vol. 28. British Journal of Social Work

Healy, K., Mulholland, J. 81998) Discourse analysis and activist social work: Investigating practice processes. Vol. 25, Number 3. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare

London Borough of Barking & Dagenham (2006) Children’s Services Children’s Assessment Team. Retrieved on 10 December 2006 from London Borough of Barking & Dagenham

Southwark Council (2006) Children’s Services. Retrieved on 10 December 2006 from http://www.southwark.gov.uk/Uploads/FILE_10982.pdf

Thompson, N. (2003) Communication and Language: A Handbook of Theory and Practice. Palgrave Macmillan

Wrexham County Borough (2001) Assessment Framework for Children in Need and their families. September 2001. Wrexham Social Services Department, Directorate of Personal Services, Wrexham, United Kingdom

According to Schneider et. all 2001 and Rogers Maslow , humanistic theory every human being has exceptional and inborn identities and natural potentials. These are the goals that direct them to achieve their full potentials. Maslow defines that individuals have specific requirements and needs which must be met in a hierarchical style and it happens from bottom to top. Another author Rogers has noted that every individual has a particular frame of reference according to their self concept or self regard. These are one’s own perception or faith about themselves. It is a theory that highlights on individual’s capacity for self track, understanding, basic needs, achievement needs, self-actualization, safety needs etc. According to Maslow, individual should achieve Hierarchy needs in order which are shown below:

Lattal and Chase (2003) has noted that behaviorist theory means the way of conditioning through interaction with the environment with no consideration to the mental state. According to them it is a theory related to psychology and it is based on the proposition that behavior can be researched with evidence with no recourse. Behaviorism is mainly relevant to skill development and the substrate of learning. Usually phobias and neurosis treatment can improve individuals’ behavior significantly.

According to Fritscher 2003, it is a theory that attempts to explain human behaviour by understanding the thought processes. In 21st century Greene brothers (2008) have noted that this theory explains social environment in learning. They showed that environment and self have a reciprocal relation. In addition, this theory fix which environmental factors should be observed, when should be observed, what should be conferred on them or whether they have any long lasting effects or is there any emotional or motivating power etc. Another important thing is, usually human beings make the decisions by thought processes. A diagram of cognitive is given below:

In 1998, a famous author Nasio states that psycholanalytical theory defines that human mind is compared to an iceberg: we only see a little bit of it (the conscious) peeking out above the vast depths of the unconscious. According to this theory, there are many inner forces outside of people’s awareness those direct their behavior. For example, (assume) Dominika has built up a relationship with a boy recently. Suddenly she started calling him by her ex-boy friend’s name. the reason of this may be Dominika misspoke her ex-boy friend because of misgiving about new relationship. another author Friedlander (2003) has noted that it is a theory which defines the dynamics of personality, psychoanalytic, psychodynamic and psychotherapy development. This theory helps to treat people with psychological problem in different ages especially who live in multi-cultural societies.

Review the application of a range of communication techniques for different purposes used in health and social care work.

At this age, proper communication techniques in health and social care are becoming more and more important as service users from different cultures are being added continuously (Moss, 2007). Also effective communication is essential to have good productivity. Windsor and Moonie (2000) define that, communication techniques can be verbal, nonverbal, written, facial/ body language or listening.

Verbal: it is way of communication where people communicate face to face. Sounds, words, speaking, and language are the key elements of verbal communication. For social care work verbal communication style is very important as it influences the service users. Social workers should speak slowly, clearly and politely. They should have softness in speaking.

Non-verbal: non-verbal communication can be used in Health and social care workplace as well. It is a communication process through sending and receiving wordless messages. Gestures, facial expression, body language, using meaningful symbols, sign languages, touching, vocal nuance etc. are also included in non-verbal communication. It is important because it repeats verbal messages, regulate interactions, become complement to verbal messages etc.

Written: written communication is also important like non-verbal and verbal communication. Preservation of our memories can be influenced significantly by written communication. Many researchers think written communication is the most effective and most useful way to communicate in Health and social care workplaces with verbal language as it prevents misunderstanding, helps to remember all important details or, helps to keep important data, helps to educate others, helps to deal with negative feelings, and helps to share knowledge with others and many more.

Listening: It is also important. If the social workers do not listen to the service users properly, misunderstandings can happen. Social workers should listen with full concentration of the service users as it is included in codes of practice.

Discuss the ways in which communication influences how individuals feel about themselves.

Moss (2007) has stated that different types of communication can influence individual’s feelings differently. Impersonal and interpersonal communications are two of them. Impersonal communication means the way to treat people as objects or respond to their roles rather than to who they are as unique people which is normally impersonal and superficial. Usually people communicate by impersonal way. It can make a rational choice to protect people willingly but it doesn’t get them too close. People do not feel very good by this communication method.

Conversely, according to Greene and Burleson (2003), interpersonal communication is a special form of unmediated human communication that occurs when we interact simultaneously with another person and attempt to mutually influence each other, usually for the purpose of managing relationships. It usually occurs simultaneously while people are talking and listening. For example, it can be observed by their- eye contact, clothing, body posture, and facial expressions. People usually feel happy with this communication method and it is very useful to apply in health and social care workplaces.

Describe ways of dealing with inappropriate interpersonal communication between individuals.

According to Stacks and Salwen (2008), inappropriate interpersonal communications between individuals’ begin usually from incorrect use of vocabulary or use of passive vocabulary. It also arises from cultural insensitivity or misinterpretation of body language which can lead to communication gap. There are a few ways to deal with inappropriate interpersonal communication and those can be:

Rephrasing or using the simplier words while speaking or communicating.

Repeating the words with meaningful gestures.

Analyzing the communication gap that has been occurred, spotting and fixing the cultural faux pas and remedying that without delay.

Staying Focused and listen carefully.

Trying to see their point of view

Responding to Criticism with Empathy

Using “I” Messages: Rather than “We”.

Look for Compromise Instead of trying to ‘win’ the argument, look for solutions that meet everybody’s needs.

Analyse the use of techniques and strategies for supporting communication between people with specific communication needs.

In the UK there are many people like deaf, blind who need specific communication needs and these can be lip-reading, speech to text, electronic notes, sign languages, Braille etc. Anon (n.d.) states that around 242,000 people are deaf-blind and two million people are suffering from hearing loss in the United Kingdom. Research has shown that almost 1.4 million people are using hearing aids regularly. Around 50,000 people use sign language as their preferred language. Many British are using interpreters as well but the ratio of interpreters and service users are significantly low in the UK. Pomegranate mobile phone and these technologies can be used to support these persons.

Evaluate workplace strategies, policies and procedures for good practice in communication.

According to Best et all (2003), in health and social care workplaces, there must have good practice for workplace strategies, policies and procedures for communication. Good procedures in communication means to follow the privacy policies, not to spread personal information to unauthorized persons, Keeping confidentiality, consent, disciplinary procedures, protecting hharassment, maintaining equal opportunities, having paternity and maternity leave, playing by rules, following data protection acts, not to reveal any data without taking permission etc. Good communication policies and strategies include adoption policy, complaints policy, whistle blowing policy, grievance policy etc. These policies, procedures and strategies help to build up a smooth and friendly workplace.

Question 2

Describe physical, cultural and legal influences on communication in health and social care by:

2.1 Analyse how methods of communication are influenced by individual values, culture and ability.

Littlejohn Foss (2005) and Samovar et al (2009) have stated that individual values, culture and ability can influence the communication methods significantly in health and social care. Value means the principles, standards, or quality which guides human actions. It also defines the acceptable standards which govern the behaviour of individuals within the organization. Without having such values, individuals will pursue behaviours that are in line with their own individual value systems, which may lead to behaviours that the organization doesn’t wish to encourage. Another thing is organizational values which are the beliefs and ideas about what kinds of goals members of an organization should pursue and ideas about the appropriate kinds or standards of behaviour organizational members should use to achieve these goals. It influence communication as it develops organizational norms, makes sense about things are good or bad, which things are more or less important. It also promotes anti discriminatory practice and diversity, protects people from abuse, keeps confidentiality, gives peoples rights to dignity, autonomy, independence and safety, understanding other peoples beliefs and identities.

According to them, culture can influence communication method as well. Culture means the values, traditions, worldview, and social and political relationships that are created, shared, and transformed by a group of people bound together by a common history, geographic location, language, social class, and/or religion. It is a dynamic, constantly changing process that is shaped by political, social and economic conditions. It manipulates communication by guiding people in their thinking, feelings, and acting etc.

Describe legislation and charters governing the rights of individuals to communicate.

There are specific law, legislations and charters governing the rights to communicate and these can be NHS and community care act 1990, sex discrimination act, Disability discrimination act (DDA) etc. Research from Mandelstam (2008) has shown that NHS and community care act 1990 ensures the full independence of the individuals among these legislations and charters,. According to this act, every service user should be shown respect. No one can be discriminated at any way whatever their race, sex, origin, religion, age etc. In addition, everyone including patients with mental health, learning disability, children should be treated as an individual while communicating. everyone should have their communications needs valued and respected, whether they are verbal or non-verbal. The charter sets out the rights for disable people in terms of their disability which includes information, Support and training, Time to communicate, Access to services, Inclusion in social networks, Services from Employers etc.

In addition, according to him and Disability act 2006, every person with a communication disability has a right to receive information in a way that they can receive and respond. A wide range of recognized and meaningful symbols, materials, signs, alternative communication methods should be available everywhere for disabled people. employers must provide training for customer-facing staff to offer alternative communication at help desks and service points, e.g. a map, pencil and paper, pictures.

Also we know that Every person with a communication disability has a responsibility to identify how they can communicate to exchange information. To do this, they can carry carry a card explaining what the difficulty is, in plain English or explaining what they need to help them at the outset. They should be given enough time to understand as well. In the same time, they should be given positive support from their family, friends and care workers.

Discuss the implications in health and social care contexts of legislation and codes of practice relating to records and communication of information about people.

According to Dziegielewski (2003) and Trainor (n.d.), keeping record of information in health and social care is very important and sensitive. There are specific law, legislations and codes of practice relating to records keeping and communication of information about people. They can follow European, national or UN law, charters and codes of practice while keeping records. But service providers should keep information by following data protection act 1998. According to this act Personal information must be stored on the case files or in the recording books and it should only be available to those who are directly involved with the care of the Person and to those responsible for the maintenance of good practice and standards. Both Manual and computer records should be stored against unauthorised access. Also, it is not allowed to copy of any documents (including medical records, personal records, political views etc.) for any purpose other than for the purpose of the well-being of the service users. For example, a social worker may need to send a client’s details to a doctor. So, he/she may need to do some copy of his/her client’s documents. So, it is allowed by the contexts of legislation.

Analyse the effectiveness of organisational systems policies in relation to good practice in communication.

Usually organizational systems, policies and procedures are very effective for the good practice in communication. Keyton (2005) noted that every organization has different communication policies in relation to good practice. It builds confidentiality and good relationship among the stakeholders, employees and service users. In addition, communications Policy ensures to use the organizational communications facilities, including internet, email, fax, phone, sms etc. It also guides to use fast and reliable way of communication which has significant advantages for health and social care workplaces. In the same time, it warns to it’s employees about the dangers and misuse of communication. It also inform to it’s employees that none can be discriminated during communicating. For example, some people may have difficulty to understand some communication methods. So, good organizational policies will provide a framework or a way to overcome these problems. Values, personal moral qualities, respecting service user’s dignity and autonomy are also included to good practice in communication and these are usually mentioned in organizational policies.

Suggest and justify ways of improving communication systems in a health or care setting.

Effective and constructive communication is vital as it helps to support, achievement and well being of our society. The ways to improve communicating systems in health and social care are given below:

Having enough employees to accomplish their jobs smoothly. If there is shortage of employee, people may not do their jobs in time. In addition, additional work load may put stress on the staff. As a result, they may not communicate with service users and staff properly.

Effective and constructive communication method must be built up among the GP practices, dentists, pharmacists, NHS, emergency services, care trusts.

Using both electronic (e-mail, text message, fax, phone etc.) and paper messages (letters, newsletters, leaflets etc) for day to day communication. In addition, having common software to share information or a database system among the partnership organizations can also help to improve communication system.

Health and social care officials as well as normal staff should arrange regular meeting among themselves to share their views regarding their progress, future plan etc.

Proper implementation of data protection act can also help to improve communication.

Demonstrate ability to communicate appropriately using range of techniques.

According to Marincek (2001) and Jones Cregan (1986), there are many people in the United Kingdom who need to communicate by special communicating techniques. Especially, children, elderly people, hearing disabled people use these techniques which are given below:

Text messaging, using sign language, lip reading, converting speech to text can be used to communicate with deaf people. Probably sign language is the most effective way to communicate with deaf people as it has it’s own right. It also covers the whole system of communication. On the other hand, text messaging is the easiest way to communicate as almost everyone can read it. But people may not be able to express their emotions by this way.

Blind people prefer to use voice recorder, speaking or listening to communicate. Technology can give lots of benefit to blind people. For example, if there is a blind employee in an organization and she/he has to gather data from internet then she/he can be benefited by using voice or audio system. Further, if anyone wants to leave some information to someone who is blind then he can convert his message to voice so that blind receiver can receive it.

Basically, I have to be very careful while communicating with communication disabled people. For example, my body position, speaking style, listening style have to be well-developed and I have to be patient so that they can understand me without any difficulty.

