Category: Free Essays

What occurs to children in the early years has consequences right through the path of their lives. While there are many occasions to interfere and make a difference to the lives of children and young people, this report suggests that intervening in early childhood is the most effective phase to impact on the future development of the child. This statement explores the factors that effect on life-long health, growth and well-being from environmental, and life path perspectives.

Early childhood settings plays an important role in promoting health and a feeling of wellbeing for children, their families and ultimately their communities (Hayden & Macdonald, 2000). Therefore the goals of health and wellbeing promotion are supported by parents, staff and early childhood professionals who use early childhood services.

There are multiple aspects or dimensions to general wellbeing. For the purpose of this report it is convenient to identify and discuss the most important six areas of health mental, emotional, spiritual, physical, environmental and social. These six areas are overlapping and interrelated, but together provide a useful framework for thinking about children’s growth and development as health, well-rounded individuals.

2. Background

The early childhood era sets the phase for how well children view themselves, each other, and their world. Young children actively construct meanings about the world and their place in it, offering alternative but equally valid understandings to adults (Millie & Watson, 2009).

The communication between careers and children work as building blocks for the growth of children as whole (Hayden et al., 2000). In order to share positive experiences of services delivered for the development of six dimensions of health and wellness in respective childcare settings is the intended objective of this report.

2.1 Health: Towards Wellness and the Six Dimensions

Prior to the 1800s, health was simply means the antithesis of sickness (Donatelle, 2006). Therefore, when all parts of body were functioning properly called as a good body having health. However focusing on global health issues at an international conference in 1947, the World Health Organization (WHO) took a landmark step and clarified that what health truly meant: “Health is the state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” (Donatelle, 2006). According to Donatelle (2006), Health is complex and involves the interaction of variegated factors, which includes;

Physical refers to the capability of human body structure to function properly

Social refers to the capability to interact with other individuals

Mental refers to the capability to process information and act properly

Emotional refers to the capability to cope, adjust, and adapt

Spiritual refers to conviction in some force or dynamic other than humans

Environmental consist of

· External: refers to one’s surroundings (e.g., habitat, occupation)

· Internal: refers to an individual’s internal structure (e.g., genetics)

Achieving wellness means attaining the optimal level of wellness for a given person’s unique set of limitations and strengths (Donatelle, 2006).

2.2 Wellness and Wellbeing: The importance in early childhood

One of the greatest indicators of health and wellness in a community is the extent to which it nurtures healthy children, as they will become the healthy adults citizens who make communities vibrant (McMurray, 2007).

While we have long recognized that early experiences have an effect on later life, new findings from longitudinal studies and new brain conceivable techniques, are showing that the initial years of life are serious in the purpose of physical, neurological, cognitive, emotional and social growth (Ferber, 1996). In the meantime, studies on social determinants have exposed that enduring health and well-being is predisposed not only by heredity and lifestyle, but also by economic, social and other environmental factors (McMurray, 2007). These findings recommend that accountability for health extends beyond health check professionals: doctors and nurses. Those who are concerned with promoting healthy environments may be uniformly significant in guiding health outcomes. Early childhood professionals are comprehensible contributors in this ground.

3. Six Dimensions of Wellness

The six dimensions of wellness interact continuously, influencing and being influenced by one another.

For example, spiritual wellness is associated with social skills, which can help build interpersonal relationships, which are in turn linked to physical wellness and longer life expectancy. The self-esteem that comes with emotional wellness is associated with increased physical activity and healthy eating habits, which support physical wellness.

3.1 Physical wellness

Physical wellness is basically the overall well being of a person’s physical state. This dimension includes characteristics such as size and shape, sensory acuity and responsiveness, susceptibility to disease and disorders, body functioning, physical fitness, and recuperative abilities (Donatelle, 2006).

For good health, children need physical activity. Being active promotes healthy frame, strength and joints, builds patience and muscle force, makes it easier to uphold a healthy load, increases power, and even fosters self-respect.

Children of all ages need and want places to play. To support the variety of their physical activities, they need many types of entertaining facilities, both public and private, near their homes and schools (Sallis & Glanz, 2006). Children may spend more time being immobile indoors, where they remain inactive. These inactive behaviours such as television viewing and videos are dangerous factors for obesity in youth and reducing such behaviours is another strategy for preventing weight gain in children. Similarly using less fruits and vegetables and greater dependence on convenience foods and fast foods contribute to the epidemic of childhood obesity (Sallis et al., 2006).

3.1.1 Experience of our childcare Centre

The standard length of reside in a children’s home is making an impact on individual students, so we recognize it as a challenge. We created modified tactics to give confidence to children (and staff) to eat at smallest amount five servings of fruit and vegetables each day and to connect in one hour of physical activity which consist of play and fun, five days a week. The center also provides hands-on training for forefront staff that helped those serves as role models for healthy performance. The center produced partnerships with other group of people organizations to offer nutrition-related services.

3.2 Emotional Wellness

Emotional wellness is an active condition that fluctuates with corporeal, academic, spiritual, interpersonal and social, and environmental wellness (Donatelle, 2006). Sound health results from the contentment of basic needs – the need for kindness and love; safety and clarity; social acknowledgment; to feel capable; physical needs and for meaning in life. It includes happiness and happiness, efficient social functioning and the dispositions of hopefulness, openness, curiosity and flexibility (Hood, 2009).

The infants achieve their satisfaction of basic needs by: attaching themselves to individual and groups of people who can help them survive and to find out how things around them work; to explore their soundings, so they can eventually learn to keep themselves safe and meet their own needs. And since these two behaviours are so fundamental, not achieving success with them causes distress (emotional dysregulation), which, if sustained, affects mental health (Hood, 2009).

3.2.1 Experience of our childcare center: considerations of Emotional Wellness – Promotion, Prevention, and Intervention

Staff at our center provides opportunity for involvement and plans with careful notice that successfully maintains emotional wellness.

Promotion

We provide emotionally supportive environment by holding and singing to infants and play with toddlers, and pay attention to and monitor preschoolers vigilantly.

We display problem solving skills by using role play indicating words and verbal communication with toddlers, and assist possible group discussions that direct problem solving skills with preschoolers.

Prevention

Prevent a lack of communication with families – We do proper planning for sharing strategies and information with families to better understand children’s likeness and dislikesness attitudes.

Avoid escalated situations – We do appropriate planning to make sure that all actors of working group have ordinary visions for anticipation, intrusion and endorsement to provide a complete support scheme.

Intervention

Awareness of interventions services – We keep alert ourselves from the need of intervention services such as mental health and child wellbeing agencies, early intervention programs, and medical intervention services for high threat situations.

Construct successful collaborations – We provide documented information to the intervention service program to provide a complete picture of the child’s needs in order that they correspond efficiently with one another and employ follow up strategies.

3.3 Intellectual Wellness

The uniqueness of intellectual health include the ability to think clearly, reason impartially, examine seriously, and use ‘intelligence’ effectively to meet life challenges. Academic health means learning from successes and mistakes and making sound, responsible decisions that take into deliberation all aspects of a situation (Donatelle, 2006).

Children have a talent for being inquisitive about everything around them. So the caregivers should try to regain this inquisitiveness about the world and will be astonished at how much children will learn.

3.3.1 Experience of our childcare center

Our center’s services in this dimension of wellness are not exhaustive; however we try to improve children’s intellectual wellness. To make an action plan to improve children intellectual wellness, we discover issues related to problem solving, originality, individuality, and learning. We try to figure out to children to read for fun! By choosing books for fun (like filling colours in figures), so they not only gain knowledge of about an exacting topic or concentration, but also learn about how others express themselves.

3.4 Spiritual Wellness

According to Bone (2008) Spirituality is a term with many definitions and means different things to different people and often confused with religion but my definition of spirituality is a

aˆ¦aˆ¦..means of connecting people to all things, to nature and the universe. Spirituality adds to my appreciation of the wonder and mystery in everyday life.

It alerts me to the possibility for love, happiness, goodness, peace and

compassion in the world.

Spiritual wellness refers to integrating our beliefs and values with our actions (Donatelle, 2006). A sense of purpose, direction, and awareness form spirituality.

3.4.1 Experience of our childcare center

To develop spirituality in children we teach them through fun play and demonstrations and mutual dealings in the setting;

To forgive, we replace condemnation or judgmentalism.

To love, we replace hatred.

To share or to be generous we replace selfishness.

To be compassionate, we replace intolerance.

To speak kind words we replace contentiousness and meanness.

3.5 Social wellness and wellbeing

Social health is a part of psychosocial health which includes our interactions with others and our ability to adopt to range of social situations (Donatelle, 2006). Social wellness is a significant part in every person’s life, above all because it helps him be familiar with his normal interdependence with others, despite of the relationship. Donatelle (2006) maintains that people who are more connected to others manage stress more effectively and are much more resilient when they are bombard by life crisis. The shortage of social wellness frequently leads to disruptive behavior and causes incapability to regulate in social environment.

The teachers’ openness to children, parents, and the cultures represented in their classroom influences their overall effectiveness in teaching and their ability to foster children’s social development particularly. When teachers use these strategies, they are more effective in promoting children’s social competence and maintaining a positive learning environment. Therefore, the content of teacher-child interaction should be predominantly related to activities, learning, investigations, and plans (Katz & McClellan, 1997).

3.5.1 Experience of our childcare center

To develop social wellness, behaviours, and attitudes of children we take the following important steps:

Reach out: Offering friendship environment to children as a first step to social wellness- where children of different cultural and social setups interact with each other for knowing and understanding of their mutual needs and develop mutual cooperative attitudes.

Promote chosen relationships: Promoting the relationship built between various children and to stay in healthy relationships. These relationships involve children who care about one another and their wellbeing. Since there is trust and compassion, one feels secure and contented, two vital elements for social wellness.

Communicate effectively: Effective communication is a first step of initiation of relationship – a vital component of social wellness; therefore, we remain in constant interaction with children through play and fun to develop their skills for effective communications.

3.6 Environmental wellness

Environmental Wellness means having an understanding of the exterior environment and the role persons play in preserving and improving environmental circumstances. (Donatelle, 2006). An understanding of these connections can be fostered during the early childhood years through play, productive work and daily routines. (Young & Elliot, 2003).

Opportunities to directly explore the world with all senses are paramount to a child’s understanding of their connections to the environment. The role of the adult is crucial in interpreting these connections, both verbally and physically, and in exploring the values that underpin sustainable lifestyles (Young & Elliot, 2003).

3.6.1 Experience of our childcare center

Our focus on this dimension of wellness and well being is not much thorough; nevertheless we try to give messages to children through play and fun activities relating to:

Don’t leave water running – Demonstrate children about scarcity of water resources and better use of water in daily life.

Use of recycled paper bags when shopping – To realize children to use paper bags and avoid use of plastic bags due to different biodegradable features of both.

Use waste material for play experiences whenever possible – such as cloth for sewing, and polishing etc.

Care for plants by watering as needed.

4. Conclusion

Children change and develop in response to these different health dimensions, so the developmental process plays an important role in shaping and determining their future health and wellbeing.

It can be concluded that intervening early in the life course has the greatest prospective to stop or considerably improve some of the health and wellbeing troubles seen in adult life. The most direct way of improving outcomes in childhood and thus influencing the life course is to ensure that all caretaking environments in the early years are consistently nourishing, stimulating, and organize the health and developmental requirements of young children. Therefore when young children spend time outside the home, the caretaking environment needs to be the best we can make it.

5. Recommendations

Following the conclusion it is recommended that childcare needs to be conceptualised as an opportunity for learning and socialisation rather than child minding. Actions and policies need to focus on creating a quality early learning environment; this means having staff with appropriate qualifications and training, and child/staff ratios that are appropriate to the developmental needs of the child.

Universal and primary care services across the health proportions and education sectors need to be better coordinated with one another, in order to direct various environmental risk factors and respond to the complex needs of children and their families. These services need to be more adaptable, so that they can react to the emerging needs and problems of children’s health and wellness.

The central interest of this essay is to evaluate the role of play in relation to language and communication development. Developmental psychology is the main source to explore and explain this unique interrelation, because it offers vital information about the human behavior. For this reason several developmental theories occur from many scientists such as Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Sigmunt Freud, Albert Bandura and other contemporary scientists, who managed to clarify the aspects of child development from different perspectives.

Initially, this essay illustrates the importance of play by describing its categories. Play theories are briefly demonstrated and divided into classical and contemporary. Thereafter, it mentions the characteristics of language through the aspects of two respectful scientists, Lev Vygotsky and Jean Piaget, in order to understand the correlation between language and play development. It illustrates the existence of nine basic communicational skills and why non-verbal and verbal communication is so important. Also, this essay analyzes research which explains the direct relation between play, language and communication. Through detailed references, the idea that the role of play is salient in child’s development is supported. Next illustrates the importance of finger, mime and rhyme play to explain that even the most common games possess a significant role in language development. Last but not least, analyzes how play reinforces the literacy development and finally demonstrates the opinion of the writer.

The Importance of Play

Arguably, play is a vital part of the development of children which has many implications in their lives. Despite the difficulty of referring a commonly accepted definition, play is a vital part of the developing child (Sheridan & Howard & Aldelson, 2011). It is a fundamental action which occurs throughout children’s life and is divided to two categories, free play and structured play. Precisely, free play is an action where the child can choose the rules and the form of play, without the participation and the engagement of an adult. Hence, the child becomes the leader of the play (Tassoni & Hucker, 2000).