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Explore the use of information technology in communications in health and social care by:

Demonstrate ability to access and use standard IT software, used routinely, to support work in health and social care.

Harlow and Webb (2003) stated that every health and social care worker should have good knowledge regarding IT software to support their daily activity. To support my work, I use Microsoft office, Microsoft power point, Microsoft excel, Microsoft access, Microsoft word, spreadsheet, Microsoft outlook, internet, notepad etc.

According to Shaffer et al (2007), Microsoft office is very useful to manage day to day activities. I can preserve almost all the documents, work history by using Microsoft office word. Notepad is also useful to take and save the short notes.

I use Microsoft office access to create normal database solution, tables, forms, reports, queries, graphs etc. I have to use spreadsheet to support my work as well. It is software by which I can access multiple cells. I can find out any individual’s details within a click. For example, I can access to service users’ details if they just provide me their surnames or dates of birth.

Microsoft outlook and internet are one of the most useful software that I use. I use outlook to send and receive any electronic mail. I can save my mails as well if there is no internet connection. I can send those when I get internet connection. I use internet to collect data.

Analyse how the use of IT in health and social care benefits service users.

Leathard (2003) and Cnaan Parsloe (1989) have shown that information technology benefits both the service users and service providers in various ways in health and social care. Disable people, mental health patients, blind people, deaf people, speechless people and even sometimes healthy people are being benefitted by use of information technology. The ways are described below:

Disabled people: According to Hawkridge et al (1985) and Anogianakis Association for the Advancement of Assistive Technology in Europe (1997), information technology has added new scope to disabled people’s life. Now, those who are deaf can use hearing aid to overcome their listening barriers. Blind people are being benefitted by using audio system. Now, they can conduct their day to day activities by this method. Even, now language converter is being used for those people who are not efficient in a common language like English. So, service users can describe their problem elaborately without facing any hassle.

Developed service: Now-a-days, all the health care specialists who are authorised can access to patient details. So, they can exchange their views and knowledge regarding their service and patient’s treatment. As a result, better and improved services are provided to the clients. In addition, patient can get various services from one person.

Treatment and medicine: Slee et al (2001) have stated that, now patients can gather data regarding their disease and can get information about the potential medicine. So, patient can discuss with his doctor if there is any mistake in the prescribed medicine. As a result, patient can get escape from a great problem. In addition, e-medicine can boost the knowledge of doctors. All the health care specialists including social workers and service users can gather lots of information by using website as well as internet conferences.

Critically evaluate how the IT supports and enhances the activities of care workers and care organisations/agencies.

According to Cnaan Parsloe (1989), the activities of a care worker or a care agency’s activities can be significantly enhanced by information technology. For example, a care worker can preserve any medical data digitally which is quick and cost effective. Next time, another care worker does not need to waste his or her time to look for client’s medical report or medication history. She/he can get it easily and quickly if she/he is efficient in IT. It also reduces work load and care workers or care organizations can concentrate on other tasks quickly.

Another important thing is, doctors can be benefited from IT significantly. For example, the GPs can use a software where all medical and drug information will be pre-saved. So, all information regarding to that drug will be shown automatically while prescribing that to a patient. It can save lots of time because doctors or care workers then will not need to look for the information regarding any medicine. To implement this, a very good network and communication between pharmacists and doctors is essential.

Analyse health and safety legal considerations in the use of IT.

The health and safety legal considerations should come to light in the use of information technology because inappropriate use of IT can damage employees’ health. Even it has a long term effect on physical condition. According to Koreneff (2005), employees’ health and safety matters must be considered in the workplace. Those who usually work in front of computer screen or anything like that may suffer from eye strain, headache, back pain, fatigue etc. Employee’s should take regular break or change the activity for 10 minutes after doing one hour works to prevent this. They should keep their body in a right posture to prevent back pain. Right posture includes keeping back side supported, head up, hands relaxed, knees are leveled with hip, feet are flat with floor, screen is directly in front and not in angle etc. Hands and wrists are usually most comfortable when forearm is nearly at a right angle to upper arm and wrist is in a straight line with hand and forearm. Complain should be made against an organization if that fails to provide these types of workplace. Employers must provide a workplace for the employees which will meet all the requirements of health and safety to use IT.

INTRODUCTION

Language in particular and communication in general, permeates every aspect of people’s lives. It is important in everything that a person does, in whatever profession an individual might be in. It fosters greater understanding as well the possibility of establishing better relationships between the parties which are communicating. This paper seeks to address the issue by the provision of the theories of communication which are applicable in health and social care, how to use effective communication skills in such a context, methods of dealing with inappropriate communication practices, strategies for effective communication, and the benefits and need to be engaged in effective and efficient communication practices, especially in the context of the said profession.

The author will stipulate significant factors which are assumed to be highly influential in the process of communication include culture, values, legislations, and other regulations which govern the practice of the profession. The author will also provide suggestions on how the communication process can be improved so that it can be more useful in the field of health and social care.

Furthermore, the author will discuss the standard software which are used by the health and social workers in their profession, an analysis of the benefits which were brought about by such applications, provide an analysis of how such technology enhances activities in the profession, and evaluate the legal considerations which are critical to be understood in the application of the information and communication technology.

The author will further discuss the nature of the workplace where the author is working. The organization provides care services for clients with physical and mental disabilities and for clients with dementia.

USE OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN HEALTH CARE
THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION

Four theoretical approaches in the practice of health and social care will be highlighted in this section: psychodynamic, behaviourist, humanistic and cognitive. The main foundation of the psychodynamic theory to communication is grounded on the works of Sigmund Freud. This does not involve only a single theory but stems to a number of other theories which were all grounded on the foundations of the work of Freud. This theory combines those which are associated to “psyche” which includes not only the mind but the entire inner feelings, thoughts and experiences and “dynamics” which refer to the notion that psyche is not stable, rather active. According to this theory, communication with the individual’s self is very critical as it is the foundation of that person’s communication practices to others. One of the basic assumptions on this theory is that the individual is the author of his own history; therefore, the individual’s earliest experiences form the foundations of how that person deals with others. Such can be modified along the process. Another basic assumption is that the individual lives in two worlds at the same time, internal and external. The internal world is unconscious while the external is controlled. The theory also assumes that all behaviour is logical and acted upon with purpose. These factors are highly influential with how the individual communicates in health and social care setting (Ellis et al., 2003).

Another theory which can be noted is the behaviourist theory. The main foundation of this theory is the notion that all behaviour is largely based on learnt responses about specific stimuli. This can be able to explain the method of language acquisition such as that of the echoic response wherein the infant imitates the sound which is made by the health or social professional, who, on the other hand, reinforces the behaviour of the infant. This theory focuses on behaviour and highlights the present and the future (Ellis et al., 2003).

The third theory which will be considered in this paper is the humanistic approach. Under this theory, the person is the highlight of interest rejecting the significance of behaviour and the unconscious impulses which result from the past. Two of the theories which are under this approach are the person-centred theory and the transactional analysis. The former highlights the importance of childhood and current experiences in life while the latter reiterates the significance of personality, child development, social psychology, and psychopathology (Sully & Dallas, 2005). According to Carl Rogers (1902-1987), “People are essentially trustworthy, that they have a vast potential for understanding themselves and resolving their own problems without direct intervention on the therapist’s part, and that they are capable of self-directed growth if they are involved in a specific kind of therapeutic relationship.” In relation to health care context, the goal of this theory is to make the clients become more open in their own personal experience, to accept themselves in all aspect, and to minimize things that might challenge their concept of self. To achieve this, there must be a good relationship between the therapist and the client. The therapist must be realistic but not offensive, accepting but critical to the misconduct of the client. Trust between the therapist and the client is important so the client will not feel social distance scale. It is basically understanding and accepting the client as a whole being, not judging the client’s impurities.

The fourth is the social cognitive theory. According to Bandura (1986), individuals obtain more information through observational learning. At home, how a parent would nurture their child can be an environmental factor that influences the child the way he behaves. Learning starts from the home whereby a child imitates the people around him. Behaviour then is being shaped and as the child grows; his natural curiosity is reinforced by his motivation to learn. The social cognitive theory explains the interaction between the person and the environment which involves cognitive competencies such as achievement that are developed and modified by social influences and structures within the environment such as parents and society.

USE OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS

There are many ways to communicate; it could be verbal, non-verbal, writing and listening. Verbal communication is used when giving information or doing trainings, on the telephone, hand over and when talking face to face with a client. For verbal communication, there are things to consider like the tone of voice, pitch and talk on the same level, never talk with your back on your client. Non-verbal communication is used for clients who have difficulty hearing, deaf and mute. Factors to bear in mind are facial expression, hand gestures, physical appearance and body posture. Aids that might help communication are the use of symbols, picture cards and communication board or writing pad. The art of good listening is practiced by letting the clients talk in their own pace and giving them time to express themselves. Transmission of information becomes effective by getting the message across clearly and reflects on how the message was conveyed.

The benefits of effective and efficient communication skills in the practice of health and social care can be highlighted by how it is used in the profession. One of the uses of communication in this field is to foster the growth and development of the practice. It must be noted that communication does not only exist between the health professional and the client. It is also evident between health professionals themselves. Communication can be used in this field to be assured that innovative ideas, trends, and best practices are shared amongst the healthcare professionals and social workers for the betterment of their profession (Santy & Smith, 2007).

Communication can also be used in the context of health and social care to be able to promote an advocacy. This kind of communication is often utilized in mediums like advertisements on print and other channels. The use of media for health promotion campaigns is very convincing that people understand healthy living and what is best for them.

Lastly, it has also been noted that communication can be used in the health and social care setting to be able to foster partnership with clients or patients, treat them with respect, provide patients with self-esteem, provision of practical help and advice regarding their condition, stimulate their intellectual development, improve the client’s sense of self-being or self-worth, satisfy the physical, emotional, and social needs of the patients and to be responsive of their needs (Haworth & Forshaw, 2002).

DEALING WITH INAPPROPRIATE INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

To be able to reap the benefits of a good communication practice, health and social workers must be able to properly deal with any inappropriate communication practices. For instance, any barrier to communication should be resolved as such can result into misunderstanding in the professional practice. An example of a factor which can be a hindrance to good communication practice would be culture and language itself. Professionals in the field of health and social care should see to it that both parties understand each other, especially when decision making is involved. The use of jargons should be limited as it can lead into inappropriate communication leading into misunderstanding. Another factor which can be considered as an inappropriate practice in communication in the context of health and social care is privacy. Patients are private individuals, their records should therefore be held with confidentiality and there should be no presence of breach of contract as well between practitioners or professionals. Health and social workers have the inherent duty to not disclose any information without the knowledge of all the parties which are concerned. The lack of trust of the patient to the medical worker can also be a barrier to effective communication. Lastly, the lack of knowledge can also serve as another barrier to communication (King & Wheeler, 2007).

STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT USERS

To be able to be potentially engaged in efficient and effective communication practices, as a carer

VARIOUS FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE COMMUNICATION PROCESS IN HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE
VALUES AND CULTURE

Two of the factors which are assumed to be highly influential in the communication process, specifically in the field of health and social care, are values and culture. These may include factors which are related in demographics such as age, gender, race, educational and economic status, and also beliefs, among others. Culture, which can be defined as the “identifiable integrated pattern of human behaviour that includes customs, beliefs, values, behaviours, and communications” (Servellen, 1997), is said to be highly influential in this field basically because they arise from almost every group that are involved in the communication process. In tackling the issue of culture and its influence in the communication process, one of the factors which should be understood are the sub-groups, for instance, Asian. Among the Asian cultures, people from different countries have various approaches to communicating. For instance, in the Vietnamese culture, talking is customary. Professionals who are working with people who are accustomed to the Vietnamese culture must be able to take such cultural factor into account so that the communication process can be carried out more efficiently and more conveniently. Another factor which should be understood on this note is cultural identity. One of the inclusions in this identity is the fact that all people are influenced by cultural programming which makes it essential to have an understanding of that culture so that communication can be carried out better (Servellen, 1997).

As mentioned earlier, one of the dimensions of culture and values which influence the communication process is gender. Men and women are naturally equipped with differences and such can be reflected in the way they engage themselves into the process of communication. Having different communication styles base on gender, interpretation may also vary in both sexes. Health and social workers should be aware of these differences so that they will be sensitive on how to deal with each patient or client. One of the key to understand these differences is to be an active listener so that the professional can be able to better understand the patient. The same is true with age and ethnicity. Communication with elderly should be done on a different approach wherein the health or social worker should demonstrate more respect. A different approach is also given when communicating with the younger ones. Furthermore, each nationality also has different approaches to communication. Some verbal and non-verbal communication techniques might be appropriate for other cultures while it may prove to be rude for some. These should be understood clearly so that there will be no misinterpretation and confusion with regards to the transmission of the message (Basavanthappa, 2004).

LEGISLATION, CHARTERS, AND CODES OF PRACTICE

Despite the fact that communication in the field of health and social care is highly influenced by culture and values, it has also influenced the existence and stipulations which are provided by legislations, charters, and codes of practice. The institution is often left with no option but to follow such stipulations as it is a legal requirement in the context of their practice.

One of the most important factors by which legislations and charters influence communication techniques can be demonstrated by the fact that such allows the provision of equality. The existing laws which govern the practice of health and social care are based on the principle of equality which does not allow discrimination of any party, be it a patient or a health or social worker. For instance, legislations such as those which provide fair employment, sex discrimination acts, race relations, and others are some of the laws which demonstrate and influence in professional practice. These laws serve as the foundation of the behaviour of the healthcare professional and form the basis of how they act and how they communicate. The serious consequences of going against such legislations will be undeniably a critical factor in the observance of a good communication practice (Cambridge Training & Development, 2000).

The Data Protection Act 1984 is a good example which demonstrates legislations in good communication practice in the field of health and social care. This can be able to provide protection to information which are assumed confidential and should be used solely for the purposes known by the persons involved. Service users could possibly demonstrate loss of trust from the service providers if confidential information are leaked making it important for laws to provide protection for such. Certain legislations are also made available to provide equality and anti-discrimination in the workplace. These factors are highly influential in shaping the communication practice and activities of people in health and social care (Moonie, 2005).

Furthermore, the stipulations in the code of practice and ethics in a certain institution are also highly influential in communication practices especially in consideration of the fact that they can affect confidentiality and privacy of information. For instance, the use and access to the internet for health and social workers are often limited and defined by codes of conduct, depending upon the institution, to be assured of good communication practices and work ethics. The use of other technological aids can also be regulated by existing rules and regulations to be able to protect the rights of the institution, the workers, the patients, and the public in general (Martin, 2003).

ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEMS AND POLICIES

For all concerned parties to be engaged in effective and efficient communication practices, one factor which can be considered as essential would be effective organizational systems and policies. These systems and policies will be able to shape the communication activities and will make it more appropriate and meaningful. Health and social care institutions need to develop systems and policies which can foster good communication. This can include factors which are related to documentation, information systems, establishment of procedures and practices. For instance, the development of a dynamic and advanced information system can demonstrate effectiveness and efficiencies in the various activities which are undertaken. In the absence of such systems, it will be highly impossible to transmit and share information which might prove to be significant in the profession. For instance, at Ashleigh Court Rest Home, policies are strictly implemented. Stated below are some of the policies that the home adheres with:

Whistle Blowing Policy – this document has been written to comply with the Public Interest Disclosure Act 1998, which was introduced to protect employees who “blow the whistle” about any wrongdoing. The policy gives clear guidance to all members of staff regarding the correct procedure for bringing to attention any wrongdoing or suspected wrongdoing which they feel could affect the reputation of the home, other members of staff, visitors, residents or any other organization or persons connected with the home. The policy outlines commitment to openness and good communications.

Bullying In The Workplace – The home believes that all staff have the right to work in an environment that is free from bullying, harassment or intimidation, from either colleagues or management. The home seeks to enable staff to enjoy their work and fulfil their personal and professional potential, by creating and sustaining a stimulating and supportive work environment. It is recognised that staff who feel powerless, vulnerable or even persecuted will not be able to give of their best work or work successfully.

Prevention of Accidents – The home fully accepts the responsibility to ensure that all reasonable steps and precautions are taken to provide and maintain safe and healthy working conditions, which comply with all statutory requirements and codes of practice. The home fully supports and complies with the relevant National Minimum Standards and Regulations, which relate to the promotion and protection of the health, safety and welfare of service users and staff. It is recognised, however, that even in the safest of working environments, accidents will occur, from time to time. Where and when this does happen, the Registered Providers (employers) will abide by the requirements of The Health and Safety at work Act 1974. As such, employers must, by law, notify certain categories of accidents, specified cases of ill health and specified dangerous occurrences to the Health and Safety Executive or the Local Authority to comply with the Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations 1995 (RIDDOR). By undertaking these notifications, the home will not only be meeting the legal requirements but will be able to determine local patters and causes of accidents, so that preventive measures can be put in place to prevent recurrence. A written record such as Accident/Incident Report will be kept, of any accident, however minor, which occurs in the home.

Policy on Racial Harassment – Every Service User has the right to live and every staff member has the right to work in the home without the threat of racial harassment, discrimination or abuse. Any occurrences of this nature will not be tolerated and perpetrators will be subject to disciplinary procedures. The home fully upholds the principles and guidance of the Race Relations Act 1976 and the Protection from Harassment Act 1997. Racial harassment is any behaviour, deliberate or otherwise, pertaining to race, colour, ethnic or national origin, which is unwanted by the recipient and creates an intimidating, hostile or offensive environment. It may include racist jokes or insults, abusive comments about racial origins and skin colour and ridicule of an individual on cultural and/or religious grounds.

IMPROVING COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Health and social workers must be perpetually engaged in the improvement and development of the communication process to be better in their profession. One of the ways by which such can be improved is through the provision of security of information. In this way, privacy and confidentiality can be achieved and it can to help prevent any misunderstanding and confusion in the communication process. Furthermore, the communication process can also be improved through the provision of dynamic and sustainable rules which relate to documentation, presentation, and use of outputs and reports so that their purpose can be maximized by its users and providers. The provision of technological aids and communication tools can also help improve such process. Furthermore, the following are other ways by which communication can be improved in the health and social care setting: provide communication access to persons with difficulties; be aware of the various communication barriers and develop strategies by which they can be minimized or reduced at an acceptable level; teach workers about ethics and values related to communication practices; and rigorous training and education to enhance workers’ knowledge about effective and efficient communication. There is a need to make service providers understand what are the processes and activities involved in the complex communication process and the need to teach them to be active listeners. By doing the earlier mentioned, the health and social care workers can have an improved communication process and it can foster greater understanding and build better relationships between providers and users (Malone, 2005).

EXPLORING THE USE OF INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE
STANDARD I.T. SOFTWARE

The activities in the provision of health and social service would not be possible to carry in the absence of various I.T software and applications. Some of these include: word-processing, spreadsheets, presentations, internet, intranet, and email. These tools are assumed to have critical significance in the profession as it helps in the completion of day-to-day activities in the organization.

Word processing is important because it allows the creation, editing, reading, and amendment of various documents which might prove to be vital with health and social care work. If these documents are handwritten, there is no form of standardization and it will be hard to understand as well as too slow to accomplish. Therefore, word processing is considered as one of the most significant I.T. software package as it allows ease in work and reduces the intensity of labour in the creation of documents. Spreadsheet, on the other hand, allows them to do mathematical calculations with ease as it has formulas which can make their works easier while presentations allow them to prepare and present visual presentations in order to communicate better. The internet and intranet is also a good tool as it allows connectivity between the network of users within the organization and through the globe using the internet. Lastly, emailing would allow them to exchange information within each other and share documents in the workplace (Cook, 2006).

One of the most advanced application of information and communication technology in the field of health and social care is through telecare which is a business-to-consumer service provision without personal interaction as it just completed on channels such as telephones and computers. This includes services which are related to health and social care such as automated appointment reminders and client monitoring services at home. Traditionally, these things are done by trained professionals at the client’s home until the inception of technology which defies distance and allows greater interaction between the users and providers (Niman et al., 2006).

BENEFITS OF USING ICT

The use of information and communication technology would have not proliferated in the field of health and social care if it did not bring numerous benefits and advantages to the organization, users, providers, and the general public. One of the benefits is the accuracy of records. Because of the use of the various applications of information and communication technology, it will be easier to have readily available information about the condition of the client and it will be easier for the staff to provide an answer to the concerns of the patients. The health professionals are also able to enjoy the benefits of information and communication technology because such allows them to have safe, modern, and speedy IT systems which can help them in their routine, it allows them to utilize time more efficiently, and it allows the possibility of remote monitoring (Gillies, 2006).

Information and communication technology is also beneficial in the field of health and social care because it allows the possibility of meeting individual needs, it provides ease in the administration of treatment procedures, it makes the administrative practices more efficient, records and documentation can be more accurate, it fosters better communication, and it promotes independence. Information and communication technology also provides collaboration among users and providers which inevitably leads into more efficient service delivery (Leathard, 2003).

ENHANCING ACTIVITIES OF HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE WORKERS

Information and communication technology demonstrates the possibility of enhancing the activities by which health and social care workers are engaged. This is assumed to be done through the following ways: efficiency in business administration, meeting the needs of the employees, improving the quality of service, accountability, and meeting what is required from them. Because of information and communication technology, the field of health and social work is able to experience increased efficiency. The use of various tools associated to such form of technology has allowed them to be engaged into better practices in their profession. For instance, the internet and the intranet, along with the methods by which documentation has improved, are all seen as highly contributory to the improvement of business administration. Service has also seen a dramatic improvement because of the applications of the said technology. Because of such, it is easier to access records and information, although such has also been limited by existing legislations to protect privacy and to promote confidentiality.

LEGISLATIONS

To be assured that the use of information and communication technology is maximized and not detrimental to the society, certain legislations, both internal and external to the company also exist to govern information and communication practices in the field of health and social care. The Data Protection Act provides restrictions and limitations on the use and access of personal information, especially those of the clients or the patients. Some of this information includes personal information, medical records, treatment history, and credit information. Record keeping is very important and should not be underestimated. Disclosing of information is tantamount to breach of confidentiality.

Furthermore, another legislation which is assumed to be significant in the use of information and communication technology is the Access to Personal Files Act 1987 which stipulates general considerations with regards to access to personal information, specifically those data which relate to social services. In addition to these legislations, Access to Medical Reports Act 1988 has also been provided to give right to access into medical reports for the purpose of employment or for insurance. The client, under this legislation, is also endowed with the right to see the information before it is supplied and can also be subject for correction. Lastly, another important legislation is the Access to Health Records Act 1990 which is more concerned about records which could be accessed manually. It gives the client or any other representative the right of access to medical records, in whatever form, electronic or manual (Jones & Jenkins, 2004). Moreover, to keep information within the limits of the workplace, bringing of storage devices are also limited so as the providers cannot transfer any information about the service users which can be leaked and used for purposes which are not under the consent of the parties concerned (Moss, 2008).

RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

Technology has brought a number of benefits realized in the health and social care sector such as meeting the individual needs, ease of administration of procedures, making efficient administrative practices, accurate documentation, and fostering a more dynamic communication practice. Information and communication technology also enhances activities of health and social worker such as by improving efficiency of service, accountability, and quality of outputs. To be able to engage in a more meaningful communication practice, there is a need to be aware and to understand the existing differences in culture and values because they will be able to foster better relationships. There is a need for continuous improvement process in communication by being able to identify ways by which such could be improved. The health and social care sector needs to identify, without a halt, ways by which communication can be improved, so that the profession, in general, can also be improved.

SYSTEMS, POLICIES AND PROCEDURES FOR COMMUNICATING HEALTH AND SAFETY

It is important for organisations to understand how to administer health and safety for social care workers in health and social care workplace in accordance to legislative requirements. It is vital for all clients and carers cooperate to categorise health and safety risks and identify the best means to manage them.

Usual changes in health and social care work environments include: health and safety, and it is best to respond to these usual changes which can influence workplace practises. Communication is vital in ensuring the safety or users and staffs. Every worker must the risks faced and prevention methods put in place and any emergency action plans. This information must be provided in concise and non-technical terms for easy understanding.

Good communication between workers and employers includes:

Itemisation of all hazardous substances used or produced within the workplace.
Having a readily available Safety Data Sheets for any confidential hazardous substances in use.
Converting any useful information from Safety Data Sheets into workplace information that provides specific instructions on handling substances that are in constant use.
Ensuring proper labelling of hazardous substances, with hazard warnings for physical and health hazards.
Communicating the outcome of risk assessments.
Regular enquiries from workers about probable health and safety issues.
Providing workers with all applicable instructions, lessons and training on the hazardous substances available in the place of work, and the safety measures they should take to guard themselves and other staffs.
Making sure that every worker has the knowledge of appropriate usage of every control measures provided, who problems should be reported to, and what should be done in the occurrence of a mishap concerning hazardous substances.

Management Responsibilities of Health and Safety relating to Organisational Structures.

Under section 2 of the Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974, it is the obligation for an employer (host employer, contractor, and service provider) to ensure, so far as is reasonably viable, a healthy and safe workplace for themselves, their workers, including agency staff and subcontractors, and anyone else in the workplace.

To meet up with these obligations, service providers must carry out a risk assessment in the care home, before service provision of any kind clients, to discover probable hazards and put suitable controls in place to reduce the threat of injury or illness for clients, carers and other employees. Figure 1 below outlines the five- step risk management process the risk assessment must follow. This assessment must be done in alliance with service users and their families and every other involved client. Developing client’s care plan must be done identifying suitable control measures.

Management has certain responsibilities to employees working in the home environment and should:

Communicate plainly and identify with what services are to be provided.
Consider supplementary services before being performed.
Evaluate any activity that may have altered to guarantee the controls are still working or need to be modified.
Document on a daily basis the monitoring of the service using various methods especially where a particular client has various service providers or community workers.

Managers should engage in the following to ensure quality control in areas of health and safety:

Perform regular audits to guarantee effective controls are in use.
Evaluate client’s condition and the work settings on a regular basis.
Promote timely reporting of hazards, incidents and early symptoms.
Check with with staff and follow-up on issues raised.
Ensure suitable staffing by reviewing staffing levels.
Providing visibly distinct job descriptions, procedures and policies.
Ensuring required competencies of managers.
Managing staffs exposure to occupational stress.
Providing information to clients about expected behaviour and its effects to service provision.
Evaluating organisational and performance management systems.
Putting policies and procedures in place for controlling conflict and workplace harassment.
Providing staff training and approach on dealing with workloads and handling conflicts and job rotation.
Sustaining an unbiased relationship and proper boundaries with clients.
Providing relevant therapy services for employees.
Declining or transforming client services if in high risk environment.