On the other hand, structured play is defined as an action which is directed by adults. Many researchers have claimed that free play offers more opportunities to children for learning than the second category does. At the same time, there are proponents of this view and others who do not adopt this notion. For this reason, Thomas, Howard and Miles proved by a study they conducted, that free play, in other words playful mode play, is capable of fostering children’s ability of learning. They state that through this mode children’s communication is benefited, because that playfulness creates the ability of enhancing miscellaneous types of behaviors. As a result, educational settings use this method to foster children’s language and communication development (McInnes, Howard, Miles & Crowley, 2009).

It is of importance to mention that there are play theories which are separated into two categories, classical and modern theories of play. Concisely, classical theories consist of the Surplus Energy Theory, Recreational or Relaxation Theory, Pre-exercise Theory and the Recapitulation Theory of play (Sheridan & Howard & Aldelson, 2011 & Stagnitti, 2004 & Tassoni & Hucker, 2000). Modern theories concluded by the Arousal Modulation Theories of Play, the Psychodynamic Theories of Play, the Cognitive Developmental Theories of Play and the Sociocultural theories of Play. The last category is divided into two sub-categories which are the Play as Socialization and the Metacommunicative Theory (Stagnitti, 2004). Moreover, there are five types of play, which are cited as physical play, play with objects, symbolic play, socio-dramatic/pretence play and games with rules (Whitebread, 2012).

The above five types of play help children to expand their abilities not only in language and communication domain, but also in the physical, cognitive, social and emotional development (Sheridan & Howard & Aldelson, 2011). According to the constant evolution of language and communication, play and its benefits in this domain must be analyzed in depth, in order to evaluate children’s developmental potentials through play.

Language and Communication

Language is a strong communication tool (Moyles, 1989) which fosters children’s abilities. Through language we can live the past again, evaluate the future and use this vital tool when we face complex situations (Crain, 2000). Also, many developmental theorists tried to explain, how children adopt primal abilities as they grow up and some of them, gave special emphasize to the language and communication development and how is related to play. They evaluate children’s development from birth to adulthood.

Vygotsky, claimed by his social constructivism theory, that language is the cultural tool which facilitates the processes of thinking and learning. It was his firm belief that children must comprehend language, in order to interact in the society. Hence, according to Vygotsky, play and language are interrelated (Moyles, 2005). Due to the fact that through play children master communication skills, they interpret the use of objects and imitate the attitudes and the habits of adults (Gray & MacBlain, 2012). In addition, he stated that children gain knowledge when they participate in social communication and consequently, they adopt new meanings. Therefore, according to Vygotsky, children act in the zone of proximal development (Whitebread, 1996), which means that every child has limited potential when accomplishing an activity but he can expand his skills with a suitable help (Lindon, 2001).

However, another respectful scientist did not lay emphasis, as Vygotsky did, on the importance of language during children’s development. Piaget, a Swiss scientist, stated that language mechanism is used by the young child only to express some basic satisfactions and not to foster more complex functions such as thought and logic (Gray & MacBlain, 2012). Furthermore, Piaget’s opinions did not promote children’s abilities; instead he undervalued them, by applying activities that were too complex for children competences (Whitebread, 1996). On the contrary, some scientists argue that children’s thought, started to function logically as they learn how to use language. This happens because language skills are difficult to be assimilated by young children, but when this gradually occurs, logic develops (Crain, 2000). Nevertheless, Piaget did not support the above notion by mentioning that logic derives from actions (Gray & MacBlain, 2012).

On the grounds that language is an integral part of communication, it is important to pinpoint some of the skills that children develop in this domain. In other words there are nine basic communication skills.

Initially, children learn to request reinforcement, to request assistance, to accept and reject offers. Furthermore, they respond to the order ”wait” or ”no”, they respond to directions, follow a schedule and finally they are able to do a transition from one place to another (Frost & Bondy, 2011). For instance, when children pretend to be a patient in a hospital, they learn when they have to wait their turn in order to be examined by the doctor and they give order such as ”wait”, “stay”, “come”.

Communication is a complex function. Before the emergence of words, children can communicate in a high level before adopting language production and language comprehension (Sheridan & Sharma & Cockerill, 2008). The above aspect describes the non-verbal communication type which is very important. Newborn babies communicate non-verbally to express their needs. Facial expressions, body language, proto-sounds and perception of feelings are the attributes of non-verbal communication (Whitehead, 1999).

Hence, adults start to communicate with children initially non-verbally and secondly verbally. Research argues that conversation between children and adults which contains a large number of open questions is essential because children have the opportunity to respond with spoken language. In other words, when children feel that they are active participants in an adult-child conversation, they feel playful which is salient for the development of language. (Howard & McInnes, 2012).

Fostering Language and Communication Skills through Play

To begin with, studies have proved that there is a strong connection between language and play. A research which had taken place in Japan in 1989, showed remarkable signs that play and language are correlated with each other. Specifically, the four children who participated in this research, were observed twenty times each in a free play mode, where the individual had a passive role. The intention of the study was to analyze early language development and play development (Ogura, 1991). Thus, six features of language were illustrated in order to analyze the findings better. These were the emergence of first words, naming words, vocabulary spurts, word-chains, nonproductive two word utterances and the emergence of productive two-word utterances (Ogura, 1991 p.278). Furthermore, that research divided play to thirteen subcategories. The findings showed that children managed to obtain the ability of naming words because they had been involved in preverbal communication. Also, children began to name objects when conventional naming act category of play appeared. Furthermore, words and sounds have a strong relationship each other. It was proved that children through the functional relational manipulation play and the container relational manipulation play, managed to adopt the above important function and the production of first words as well. Moreover, it was stated that the early language development is related to the subsitutional play. Also, this study illustrated that the environment is a major factor in the development of the symbolic play. As a result, language is being influenced by the social interaction. Moreover, children’s vocabulary spurts appeared with the subsitutional play. Word-chains appeared when pretend doll play, subsitutional play and pretend other play took place during the observations. In addition, the fifth language category derived in parallel with planned play and combinatorial symbolic play. The last language category was related to planned play (Ogura, 1991). Undoubtedly, this paper shows the unique interrelation between language development and play.

Researchers evaluated the connection between symbolic play with play materials and symbolic play with play situation. Firstly, during children’s play with unstructured play materials, they found that children who are at the age of three to four years old could imitate the activities of adults. However, in structured play children were able not only to imitate but also to participate slightly in role play. At the age of four to five years old children’s unstructured play evolved and they started to express questions and ideas with the mediate tool of spoken language. On the contrary, in structured play they used more conversation. This study showed that in the first type of play children at the age of five to six used their body language and voice to clarify a situation. Also, both in structured and unstructured play, children preferred to play in sex groups. We can notice that structured materials are better for younger children because they do not offer limitations in their ideas while playing. In other words, younger children need to enhance their expressive ideas by playing with structured play materials to be adequately prepared for school (Umek & Musek, 2001).

At the same time, symbolic play related to play situation showed that phonetic imitation (Umek & Musek, 2001 p. 61) is promoted and that at the age of four children use social speech. Moreover, they use social markers, in order to speak like adults (Ervin-Tripp, 1973). Later, at the age of five children used metacommunication in their play. Metacommunication is very important because children can discuss about play. They stop in order to negotiate the next step of the game. Indeed, it promotes dialogue among peers. It is very important because it can be used as scaffolding to children’s language development (Andersen, 2005). According to this study, metacommunication levels are higher when children are older. Moreover, the same study proposes that is better and more helpful for children to play in mixed groups rather than in groups based solely on their age. Hence, children can play in the zone of proximal development. Therefore, they foster their language and communication skills. Again, this study shows us that play which is depended whether from materials or situation is correlated with language development.

Apart from the above studies there are play activities which enhance language and communication skills. For instance, children are benefited by mime because they develop an alternative thought. This occurs by observing a diversity of individuals demonstrating their thoughts. Consequently, they can think more complicated situations and they are able to express their ideas with an enriched vocabulary. Furthermore, finger play helps children to the counting process (Woodard & Milch, 2012). Moreover, rhymes can provide many opportunities in children to enhance their language skills. According to a study, rhyme awareness helps children to recognize phonemes which are very important for reading skills. The sensitivity to rhyme enables children to group words together with the same spelling features (Bryant & MacLean & Bradley & Crossland, 1990).

Play fosters Literacy

Vygotsky evaluated the role of make-believe play in children development and he argued that literacy is enhanced by play. He describes that children initially act spontaneously when they play, and the process of learning happens with their will. On the contrary, when children go to school they must change their behaviors to a planned and a structured environment. Vygotsky stated that make-believe play is the important mediate tool for children to adopt written language and to succeed in school (Roskos & Christie, 2007).

Furthermore, drawing is considerable as a necessary action for children. Research has shown that children can expand their ‘graphic vocabularies’ and they can represent their meanings, which means that through drawing communication is enhanced (Whitebread, 2012). Besides, Vygotsky’s research has shown that drawings in the early childhood are connected with the ability of writing and spoken language, which means that the meaning of children’s drawings is not only the drawing as a picture but the drawing as an expressive tool of their thoughts (Roskos & Christie, 2007).

In conclusion, it is worth mentioning, that in children’s play the repetition and the renaming of play materials fosters the ability of the direct relation between words and the objects they portray. The above function is called metalinguistic awareness and it has been proven that it is necessary for written language (Roskos & Christie, 2007 p.193).

Conclusions

It is clear, therefore, that the above essay illustrated the direct correlation between play, language and communication. Despite the fact that, it has been proven that play fosters the learning process, there are still opponents of this view, who state that formal learning strategies are better than playful approaches. However, this essay contradicts the notion of formal learning methods by supporting the opinion, that play does enhance language and communication by citing adequate bibliography to prove that. Children can reach high standards in the learning process of language because during play they are motivated and are not possessed with the feeling of fear (McInnes et al., 2009).

To sum up, due to the fact that play has been decreased from school settings, it is salient to ensure that play must exist in the preschool and in the first school years of a child, because “a child is always above his average age, above his daily behavior; in play it is as though he were a head taller than himself” (Roskos & Christie, 2007 p.199).

“Where do babies come from?” This is just one question that children ask their parents as they start to wonder about sex and in return hope to find out the answer. Unfortunately, however, not all parent’s want to answer that question or any sex related question for that matter, or even know how to.

Many parents’ today do indeed want to contribute to their children’s knowledge of sex. However, even though parents, who are comfortable with their own sexuality, don’t always know of the best way to approach the topic with their children or even know how talk to them about it (Crooks, Baur, 2011).

“Research shows that positive communication between parents and their children can help young people establish individual values and make healthy decisions” (Parents Sex Ed Center,” 2010). It is important for adults of school age children to maintain an open relationship with their children in order to provide the ability for them to feel comfortable enough to talk with you about whatever they may ask. Teaching sex to your own children can be a task they may make you feel uncomfortable and something that you may find difficult to do. However, by being honest at an early age can allow for honesty and open communication as your children grow (“Parents Sex Ed Center,” 2010).

As children grow, a process begins that a parent can follow in order to develop a wholesome sexual education relationship with their child. Whether it’s starting off answering questions such as, “where do babies come from,” or talking about being sexually active and how to practice safe sex, it is important to be able to talk to your children about this topic and feeling comfortable enough to do so.

Starting at an early age, usually by around age four, many children will ask where they came from, how babies are made, or by asking the names of their own sex organs (self-discovery). Many parents may just put off these types of questions in hopes that their child will forget about it and the parent feels a sense of relief in not having to answer. Instead, the parent is making a mistake in not answering and thus unknowingly creating a communication block (Crooks, Baur 2011).

When young children ask these types of questions, they aren’t expecting a complete anatomy lesson, but they are looking for some answer. In this case, be honest with them. Use proper names, and perhaps briefly discuss the basics of sexual intercourse (Crooks, Baur 2011). It is important to make sure that after answering your child’s question that not only do they understand but also to make sure they are aware that it is okay to ask questions and that they can come to you and ask for more information whenever they’d like (Crooks, Baur 2011).

Along the way, it is important to teach your children manners, as in we don’t touch ourselves in public and we don’t touch other people’s bodies. It is also good to teach appropriateness and privacy. If by age five or six your child has not started to ask questions, you need to initiate the conversation (Crooks, Baur 2011).

By the pre-teen years, physical changes are going to occur. At this point it is important to talk to your child about the changes that will occur and what they can expect. While this is taught in school, it is good to let your child know that you are there for them, it is not something for them to be embarrassed about, and that what they are experiencing is all a part of growing up and that they are not the only one. Even though children may not have experienced these changes yet, such as menstruation and ejaculation, it is important for them to be aware of it before it happens so as not to worry them (Crooks, Baur 2011).

The teen and young adult age is the hardest for parents to talk about with their children. No matter how much a parent may want to shelter their children, it is vital to understand that your growing child is going to experience sexual feelings.

Teens find it difficult it talk with their parents about sex because of embarrassment, the fact that their parents may not understand them or the belief that their parents will assume they are already sexually active. Parents must remember that a lot of information that children receive on sex is from friends and the media. For this reason, a parent must know that the less information they give, the more misinformation their child is going to acquire.