APPROPRIATE HEALTH AND SAFETY PRIORITIES FOR SPECIFIC HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE WORKPLACE SETTING

Employers have a common obligation under section 2 of the Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974 to guarantee, so far as is logically practical, the health, safety and welfare of their workforce. These policies intend to make certain that work settings meet the health, safety and welfare desires of every employee, including individuals with disabilities. Most of the systems involve things to be ‘suitable’. Regulation 2(3) makes it clear that things should be suitable for anyone including those with disabilities. Where essential, parts of the work settings, including in particular doors, stairways, showers, passages, basins, sinks, toilets, bathrooms and workstations, should be made reachable for disabled persons.

Health

Ventilation

Workplaces need to be effectively ventilated. Fresh, hygienic air should circulate and can be from a suitable source outside the work setting, unpolluted by discharges from any process outlets like chimneys and flues, and be disseminated through every room.

Temperatures in indoor workplaces

Individual preference complicates specification of a satisfactory thermal environment for everyone. For organisations with mainly desk activities like offices, the temperature should usually be no less than 16 °C. If the job involves physical effort it should be no less than 13 °C (unless other regulations require less temperature).

Lighting

Lighting should be adequate to permit people to work and move around in safety. If essential, local lighting should be supplied at certain workstations and areas of particular hazards such as passage way to the basement. Lighting and light fixtures should not cause any hazard. Automatic emergency lighting, motorized by an autonomous source, should be supplied in case of sudden loss of power that would generate a risk.

Cleanliness and waste materials

Every workplace and the furnishings, equipments, surfaces of floors, walls and ceilings and fittings must be in clean and hygienic condition. Cleaning and the taking away of waste have to be carried out by a compulsorily effective means. Waste must be stored in appropriate containers.

Workstations and seating

Workstations should be fit for the individuals using them for the job. Employees should be capable of exiting workstations quickly in an emergency. If work must be done in a sitting position, seats should be made suitable for those using them for the kind of work they do. Seating should provide sufficient support for the lower back, and footrests should be available for employees who are unable to place their feet flat on the floor.

Safety

Maintenance

The workplace, and certain tools, devices and equipments should be properly retained in competent operational order for health, safety and welfare. Such protection is mandatory for mechanical ventilation systems; apparatus and devices which pose risk to health, safety or welfare in the event of faults; and equipment and devices proposed to avert or reduce danger.

Floors and traffic routes

The term ‘Traffic route’ is used for any route for pedestrian traffic and/or vehicles, and includes any fixed ladders, gateway, stairs, passage, and doorway, loading bay or ramp. There must be adequate traffic routes, of plenty distance across and headroom, to permit individuals and vehicles to flow effortlessly and safely.

Windows

Operable windows, ventilators and skylights must be able to open and close freely or adjusted safely. In an open position, windows should not be of any unwarranted risk to anyone. Ventilators should be designed so for safe cleaning.

Doors and gates

Doors and gates must be properly built and integrated with safety devices were appropriate. Swinging doors and gates and traditional hinged doors on central traffic ways should have a translucent viewing panel.

Escalators and moving walkways

Escalators and moving walkways should operate in safety, be fitted with the required safety devices. They must be equipped with emergency and panic controls that can be easily identified and are readily accessible.

REFERENCES

Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 (Commencement No.1) Order 1974, 1974/1439, art.2(a)/ Sch.1

The common core of skills and knowledge for the children’s workforce describes the knowledge and skills that people working with children and young people in the United Kingdom are expected to have. There are six areas of expertise involved in the common core of skills, and these six areas offer a single framework aimed at underpinning an integrated multiagency cooperation, training, qualification and professional standards across the children’s workforce. The common core of skills is inclusive of people working with children all the time, as well as those working with the children on a part time basis. It is also inclusive of paid staff as well as those working as volunteers on the children’s workforce.

The common core of skills also sets out common values for childcare professionals, thereby promoting equality and challenging stereotypes, while at the same time respecting diversity. The common core of skills and knowledge was initially launched in 2005, with the goal of enabling professionals and volunteers working in the children’s workforce to carry out their duties more effectively in the interest of the children and young people being cared for. The common core was developed in an effort to underpin successful integration and multiagency cooperation in the United Kingdom.

The Children’s Workforce Development Council identified six areas of expertise that are deemed to be essential for people working with children and their families. These include:

1. Effective communication and engagement with children, young people and families

2. Child and young person development

3. Safeguarding and promoting the welfare of the child or young person

4. Supporting transitions

5. Multi-agency and integrated working

6. Information sharing

Each of these areas contains information about the required knowledge and skills for childcare workers. These basic requirements enable care providers to do their jobs well. Within the common core of skills, skill is defined as the ability to do something, usually through experience or training, while Knowledge is described as an understanding or awareness gained through learning or experience. (The Common Core of Skills and Knowledge for the Children’s Workforce) The common core of skills also sets out that ‘providers should apply these skills and knowledge in their work and take account of the background and circumstances relevant to a situation.’ (The Common Core of Skills and Knowledge for the Children’s Workforce)

Recently, the Children’s Workforce Development Council (CWDC) refreshed and published some new guidance which updates the common core of skills that childcare workers should possess in the United Kingdom. The last update of the common core of skills happened in 2005.

In partnership with some other government organizations, the Children’s Workforce Development Council investigated the relevance of the contents of the common core of skills. Thus, the common core of skills was updated to ensure that childcare professionals possess a common set of basic skills and knowledge that would enable them to do their job in harmony with each other. The common core was also refreshed to ensure that childcare professionals can communicate effectively, so as to be able to support the children and their families better.

Effective communication and engagement with children, young people and their families

Effective communication is vital when working with children, their families, young people and other care providers. Good communication will help in building trust and encourages children in need of childcare services to seek advice and to utilize the care services provided. Appropriate communication is important for the establishment and maintenance of relationships, as well as being an active process which involves listening, asking questions, understanding issues and responding.

‘Effective communication extends to involving children, young people, their parents and caregivers in the design and delivery of services and decisions that affect them. It is important to consult the people affected and consider opinions and perspectives from the outset. Another crucial element of effective communication is developing trust between the workforce and children, young people, parents and care providers as well as within different sectors of the workforce itself.’ (The Common Core of Skills and Knowledge for the Children’s Workforce)

Child and young person development

This area of the common core of skills and knowledge deals with the intellectual, social, linguistic, physical and emotional growth and development of the children and young people receiving care services, it is important to understand the changes that occur during development in children and young people, and how these changes affect the behavior of the children.

Safeguarding and promoting the welfare of the child or young person

People in the children’s workforce are responsible for promoting and safeguarding the welfare of these young ones. This is a very important responsibility which requires paying close attention to the needs of the children. It involves the ability to recognize situations in which a child or young person is failing to reach his or her developmental potential, or when a child’s mental or physical health is impaired. Childcare workers are also required to b able to recognize when a child is displaying harmful or risky or behavior, or when a child is being abused or neglected. Care providers should also be able to identify sources of help for these children and their families. It is important to identify concerns and where appropriate take action as early as possible so that children, young people, their families and caregivers can get the help they need.

Supporting transitions

It is expected that the use of the common core of skills may vary according to the roles of childcare professionals and the sector involved. Thus, different organizations should be able to find the most appropriate ways of expressing the various areas of expertise indicated in the common core of skills. ‘Those who work with children and young people all the time will use the common core in different contexts and to different levels of depth from those who come into contact with children and young people as only part of their job’ (The Common Core of Skills and Knowledge for the Children’s Workforce.) It is also expected that certain roles in the children’s workforce will focus more on certain areas of the common core. Childcare professionals who interact with children on a regular basis will utilize the common core to a different level of depth and in a different context from part-time or voluntary workers who work with the children and young people less frequently.

It should be noted that not every practitioner will be regularly involved in supporting transitions, although all practitioners will have to understand at least the most important aspects of the sections of the common core of skills in a manner that is relevant to their work.

Multi-agency and integrated working

It has been observed that the common core of skills should be more clearly positioned to work in conjunction with the every child matters initiative, the National Occupational Standards and the common assessment framework, although there should be adjustments in order to take care of any future change in laws or programs related to the common core of skills.

There is also the issue of initial training as relates to the common core of skills. This is because currently, the common core of skills applies only in England, and accredited qualifications are based on standards in the United Kingdom. A lot of people believe that the common core of skills should be incorporated into regulation and inspection in order for it to be accepted and embraced by everyone. This is evident in the responses and feedback from questionnaires, and studies carried out about the efficacy of the common core of skills.

Information sharing

In order to be able to deliver quality childcare services to children in the United Kingdom, it is essential to share information in a timely and accurate manner. Accurate sharing of information can actually help in saving lives, so childcare professionals should be able to work together and share information in a proper manner for the safety and wellbeing of the children. Information sharing also enables childcare workers to understand situations better, and more quickly. When interviewed, most parents were happy about the information sharing requirement of the common core of skills. They responded that information sharing among childcare professionals ensured that the caregivers and the parents did not have to keep repeating information many times over.

‘Sharing information in a timely and accurate way is an essential part of delivering better services to children, young people, their families and care providers. Sometimes it can help to save lives. Practitioners at different agencies should work together and share information appropriately for the safety and well-being of children. It is important to understand and respect legislation and ethics surrounding the confidentiality and security of information. It is crucial to build trust with the child or young person and their family from the outset by clarifying issues and procedures surrounding confidentiality, consent and information sharing. Practitioners should adhere to the correct principles, policies and procedures for information sharing, ensuring that the child or young person, parent or caregiver understands the process.’ (The Common Core of Skills and Knowledge for the Children’s Workforce)

Why was the Common Assessment Framework introduced in Childrens Services, what does it attempt to achieve and how successful is it in doing this?

This essay will discuss why Common Assessment Framework was introduced to Children’s Services, what it attempts to achieve and whether or not it has been successful, the concept behind it and briefly, the difficulties in working with other health professionals to get the Common Assessment Framework to do what it was set out to do.

“The Every Child Matters “Green Paper proposed the introduction of a Common Assessment Framework (CAF) as a central element of the strategy for helping children, young people and their families.” (DfES 2004)

Common Assessment Framework is a standard assessment tool to be used by all professionals working with children for assessments and referral (British Journal of Social Work (2009). The reform agenda in Children’s Service was catalysed by the public inquiry into the death of Victoria Climbie (Laming 2003), an eight year old West African girl who was abused and murdered in the UK in 2000 as a result of extreme cruelty and neglect by her great-aunt and the her partner, who were her guardians.

An inquiry into the death of Victoria Climbie (Laming 2003) exposed a failure to put in place the necessary basic procedures to protect her. Factors identified included lack of early intervention, poor co-ordination, failure to share information and the absence of anyone with a strong sense of accountability. As a result, the Common Assessment Framework (CAF) was one of the measures introduced under the changes in child protection policies and the green paper, Every Child Matters (2003) therefore was introduced to set out proposals for major changes in children’s programmes to allow every child, whatever their background or their circumstances, to have the needed support towards the achievement of a better outcome in the following key areas:

“being healthy, staying safe, enjoying and achieving making a positive contribution and achieving economic well-being” (DoH 2003)

The design, in conjunction with the lead professional and better information sharing policies and procedures; to change the method by which services are delivered, moving the focus from dealing with the consequence of difficulties in children’s lives, towards a more proactive preventative and precautionary measure. CAF is intended to be used for children who have additional needs which may not be complex or severe enough to require statutory intervention. It is for use in situations where there are concerns with how a child is progressing in any way (raised by the child, a parent or a professional), the child’s needs are unclear, the child’s needs are broader than a professional’s own service can address or where it is thought that CAF would help to identify the child’s needs.

The draft ‘Common Assessment Framework’ was developed in late 2004 with its revised version published in 2005. CAF is a new, more standardised approach for assessing the needs of children for service and deciding how those needs should be addressed and met. It is meant for children with additional needs; that is, children at risk of poor outcomes (DfES, 2005b,p1). CAF is designed to be evidence-based , focusing on needs and strengths, rather than ‘concerns’ as seen in the British Journal of social work (2009) 39, 1197-1217.

“The three stated aims of CAF are to support earlier intervention, improve multi-agency working by, for example ’embedding a common language of assessment’; reduce ‘bureaucracy for families” (DfES, 2005b, p1.)

CAF is not meant to replace many other assessment schedules used in the various agencies, such as the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families documentation, but the government would like the CAF to represent the main assessment tool to support inter-agency referral and multi-agency working (DfES, 2005b, p 2).

“Common Assessment Framework (CAF) is one of the contributing elements to the following both of which are outlined in the Children’s Act 2004, the delivery of integrated services the support inter-agency co-operation; and the safeguarding and promoting the welfare of children and young people”. [email protected]

How are children services organised? What is the key legislation that governs children and children’s services,

The aim of Every Child Matters is to have a few agencies working together bearing in mind their professional boundaries to liaise and support children from 0 to 19, using a simple language to meet the needs of these children. It came up with the Integrated Children’s System (ICS), the Contact Point and the Common Assessment Framework (CAF), they all have different systems and style of working but have one common goal which is to improve the well being and to safeguard and promote the welfare of children and young people.

When a child is seen as suffered neglect, abuse or has any server difficulty or being looked after under the Children’s Act 1989, their needs are assessed using the Framework for Assessment of Children in Need and their families. The Integrated Child System (ICS) is used at this stage, this is done by putting information together step by step and recording information about both the child and family, where a thorough assessment is required an in depth information is needed at this stage and must be gathered in a way that can set as the basis for decision making and can be used for different purposes. ICS is supported by information technology and it’s the basis of the electronic social care record for children. The IT system is also known as ISC. Contact Point is a fast method to find out who else is working with a particular service user, making it a lighter way to liaise and support, it is a major tool Every Child Matters uses to deliver a better service to Children and young people, having said that Contact Point only holds a little information about a child, parent, practitioners providing services to the child and carers until their 18th birthday, except for exceptional cases for example children with mental health and sexual health problems where their details are still held under sever security. Common Assessment Framework on the other hand comes in as soon as assessment is needed at the very early stage and deciding what action to take. It gives practitioners the chance to put together and record information about a child or young person with additional needs in an orderly, straight forward and simple. Work start from then and practitioners begin to look out for the needs and what should be done and it’s dealt with. CAF makes practitioners across all agencies, after the required training to go according to the procedures to achieve a dependable assessment that can be used by everyone dealing with the case. The national IT system to support CAF will be developed. (eCAF). This will help authorised practitioners to electronically create, share and store CAF within the agencies. Unlike Contact Point CAF only holds the information about some young people and children, with consent, and for a limited period of time. Both Contact Point and CAF were created to for use within children’s services, their goal is to help children with additional needs get the help and support they need, it’s a tool to make easy early intervention and help deal with additional needs before they get out of control and become more difficult to resolve. CAF and ICS has a common method to assessment, they both have a common way of collecting data about a child or young person around the domains of developmental needs of a child; parent capacity; and family and environmental factors. CAF and ICS are supported by technology where as Contact Point is a basically technology solution www.evertchildmatters.gov.uk

Why was CAF introduced and what’s it’s aim

The green paper, Every Child Matters, proposed the introduction of a national Common

Assessment Framework (CAF) as an important part of a strategy for helping children and young people to achieve the five priority outcomes of:

being healthy: enjoying good physical and mental health and living a healthy lifestyle; staying safe: being protected from harm and neglect; enjoying and achieving : getting the most out of life and developing the skills for adulthood; making a positive contribution: being involved with the community and society and not engaging in anti-social or offending behaviour; economic well-being: not being prevented by economic disadvantage from achieving their full potential in life.

The Common Assessment Framework (CAF) was decided upon based on the five basic keys. By the help of a lead professional and better information shearing procedure CAF was designed from the concerns that the existing procedures for identifying and responding to the needs of children who are not achieving the five outcomes identified in Every Child Matters do not work as effectively as they were meant to, to bring a better way of how services could be delivered, due to the fact that services have in the past been delivered based on dealing with the consequences of difficulties in children’s lives to preventing things from taking the wrong route from the start. It’s main focus is to attain to the fact that every child gets the five keys. It is also created to help assessing children with additional needs which are not too complex or sever as to demand external intervention such as statutory intervention. CAF’s aim is to give a method of assessment to give support to early intervention, to help decide what needs to be done at an early stage rather than later, it’s to provide good and a lot more evidence based referral to targeted and specialist services. CAF is created to enhance on joint working and communication between practitioners in a common language of assessment and views and as to how it could be resolved, it was also designed to improve the coordination and consistency around assessments leading to fewer and shorter specialist assessments. CAF was designed to help to decide whether other specialist assessments are needed and if so provide information to help get it done. It was to give a clear picture of a child or young person’s needs to be built up over time and with the right consent shared among professionals.

Has CAF achieved its aim?(positives and negatives)

Through CAF some practitioner began to accept sheared responsibility for children and young people with additional needs. Apart from having to get parents consent to be part of the assessment procedure some practitioners and managers are in view that in conjunction with other services CAF has a lot more prospects in support to early intervention mostly universal services. Some also had doubt as to whether there was enough funds to meet the problems raised and the requirement of CAF.

It is apparent that CAF has had mixed responses. One estimation of path-finding authorities revealed that practitioners and managers believed it has enabled a more rigorous follow-through of service delivery, promotion of better multi-agency working and were optimistic that it would eventually pull down thresholds for service receipt (Brandon et al., 2006). The introduction of CAF like everything has its strengths which in general gives a positive view seen by all, however, others have expressed their concerns about its been too formal to some organizations as ‘descriptive tyranny’, restricting the narrative making sense of the situation; the difficulties of various professionals and practitioners with other skills and expectations completing CAF differently or partially in the assessment process (Garrett, 2008; Gilligan and Manby, 2008; White et al, 2008). CAF in the East Riding for example is exclusively aimed as a minimal level involvement which will help use universal services to manage early problems and deject wrong referrals to Social Care. The major intentional level for engagement agencies with the CAF has broader responsibility than CAF alone, covering all included services provision. The different agencies involved is broad, but some agencies are less active in attending meetings and buy in, in terms of resource input is limited. However, there some problems which lessen the positive involvement, and makes CAF less effective, these include less involvement of some agencies in terms of resources input. Practitioners were of view that CAF was not reducing the need foe reassessment, giving examples of some parents forced to repeat their stories during reassessments, I can understand sometimes practitioners would just want to be sure that things have not changed since the last assessment, but the public is of the view that CAF always has the updated information at any time needed, but for luck of training and human error we find out that CAF still is not doing what it was set out. As well as distracting story-telling way of writing reports, the CAF writers often found that the boxes did not help them adequately to characterize the child and parents. The format of the CAF was opposed by some professionals and practitioners working with it.. Only some professionals used the language of need, whereas over 80 per cent talked about challenges. In addition to the descriptive demands, CAF forms also make

“CAF doesn’t tell a story it feels like school exams, multiple choice, you can tick the boxes with the right answer, but it really doesn’t give you er the er aˆ¦.The story. It is about narrative isn’t it. It’s about people’s lives. It isn’t about um dividing a life up into a lot of small boxes. And when you put all those boxes together it will be EQUAL to the narrative” As seen in (BJofSW 2009 39, 1197-1217)

“Sure start worker said “I prefer a blank sheet of paper to express by thoughts” ibid..

Upon a period of over a decade’s work in human services organizations, Gubrium et al describe what they call the ‘descriptive tyrannies’ of ‘people forms’, forms used in one way or the other to describe and categorize people coming to the attention of human service professionals, hence, for Gubrium et al, the relations of form completion to human activity is two-fold. They are concerned with what sorts of descriptions the forms invite or the ‘reportorial expectations assumed to underlie acceptance organizational description (Gubirum et al, 1989, p 197). What may be the rational, moral and artful capacities of form-completers? That is, what ‘wiggle room’ (Erickson, 2004, p, 20) do they have with these descriptive demands? (Oxford University press 2008). Gubrium et al argue that, completed forms like any mode of description, have transformative effects. They do not simply describe events as they occurred in real time. For example they may contain mutually exclusive categorizations, which demands that the form-computer suspend disbelief that only one category can apply at any one time, bearing in mind that CAF is designed to have evidence-based , focused on needs and strengths, rather than ‘concerns’. Professionals are encouraged to evaluate strengths, needs, actions and solutions for children across three domains derived from the framework for Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (DoH 2000).

Please ignore the recommendation below still have that to do I have it written down will type it out tomorrow, I’m working in the dark because my landlady forgot to get some electricity and my eyes are hurting now. My lecture ends at 11 so will finish it all with the Ref..

Recommendation and conclusion

It is clear to me that the purpose of the CAF and its work load is to ensure that professionals attend to, and record information deemed most relevant to their primary activities as distinct at this historical moment. The CAF is also an over view presented as a complete professional judgement. However, I have shown above that the demands of the form cause information to be ordered in preferred ways, which can be unintelligible. I have talked about the fact that CAF constrains professional practice in particular ways, it is indeed designed to exert its own rigid demands, which can feel harsh to the one person completing the form. CAF in particular relies on the assumption that it can foster uniform professional application and an ordinary (White, Hall and Peckover, 2009). Laming (2009) still recommended that we need to involve more agencies to make the workload easier and effective and said

“the use of Common Assessment Framework CAF needs to be further promoted with Agencies”.

To achieve the reason it was introduced practitioners and everyone involved in using CAF must be fully aware of what it’s all about and must be fully trained to know the pros and cons of what CAF wants to achieve, other Agencies working in line with CAF must also keep their systems and information updated to suit the needs of the children and young people who might need this service to also live the lives they deserve. Parents and the general public must be fully aware of what CAF is hoping to achieve in that way they don’t feel pressured if they are called upon to give their approval before an assessment is carried out for their children.

My elective was youth justice, within this elective I have chosen the topic of youth crime prevention. The preventative service I am communicating to service users in my leaflet is street-based youth work, this links into risk aspect of the whole family teaching.

The audience that my leaflet is aimed at is 13 to 17 year olds who are socially excluded and are at risk of offending and turning to crime. My audience are also difficult to reach through other services and agencies. My leaflet is advertising a preventative street based service for young people. The purpose is to draw in young people and offer them interesting and alternative interactive and challenging options so that they turn away from involvement in crime. This service is an effective way of youth workers building a rapport especially with young people who do not use centres and have not been previously reached by other means of youth prevention.

Government guidance has given me insight and understanding into the links between street based youth work with crime prevention. Government guidance, Transforming Youth Work: Resourcing Excellent Youth Services (2002) has identified that youth work is a key aspect to prevention of crime. The guidance sets out that a ‘contribution’ of youth service is ‘tackling anti-social behaviour and crime’. (pg4). Emphasis is placed on working with young people who may pose a risk of committing anti-social behaviour.

The reason I chose this particular focus is that it is a preventative service already offered to young people in hopes of reducing crime, yet it is not as recognised and I feel that it can be an effective method where harder to reach risk groups can involved.

Research was published by Joseph Rowntree foundation on the role of street-based youth work in linking socially excluded young people into education, training and work. Crimmins et al (2004) found that street based youth work had been successful in ‘reaching and working with large numbers of the most socially excluded young people’ (pg 1, Crimmins 2004)

The Youth Action Plan was a plan that looks at tackling youth crime. On discussion of prevention, the Youth Action plan recognises focus needs to be given to a smaller minority and to early identification. Part of the prevention is to ‘tackle unemployment, increasing opportunities…in a much more targeted and individual way’ (Youth Action Plan, 2008, pg 1) as part of tackling youth crime, street based teams of youth workers will be in place to ‘tackle groups of young people involved in crime and disorder (Youth Action Plan, 2008pg 7)

Street based youth work, promotes development, especially social development. It is designed to be inclusive, empowering and needs led. It can be broken into three separate distinct branches these being mobile, outreach and detached youth work. My leaflet is promoting mobile and detached work.

In the leaflet my focus is on activities that we provide as a service as well as opportunities that can be followed, for example, training, education, etc. This is to encourage young people to approach our mobile unit and this is where further work would be undertaken. By advertising potential benefits for young people when they work with street based youth workers, like activities, for example, DJing, sports, bowling, is ensuring that hard to reach youths are also interested.

As a result of this, the content of the leaflet is an explanation of what we do, why we do it and examples of what has been provided in the past. The designs is very contemporary and is designed to attract the eye of a young person so they may find it interesting enough to pick up, this is why I have incorporated bright colours with graffiti style writing and pictures to grab attention and attract the reader to reading the leaflet. I chose a leaflet designs that folds in 3 times again as a means to attract and draw the reader in by the cover. The leaflet is also directing the reader to a group on face book and videos on YouTube. These are two known applications that young people use. This was confirmed by the young people I piloted my leaflet to.

There are various literatures that relate to prevention of youth crimes and risk of turning to crime. J Margo (2008) explains three different levels of prevention in offending. The secondary level is relevant to my leaflet. The secondary level is more specific and is aimed at target groups who present risk factors. The approach looks at different stages and looks at those who have offended and those who are likely to offend. Street based youth work is a preventive scheme which targets risk groups in who are hard to reach through other agencies.

Risk taking is recognised as part of our development, and to take positive and negative risk is very much part of this human development. Sharland (2006, pg 254) argues there has been evidence that presents the ‘nature and success of the transition to adulthood are much influenced by class, culture, material and social resources’. As a result of these influences ‘those less privileged struggle harder, are more exposed to risk and more likely to take it‘. This is that there are structural disadvantages that lead people to take risks and lack of community resources that can be a factor that leads young people to turn to crime.

These disadvantages can be related to lack of parents employment, educational qualifications, poor parenting, etc. These pre-existing factors can have an impact on young people and as a result young people with these structural disadvantages are at a risk of turning to crime.( White and Cuneen (as cited in Youth Crime and Justice) 2006 )

Issues of social exclusion of young people is relevant to why youth crime takes place, this exclusion is linked also to marginalisation and disempowerment. As a result of risk factors discussed, young people can be at the risk of being marginalised due to their parent’s status in the community, this being for example, and lack of employment. As a result young people may feel disempowered and as a result turn towards crime. (Youth Justice Board, 2001)

To inform me on the leaflet I piloted my completed leaflet to a group of seven teenagers these included family members and friends in the age range of 13 to 17. In doing so, I collected feedback which led me to make adjustments. In the draft, It was reported that the colours used were too bright, there was too much information and not enough pictures. The final draft was piloted and positive response was seen. I have also looked to sources from the internet and other similar services to be able to guide my direction with the leaflet.