Some parents worry that by providing sex education to their children they are condoning certain behaviors. However, according to Avert.org, one study showed that in a review of 48 studies of sex and STD education programs, such programs either did not increase sexual activity and in some cases actually showed a decrease with an increase in condom use or other contraceptives (“Sex Education that,” 2010).

In April of 2002, Seventeen Magazine and the Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation conducted a survey. This survey was given to 15 to17-year olds in the United States about sexual health communication between themselves and their parents. Results showed that little over a half had discussed with their parents how to know when they were ready to have sex, 43% of teens discussed with their parents how to talk to a significant other about sexual issues, 52% of teens discussed condoms with their parents and 49% discussed other forms of contraception (“Teens and Sexual Health,” 2002).

Another study of 14 to 17-year olds shows that parents who talk to their children about the use of condoms before first sexual intercourse, had actually increased the likelihood that adolescents would used protection whereas talking about condom use after first sexual intercourse did not (Parents Sex Ed Center,” 2010).

A few important things to remember when talking to your teen:

1) Always remember how you felt and that you once experienced what they are now going through.

2) While conversing with your teen, remain respectful – share your feelings and thoughts but also listen to theirs.

3) Don’t jump to conclusions. Just because they are coming to talk to you or ask

a question, does not mean that they are sexually active

4) Don’t underestimate your teen. A parent should know their child well enough to know that they have their own values, beliefs, and are able to make responsible, mature decisions when they have proper information to go along with it (Parents Sex Ed Center,” 2010).

Before parent’s can be comfortable talking with their children about sex, they must be comfortable with themselves and with one another. It is necessary for parents to become in touch with their own feelings and develop sensitivity to their own sexual feelings. Parent’s who are not comfortable with talking to one another about sex, surely won’t be comfortable with talking to their children about sex. With that said, parents should practice if they feel that may help. They have to be able to be comfortable both saying and hearing sexual words (Gordon). “This is important because children are sensitive to the emotional value parents give to certain words or may pick up what their parents feel rather than what their parents say “(Gordon).

Most often, parents feel embarrassed to talk with their children about sex, whether their child brings it up or it is time for the parent to bring it up. It may be because they just don’t want to or possibly because they don’t know how. While many parents today really do want to contribute to their children’s sex education they just quite aren’t sure how to approach the topic. By being comfortable with yourself and letting your child know that you are able and wanting to answer sexual questions at an early age will allow them to understand that as they become older they know that you can provide accurate information and be someone that they can talk to.

References

Crooks, R., & Baur, K. (2011). Our sexuality (11th ed.). Wadsworth.

Gordon, S. (n.d.). Why sex education also belongs in the home. Education.com.

Retrieved from http://www.education.com/reference/article/Ref_Why_Sex

_Education/

Parents sex ed center. (2010). Advocates for youth. Retrieved May 3, 2010 from

http://www.advocatesforyouth.org/index.php?option=com_content

&task=view&id=108&Itemid=206

Sex education that works. (2010, May 1). Avert. Retrieved May 4, 2010, from

http://www.avert.org/sex-education.htm

Teens and sexual health communication. (2002, July). Kaiser Family Foundation.

Retrieved May 4, 2010, from http://www.kff.org/entpartnerships/upload/

Teens-and-Sexual-Health-Communication-Summary-of-Findings.pdf

This report discusses and evaluates the role of observation within an education setting. Section 1 details the importance of observing children followed by an evaluation of a range of observational techniques. Section 2 looks at the background of the child being observed in the report whilst section 3 makes reference to the appendix which contains 3 observations demonstrating a range of observational techniques. Section 4 contains an analysis of the child’s learning and developing needs. Section 5 makes recommendations to inform the future practice of the setting and its’ practitioners whilst section 6 reflects on the practitioner’s role in the observational process.

Section 1 : The Importance of observing children.

Observation is a fundamental and crucial aspect of the practitioner’s role and enables them to understand children as learners and as individuals. Observations are an invaluable source of information which allows the practitioner to plan a more appropriate curriculum that supports children’s development according to their individual needs. It is an integral part of the assessment and planning cycle.

Observations involve watching children play and take part in activities both inside and outside the classroom. Observations allow the practitioner to acquire knowledge and understanding of what is interesting and motivating to children both as individuals and as groups. Children respond differently to activities, experiences, and areas of provision. They acquire skills, learning styles, friendships, and behavioural patterns which are individual to each child. Observations give the practitioner an opportunity to record this type of information as well as aiding them in determining where the child is on the learning continuum and highlighting any difficulties they may have. This information can have a very positive impact on children’s learning when used effectively in informing the planning process.

Observations give vital information regarding the effectiveness of provision. The development of areas within an educational setting takes into account their success with the children that use them. Observations are integral when evaluating such areas as they give a true record of how the children use the area and the effectiveness of it. Children’s behaviour, comments, body language and interactivity with their peers and practitioners give an invaluable insight into the effectiveness of the provision. Practitioners are responsible for facilitating a child’s learning. Observations allow the evaluation of the effectiveness of the practitioner’s role and can inform a practitioner of their professional developmental needs.

The planning process takes into account the needs of each individual child and this process is informed through the analysis / assessment of the observations carried out by the practitioner. Without such observations it would be an impossible task to ensure that the planned activities of the setting, the areas of provision, and the methods used by the practitioner were meeting the individual needs of each child. Such is the importance of observation.

As Sharman, Cross and Vennis (2007, p.9) state, ‘children and young people are unique and to be aware of their qualities we need to take an interest in what they are doing, listen to what they are saying, learn from what they are telling us.’

Evaluation of a range of techniques.

There are several different techniques that the practitioner may use when observing children and areas of provision. The observation method used will normally be determined by the purpose of the observation. Observation methods include narrative / free description, checklist / pre-coded, time sampling, event sampling, tracking, pie / bar charts, histograms and sociograms. Practitioners may carry out observations as either a participant or a non-participant observer. Each method of observation uses different techniques which may be more suited to observing particular characteristics or behaviours.

Free Description / Narrative : Free description or narrative observations involve watching a particular child or group of children or indeed an area of provision. The free description observation should record the name of the child, children or area being observed along with the date, time and name of the person carrying out the observation. Clear aims and objectives must be set prior to the start of the observation and should be detailed on the observation sheet. The practitioner should possess a sound understanding of the purpose of the observation and the benefits associated with it to help ensure that it is completed appropriately. It is important for the practitioner to decide whether they should observe as a participant or a non-participant. The practitioner should be aware of the affects their involvement may have on a child’s behaviour if observing as a participant. Similarly, when observing as a non-participant it is very important for the practitioner to draw as little attention to themselves as possible. The observation should also contain a conclusion and an evaluation of what has been recorded. Recommendations should then be made to move the child’s learning forward.

The practitioner records information in the present tense detailing what they observe as they observe it. This is done over a pre-set period of time which may be changed during the observation if deemed necessary. The practitioner should be mindful of the importance of remaining objective when recording details of the observation. It is important for them to ensure that personal opinions, experiences and / or prejudices do not affect their judgement. Each practitioner will however have their own perspectives and therefore it is good practice to use all practitioners within a setting to carry out observations over a period of time. This will help ensure that the information acquired will be balanced and provide a fuller picture of the child, children or area being observed.

Free description observations may be difficult to record as the practitioner may need to write a lot of information down in a short amount of time. There is the potential to miss important information. The practitioner’s judgement may be influenced by outside factors.

Checklist / Pre-coded : Checklist or pre-coded observations may be set out in a variety of formats and are normally lists of particular skills within an area of learning. They require planning and preparation prior to the observation being carried out. Information about one child or a group of children can be recorded using the checklist or pre-coded method. Checklists or pre-coded observations should contain the name and age of the child, the number of adults and children present, the activity being observed, the area where the activity takes place, and the aims and objectives of the observation. The purpose of the observation influences the information contained within the checklist. For example, an observation with an aim of determining the fine motor skills of a particular child may contain such statements as: ‘can hold a pencil with tripod grip’ or ‘can control a pencil.’ (WAG, 2011, p.9)

These skills may be given a code to aid the practitioner carrying out the observation to complete it more easily. This would be particularly helpful when observing a number of children at the same time. Checklists can also be used to record activities and their progress.

It is vital to continuously refer to the aim of the observation when preparing the assessment criteria for the checklist. The practitioner should ensure that the criteria are both relevant and appropriate in aiding the assessment and analysis of a specified purpose. For example, the practitioner must ensure the criteria is age appropriate and provisions available to the child support the skill being observed. As with the free description observation it is extremely important for the practitioner to remain objective. All practitioners should perform similar observations to help ensure that the information acquired will be balanced and provide a fuller picture of the child, children or area being observed. It is good practice for a particular skill or behaviour to be observed several times before an overall judgement is made. The observation should include a conclusion and an evaluation of the recorded information and recommendations should be made.

Checklists and pre-coded observations can be restrictive as they require a simple yes, no or nearly answer to each criteria. The information recorded may not contain much detail or background information of the child.

Time sampling : Time sampling is a technique that requires the practitioner to observe the child, children or area over a matter of time. It can be used to monitor behaviour, social interactions and dynamics within groups, language skills, and usage of areas of provision.

Time sampling observations can be completed using written descriptions or pre-coded criteria. The practitioner should remain objective when completing the observation and a variety of staff should complete similar observations to ensure reliability. It is also important for the practitioner to be aware of their involvement and the affect this may have on the child or children being observed.

This type of observation is very adaptable and can be changed to suit the individual setting. It is a quick method for recording information. It can be used for individuals and groups. There is no requirement for a background knowledge of the child.

Time sampling observations do have some disadvantages. They provide information which can be time consuming to analyse. This type of observation may need to take place over a long period of time. There is a possibility that something significant may be missed if it does not happen within the observation time scale.

Tracking : Another method of observing is tracking. Tracking can be used to record a child’s movements within the setting as well as the time they spend on a particular activity. It is an appropriate method of highlighting the areas of provision a child has a preference for along with the way in which the area is used.

Prior to the observation taking place the practitioner should complete a plan of the area and consider how they will record the movements of the child. A code may be used to aid with this. Times may be recorded if required. If it is necessary to record skills this can be done separately.

Tracking is advantageous as it can be used in any area of the setting, both indoors and outdoors. It supports the foundation phase curriculum which requires the usage of the outdoors as part of the child’s learning and involves less structured, more independent play. It can indicate more popular areas and provisions which allows the practitioner to see the preferences of the child and gives them the opportunity to adapt their planning to suit the child’s needs. It can also indicate the attention span of a particular child.

Tracking can become quite difficult if the practitioner has to track more than one child at a time. The plan may become untidy and hard to follow if the child visits lots of areas. Tracking is not particularly informative for outside professionals. A detailed description of the child’s movements may not be recorded and information can be limited.

Sociogram : Sociograms focus on social development. It shows how the child interacts with other children and adults and can demonstrate their popularity. Social observations can quickly show the social development of children. This information can be used by the practitioner to plan activities and experiences to further develop the child’s social development. Sociograms, however, do not describe the reasons why something has happened. They only detail what has happened.

Event Sampling : Event sampling is used to observe when an event has taken place. This type of observation can be used to record a child’s behavioural or emotional development. It can record any event and includes information detailing how and why the event has occurred. This type of observation can help the practitioner to analyse the cause and effect of certain relationships. The data collected may be produced as a chart making it easier for the practitioner to analyse.

Event sampling is not suitable for observing infrequent behaviour and only records the specific behaviour as detailed in the aim of the observation. The recorded data may be misinterpreted as the observation may not record any preceding behaviours. Event sampling can be used within an early years setting as it is adaptable and it provides evidence of a particular behaviour.

Pie / bar charts : Pie or bar charts can be used to give a visual representation of information recorded by the practitioner. It is an effective method to use with both individual children and groups and makes data easy to read. This type of observation is suitable for early years settings as it is very adaptable and can be used to record information such as: areas of provision used by girls or boys both indoors and outdoors (highlighting children’s preferences), which children participate in a particular activity (e.g. physical), or what children eat during snack time. This information can then inform a setting’s planning to make it more suitable to the children.

Pie or bar charts do not indicate why a particular event has taken place, only that it has happened. They may require a longer set up period than other types of observations and data may be more difficult to interpret.

Histogram : Histograms can be used to plot the development of a child over a given period of time. The information gathered is detailed on a bar graph where each type of activity is shown in a continuous fashion. Histograms allow the practitioner to focus on a particular behaviour over a longer period of time. As with sociograms and pie / bar charts, histograms show that a particular behaviour has occurred but does not give the reason why it has happened.

Other types of observation may require slightly different formats. Samples of work are sometimes included for assessment purposes. Photographic and video observations are an effective way of documenting the child’s learning process. Photographs should always be annotated or cross-referenced to relevant written observations. Practitioners should request written parental permission for using photography and video devices to record and document children’s learning.

Section 2 : Background to the individual child.

The child is 2 years and 3 months old. She has attended the setting since the beginning of September 2012. She attends 5 morning sessions per week for 2.5 hours each session. She has 1 sibling which is 3 months old. The child’s mum has informed staff that since the arrival of the new baby the child’s behaviour has become much worse than it was previously. The child has exhibited such behaviour as biting, kicking, hitting, pushing, and screaming when she is at home and also outside. This behaviour is displayed when the child does not get what she wants.

The child lives on a council owned estate which is within a Communities First area. Communities First is a community focused programme that supports the Welsh Government’s Tackling Poverty agenda. It supports the most disadvantaged people in the most deprived areas with the aim of contributing to alleviating persistent poverty. Communities First works alongside other programmes with an aim of narrowing the education/skills, economic and health gaps between the most deprived and more affluent areas. (http://wales.gov.uk)

The area has also been highlighted as a Flying Start area. Flying Start is the Welsh Government targeted Early Years programme for families with children under 4 years of age in some of the most deprived areas of Wales. The core elements of the programme are drawn from a range of options that have been shown to influence positive outcomes for children and their families. These include free quality part-time childcare for 2-3 year olds, an enhanced health visiting service, access to parenting programmes, and early language development. (http://wales.gov.uk)

The child’s place at the setting is fully funded by the Flying Start Programme. The child’s mum does not work and is at home with the children during the day. The child’s dad works full time during the week and spends evenings and weekends at home. The child’s mum has informed staff at the setting that the child has many cousins. The child sees them on a regular basis. The child is not able to share or take turns with other members of her family and frequently exhibits the inappropriate behaviour mentioned above.

Section 3 – Evidence of 3 observations using different techniques.

Appendix 1 – evidence of a free description observation.

Appendix 2 – evidence of a time sample observation.

Appendix 3 – evidence of an event sample observation.

Analysis of the child’s learning and developing needs.

Child A’s mum informed staff at the setting that she does not share or take turns and exhibits inappropriate behaviour when she does not get what she wants. Mum has noticed that Child A’s behaviour has worsened since the arrival of their new baby.

As Dowling (2005, p.105) states, ‘we expect a child to show mixed behaviour when faced with the excitement, but also the threat of a new baby in the family.’

The free description observation highlighted the behaviour of Child A when she was placed in a position of taking turns and sharing a toy. Child A was observed snatching a doll from child B whilst playing in the home corner of the setting. When Child C tried to push the pushchair which was being played with by Child A, Child A began to scream and pinched Child C on the face.

Following a discussion with a practitioner within the setting Child A apologised to the affected parties however, Child A was then observed a short time later displaying the same behaviour.

As Dowling suggests children aged 2 – 2.5 years old are still developing their sharing and turn taking skills. They need to be encouraged and given opportunities to practice these skills through carefully planned activities.

Child A is not able to share or take turns. She does not communicate appropriately with her peers when she wants to play with something. She is not able to wait until the other child has finished playing with the item before taking it. Child A is able to apologise when supported by a practitioner.

The time sampling observation was carried out 1 week after the free description observation. Child A displayed similar behaviour during this observation as they did during the free description observation. Child B was playing with a plastic box in the maths area. Child A had attempted to take the box from Child B and when she was not given the box Child A hit and pinched the arm of Child B. Child A looked around the setting and made eye contact with one of the assistants. Child A lowered her head and looked at the floor. After the practitioner spoke to Child A she apologised to Child B. With help from the practitioner Child A collected a sand timer and waited until the sand had finished running into the other side. Child A was prompted to ask Child B if she could have her turn with the box. Both children complied with the practitioner’s requests and received praise. Child A smiled and took the box to the carpet area where she had her turn to play with it.

As Sharman, Cross and Venice (2000, p.130) states ‘the developmental milestones indicate that a child aged 2 – 2.5 years is egocentric. They see the world from their point of view. They are not able to share and will hold onto things with determination.’

Child A is not able to take turns. She is not prepared to wait for her turn. Child A exhibits inappropriate behaviour when she is not given what she wants when she wants it. Child A is able to apologise when supported by a practitioner. She is also able to wait for her turn when supported by a practitioner and a visual timing device which in this case was a sand timer.

The third observation was an event sampling observation. This was carried out 2 weeks after the initial free description observation. The observation recorded the behaviour and social interactions of Child A during a morning session. Child A displayed inappropriate behaviour at several times during the day and in several areas of the classroom. She took what she wanted without asking and screamed when a child tried to take an item back or when they tried to take something that she was already playing with. Child A did not speak very much to the other children or to the practitioners in the setting. She apologised when prompted to do so by a practitioner. Child A was not always responsible for the incidents that took place.

As Dowling (2005, p.108) says ‘before children start to regulate their behaviour they must begin to learn about cause and effect’. ‘Children need to be able to empathise – to understand how others feelaˆ¦aˆ¦..’

Recommendations to inform future practice.

The first observation which was a free description concluded that Child A was not able to share. Child A showed very little understanding of this concept. She exhibited inappropriate behaviour to her peers when presented with a ‘sharing’ situation.

It is important for practitioners to understand how frustrating it can be for young children to share and to understand the concepts. The ability to share is developed over a period of time. Young children find it difficult to understand how others feel as they are not yet able to empathise.

Having more than one type of toy can be beneficial for young children as it gives them an opportunity to play in parallel with the same type of provision. Where possible, more than one of each provision should be made available to the children in each area of the setting.

As Fisher (1993, p.29) states ‘appropriately resourced and supported, child-initiated activity can bring about some of the most creative and innovative learning in the classroom”

Planning activities which encourage turn taking will allow the child to practice this skill and would also allow them to begin to realise that they will have their own opportunity to play with a particular item.

The second observation, time sampling, concluded that Child A cannot communicate her needs appropriately. Child A has not yet learnt to ask for what she wants. Instead she exhibits inappropriate behaviour such as pinching. Child A is able to apologise to the affected party when prompted to do so by one of the practitioners. She is also willing to wait for her turn when supported by a practitioner and a visual aid demonstrating a set amount of time – a sand timer.

Encouraging Child A to ask for a particular item and rewarding her with praise when she does will reinforce to the child that it is appropriate behaviour. Skinner suggests that reinforcement of a particular behaviour will prompt a repeat of the same behaviour at a later time. Sharman, Cross and Vennis (2007, p.11) state, ‘children need adults to notice their achievements and provide an environment to support their further development.’

Games such as dominoes or snap cards will strengthen and support turn taking skills. Other activities which encourage turn taking will allow the child to decide when they have finished playing with a piece of equipment. Some children may be happy to give the item to someone else when they feel they have finished using it.

The third observation, time sampling, recorded some similar behaviours as the previous observations. Child A was not able to take turns when using the pencils. It also provided evidence that Child A is able to carry out some instructions such as tidying up. Child A was following an instruction and putting the cars away. She snatched one from another child to put it in the appropriate box. Child A was not able to ask for the car and just took it. Child A was also not able to share the parachute and she screamed when another child tried to hold it.

Where a child is not able to take turns, the practitioner should support them by explaining why they should take turns and will use an item to display a set amount of time, for example, a sand timer. Whilst a child waits for their turn the practitioner should support them by suggesting an activity to do. The practitioner will give the child simple choices to allow them to choose an item, game or activity for themselves and this will allow them to feel that they have made their own choice.

Reflect on your role in the observational process.

Through observations the practitioner is able to learn what the children know, evaluate their needs and plan appropriately to facilitate their learning. Staff training is an integral part of the setting’s self-evaluation process and allows the practitioner to consider the importance of observing children and developing the necessary skills. The practitioner will organise an allocated observation time and is more aware of the need for incidental observations.

The practitioner has a better understanding of the importance of gathering information from a range of contexts, both inside and outside the setting. Observations should be a constant source of vital information concerning both the children’s and the setting’s development. They should form a fair, rounded and holistic record over a period of time. The practitioner will address their observations during the setting’s weekly planning meeting and will share information between practitioners.

The practitioner further understands the need for the effective implementation of observations and their impact on the future planning of the setting to facilitate the learning needs of all the children.

As Fisher (2000. P.19) says, ‘ensure that the planned curriculum is appropriate. This leads to planning that is tailor-made for each child because the foundations of learning are unique.

The evaluation of the setting which involves all staff helps to ensure that the learning environment supports children in initiating their own learning. The practitioner is fully aware that observations must be fed into the assessment process for individual children. Parents will be further encouraged to contribute to observations through informal and formal discussions with the practitioner. Proformas will be used to ensure consistency of information within each type of observation. Photographic evidence will be annotated to support observations to document the children’s learning.

Sharman, Cross and Vennis (2007, p.2) cites the work of CACHE (2005) who states that ‘play workers exist to support children’s natural play and they do this by creating spaces where play can happen. Then they unobtrusively observe, intervene very occasionally, and then reflect on what they have seen and done.’

Appendices.

Appendix 1

Observation 1 : Free Description / Narrative.

Date : 23rd October 2012

Time Commenced : 09:40 Time Completed : 09:45

Number of Children : 3 Area : Ty Bach Twt

Name of Child : Child A Age : 2yrs 3mths

Aim : To observe the behaviour of Child A during ‘free play’.

Objectives : To observe and record Child A’s ability to share.

Child A is playing in the home corner of the setting with 2 other children. Child A snatches a doll from Child B. Child B does not attempt to take the doll back. Child A puts the doll in a pushchair. Child C takes hold of the handles of the pushchair and tries to push it. Child A begins to scream and grabs the handles of the pushchair. Child A pulls the pushchair away from Child C. Child C keeps hold of the pushchair. Child A keeps one hand on the pushchair and uses the other hand to pinch Child C on the face. A practitioner intervenes at this point. The practitioner speaks to Child A.

‘Don’t do that. It isn’t nice. You mustn’t pinch. It hurts. Child B was playing with the doll. Can you give the doll back to child B please. Would you like to play with this doll instead?’

Child A lowers her head. The practitioner asks Child A to look at her. Child A does not respond. The practitioner asks Child A to look at her again. Child A makes eye contact with the practitioner.

P-‘Can you give the doll back to Child B please. You can play with this doll if you want to’.

Child A gives the doll back to Child B.

P-‘Can you say sorry to Child B for snatching the doll?’ Child A ‘Sorry’. P-‘Da iawn Child A.’

You can have a turn of that doll when Child B has finished playing with it.

P-‘Child C wants to play with the pushchair with you. He is your friend. You will make Child C sad if you pinch him. Can you say sorry to Child C please for pinching him.’

Child A ‘Sorry’.

P-‘Da iawn. Merch dda. Can you push the baby together? That’s a nice thing to do. Mae’n neis i rannu.’

Child A nods. Child A and Child C push the pushchair across the room. Child A grabs Child C’s hands and pinches them. Child C lets go of the pushchair and Child A runs across the room with it. The same practitioner intervenes.

Conclusion : Child A wanted to play with a doll that was being played with by Child B. Child A snatched the doll from Child B and did not ask if she could play with it. When Child C attempted to use the pushchair that Child A was playing with, Child A screamed and pinched Child C on the face. Later, Child A agreed to allow Child C to push the pushchair with her, but after a very short period of time Child A pinched Child C’s hands. Child A ran across the room with the pushchair when Child C let go of it.

Evaluation : Child A is not able to share or take turns. She does not communicate appropriately with her peers when she wants to play with something. She is not able to wait until the other child has finished playing with the item before taking it. Child A is able to apologise when supported by a practitioner.

Recommendations :

Give opportunities to practice sharing and turn taking skills through carefully planned activities.

Encourage the child to share and remind them that it is nice to share with their friends.

Give immediate praise when child shares or takes turns.

Appendix 2

Observation 2 : Time Sampling.

Date : 2nd November 2012

Time Commenced : 10:20 Time Completed : 10:27

Number of Children : 2 Area : Maths Area

Name of Child : Child A Age : 2yrs 3mths

Aim : To observe a target child interacting with a child of similar age whilst playing in the maths area.

Objectives : To observe and record Child A’s social interactions.

Child A has just entered the maths area and looks at the jigsaw puzzles on the table. Child A approaches the table and starts to take the pieces out of the jigsaw. Another child is already playing in the area. Child B takes a plastic box from a shelving unit and begins to shake it. Child A looks at Child B and the box. Child A approaches Child B and attempts to take the box from her. Child B does not allow Child A to take the box. Child A hits Child B on the arm then pinches it. Child B starts to cry. Child B continues to hold the plastic box. Child A looks around the setting and makes eye contact with a practitioner. Child A lowers her head and looks at the floor. Child A lets go of the plastic box. The practitioner walks over to Child A and kneels down. The practitioner asks Child A to look at her. Child A does not respond. The practitioner again asks Child A to look at her.

Before an assessment of a child can take place to plan their learning and development, we need to observe them. Observation is vital for early year’s practitioners to find out what stage a child is currently at, what their needs are and what interests them. You can learn a lot about the children you work with simply by stepping back and watching them. This may at first seem to be a waste of time, but if you study the children, you are going to be more likely to meet their needs. Childcare workers automatically watch the children in their care they want to know that the children are safe, happy, healthy and developing well. Watching or observing closely can often reassure them that everything is alright but may also alert them to problems or illness. Any discussion about a child usually relates what has been seen , heard or experienced and leads to conclusions about personality , likes , and dislikes etc. anyone who works with children needs to develop the skill of observing them (sometimes to be written/recorded to check that a child is:

Safe – not in any danger from the environment, from themselves or others.

Contented – there are many reasons a child might be miserable , some may relate to physical comfort ( e.g. wet nappy , hunger , thirsty) or emotional discomfort (e.g. main carer is absent, or comfort object lost ) or lack of attention or stimulation.