A source that informed my leaflet greatly was information from a street based service that is provided by Derbyshire Youth Service. This guided my understanding of street-based youth work and explored the idea of reaching risk groups. Derbyshire Youth service, see street based youth work as having a preventative purpose but recognises young people and encourages them to get involved. The activities that are offered has given me an insight into the content of my leaflet and what activities I could offer.

When examining my leaflet in retrospect I found some positive and negative points. The content in my leaflet is very basic and easy to read and understand. This is deliberate, as pointed out when piloted. It is designed this way to ensure that those reading will be able to read the whole leaflet without losing interest and it is also supposed to encourage young people to want to seek further information. However, this could also have a negative impact. The basic information could attract the youngest of my target group but may isolate the eldest, as they may prefer more depth and detail. I have also found that in retrospect the colours and background art used may overload the reader and may be off putting when trying to read the content.

In designing this leaflet, there were issues that had an impact on what was included. Due to the restriction in space, all information could not be fitted in. As a result of restriction, there was not a possibility to aim the leaflet and individual from different diverse backgrounds, this is the reason I attempted to keep the leaflet neutral as possible. Within my target audience, there can various sub audiences identified, for example, class, ethnicity, religion, sexuality, disability and gender. These social groups are also significant when designing a leaflet and each group has issues that need to be addressed and affect a service however due to space constrictions, it was impossible to address these individually. In my leaflet, I was aware of these issues indirectly and kept them in mind when designing the leaflet and content.

Overall, I feel that my leaflet will reach my target audience and will attract them to involvement with street based youth workers.

The correlation between colonization and domestic violence is undeniable given the plethora of scholarly and historical data. The main misconception that exists in this area relates to the belief that the violent aspects of colonization and its associated abuse lay directly at the feet of Westerners or other outside cultures and influences. Domestic violence, in its many forms, is forced upon men, women and children from many sources including people in their own society.

In addition to the definitions and correlations of colonization and domestic violence, this paper also discusses the colonization, social structure and abuse of Aboriginal Peoples including the Maori tribe of New Zealand, Native Americans, and the First Nation communities of Canada as well as the diseases thrust upon the colonists by the colonizers.

Also examined are the relationships between modern abuse related to colonised cultures and its possible prevention.

Domestic Violence

The United States Justice Department’s Office on Violence Against Women provides a definition of the various types of domestic violence:

We define domestic violence as a pattern of abusive behavior in any relationship that is used by one partner to gain or maintain power and control over another intimate partner. Domestic violence can be physical, sexual, emotional, economic, or psychological actions or threats of actions that influence another person. This includes any behaviors that intimidate, manipulate, humiliate, isolate, frighten, terrorize, coerce, threaten, blame, hurt, injure, or wound someone. (2014)

The types of domestic abuse include physical, sexual, emotional, economic and psychological abuse. Domestic violence is not limited to any particular race, religion, gender, age, educational or socio-economic factors.

For the purpose of this paper, domestic violence is categorized as violent behavior that has been inflicted on one culture by another since colonization took place. Oftentimes the victims are the colonists who are subjected to abuse in its various forms by the colonizers but eventually that abuse transfers into abuse between members of the oppressed culture. The reasons for the abuse may disappear but the behavior can last and even accelerate through future generations.

Colonization

The term colonization comes from the Latin for “to inhabit”. Colonisation most often refers to an outside group moving into a previously inhabited area. Ever since man learned to travel, he has desired to conquer new lands either by developing a profitable relationship with the indigenous peoples or, more commonly, by taking over the land and other resources through a threat of force or through direct violence. Colonisation can be beneficial if it is done with respect and cooperation of the inhabitants. Some regions, especially underdeveloped regions, may benefit significantly from colonization by an outside culture. These regions may experience in an increase in world knowledge, medical care, economic growth and more. There are instances however, that show the dark side of colonization and the domestic violence with which it has often been associated. History is filled with tales of forceful colonization despite the language used to describe it – exploration, eminent domain, settlements.

More often than not when a territory is colonised without the express permission of the colonists, violence ensues. The violence may come in the form of a direct attack or through cultural oppression. The colonists may be imprisoned, raped or beaten into submission. This form of abuse lasts much longer than the life span of the abuser and abused. It is carried into future generations through culture, belief systems and trauma, often causing particular cultures to be more prone to the violence committed against their ancestors or, worse, become the abusers.

Correlation between Colonisation and Domestic Violence

People intent on colonizing new lands or infiltrating existing cultures typically held the strict belief that their religion, politics, education and culture were far superior to that of the indigenous people therefore it was common practice for the new settlers to impart, often forcibly, their culture and belief systems on the indigenous peoples. As a result of this effort, the indigenous peoples were required to take on the characteristics and culture of the invaders, usually due to the threat of violence. Because indigenous people were often less educated than the invading population, they were seen – and treated – as an inferior society.

This is not to say that the indigenous cultures were perfect before they were infiltrated by the colonizers. Each culture has its own unique set of beliefs and circumstances. The difference may be that there is limited, if any, knowledge or documentation on the culture of these peoples before they were colonised.

Colonization and Patriarchy

Patriarchy, the cultural practice of revering the male gender as the head of society, including the family structure, can be directly linked to colonization and the mistreatment of the female gender. Historically speaking, cultures with a patriarchal view held little regard for the female gender which often permitted substandard treatment of females. This treatment often led to various forms of domestic violence. A patriarchal belief system is common even in the modern world although great strides have been made to protect women and children from violent males often taught to be dominant by colonizing cultures.

While the majority of the invading people held a patriarchal view, that is not without exception. Many indigenous cultures are matriarchal in nature, particularly the Native American and First Nation communities of Canada. The shift in leadership from matriarchal to patriarchal often caused women to be viewed as inferior as men were taught not to respect women as they once had. As a result, women in many cultures were viewed as little more than property allowing the male population to treat the women in any way they saw fit, including a cycle of domestic violence that would remain in place for generations.

According to Kanuha (2002), there are several strategies for claiming superiority over another gender or culture. The first is to convince the colonists that their ways are superior.

The second strategy is to create a delineation between the colonizers and the indigenous peoples through segregation including the separation of men and women. The third strategy of colonization is to use domestic violence to control the colonists. This may include any and all forms of physical, emotional, spiritual and psychological abuse.

The fourth strategy is to take control of the colonists’ economic resources including natural resources.

The fifth strategy is controlling the culture and limiting outside resources of knowledge and information. In some cultures they are permitted to see only media images of women that were created by men; images that often objectified women. Another form of control is to prohibit the use of native language and education as well as to deny the colonists the opportunity to decide or vote on their own futures.

While patriarchy is undeniably tied to colonization, it must be mentioned that men also suffered from these same issues. While men may have been seen as dominant, the colonists were second to the colonizers and therefore often suffered from the same abuses as women.

Colonisation and Disease

One form of domestic violence is to deny one appropriate health care. During the colonization of many regions of the world, indigenous peoples were exposed to and infected to new diseases brought by the colonists yet were denied adequate care. In fact, many of the colonizers were often quarantined from the recently exposed natives to protect them from diseases they brought to the region. The belief was that the natives, unable to withstand any number of exotic pathogens, were biologically inferior.

It was the development of world trade routes as well as the desire to conquer new lands that encouraged Europeans to cross borders into previously unexplored territories. As a result, they infected entire cultures with disease, namely tuberculosis and small pox, two diseases responsible for killing the majority of Americans and Europeans in the 18^th and 19^th centuries. Additionally, the colonizers tended to bring with them newly domesticated animals which added another level of potential disease to the natives. As the mortality rate of the colonists rose, the colonizers were able to increase their presence and domination over the remaining people and their lands.

Colonisation of the Maori, Native Americans and the First Communities of Canada

The Aboriginal tribes of the South Pacific, particularly the Maori, have a long and violent history of being colonised by Western Europeans. The Maori were once the colonisers of New Zealand, taking over the island through force and causing the genocide of the island’s indigenous peoples. The Maori began to trade with Europe in the 1700s, bartering fish and land for beads, cloth and other items. When potential invaders attempted to invade New Zealand, the Maori embraced violence and beheaded the infiltrators. They often participated in cannibalism rituals which led to a reputation of the Maori as being brutal savages. The shift toward colonisation began when missionaries arrived in New Zealand with the hope of converting the Maori to Christianity. The missionaries traded goods for land and built New Zealand’s first church.

The Maori began to trade in muskets which created an arms race between New Zealand and its neighbors. Violence escalated. Although the Maori and the missionaries tended to remain separate, many Maori began to convert to Christianity. Relationships between Britain and the Maori strengthened. Britain wanted the Maori to pledge its allegiance to the throne in exchange for a guarantee that no one would attempt to rob the Maori of their lands. While many Maori refused to link themselves to the Queen, 46 chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, hoping to end the violence.

While the Maori as a whole did not willingly shift to British rule, the region began to thrive from the relationship. Eventually, the British established a new capital in Aukland and the country continued to thrive.

The history of the Native American tribes is well documented in most school texts. Christopher Columbus believed he had discovered a shorter route to China when he landed in the Bahamas. Columbus, eager to prove that he was a superior explorer sought only three things in his travels – to educate people about God, to gain glory for his explorations, and to gain fame and fortune from the gold, spices and other resources the trip would provide. Due to these factors, Columbus’ arrival in the Bahamas was ill fated for its people. Columbus and his crew pillaged the land and were, in essence, responsible for the deaths of nearly 60,000 inhabitants of the islands over a period of the next 30 years.

Upon arriving in America, Columbus discovered that there were people living on this new land. This contact encouraged other people to travel to the New World. The infiltration of Europeans was not welcome by many of the 160 native tribes. While some tribes were friendly with each other and with the Europeans, many were not. Wars ensued. A large percentage of Native Americans were wiped out by the arrival of small pox, diminishing its population by as much as 70%. As the colonisation of the Americas continued, the Europeans began to outnumber the “savages”, forcing them into more remote areas of the country. Violence continued to escalate between the Europeans and Native Americans. Although it was the Europeans that began the barbaric practice of scalping, the act was solely attributed to the Native Americans who often retaliated in kind. The reputation of the Native Americans as uncivilized savages grew and along with it, any respect for their culture all but vanished.

The legacy of the First Nation of communities mirrors that of the Native Americans and, in fact, they are in some way of the same family as their lands were stolen in the name of capitalism and racism.

Throughout 100 years of violence between the Europeans and native cultures, the natives continued to be pushed back until eventually the majority of tribes were relegated to reservations. The segregation and loss of their culture created a wider gap between the cultures. Missionaries continued to attempt to colonise the natives by preaching and introducing modern ways into their culture. Domestic violence between factions continued as women were abused, men were beaten and killed. Women and children were also sold into the slave trade as sexual objects.

Prevention of Domestic Violence in Colonised Territories

It has been stated that the abuse and objectification of indigenous peoples carries with it a dark stain that has permeated generations. In addition to carrying that sense of shame and continued chain of abuse, each individual in the culture also carries with him a sense of being inferior. This sense of inferiority and the legacy of abuse are two of the reasons that indigenous peoples tend to have a higher rate of abuse as well as suicide.

The prevention of domestic violence in colonised territories, despite the location, begins with education. In modern society it is known that abuse in any form is morally and ethically wrong as well as being illegal. Still, incidents of abuse occur every day and perpetrators are often allowed to wander free while the abused suffer.

Some domestic violence treatment programmes may give special consideration to the history of trauma suffered by a particular culture, particularly those that have been colonised and show a marked increase of substance abuse or number of psychological issues. One such programme, popular in the United States is the Duluth Model in which the abuser is treated based on his history of trauma, beliefs in victimization and power over the abused as well as the shame factor. The programme has been used in the education and court systems to decrease the percentage of abuse, particularly by men.

Smith (2006) states:

Researchers are beginning to confirm what common sense dictates: that violence between individuals, while influenced by social and cultural variables, is more parsimoniously explained by an examination of individual characteristics, contexts, and functions of behavior. Not surprisingly, empirical research is beginning to identify shame, individual stressors such as substance abuse and trauma history, and personality characteristics as main contributors to violent behavior in intimate relationships.

Smith also intimates that while there are many programmes and models that claim to have the best recipe for preventing abuse, it is not clear if one has any superior efficacy. Smith asserts that domestic violence activists and agencies will see the most success when treating the individual ascribed to the abuse.

Conclusion

The correlation between colonisation and domestic violence has been proven through myriad scholarly articles, texts and studies. Research has shown that the oppression of the colonists by colonisers creates deep inner turmoil that must be expressed. Since the anger, indignation and shame usually cannot be expressed directly at the abuser, the victim may turn those feelings inward which may result in depression, substance abuse, and even suicide. However, some victims will take out those feelings on others that may be weaker than they. In this case, it is often women and children that may suffer from physical, emotional, psychological, financial and verbal abuse. While many social programmes exist to combat domestic violence, they are often not designed to address the underlying trauma of the victim or the abuser.