Healthy – eats and sleeps well and is physically active (concerns about this may indicate that they are unwell)

Developing normally – in line with general expectations for his/her age in all areas, there will be individual differences but delays in any e.g. crawling/walking or speaking may show a need for careful monitoring and perhaps specialist help.

Any particular strength or talent may also be identified and encouraged. observing is one of the most important daily aspects involved in childcare without observation the overall planning and assessment in the setting will be affected. Early years practitioners need to base their planning on their observations so without observations we cannot be entirely sure that overall planning will meet their needs. By carefully observing the children we can learn their needs and know when they are ready to move on to the next stage. By adapting experiences, routines and activities to include things that are particularly important to every individual child we can build on their attention span and curiosity. Likewise we can use observation to pinpoint areas where a child needs additional help. There are 5 main skills associated with effective observation.

Looking – we need to look at our children and analyse what they are doing and what responses to give in certain situations.

Listening – it is vital we pay attention to the children and listen to how they interact with both children and adults.

Recording – we should accurately record any important things in which we have observed.

Thinking – we must use our observations to think how to plan effectively for each child and maybe involve the child’s parents for activity planning.

Questioning – sometimes our observations need to be clarified, confirmed or rejected. If the child is at an age to respond to questions you should involve them directly.

Do not let preconceived ideas or assumptions cloud our observations, they must be done with an open mind and judgement of the child should not affect the way an observation is carried out. For example observing children in a group and in the past one child has had difficulty in mixing with others , do not let your past assumptions hinder the observation as it will be pointless to carry out any observation if you have already decided the outcome.

4.2 Main ways in which observations can be recorded.

There are many ways in which observations can be recorded , each have advantages and disadvantages and most early years practitioners need to be familiar with several of these . The most frequently used recording methods are written notes such as

Free description (also known as narrative description or written record) – this method records the behaviour of a child over a very short period of time, often less than 5 minutes. The observer notes down what they are seeing which gives a portrait of the child’s activity during this time.

Checklists and kick charts – these are mostly used to assess the child’s development, specific activities are looked for either during a structural assessment (i.e. where a child is asked to do activities) or by observing children over a period of time.

Time sample – this is used to look at children’s activity over a predetermined length of time for example, a morning. Children are observed at regular intervals during the recording, say every 10 minutes and the observation is recorded on a prepared sheet.

Event sample – this is mostly used to look at a child’s one aspect of development or behaviour, such as how frequently a child sucks their thumb or shows aggression towards other children. Every time a child shows the type of behaviour or activity it is recorded on a prepared sheet.

Target child – this is used to record one activity over a long period without any gaps in the recording process. Several codes or signs are used during this process to allow the observer to maintain the recording.

Some methods of observing children provide more information than other methods that give plenty of info are referred to as “open methods”. For more objectivity ‘closed’ methods are useful. A checklist is an example of a closed method of recording. With all these methods available for use whilst observing it is important that you choose one to suit your purpose. For example the free description method is good for examining closely how a child achieves. Something, but it will not tell you about a child’s general activity over a long period. Other ways in which an observation can be recorded or by taking photographs of a child doing certain activities and catching developmental milestones, permission is always needed by the child’s parents to allow photographs to be taken and also to use a video camera which can used to record development milestones or just to record an activity which the children are involved in so the child’s parents/carer can also see the child doing the activity or milestone, as some parents don’t like to miss out on anything. Whichever method of recording is chosen to be used, all observations must contain sufficient information so that they are useful and that they are understood by anyone else who may need to look at them.

4.3 Analyse the 3 types of planning that can be used in early year’s settings

The observation, assessment and planning cycle assists early year’s practitioners to collate effectively the information they have gathered and to plan what to do next. There are 3 types of planning.

Long term – long term ensures the early years practitioners cover all the areas of learning and development and the principles of the early years foundation framework, the first of these frameworks published in England is called “birth to three matters “, this framework was published by the department for education and skills in 2002 and is for use by all professionals who are involved in the delivery or planning of services for young children in England. The pack comprises of an introductory booklet, poster, video, cd-rom, and 16 a4 component cards relating to four areas or aspects that have been identified as necessary for the development of all children. Long term planning enables the early years practitioners to think about the key areas necessary for supporting babies and young children and encourages them to consider ways to balance the opportunities for supporting older children which will enable them to enjoy both free play and well planned adult activities which will stimulate and interest them, long term planning needs to take into account how you will plan activities to ensure a suitable balance between indoor and outdoor experiences and quiet and active times, and needs to ensure a broad and balanced curriculum. A long term plan should usually cover a 3 month period, a term or a year; it should provide a curriculum overview. It should be based on principles of good early years practice; it should review what children need to learn and how this will be implemented. All areas of learning should be considered and that it meets the development plan or school improvement plan (sip) as required by Ofsted, it should relate to all policies and procedures of the setting and ensure advance planning and consideration of specific activities (e.g. festivals or outings ).

Medium term – this should outline an overall program over say, one to two weeks. Medium term planning take into account the overall daily routine early years practitioners, such as feeding time , school runs, playgroups, outdoor play, quiet time sleep or rest time and individual interaction . medium term plans will need to be adjusted constantly because it will be influenced by the observations made of individual children it needs to include reviews of care routines, key worker relationships and the way the day is organised to offer play and experiences including the materials and physical resources; whilst observing children, getting to know them and their characters, you need to match observations to your medium term plans. The staff planning together should look at how to create a rich learning environment which links the long term plans to each child as an individual. The medium term plan should grow gradually and must be flexible, open to changes and moderations and all observation profiles of all the children need to be looked at. Many early years settings now target particular children on particular days. This means each child is observed regular and the curriculum is planned in a differentiated way to cater for the interests and needs of individual children.

Short term plan – this includes the day to day activities, outings, resources specifically relating to the children in the setting on a daily or weekly basis. It is often helpful to use observations of the children from the previous day to enable to focus on their specific needs and to build on what they have learnt for example, the children might have asked to bake, you will need to consider ingredients and equipment will be necessary and how much time is needed to complete the task.

4.4 describe why planning is essential in the early years setting

Planning is key to the effectiveness of any early year’s settings. Settings plan curriculum in many different ways, most find a way of planning which suits their needs, plans will also vary according to the objectives or areas of development /learning to be considered. Each child will need to be considered and observed in order to be provided with appropriate activities and experiences in the setting. Good planning is essential if practitioners are to make children’s learning effective, exciting, varied and above all progressive. Planning enables us to look at each child individually and build on our knowledge of them in order to see how they learn, what motivates them and how they make progress. Plans don’t often need to be written down although recording things provides us with future reference which can be shared with others. Written plans allow us to look back so we can plan for the future.by doing this we can plan activities in which they are suitable for what we know they can already achieve and build on their interests and experiences, for example by constructing a written plan to help a child recognise the no 1-20 we would be able to see at the end of the long term plan,

The child knows the name of the numbers
The child can recognise the numbers in a variety of contexts
The child can write the numbers successfully

If at the end of the long term plan the child as reached all the goals set for them, then you know your planning has been effective. Effective planning is challenging but it is essential, it is not always easy for practitioners working alone to carry out observations of individual children when they are responsible for the care and safety of others. Observations need to be carried out regular and not just at set times you should be observing the children in your care all the time and noting how they react to certain circumstances and everyday occurrences. Keep a diary handy to jot down anything which you observe which is of particular interest or information which may help you plans for your child’s development.

4.5 critically explore the importance of assessments

Whilst assessments need to be handled extremely sensitively it can be a way of recognising whether children need additional support or challenges. They are also used as a way of learning more about groups of children so that the curriculum can be adjusted to meet their interests and needs. It is also important to realise that assessing children is not an exact science and we should see any assessment as only a guide. Young children are ever changing and their development and interests reflect this; but assessments are extremely important and have many uses

To review and check children’s overall development
To extend children’s learning
To support special needs
To resolve a particular concern
To evaluate activities and experiences
To review children’s progress
To share with other professionals
To share information with parents
To help with planning
To evaluate routine strategies to gather all the information to assess a child’s needed to be observed.

Although a lot is learnt from simply spending time and observing assessing what you have observed will enable you to deepen your understanding of what you have seen. There are no set ways in which assessments need to be written, although the following points should be considered,

The assessment should be based on what you have recorded
The link between the child’s actual stage of development and expected stage are noted
Supported evidence should be provided

Your assessment will help you collate this information so that it can be used in effective planning. For observation and planning and assessment to be effective they need to be carried out regularly, you need to get into the habit of observing children on a daily basis and assess the observations to enable you to plan the next stage for every child in your setting. Records need to be kept for each child (in a form of diary or scrapbook) and ways of extending on what they can already do to get to the next level need to be looked at. The more practice you have at observing, assessing and planning, the better you will become until it becomes second nature to you.

The transformation of mans life from the primitive being to the civilized one has occurred from the turn of the 18th century. The start of the 19th century witnessed more scientific discoveries. Techno-science is credited with these discoveries, and what this has done is that it has improved life on earth and made it better. We now live a world whereby all ages have some form of scientific discovery that makes life better and more sophisticated. It is true that sophistication is the principal reason behind all scientific discoveries. Moreover, the nature of man is that man is a creature that seeks to improve its own existence by bringing forth a myriad of scientific discoveries

Techno- science has brought with it a lot of discoveries, and this has made life on earth to be better and more comfortable. One such field is that of entertainment. Be it music, videos, video games or even sports, techno- science has ensured that electronic gadgets have been created, thereby improving people’s lives. The chief beneficially to technological advancements in entertainment is children and young adults/adolescents. Video games are a top mode of entertainment among this young group of people. Video games are the creation of computers, and while even adults play these games, the market segment is children and young people. However much technological advancement are on the rise, techno-scientists have been accused of creating products without having to care about the potential effects of these products to the market segment. For instance, violent video games are immensely entertaining to children and young people, but what is puzzling is that, innovators of these products do not have the slightest care concerning the effect that these games have on the users (Anderson & Bushman, 39). For years, video games have been accused of poisoning the minds of young people and children, which is detrimental to their development as they ape what they see in these videos. This essay analyses violent video games as being a contributor to aggressive behavior, especially in children and teenagers. By analyzing violent video games and their correlation with aggressive behavior, the study will establish how this issue can be reduced and surmounted, and how the behavior of young people is maintained to noteworthy levels.

Violent video games

Video games have been in existence from the 70s. Video games were created as a mode of entertainment by all age groups, but the principle market segment is children and teenagers who spend most of their free time indoors. These games have been seen as a way of enhancing the creativity and learning abilities of children, and are recommended for parents for their children. The popularity of action-hero movies triggered video game manufacturers to inject a new perspective into video games; violence. By doing this, they hoped to grasp larger audiences and entice younger ages more with their products. This was a marketing tool that was meant to revolutionize their business and make it more real. In these games, the users take the form of action-heroes who engage in violent confrontations with others. These heroes must keep winning duels so that the game advances to the next level. This pumps the adrenaline in game users until they become addicted as they want to advance to the next level and be “winners” in these violent duels. To the manufacturers, video games are created to entertain and please the users, but apart from entertaining them, violent video games have been accused of behavioral modification especially in young users by giving them aggressive and violent traits.

In an era where action movies and thrillers fascinate young people and adults alike, video game manufacturers are taking advantage of this craze by coming up with video games with an injected bit of violence. The problem that has cropped up is that, video games being mostly used by children and young teenagers influence the behavior of this group of people. An adult views these games as a form of entertainment, but to a young person, it is both entertainment and a site to mimic behavior. While adults and senior teenagers play violent games, they do not seem to be affected much due to their perception. While an adult sees these games as a way of entertainment, a child may not understand why someone goes around the street shooting others or causing bodily harm to others. To them, it seems normal, and with this perception, behavioral modification is bound to occur. These children easily become aggressive and engage in endless confrontations with their peers.

The debate concerning violent video games and ways in which they lead to aggressive behavior has been around for years. Steinfeld (27) writes in his book “”It becomes clear to me that the major causal relationship between the televised violence and the antisocial behavior is enough to warrant immediate and appropriate remedial action. aˆ¦ There comes a time when the data are sufficient to justify action. That time has come.” From then, more studies have been conducted and as Anderson and Bushman found out in their 2002 study “there is a direct correlation between violent media exposure and aggression”. Studies have shown that there is a link between violence in electronic media and real life aggression. This stretches into video games. Violent video games are analogous to violent media exposure.

A study by Gentile, lynch, Linder and Walsh (2004) has shown that relative growth of these games has made American teenagers more aggressive in nature and to have terrible behaviors and attitudes. In this study, research was carried out from six hundred and seven students from four schools to confirm the violence that these games bring out in pupils attending the eighth grade. Teenagers who were exposed to many video games of a violent nature were reported to be hostile, and they could get into arguments with teachers easily and more frequently. They were involved in physical fights with fellow students at a higher rate and were poor performers in school.

By comparison, violent video games bring more harm than violent TV programs. Unlike TV watching, playing video games is more involving and engaging. Whenever someone plays as a violent character in a video game, they try to identify with that particular character. In case they play as the same character over and over, it is easy for these traits to be transcribed into their behavior (Deselms and Altman, 1562). Finally, when players play as violent characters, they are awarded bonus points or, they advance to the next level. This motivates them to continually take part in these games. They become obsessed with the characters, and it can easily lead them in committing a crime.

Sales of video games in America have risen over the years with the electronic entertainment market raking more than seven billion dollars back in 1999. This surpasses the revenues of film production for the first time in American history. The sales have surpassed twenty billion American dollars. This has been fuelled by the existence of more than 200 million game boys and 80 million play stations that have been sold on the video game market. An average American kid from age 2 to 17 is able to play and stay on a video game for 7 hours or more in a week. This masks the enormous difference between the girl child and boy child with different ages. A recent study by Anderson et al in 2010 established that most teenage girls engage in these games for more than five hours in a week while boys do it for more than thirteen hours in a week. This is an average playtime of nine hours in a day that teenagers spend on games.

Studies have been conducted over the last 25 years, and most of them have looked at the final effects of video games of teenagers (Anderson and Bushman, 449). Most of these studies have managed to outline a link between these violent games and aggression. Some have even gone further by determining how video games affect school performance, and what has been established is that school performance has been compromised as a result of video games. This is a tremendous setback on the American education since the numbers of such students is on the rise. The impact of violent video games extends even to institutions of higher learning as evidenced by research done by Gentile, lynch, Linder and Walsh in 2004. In their research, they established that there are negative impacts in college students who spend most of their leisure time on violent video games instead of concentrating on studies. The grades of these students have been reported to drop drastically and they attain aggressive behavior.

Study Review

Video games have been in existence for the past 30 or so years. They are a noteworthy and unique form of entertainment in that; they encourage the player to be part of the game. Video games have become so sophisticated to the point of ensuring that the player must pay close attention to what is going on. While video games have positive and negative effects, empirical studies continue showing that there are more drawbacks than advantages, especially by contributing to aggressive behavior in people, especially children and young teenagers.

Studies have shown that aggression in children and young people is determined by the time spent by playing these games. For example, a study by Walsh in 2000 revealed “most teenagers have admitted that their parents do not impose time limits on the hours they use to play video games”. A good number of parents also take no notice of the content of games that their children play. Therefore, the long playing hours coupled with parents’ profligacy in imposing their monitoring has made the teenagers aggressive. Another study by Gentile, lynch, Linder and Walsh in 2004 subjected adolescent boys and girls to long periods of video games. These researchers proved that, young people who engaged in violent video games for an extended time period are more aggressive, engage in constant confrontations and score low school performance (Gentile et al, 21). Another study finding reveals that aggression develops in game users when they engage in games that are beyond their level. Games are accorded levels corresponding to particular age groups. This needs to be followed because; young children may play games that are many levels ahead. These children happen to witness shocking scenes to a point that their young minds become affected. These children easily become aggressive.

Picture a modern video game about an assassin who is going around the street killing rival gang members. When a child or any young person mimics the assassin in the game, images of such a video game are inscribed in this their mind, and they are for sure going to become more aggressive. The child first starts mimicking the shooter with even sticks, and later they become aggressive. In most video games, players progress to the next round, and the more they play, the more they become addicted, and they more aggressive they are likely to get.

Empirical data has shown that violent video games supersede even violent films (Pollard et al, 10). The results of the study confirmed that people who engaged in violent video games became more aggressive when compared to those who were merely watching. While a few people assert that violent games are harmless, studies continue to show the opposite. There is evidence that violence video games make the players cathartic in that, they vent their angers aimlessly. In their work, Anderson et al (2010) assert that approximately 130 researches have been conducted on the same topic using over 130,000 subjects and the study findings were that; violent video games enhance aggressive thoughts and behavior, and increase one’s physiological arousal by increasing one’s pulse and blood pressure.

Anderson and Bushman conducted extensive research in 2002, and from that, they were able to come up with evidence for the topic in question. The research was aimed at investigating the link between media violence and aggression. From their study, it was revealed that players who continually engage in violent video games become aggressive since violent behavior is repeated in the games over and over. Besides, video games ensure that players are active participants instead of being passive as in movies. Moreover, players in video games identify with a particular character they adore. This is what is known as the “first person video game” (Anderson & Dill, 788). From this, players imitate the characters of these video games, which trigger them to become aggressive. For instance, a player who engages in a violent game develops aggressive thoughts. In their study, bushman & Anderson concluded that when a player who was previously exposed to violent video games encounters confrontation, they respond with an enhanced rate of aggression.

However much scientific evidence has shown that video games that are violent cause aggressive behavior especially in young people; other theorists have opposed this citing various reasons. For instance, people who engage in violent video games have claimed that even though they play video games, they have never killed anyone. This is true especially from the United States’ FBI murder figures for 2010. From the survey, it was revealed that the murder rate in the US per year is 6 in 100,000. This is a low rate implying that murder from events like violent video games is highly unlikely. But this does not mean that violent video games do not lead to aggression. Secondly, the media have contributed to the denial that violent video games do not cause aggression. This is because; media personalities have failed to admit that the product they are marketing is dangerous. This is analogous to the tobacco industry; even though the manufacturers of tobacco know that the product is harmful, they have been reluctant to admit that their product is harmful.

The role of parents in curbing aggression in their children cannot be underemphasized. Psychologists have identified that parents have a role of cautioning their children concerning violent media. Stopping your children from engaging in violent video games is unrealistic as a person is not able to supervise all the time, but it is necessary to regulate what children engage in. There are many ways parents can help (Pollard et al, 89). For one, they need not install violent media at home. Secondly, parents need to know the rating of all video games available at home, so that young children do not play games way above their level. Parents should also limit the time spent online and in playing these games. It is necessary for parents to monitor media consumption of their children.

Violence in video games is impacting negatively on the users of these games. Significant harmful effects have been reported some of these effects are short term, but others are long term and affect the gamer for the rest of the life. The effects become harmful when parents who are supposed to monitor their children when they engage in these games become careless and leave the children to continue playing video games without limit. The endgame with this is that the child starts to be a psychopath and is likely to try and experiment what was being played in video games on the real world. The child will start to be aggressive when offended in a small way and may hurt everyone in the vicinity. Electronic media have the probability of enlightening the social and learning behavior of students by replacing reading activities, time for family interactions and social time with friends. If an average child spends 7 hours in a week to engage in these games, the child is not able to engage themselves in any form of homework or reading. This results to the child becoming lazy and stubborn which may increase the aggressive nature of the child.

Summary of Findings

From the analyses of various studies and researches made, it is evident that more boys engage in violent video games than girls. Those who engage also acquire aggression with time, which leads them to engage in confrontations in school and landing in trouble in most times. These young individuals also grow up into aggressive people when their game time is excessive. Many researches also shows that, a majority of parents do not monitor their children and teenagers on the game time, making some young game players overindulge in violent games. A majority of parents also do not check the rating of the violent games, which allows even younger children to access games that are beyond their level.

Study Interpretation

Content analysis carried out by Walsh (2000) shows that more than 90% these games in the American market have some form of a violent nature and more than 60% in the global market have serious violence amongst those who take part in the game. The study concludes that a good proportion of games bought by gamers contain serious violence and the popularity of this form of games is mostly determined by the violence content that is developed among the characters. Pollard, Bushman & Anderson in their 2011 research found out that,” violence has spurred a lot among adolescents and children; this violence is mostly a result of violent video games.”

Bushman and Anderson (2002) conducted a Meta-analysis of 54 tests, which were independent about the relation between the violence of video games and physical aggression. This analysis involved more than four thousand participants and five results, which were consistent, among these gamers in relation to violent video games were derived from the analysis. Playing of violent games increases the aggressive cognitions of the participants. Violent games increase the arousal, physiologically aggressive emotion is increased by playing such games. Aggressive behaviors are increased among the gamers, and the pro- social behavior of the gamers is decreased with immediate effect. These effects termed as robust, and they are found in all ages of people in society, be it adults or children, females or males and non-experimental and experimental studies. Most of studies have been done out and results found with more than sufficient evidence that explains about the impacts of violent video games, but so far little has been done to avert this problem in the American society. Age restrictions have been imposed on accessing different kinds of video games with certain levels of violence, but somehow the young people end up getting the games from sources that are unclear.

Gamers who are born aggression seem to have increased violence while and after playing video games of a violent nature. A study by Gentile, lynch, Linder and Walsh (2004) found that the physiological impacts of engaging in these games is worse in children who had developed a violent nature before they started playing video games than those who have no violent traits. These children are more likely to start excising the violent activities that they experience in video games, in real life. Gamers with the violence trait from birth showed increases in epinephrine levels in their blood and their arterial pressure increased too. This was the reverses of the gamers who did not have this trait.

Moderation

In moderating people who have the violent trait, parents and guardians should be able to notice this issue earlier when the child is growing up, and they should be able to help the child by restricting video games of violence nature. Children with this trait are not supposed to be exposed to any violence at all as they have a high probability that they will imitate the violent conditions that they experience. Parental monitoring should be able to play a significant role in ensuring that the children are safe, and they do not interact with violent videos. Instead, parents should ensure that they buy their children video games of an educational nature to motivate their children to think out of the box and increase their studies. When parents impose limits on television, the children tend to understand, the same should be done on video games and give children tight rules on accessing the games. Parents should be active in promoting positive messages that are brought with the entire video games and shun the negative messages conveyed by the violent video games. They should be the role models and convey a positive message to their children.

Gentile and Walsh (2002) carried out a study about the ability of parents to input their control on video games that are accessed by their children. More than 55% of the parents allowed their children to take play video games of their choice including the ones that have a violent nature. 40% of the parents have the ability to control what their children play, they have the ability and responsibility of checking the regulations of the game before giving the children the opportunity to play, and 5% of the parents are never at home, so children are free to engage in any form of games of their choice and desire. This study shows how most of the parents have underestimated the damage that these games are doing to their children and perhaps it is because most of the parents nowadays are workaholics and do not have adequate time to be with their children and know about their lives. Some of the parents are not even able to name the game type that their children are playing which most children take advantage of since the parents are not concerned to know what the favorite things their children like. If only parents could step up and become active in the moderating process of these video games, then it is highly likely that the children could be saved from becoming aggressive. Active parents also know what to do when their children are not performing according to standards in school. They are able to consult with teachers and tutors so that the child is given additional motivation that is required to perform better in studies.

Conclusion

The importance of innovation is that it makes life enjoyable and modernized. One such aspect of modern innovation is the advent of video games. Video games have revolutionized the entertainment industry. It is entertainment for all age groups as one can relax and pass time especially during one’s free time. Even though they are used by all age groups, the target market segment is young children and teenagers. Manufacturers of video games target the young market segment as they are the group that is easily enticed and enthralled by games, and one that can spend almost the whole day playing the games if it were possible. Children and teenagers of the modern world are spending much of their free time playing these games, unlike adults who have an aspect of moderation in video game playing. Despite teenagers and children spending most of their time engaging in video games, these games have a positive attribute in their development. These games are seen as a way of improving the reasoning and intelligence of children, and for this reason they are encouraged in all home settings. Through these games also, parents are able to occupy their children during the free time. Therefore, instead of engaging in mischief and wandering about the neighborhood, video games engage children by keeping them busy. As they are addictive, children remain glued to their seats playing these games.

Despite technological innovations making life easier and better, one major problem associated with them is that, techno-scientists are obsessed with furthering their innovations to the point of coming up with principles that are bringing more harm than good to the users. When a product is liked in the market segment and the sales are always on a high, innovators always want to maintain this trend even though the product may be harmful to the market segment. One such is the discovery of violent video games. Violent video games are just the normal types of games, but they have aspects of violence by incorporating characters who engage in physical duels and confrontations with devices like guns. Initially, video games were a way of entertainment, but over time, the innovators wanted to introduce action movie concepts into these games as a marketing tool and as a way of adding appeal to video games. Manufacturers of violent video games aim to pump up the adrenaline of its users by introducing violence concepts in the games. Children and teenagers become elated by such concept. Video game manufacturers have succeeded to considerable degree because violent video game purchases have been on the rise recently. In every region of the world, video games are becoming the craze of children and teenagers. Even though violent video games cannot harm teenagers directly, the effect that is being noted is psychological and behavioural alteration. Through engaging in these games, teenagers and children start aping and copying what the games portray, and this alters their behavior. What has been observed is that, aggressive behavior has been noted in those who engage in violent video games. Being young children and teenagers, one can only wonder what individuals are going to emerge from these aggressive personalities.

Most researches as outlined above reveal that video games that contain violence continue impacting negatively on its users, especially children and teenagers. This is related to the time-frame for games and the level of violence compared to the age group. Young people spend an average of nine hours per day to play violent video games, and this time has been determined to be too much, thereby affecting them negatively. Moderation is necessary in games so that teenagers and children are not obsessed with violent games. Video games were created to be a form entertainment source, but not as a negative influence. In order for violent games to be purely a form of entertainment, then parents and guardians need to moderate the use to a few hours in a day. Children also need to be investigated so that they do not engage in games that belong to higher age groups. The human brain develops with time, and in every age group, there is a degree of what an individual can handle. The younger the individual is, the more likely they are to be affected by violent games. Older children are able to handle violent games when compared to younger ones. For this reason, every game should be used by the age group that it is created with. When this is done, coupled with moderation on the time spent playing the games, then aggressive behavior will be reduced by those that engage in violent games. However, as long as this does not happen, then violent games will continue causing the development of aggressive behavior in people, especially young users.