When one culture has been oppressed by another, a sense of inferiority is instilled. The oppressor intends to take what it wants from the oppressed whether it is land, money or even its own women and children. The oppressor often uses whatever means necessary to achieve his goals and will subject the oppressed to various types of violence and abuse. The oppressor may begin to believe that the violence is justified and that belief, that victim or abusive mentality may remain and perhaps even escalate throughout future generations. As women are objectified due to their cultures and perhaps beaten or raped, they tend to believe that the behavior is “normal” or perhaps even earned. Combatting those emotions and putting an end to domestic violence among the colonised cultures goes much deeper than the formulation of any law or social programme, no matter how valid. The issue must be addressed at the deepest level – the level of one’s belief system. While many programmes may treat only the victim or the abuser, it is imperative that both sides of the conflict be dissected and examined. The history of one’s culture can shed light on personal behavior even if the history seems far removed. Learning one’s history as well as becoming educated on healthy forms of communication and interaction are the only ways in which domestic violence can be effectively addressed. Only then is it possible to perhaps not eradicate but at least lessen the occurrences of domestic violence in these and other cultures.

Introduction

The following essay proposes to consider the question of collaborative working in social care, looking in particular at the impact of collaborative working between agencies and professional disciplines within the context of children and families. This represents an especially complex problem to attempt to tackle with the issues of both collaborative working and working with children families subject to an almost constant process of reform and change in the contemporary era. When, for instance, we pause to consider the way in which collaborative work has become such a central feature of contemporary social policy in western liberal democracies with the promulgation of the partnership approach to government dictating the pattern of a variety of social, cultural, economic and political initiatives, we can see that any discussion relating to multi-agency work must reside in some part within the realms of a constantly changing political ideology that seeks in the first instance to instil new parameters for social work practice (Quinney, 2006:5-21). Likewise, when we consider the changing nature of working with children and families in the contemporary era, we can see that a decidedly pervasive legislative and policy framework increasingly that seeks to infringe upon the practice of social work on both an individual and a collaborative level cannot help but impact upon our understanding of the nature and role of the social worker within the context of children and families (O’Loughlin and Bywater, 2008:14-27). Thus, we need to observe from the outset the way in which the following essay constitutes an inherently subjective discussion where any conclusions garnered should be understood as open to further change and reinterpretation.

For the purpose of perspective, we intend to adopt a dualistic approach to the problem at hand, looking firstly at the political, ideological and legal context in which social work with children and families currently takes place. In this way, we will be better able to demonstrate an effective understanding of the field of child and family work, the social work role and the multidiscipline system in relation to children in need and children in need of protection. Secondly, we will look at the implications of our own evidence-based research yielded from group dynamics involving a specific case study of children and families. In this way, we will be better able to demonstrate an understanding of the importance of evidence-based practice. Moreover, in this way, we will be better able to consider both the strengths and the weaknesses of the collaborative approach to social service provision at the dawn of the twenty first century. Before we can begin, though, we need to briefly consider the historical context in order to establish a conceptual framework in which the remainder of the discussion can take place.

The political, ideological and legal context of working with children and families

To understand the significance of the multi-agency, collaborative approaches to child protection we need to first mention some of the most profound cases of child cruelty, which have acted as a launch pad for reforms of social services. When, for instance, we pause to consider the case of Dennis O’Neil who was starved and subsequently beaten to death by his foster father in 1945, we can see that instances of extreme abuse of looked after children directly contributed to reform of the child social services system. Maria Colwell was similarly abused and killed at the hands of her stepfather in spite of over fifty official visits to the family by social services, health visitors, police officers and housing officers before her death in 1973. As a result of the ensuing enquiry into Maria Colwell’s death, looked after children were assigned a ‘guardian’ by the state. (Cocker and Allain, 2008:24) Likewise, public outrage, internal inquiries and institutional reform accompanied the murders of Jasmine Beckford in 1984 and the uncovering of widespread sexual abuse amongst looked after children in Cleveland in 1987. In addition, the wrongful fostering of children on the Orkney Islands in 1991 after social workers mistakenly assumed that parents were part of a satanic cult triggered a reconfiguration of child protection policy, acting as a timely reminder as to the fallibility of decision making at an individual as well as an organisational level.

Yet while it is true that children’s services have been influenced by individual historical cases of neglect, abuse and murder, it is also true that social work and children’s services are inherently tied to the dominant political ideology of the day. As we have already asserted, social work practice in the contemporary era is an inherently political issue with a pervasive neoliberal political ideology dictating the pattern of social policy and welfare reform over the course of the past two decades. Nowhere is this modernising neoliberal impetus more prominent than in the field of social work with children and families (Johns, 2009:39-54). Beginning with the Children’s Act of 1989 and continuing with the amended Children’s Act of 2004, the state has increasingly sought to make provisions for disadvantaged children and failing families in order to reduce the debilitating ill effects of marginalisation and social exclusion.

These two Acts, in conjunction with a variety of other related social policies and statutory framework such as the Every Child Matters programme, constitute an ideological watershed with regards to the way in which the state legislatively copes with the numerous issues arising from children and families. Most obviously, these pieces of legislation and the broader emphasis upon social inclusion that they entail telegraph a new way of responding to issues arising from children and families by looking to target the causes (rather than the consequences) of neglect, exclusion, abuse and the ubiquitous problem of failing families. As a result, it is important to observe the way in which the reforms initiated over the closing decades of the twentieth century and the opening decade of the twenty first century represent a move away from the permissive social policies of the post-war years so as to incorporate a discernibly more preventative agenda for working with children and families (Morris, Barnes and Mason, 2009:43-67).

It is within this climate of preventative action that we must consider the genesis and subsequent evolution of collaborative social work practice with multi-agency work being intrinsically tied to the broader imperative of safeguarding children. The statutory framework of the Every Child Matters initiative, underpinned by the Children’s Act (2004) is, for instance, inherently tied to the partnership, collaborative approach to social service provision involving the active participation of professionals across all spectrums who work with children and young adults (Brammer, 2009:166). Understood in this way, the role of the social worker represents one part of a broader network of rights and responsibilities incorporating General Practitioners, psychologists, educational practitioners, housing association officers, National Health Service professionals, law enforcement agencies, government officials, local councillors, parents, family members and any number of related workers and associates who are able to help formulate an effective social agenda which places the child at the epicentre of all key decision-making. In this way, the social worker is better able to communicate with children who have suffered or are suffering from cases of neglect and abuse (Davies and Duckett, 2008:164-166).

As a consequence, it is clear that partnership and collaboration should be understood as the ideological bedrock of the contemporary legal and political framework for dealing with children, families and young adults, constituting the single most important guiding principle for social workers operating in the highly complex, risk-orientated contemporary social sphere. Fuelled in some part by the high profile cases of internal failings contributing to children’s’ neglect where, most notably, the untimely death of Victoria Climbie in 2000 highlighted “gross failures of the system” (Laming, 2003:11-13), collaborative working between agencies and professional disciplines is today understood as the most viable means of positively impacting upon the well being of both children and families (Brammer, 2009:182.)

In response to the murder of Victoria Climbie and, more pertinently, as a result of the economic imperative to cut back on public sector spending, the New Labour government, followed by the present coalition government, has increasingly sought to further the multi-agency approach to social services. The Children’s Plan (2007), for example, constitutes an ideological extension of the collaborative methodology championed in the Every Child Matters campaign with the government, agencies and professionals all charged with “improving children’s lives.” (The Department for Children, Schools and Families, 2010:29) Safeguarding the well being of children is therefore no longer considered to be the sole responsibility of the state; rather, it is clear that promoting the welfare of children and families is increasingly dependent upon adopting an integrated approach with a variety of agencies, organisations and individuals sharing the responsibility for welfare while at the same time ensuring that the child remains the focus of proactive, preventative action (The Department for Children, Schools and Families, 2010:31-34). It is consequently important to underline the strengths of the multi-agency approach to social care provision, underscoring in particular the way in which focusing upon collaborative working with children and families offers a holistic approach to what is an essentially multi-faceted problem.

However, while we are correct to acknowledge the modernising ideology that underpins modern social work practice, we also need to observe the way in which the day to day practice of social work with children and families has revealed a significant underlying chasm between, on the one hand, the preventative legal framework and, on the other hand, the deep-seated flaws in the multi-agency, inter-disciplinary approach to welfare provision in the modern day (Oko, 2008:16-39). In spite of the best efforts of policy makers and in spite of the preventative statutory framework enshrined in the Every Child Matters initiative, there remain deep-rooted structural and logistical problems pertaining to the multi-agency approach. For example, the horrific death of Baby P in 2007 which occurred after social services, National Health Service consultants, and police officers demonstrates that there remains a clear and identifiable problem with regards to communication between agencies, organisations and professions.

Moreover, the harrowing case of Baby P serves to demonstrate that, even when extreme levels of abuse are being reported, there remains a problem regarding intervention. The multi-agency approach to social care provision in the contemporary should therefore be understood as being inherently flawed with the collaborative system beset by a variety of structural weaknesses and new ideological complexities (Milner and O’Byrne, 2009:19-23). Although we should not seek to overlook the strengths of multi-agency, collaborative working we must, as Eileen Munro attests, consider the way in which an exceedingly risk-orientated socio-political culture has created additional problems for social workers in the modern era with an increasingly bureaucratic, administrative understanding of social services hampering the attainment of a critical understanding of the underlying economic, cultural and political factors that create problems in the social sphere (Munro, 2008:58-76). An over-emphasis upon research and policy has not yet yielded a significant reduction in the chasm between theory and practice.

Working in a Group: The Lessons for Working with Children and Families

Hitherto, we have focused upon attempting to understand how the dominant political, ideological and legal framework looks to dictate the pattern of social services at the dawn of the twenty first century. We have also seen that while policies and frameworks seek to instil a fresh, collaborative approach to working with children and young families the practical reality of working in a multi-agency context still leads to significant problems pertaining to communication. This, in the final analysis, is an inevitable consequence of working with the dynamics of groups where there is little by way of direction and where, more importantly, different group members harbour different perspectives and different ambitions with regards to the nature, role and purpose of the project at hand.

In the group that I worked in, there were six participants. Two were two white women – one a young woman in her early twenties; the other a woman in her thirties who is the mother of two young children. There were also two black women in the group; both of these women were in their thirties and both had children. In addition, there were two black men present in the group. As soon as the group began to convene, it was immediately apparent that there was a significant problem with regards to when the group could meet. Family commitments, coupled with work placements, conspired to make agreeing on a time to meet extremely difficult. Furthermore, when work was assigned to particular individuals it was not completed on time. A lack of structure was therefore prevalent from the start.

As time went by and the problems with communication within the group continued to grow, it became apparent that the two white women took it upon themselves to act as the leaders of the group, delegating work as if they had been assigned the role of the managers. The younger woman in her early twenties was observed to be especially aggressive and domineering. When confronted she failed to act in a professional manner, which placed further strain upon the dynamics of the group. Furthermore, as the two white women exerted increasing levels of managerial control, it became apparent that they were withholding important information from the rest of the group. This was either because they did not trust the other members of the group to work to their standards or because they wished to take sole responsibility for the project upon completion. Regardless of their true intentions, the lack of co-ordination and communication resulted in a disappointing final presentation that had been undermined on account of a wholesale lack of rehearsal.

The lack of cohesive, coordinated action within the group revealed a great deal about the inherent problems of inter-agency work with children and families. Most obviously, there was a clear and identifiable problem relating to a lack of leadership and direction in the group. Although there were only six members, every participant appeared to have their own specific ‘agenda’, which meant that the overall goal became lost in the resulting confusion of responsibilities. This, according to Michael Gasper, is a key problem in multi-agency working with children and young people where a convergence of interests creates fertile grounds for problems relating to management and leadership (Gasper, 2009:92-110). In such circumstances, it is often the agency or partner that adopts the most rigorously aggressive attitude which ends up assuming a leadership-type role – largely against the best interests of the project in hand. This was certainly the case in the group we observed where the two white women assumed leadership roles although no such premise had been discussed and in spite of the fact that no such policy had been agreed.

In this instance, of course, it is impossible to ignore the spectre of underlying race issues that may have consciously or subconsciously influenced the behaviour of the two white women within the group. Race issues are intrinsically tied to power issues; thus, the white women might have felt the need to assume control of a group dominated by black people. Again, the issue of power and the impact that this has upon inter-personal relationships within a multi-agency setting is an important factor for us to consider. As Damien Fitzgerald and Janet Kay underscore, power is an inexorably important factor that needs to be legislated for when teams come together in an interdisciplinary, multi-professional context. This is especially true during the early consultative stages of group work – the ‘storming stage’ – where “there may be fighting, power struggles, disputes and destructive criticism, which need to be managed effectively so as to minimise the impact upon the setting or the service.” (Fitzgerald and Kay, 2007:92)

The relationships that emerge from the storming stage are subsequently normalised during the ensuing ‘norming’ stage where the team starts to adopt its own identity. If, however, the relationships between the various agencies have not settled down into an egalitarian pattern by the norming stage of development, the power struggles and internal disputes will inevitably affect the ‘performing’ stage of task management. Most notably, the creative process will be stifled and the focus that should be dedicated towards the completion of the task will be diverted towards the power struggles within the group (Cheminais, 2009:38-40). This was certainly the case in the group I worked in where problems in the storming stage were translated into more serious structural problems in the norming stage, both of which ultimately affected the final performing stage of the task. Thus, once more, we need to acknowledge the significant divide between theory and practice in collaborative working with children and families where, as Jayat suggests, “policies can be well intentioned, yet are often poorly co-ordinated and, in practice, under-resourced.” (Jayat, 2009:92)

Furthermore, while acknowledging the problems that multi-agency, collaborative work entails, we also need to consider the way in which the infusion of children into the scenario creates further avenues for a lack of cohesive, co-ordinated action. If, as the evidence suggests, information sharing is negatively influenced by multi-agency, collaborative working with adults, then it stands to reason that there is bound to be much greater scope for withholding information when children and families are integrated into the procedure. If relationships at an agency level are strained then it stands to reason that, as Butler and Roberts attest, that social workers will find it even harder to maintain open and honest relationships with children and their parents in a social work context (Butler and Roberts, 2004:129-130). More importantly, it is clear that there is little time for power struggles and disputes when a child’s welfare is at stake. In the final analysis, this kind of internal wrangling runs contrary to the central tenet of the Every Child Matters and the Working to Safeguard Children campaigns, which look to make sure that the child remains the centre of task-centred, multi-agency focus (Department for Children, Schools and Families, 2010:32).