Recommendation

From the various studies conducted on the impact of violent video games study conducted, the following are the conclusions:

a) More boys engage in violent video games than girls.

b) Those who engage in violent video on a regular basis acquire aggression with time, derived from the characters they mimic in those video games

c) Teenagers who have a history of video games are led to engage in confrontations in school and landing in trouble in most times.

d) Young individuals grow up into aggressive people when their game time is excessive.

e) A majority of parents do not monitor their children and teenagers on the game time, making some young game players overindulge in violent games.

f) A majority of parents also do not check the rating of the violent games, which allows even younger children to access games that are beyond their level.

g) Most modern households have video games, and with internet games, violent video games are easy to download

These are appalling statistics. Something needs to be done to change this trend. Many products are being released into the market, and there is no one who has the right to control their release. People have the liberty to use products, but when these products start affecting users, then something needs to be done. Game manufacturers have the moral obligation to manufacture games that are not overly violent. But in a world where emphasis is on marketing and profit accumulation, no one can blame them. The onus is on parents to moderate game-time. Teenagers should understand that violent games correlate to aggressive behavior and moral decadence. They should restrain themselves and should treat games as merely an entertainment source and not as a behavior modifier. Parents will not always spend time with their children; hence, it reaches an age where teenagers need to do the right thing.

Video games have become very popular in the contemporary world, and for parents it has become difficult for them to eliminate the games from their children’s lives. Research has shown that video games are important for children development. The problem comes in when they are overused and when young people play violent video games. These have been observed to cause aggression in young people. This research has proved that analogy.

As it is difficult to eliminate videogames from the life of children and young people, the way to protect them is to reduce their negative effect through the following ways;

a) Parents need to ensure that they are aware of the rating of the violent games played by their children. The ESRB considers the sex, violence, language and substance abuse contained in a game. From this, they give the age recommendation. Each game has a rating symbol for that particular age group

b) Parents need to regulate internet usage in the homestead so that teenagers do not continually access violent games

c) Parents need to set limits of video playing do that they do not overplay

d) Parents need to monitor the media consumption of their children and guide them instead of according them too much freedom

e) Guide children on the games they should play. A parent needs to take interest in video games so that they are able to offer guidance to children. Parents need to be free with their children and ask them about their feelings about the video games. By doing this, parents grow closer to their children.

Therefore, the role of parents in curbing aggression in their children cannot be underemphasized. Psychologists have identified that parents have a role of cautioning their children concerning violent media. Stopping your children from engaging in violent video games is unrealistic as you cannot be with them all the time, but there is need to regulate what children engage in. There are many ways parents can help. For one, they need not install violent media at home. Secondly, parents need to know the rating of all video games available at home so that young children do not play games way above their level. Parents should also limit the time spend online and in playing these games. It is important for parents to monitor media consumption of their children

“We are never more fully alive, more completely ourselves or more deeply engrossed in anything than when we are playing”. -Charles Schaefer

Play is the primary way that children learn about the world, understand how different things work, express their thoughts and feelings, develop their physical skills, develop their mental skills, and develop effective social skills and bonds. As children grow, their use of language becomes more sophisticated, but throughout childhood, they usually express much more of themselves in their play. We can understand children better if we understand their play. Rather than engaging in verbal communication, we often learn more about their thoughts, feelings, motivations, and struggles by watching children play. Children more effectively communicate their thoughts and feelings through play than they do through verbal communication. As the child plays, the therapist begins to recognize themes and patterns or ways of using the materials that are important to the child. Over time, the clinician helps the child begin to make meaning out of the play.

The Association for Play Therapy (APT) defines play therapy as “the systematic use of a theoretical model to establish an interpersonal process wherein trained play therapists use the therapeutic powers of play to help clients prevent or resolve psychosocial difficulties and achieve optimal growth and development” (www.a4pt.org). Although the idea of play therapy was introduced over 80 years ago, this therapeutic approach has only begun to experience major growth and development within the last 20 years and is still considered to be relatively new in modern therapy practices. Within the past 10 years, play therapy has become more recognized as an effective intervention to reduce challenging behaviors associated with social, emotional, behavioral, and learning difficulties in adults, children and adolescents. While researching this approach, I found it increasingly difficult to find information relative to the proven clinical practice of play therapy as most of the information pertaining to play therapy still focuses widely on reliability and studies to prove that it is even an effective practice.

Because play is so familiar to children, it is a zone of comfort that permits counselors to approach clients in a nonthreatening environment. When children play, they feel safe. They don’t respond to simply talking and listening to an adult conversation. Play Therapists use play to help children express feelings about many issues. Children can use play to address feelings about loss and divorce. Children who have been victims of abuse or have experienced a trauma can also benefit. Even a child who is having trouble with peer relations or conduct in school can benefit from play. Children often express their feelings behaviorally and this can be misdiagnosed as ADD/ADHD resulting in these children being medicated unnecessarily. Effects of trauma, loss, and divorce can mimic the symptoms of ADD/ADHD. Instead of using medication as the first option of treatment, children and their therapists can utilize play therapy to work on those feelings. The main goal of play therapy is to eliminate behavioral and emotional difficulties that prohibit a child to function normally, especially in regards to improved communication and understanding between the child and his parents, family, and peers. By using play therapy techniques, the therapist can allow a child or adult to become more aware of their emotions and eliminate any negative behavior that may be a direct result of their emotional and behavioral difficulties. Less obvious goals of play therapy include improved verbal expression, ability for self-observation, improved impulse control, more adaptive ways of coping with anxiety and frustration, and improved capacity to trust and to relate to others. Although play therapy has been proven to be effective for children with various kinds of disorders, it is not as helpful for certain types disorders or illnesses, such as children with the most severe degree of autism and schizophrenia (Landreth, 2002). These two types of children live so exclusively in their own world that they cut off interaction with the outside world completely. Because they lack the ability and/or willingness to interact with people and objects, I believe that play therapy might not be the best therapeutic approach for these children.

Play Therapy involves the use of role playing, toys, blocks, dolls, puppets, and games to help the child recognize, identify, and verbalize feelings and to communicate what has happened to them and how they feel about these events in their lives. Often, a child will allow a doll or puppet to say things that the child does not feel they are free to tell to anyone. Skilled therapists also use drawing and art work to allow feelings to flow and become expressed. The therapist observes how the child uses play materials and identifies themes or patterns to understand the child’s problems. Play therapy is particularly effective with children who cannot, or do not want to talk about their problems. Through a combination of talk and play the child has an opportunity to better understand and manage their conflicts, feelings, and behavior. Sand play therapy is one form of play therapy which allows greater exploration of deep emotional issues. Sand play therapy is suitable for children and adults and allows them to reach a deeper insight and reconciliation of a range of issues in their lives such as internal conflicts that manifest as anxiety and depression, as well as penetrating the depths of personality to experience the self directly. Through a safe and supportive process, clients place miniature figurines in a small sand box to express confusing feelings and inner experiences. This creates a visual representation of the unconscious and reveals concerns that are inaccessible any other way. As materials contained in the unconscious emerge visually and symbolically, it is integrated into a person’s sense of self and can be activated to elicit behavioral change. Sand play therapy is an expressive and creative way of working which does not rely on traditional “talk” therapy.

Two major approaches of play therapy are Non-directive (Child-Centered) play therapy and Directive (Cognitive Behavioral Model) play therapy. A skilled practitioner will adopt a mix of both approaches according to each individual child and their circumstances. In non-directive play therapy, the therapist remains supportive, but non-intrusive, and responsibility and direction are left to the child, which emphasizes empowering the client, self-awareness, decision-making, and acceptance of the client’s self. In directive play therapy, the therapist aquires responsibility for guidance and interpretation of the therapy by taking an active role in the play and structuring the session for assessment, diagnostic, and treatment purposes. One key concern of non-directive techniques is that young children may not necessarily have the cognitive skills and emotional capacity to repair and master traumatic experiences on their own. Upon researching the information that I found on the different ways to apply play therapy to therapeutic sessions, I personally found directive play therapy to be the most efficient. I like the idea of having more control over sessions and getting the information I need to successfully identify problems and issues for the child. Though both practices use similar ways of play and creative expression for the child, in my opinion directive therapy seems to be the best approach for my own personal counseling style.

One issue that comes up most often in regards to the boundaries of play therapy is hugging and/or physical contact. In any therapeutic relationship, it is important for the client to realize that the therapist cares. Therapists accomplish this in traditional “talk” therapy by attentive listening, reflecting, and empathy with little to no touch involved. This can be quite different when working with children in a play setting. Children can be naturally very impulsive, and may hug the therapist in response to a positive or negative feeling. It is important for the therapist to be aware that hugging and touch are used in many different types of relationships and have a variety of meaning. An ethical response to this issue is to abstain from hugging all clients, especially child clients (McGuire & McGuire, 2001). On the other hand, if a therapist is hugged by a child, remaining stiff may send a negative message to the client (Landreth, 1999). Although I found the literature on ethical issues in play therapy to be lacking, the information I did find was illuminating. It certainly caused me to think more in-depth about the many ethical situations that are specific to working with children and to play therapy. This means being aware of potential ethical issues before they arise and planning in advance on how I would react to those situations. I liked the direction that the literature appears to be heading, which is providing play therapists with more effective and universal guidelines for ethical problem solving.

The practice of play therapy requires extensive specialized education, training, and experience. A play therapist is a licensed (or certified) mental health professional who has earned a Master’s or Doctorate degree in a mental health field with considerable general clinical experience and supervision (www.a4pt.org). Unfortunately, according Dr. Garry Landreth, who is one of the major key contributors to the field of play therapy, many therapists practicing play therapy do not have the specialized training needed with less than half of the therapists currently practicing play therapy having taken a graduate course in the field. Children are a special client population, and simply having a degree in counseling or another similar field does not qualify a person to provide therapy for them (Corey, Corey, & Callanan, 2007).

When Dr. Landreth (2001) outlined what play therapy can do for children he also told us what areas of development are often a struggle for children and adults alike. Children start their lives with an amazing skill to play that far too often gets lost in the confusion of the adult world. Many adults still cannot claim responsibility for their actions or to accept themselves for who they are as people. Play, whether with games, puppets, drums, clay, sports, motion, drawing, drama, dolls, sand, or whatever else is available, invites a cascade of positive effects. There are endless possibilities for the use of play therapy with adults (Schaefer, 2003). Play therapy for adults can also allow the bonding with others to form healthy relationships for people who may have experience only with serious dysfunctional interactions. When adults enter into play therapy, they are able to gain access to their inner child. Very often, emotional repression and unhealthy feelings are formed in childhood and adults learn to ignore surface exhibition of these emotional traumas. However, with adult play therapy the person has the space to realize and act out those feelings and they can reach a resolution and closure, allowing them to become happier, healthier people.

In the limited amount of research that I found on the topic of play therapy, it seems as though there is a lack of consistency among the definitions and its implementation. Some articles and texts clearly defined play therapy; others seemed to distort a traditional definition to fit their purpose. I honestly do not know if there truly is a pure form or definition of play therapy. I did however, through my research, find that the various techniques of play therapy used seemed to be quite effective at helping children to deal with a wide array of issues.

In conclusion, I believe that play therapy is a fun, innovative, valid, and effective means of helping clients to express feelings that they have unconsciously repressed or avoided. It can be a very healthy outlet and can be useful at times when traditional talk therapy simply doesn’t work. Dr. Landreth (2002) states that “play is a child’s language and toys are his/her words.”

Education is a giant step forward to achieving sustainability. Education for sustainable development encompasses the three areas: the environment, society and the economy (Pace, 2010). ESD is meant to inculcate ideals and values about key sustainable issues such as poverty reduction, environment protection, human rights, democracy, and so on. The basic concept of ESD entails helping people to develop the right attitude and knowledge to facilitate decision-making and create a better future for themselves and others (UNESCO, 2011).

In this regard, Parenting Programmes might help to orient both parents and children towards this new mind set. Contrary to popular belief, education begins at home. This is why parents should be the primary targets. Parsons (1959), states that the family is bounded by two irreducible functions which are the ‘primary socialization of children’ and ‘stabilization of adult personalities’ (Haralambos and Holborn, 2007). The quality of education a child receives will therefore be a determining factor to the type of adult he will develop into (Morawska et al, 2011).

Dealing with a child is no easy task. However, very often parents tend to forget that the parent-child relationship is a two-way street. As a matter of fact, many parents lack the proper coping and communication skills to deal with conflict situations. There are several organizations, also known as Parenting Programmes, to assist parents to cope with emotional, behavioural and social problems in their children (Morawska et al, 2011).

Research has indicated that children are very likely to face impaired educational development, adult mental health problems and even entry to crime, due to long-term consequences of these problems (Lindsay et al, 2008).

Evidence indicates that Parenting Programmes have indeed contributed towards helping adults to better integrate their roles as parents. Some examples of these parenting programmes are the Incredible Years, Triple P and Strengthening Families, Strengthening Communities among others. The Parenting Early Intervention Pathfinder (PEIP) has shown great interest in the matter and funded 150 local authorities in England to deliver Parenting Programmes (Lindsay et al, 2008).

The Incredible Years Programme in the USA dealt mostly with parents with children having conduct problems. The Triple P in Australia was based on a five-level intervention basis and was more beneficial for parents having mental health problems and relationship problems, therefore with children at risk. Home interventions were frequently required. Strengthening Families, Strengthening Communities was mainly designed for minority ethnic groups. Consequently, evidence indicated an increase in the level of activity, decrease in negative discipline and enhanced communication between parents and children (Lindsay et al, 2008).