We should, of course, be careful not to assume that all group dynamics follow the pattern of the group we observed. While evidence suggests that there remains a significant scope for problems of power, communication, authority and direction within multi-agency settings it is also true that, if handled in the appropriate manner, “collaborative practice allows differences in values to surface and, if effectively ‘minded’, to be aired and resolved over time” (Glenny and Roaf, 2008:111) In such circumstances, multi-agency work with children and families can serve to positively influence the health and well being of service users. As a consequence, it is important not to assume that the structural weaknesses of collaboration mean that there are no strengths to the multi-agency process.

Conclusion

Understanding the strengths and the weaknesses of collaborative working between agencies and professional disciplines is dependent upon first understanding the distance to be travelled between the theory of prevention and the practice of collaboration at a grass roots level. Looking to reduce the divide between theory and practice, between the political and ideological framework and the multi-agency, collaborative approach, consequently represents the most critical challenge facing social workers and social policy makers alike. This is especially true as far as children’s services are concerned.

Ultimately, though, when looking to pass a judgement on the relative strengths and weakness of multi-agency working with children and families we need to recall that agencies involve individuals responding to crises in the social sphere. As Beckett attests, “every individual participant in the child protection process, and every profession or agency, necessarily sees things from his, her or its own particular standpoint and has his, her or its own particular ‘axes to grind.’ It is important to bear in mind that no one participant possesses the pure and unadulterated ‘truth.’” (Beckett, 2009:29) Social work is an inherently complex and subjective discipline where there is no right or wrong answer to the multitude of questions arising from the breakdown of interpersonal relationships. Collaborative work should consequently be understood as being inherently fallible. Only by concentrating upon improving the internal group dynamics of multi-agency functioning can the chasm between theory and practice begin to be reduced.

Introduction

The following essay is aimed at discovering whether cohabitation has literally displaced marriage. It will focus on the processes of cohabiting as well as marriage, briefly touching on their historical backgrounds as well as the trends for each of the processes in different countries. Immediately after the war, marriage became practically universal phenomena but apparently, its popularity has declined towards the end of the twentieth century.

Bumpass and Lu (2000) and Teachman, Tedrow and Crowder (2000) explain that patterns of family formation and also dissolution are changing in the United States. She clearly cites an increase in divorce, cohabitation and non marital children which clearly shows a shift from traditional marriage. According to Murphy and Young, (1999), marriage has been in steady decline since the early 70s in the United Kingdom. A McRae (1999) point out that marriage in 1995, which was 322,000, is thought to be the lowest on record since 1926. As the marriage rate dropped, so did the remarriage rate resulting in a steady rise of cohabiting. (Morgan 2000)

Cohabiting according to Marshall (1998) refers to “an arrangement whereby couples who are not legally married live together as husband and wife. In view of the above definition, the term, “not legally married brings in another dimension as to the authenticity of cohabitation. This leads to the idea of common law marriage. There seems to be a huge misconception of the idea of common law marriage, with some authorities and according to Fairbain, (2009) there is no specific legal status for what many refer to as “common law marriage. She also points out that many cohabiting couples are unaware of this fact. On the other hand, marriage, as defined by Horton and Hunt defined marriage as the approved social pattern whereby two or more persons establish a family. Majumdar takes it further by defining marriage as a “socially sanctioned union of male and female or as a secondary institution devised by society to sanction the union and mating of male and female for purposesof establishing a household, entering into sex relations, procreating and providing care for the offspring” There appears to be a clear distinction between marriage and cohabiting, judging from the definitions above which helps me conclude that they are not one and the same thing. The question which I will attempt to answer is whether on is displacing or replacing the other. Shaw and Haskey, (1999) seem to concur with the idea of a clear dichotomy as they point out that there has been a major trend towards a decline in marriage and a rise in cohabitation.

Hasky, (1999) also points out that marriage’s popularity rose throughout the 1950s and the 1960s but notes that towards the end of the century, it fell, giving rise to cohabitation. It appears there was a shift in family formation from the traditional marriage to cohabitation. To further support the prevalence of cohabitation, Bramlett and Mosher, (2002) confirm that the increase of cohabitation is well documented showing that the majority of newly weds have cohabited before their first marriage. Levidon (1990) also argued that consensual unions, (cohabitation) appeared to constitute a new type of union. However, he mentions that the process was transitory, which points to the fact that marriage still was seen to be the end goal. A major development however was that there was more recognition of informal unions and as a social institution. (Haskey 1999)Kiernan, and Estaugh (1993), came up with the idea of “nubile cohabitation” which involved young people living together either as a prelude to or as an alternative to marriage. This was further elaborated on by Bumpass, Sweet and Cherlin (2001); Smock, Huang, Bergstrom and Manning (2005) who cited one of the key reasons why cohabitation was on the rise, as a way of testing out a relationship and determine compatibility. Research however found out that there is a positive correlation between cohabitation and marital dissolution. (DeMaris and Rao 1992, Teachman and Polonko 1990 and Schoen 1992 cited in Smock (2000). They also found out that the link between cohabitation and marriage failure is complex, with other factors like, race, sexual history and ethnicity playing a significant influence. (Phillips and Sweeney 2005).

According to Casper and Sayer (2000) and Brown and Booth (1996), cohabiters, are distinguished by factors like “plans to marry” It is noted that most of the cohabiters eventually plan to marry but not all cohabiters enter into cohabitation with marriage plans. (Manning and Smock 2005). In this way, cohabiters treated their cohabiting as an initial stage of the marriage process which clarifies that they did not see it as an alternative to marriage and likewise, those without marriage plans also viewed cohabitation as part of courtship or single hood. According to Brown (2004), cohabiters with marriage plans view cohabitation as a “semi marriage” and as a matter of fact, they share the same relationship quality as the married couples. Another factor that needs to be looked at is the individuals’ cohabitation history which researchers say in very significant. It was proven that women who cohabited only once with the same partner, being intimate, had the same relationship stability as those who never cohabited, (Teachman 2003). On the contrary, young adults who had multiple cohabiting partners are likely to encounter marital instability, (Teachman and Polonko 1990), (DeMaris and McDonald 1993). It is worth pointing out though that they concede that individuals who had multiple cohabitation before marriage could possibly have enough experience to enable them to make better marriage choices.

Duncan et al (2005) states that “cohabitation is often equated with “do it yourself”…and is no longer restricted to particular social groups. In line with this notion, Manning, Smock and Majumdar (2004) and Phillips and Sweeney (2005) maintain that race, and ethnic differences in cohabitation are likely to have an impact on cohabitation. It was noted that cohabitation had a negative effect on Whites’ marital stability but none on Blacks. This is likely so because of the view each ethnic group has on cohabiting. It was further observed that amongst cohabiting couples, Blacks had weaker marriage plans than Whites. (Manning and Smock 2002) Brown (2000) also argued that Blacks were less likely to go through to the actual marriage even with marriage plans.

Between 1986 and 1990, there was a dramatic rise in cohabitation in Britain. 29% of unmarried females under 60 were cohabiting in 2001 and 2002. This was a three fold increase. As cohabitation rose, children being born to cohabiting couples were estimated to be over 25% by the beginning of the twenty first century. The fall decline of and delay in marriages, have all given rise to the phenomenon of cohabitation. Marriage does not stand out as the only means of commitment for life since some couples choose to cohabit, citing reasons like less commitment and the ease of opting out if things do not work well. (Kieman 2004). According to Duncan et al (2005) the shift from marriage to cohabitation suggests that individuals have found an option which meets their personal needs and has less or no hassles in terminating.

Having looked at the history and trends of the two processes, marriage and cohabitation, this paper will focus on the individualisation theory. According to Beck, (1992) and Giddens (1992), we have entered a ‘late modern’ era of ‘de-traditionalisation’ and ‘individualisation’. Financial stability, education and provision through the welfare state tend to give individuals the latitude to move away from traditional customs. According to Lewis (2001), the pursuit of self fulfilment and individual happiness and freedom has brought up changes on the view of family. While the traditional institutions are still valued, there is less emphasis on marriage vows or private commitments and more emphasis on “self projects”. The ‘project of self’, places an emphasis on individual self-fulfilment and personal development, comes to replace relational, social aims. (Duncan and Smith 2006) The prevalence, historically, of economic and legal inequality, and the belief of there being accepted patterns of behaviour is now getting weaker. (Lewis, 2001, p3) According to Lewis (2001), individualisation is thought to be a formulation of freedom of choice and personal preferences which competes with social structural traditions. However, in the eyes of the traditionalists, this may be viewed as a “counter cultural revolution” Beck (1992( suggests that social structures of gender, class, family and religion are gradually weakening due to individuals becoming more reflexive in making own choices, resulting in the creation of their own biographies. As a result, relationships now focus on individual fulfilment and consensual love, with sexual and emotional equality, substituting formal unions which have been historically prescribed within set gender roles. (Bauman, 2003, Duncan and Smith 2006).

With reference to Majumdar’s definition of marriage, there is particular mention of it being “a union of male and female or as a secondary institution devised by society to sanction the union and mating of male and female for purposesof establishing a household, entering into sex relations, procreating and providing care for the offspring”. However, with reference to individualisation, the prescript nature of the marriage institution is challenged resulting in sexuality being largely freed from institutional, normative and patriarchal control as well as from reproduction. (Duncan and Smith 2006). This notion has led to the acceptance and rise of same sex relationships as confirmed by “The Civil Partnership Act 2004 which was passed and came into effect in December 2005 created civil partnerships which gave same-sex couples who entered into them the same rights and responsibilities of marriage.

From a feminist perspective, Lewis (2001) would argue that historically, marriage has reinforced the limiting of the self development of women. Marriage was seen as a restrictive union and could dictate emotions, feelings and behaviour. Cohabitation, from a different perspective could then be argued to be a form of liberation for women. (Morgan 2000). Marriage was viewed as being restrictive and confining, thereby limiting independence and autonomy. Morgan argues that marriage is an “unencumbered life without binding commitments”. This then presents the idea of cohabitation as a viable alternative which affords people choice to determine their own conditions for the establishment and dissolution of a relationship, Morgan (2000).

The emergence of this contemporary family has been viewed positively and negatively. According to Giddens, (1992) and Weeks, (2001), the greater diversity of lifestyles and the opening up of choice leads to democracy in personal relations, and liberation from oppressive institutions. On the contrary, the work of Zygmunt Bauman (2003) and Francis Fukuyama (1999), stresses that the breakdown of traditional ties leads to a disintegration of families and the moralities once maintained by them; this ‘demoralisation’ leads to individual alienation and social breakdown.” Maslow (1954) maintains that people who engage in self actualisation were concurrently individualistic and altruistic. In order to meet their needs, individuals moving towards self actualisation, became “higher selves” and according to Maslow, this is “healthy selfishness” (p.156). In this process, the healthy self focuses more on the “self” Kilpatrick (1975)

According to the pioneers of the individualisation theory, Becks and Gersheim (2002), society has shifted away from traditional structures where, “people no longer have pre-given life worlds and life trajectories.” (Heath, et al 2007). Generally, individuals are no longer expected by society to follow a set family pattern. According to Beck, (1992) this notion has altered the previous accepted family structures resulting in the dissolution of the social foundations of the nuclear family as more emphasis is placed on the “family of choice” Fukuyama (1999) argues that the institution of marriage has previously been viewed as the bedrock of society but due to the emergence of the family change and freedom of choice, traditional ties have weakened and as a result, there has been family degeneration. Gender roles have also shifted since from the categorization of men as breadwinners and women as house makers. The major change appears to be women emancipation advocated for by the women’s movements and this has altered societal and demographic values. Active participation by women on the labour market has significantly changed the notion of a family unit by bringing in more choice and autonomy women did not have in the past.

The Legal Position of Cohabitation in Britain

Heterosexual cohabitation has been socially and universally accepted as an alternative to marriage in the UK for over two decades but very little has been finalised as regards legal rights of the cohabitants is debatable. (Duncan et al 2001) The issue with cohabiting is that while it can be registered as a Civil marriage, it does not attract the same legal rights and privileges of a marriage. Traditionally, marriage has been regarded as

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