Education for Sustainable Development aims at creating better citizens of tomorrow. Parents, therefore, as primary agents of socialization should be able to grasp the concept of ESD, so that they can in turn pass it on to their children. However, this would be more effective if children were taught to adopt sustainable lifestyle since birth itself.

Problem Statement

Parenting programmes, termed as ‘Ecoles des Parents’ in Mauritius, is a rather new concept. However, there are many existing policies and laws put into place by the Government to provide security and welfare for the children, and also Ministries such as The Ministry of Gender Equality, Child Development and Family Welfare and The Ministry of Education and Human Resources.

There are many alarming issues that led to considering the need for such a programme. Firstly, the family, as an institution, doesn’t stand as firmly as it did before, and with the increase in divorce rates, children often find themselves being brought up in broken homes. Moreover, degradation of family values has accentuated, and that adults are lesser involved in family activities but instead focus more on themselves. Juvenile Delinquency is yet another serious problem which is on the rise. This ranges from thefts, physical violence, and drug addiction to even rape. It is very common in households today, to see both parents working, sometimes even doing extra hours hence leaving a minimum amount of time to carry out family activities or simply have a conversation with the kids. Youngsters are nowadays lost in a virtual world, where social networks are the only means to communicate with what they call ‘friends’. Eventually, social life suffers and teenagers become ‘virtual beings’ where face-to-face interactions are becoming more and more scarce.

It is very important for parents to foster good relationships with their children. But parents cannot hope to do this when the child has already reached 16. This process starts right when the child is born. With so many problems on the rise, namely anti-social behaviour, juvenile delinquency, crime rate, teenage pregnancy, drug and alcohol abuse, we can’t help but wonder: Have parents somehow failed to fulfill their roles?

A pilot project was set up at La Valette, Bambous, which is actually a ‘reconstituted’ village. Parents who attended the program were from poor regions of the island. The project ‘Ecole des Parents’ was launched in October 2010 under the supervision of the Ministry of Gender Equality, Child Development and Family (Anon, 2010), and is focused towards helping parents to develop the necessary coping and communication skills to deal with their children and also to encourage group discussion between parents. Since the program has been introduced only recently, it is very difficult to get proper feedback about its effectiveness.

Aims and Objectives

Aims

The aim of this study is to assess how the programme ‘Ecole des Parents’ enhances the lifestyle of its participants and promotes sustainable development within the locality through education.

Objectives

The objectives of the study are listed below:

To produce a comprehensive literature Review

To assess how government promotes sustainable development through education

To determine the need for parenting programmes

To assess how ‘Ecole des Parents’ has changed the lives of the participants

To evaluate how ‘Ecole des Parents’ eventually benefits the community

To recommend measures which could improved the sustainability of the programme

Research questions:

What are the measures taken by the government to inculcate a sustainable lifestyle?

Are parents failing to fulfil their roles?

How far has the programme influenced family lives?

What are the impacts of such programmes in the area where it has been implemented?

What are the limitations of the programme and how we can tackle them?

Flow of dissertation:

Chapter 2: Literature Review

In chapter 2, we will firstly be reviewing sociological perspectives on parenting support and education; we will then move on to an overview about existing parenting programmes and its effectiveness. We will then look at sustainable development and the importance given to education in achieving sustainability. Finally we will look at the

Mauritian context, how and why ‘Ecole des Parents’ was introduced.

Chapter 3: Methodology

In this chapter, we will identify what method can be best used to conduct our study, what are the variables which need to be taken into account while designing our questionnaire. We will elaborate about our sampling method and how data will be collected.

Chapter 4: Results & Discussion

This chapter will include the analysis of our findings and a comprehensive discussion about the results obtained.

Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations

Finally, we will conclude by summarising our findings and provide recommendations on how the programme can be improved.

2.0 Literature Review
Sociological perspectives

In order to explain the parent-child relationship, various theories have been used. Research has been conducted by dominant perspectives like social learning theory, attachment theory and parenting styles to understand parenting and the parent-child relationship (O’Connor and Scott, 2007).

The social learning theory is one of the most important models of the relationship between parents and children. Many theorists have used the social learning model in the way social conditions of parents may lead to poor child rearing. Robert Wahler (1965) conducted a programme which took into consideration the specific needs of lone mothers; he concluded that these mothers were more unpleasant with their children when others rejected them.

A child’s experience shapes his behaviour directly or indirectly. If the child is getting reward for his action, such as parental attention, he is most likely to repeat the behaviour while if the child is being punished, he is less likely to do the behaviour again.

Attachment theorists have established parenting relationships according to ethology, cognitive psychology and control systems. John Bowlby was interested on detecting the nature, impact and function of the child’s affiliation to his parent. This theory also focuses on important issues such as how far the relationship protects the child against harm and provides an emotional security.

Baumrind studied four typologies linked with the outcome of children: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive and neglectful. Authoritative parents have children who were more decent and clever; those parents who were authoritarian, permissive and disengaged had lower results while authoritarian parents had the worst outcomes of the four child rearing types.

As such, having an insight of what have been said by sociologists and psychologists about the influence of parental support on the education of their children will enable us to analyse how parenting programmes really enhance relationship between parents and children; family life; education success or failure and also their influence on society. In the next part we will be discussing about parenting programmes and its various aspects.

Parenting Programmes

‘Parenting’ is not a new concept, as many might believe. Society has had concerns about family life and children’s upbringing for very long. Unfortunately the realities of life at home, between parents and children, are not quite how we expect them to be. Parenting is undeniably an asset to shaping tomorrow’s adults, and through school the child is expected to grasp the concept of parenting and thus

become model parents of the next generation (Jenkinson, 1995). The idea of ‘School Parenting’ or Parenting Programs as it is known worldwide, might be the answer to the chaotic situation between parents and children.

We should firstly circle the facts that led to considering the need for such a program. The generation gap has been increasing due to several factors over the years. To start with, the family, as an institution, doesn’t stand as firmly as it did before. With the increase in divorce rates, children often find themselves being brought up in broken homes (Smith, 1970 – 1990). Moreover, U.S. Census data, shows that degradation of family values have accentuated since 1960, and that adults are lesser involved in family activities but instead focus more on themselves, leaving children to fend for themselves (Popenoe, 1993).

Another serious issue to be considered is that of Juvenile Delinquency. Due to weak social relations, youngsters nowadays are more vulnerable to temptation. Statistical analysis reveals that the rate of crime among youngsters has increased ranging from theft, drug addiction to physical violence. However, sociologists believe that, these form part of the process of growing up and that such behaviours fade when adulthood is reached, for most. More importantly, it should be noted that, children who have received appropriate parental guidance, are less prone to engaging in such damaging activities (World Youth Report, 2003).

With the advent of industrialization, both mothers and fathers have rushed to the big cities for jobs, supposedly for the betterment of the family and to secure the children’s future. Consequently, ‘squeezing in between jobs’ and spending quality time with the kids have become a major challenge (Moen, 1989).

The number of internet users, as at December 2011, was estimated to be 2, 267, 233, 742 (Internet World Stats, 2011). The internet, however, not only brought about positive changes to our lives, but also threats to our well-being. One such target nowadays is teenagers, who seem to associate more importance to virtual life than real life itself.

Social networking sites are a means for youngsters to re-invent themselves by broadening their contacts. On the hand, research indicated narcissistic tendencies, health problems such as anxiety and depression, and alienation from social life through overuse of social networks. Parents are therefore advised to engage in as much social activities as possible with their children. They need to encourage dialogue and also monitor the teenagers’ ventures on social networking sites, so as not to create ‘virtual teenagers’ (Rosen, 2011).

A Child’s socialization is crucial to determining what kind of individual he/she will eventually develop into. The socialization process is a means for the child to internalize appropriate norms, values and behaviours inculcated by the agents of socialization, namely the parents (Haralambos and Holborn, 2007). Therefore, parents as key agents should be given some kind of training so as to better understand what is really in the child’s interest. After all, the relationship goes both ways, where mutual understanding is the core to establishing fruitful interactions for both parties.

Types of parenting programmes

Parenting Programs are one such incentive, where the central aim is to help parents gain insight to potential behavioural and emotional difficulties that children encounter (Morawska, et al, 2010).

The Triple P-Positive Parenting Program is one such program, which starts with providing relevant information about parenting to parents, who are willing to cooperate. The Triple

P-Positive Program operates on a five level basis, and comprises of parents of new born babies to 16 year old teens. Level 1 consists of helping parents to detect minor behavioural problems, and is directed towards promoting the child’s development. Level 2 is mostly for parents with specific concerns about their child and they usually seek advice on how to tackle the problem. Level 3, is no different from level 2, but simply incorporates practice and self-evaluation sessions to deal with the problem in a more effective way. Level 4, however, gather parents whose children have more severe behaviour issues and may require health professionals. And finally level 5 includes home visits and intensive family interventions which are specific depending on the situation, for e.g. conflict between parents themselves, involving cases of depression (Sanders, et al, 2003).

The Triple P-Positive Program also demands that parents abide by a set of principles. To start with, children need to feel safe and free to explore, experiment and play. Under no circumstance should parents hamper the healthy, natural development of a child. As primary agents of socialization, parents should educate their children and also be open for questions and dialogue. Discipline is important and punishment should have a limit. Parents should establish rules but should also consider children’s opinion. Parents should allow children the freedom to choose their own path to fulfil their dreams, rather than imposing their desires and expectations. Finally parents should respect themselves, and foster good communication with one another, so as to create a stable and healthy home (Sanders, et al, 2003).

Other types of Parenting Programs include the ‘Incredible Years’ and the ‘Strengthening families strengthening communities’ Programs. The Incredible Years Program comprises of parents with children from 0 to 8 years. Like the Triple P program, Incredible Years help parents to gain better understanding of children’s behavioural problems. However, this program tackles the situation by encouraging parents to foster good relationships with one another, and by dealing with their own issues (Geoff Lindsay et al, 2011).

The Strengthening Families Strengthening Communities (SFSC), most particularly deals with small ethnic groups, but still the primary concern being helping parents develop effective coping skills. However, the program also covers the cultural and spiritual aspects of society, for example engaging in community activities, following traditions, etc … (Geoff Lindsay et al, 2011).

Parenting Programs are alternatives geared towards helping parents develop effective coping and communication skills. Parents are also more aware of children’s side of the story, and thus can look for collective solutions to misunderstandings through dialogue. These may seem to be quite simple, but the truth is many adults do not know their roles as parents, and how to tackle conflicts. This is where Parenting Programs come into the picture. Thus, having proved the importance of such programmes to family, children and society, we will now look at the role the state plays in promoting parenting programs.

The role of the state

One of the main aims of the government is undoubtedly the safety of the citizens. The state should cater for the physical safety of children and social crime prevention, i.e. ways to promote adequate child rearing and decrease the risk delinquency in children. It may be considered right to link it to aspects of communitarians as a reinforced community and family relations help to form a safety network that a society deprived of its ties cannot offer.

Safety of the citizens is probably the government’s most important responsibility; however an economically stable and balanced community is also of high importance. Here providing education and welfare benefits, easing work and acting to support the family unit as an economic system are involved. Leaving the protective measures behind, other impacts on our expectations of the role of government should be taken into consideration.

One of the most important is the Christohumanistic tradition that has guided the state and welfare organizations since years.

Societies depend on shared values. Shared values are passed on through children. Values won’t be passed on from one generation to the next unless they are reinforced by the parent child relationship. So parenting is a public – as well as intensely private – act. Hence society’s interest is in the parent-child relationship. Families are crucial to the survival and development of shared values. (Straw, 2000)

The government’s contribution to supporting a rights perspective is obvious in its introduction of the European Convention on Human Rights into UK law. There has been an effort to attain sexual parity at work furthermore there has been the promotion of a child’s perspective by setting up the Children and Young People’s Unit and effort to improve children participation in the service development.

Societal trends have shifted the state beyond preserving physical and financial safety to human centred, charitable caring and most importantly an increasingly modified and rights orientated relationship with families. Nowadays both parents and government are facing problems of having to regulate morality while having to abide an era of democratized relationships.

Review of parenting programmes

According to a study, by Roger Grimshaw and Christine McGuire (1998), group-based parenting programmes had a low public profile. Many parents found it interesting however they found it difficult to attend. Some thought that attending such a programme would mean being a bad parent. Those who were willing participate wished to go on a programme before their child turned 3 years old (Grimshaw and McGuire, 1998).

Around half of the parents who attended rated the advice helpful while the rest found it less interesting and an eighth found that it was not a good thing. Those parents who attended the parenting schooling were quite happy with it.

Concerning the style of the programme, parents found it important that the leader should be a parent. Instead of being told about what to do, they wanted to have options from which they could choose.

Both parents and organizations thought that programmes should lead to: benefits arising from group support, for instance a supportive network of friends; a better relationship with the children; greater information on issues such as child health and development; and emotional benefits.

The managers who set up the programmes and the coordinator had some common aims. However, managers were more prone to distinguish strategic objectives for the courses, for instance community development. Coordinators were more likely to get involved in the aims that had impacts on individual participants, like a rise in confidence.

Children who were interviewed had lucid perception of the responsibilities that parents had in protecting, guiding and instilling discipline in them.

Effectiveness of parenting programmes

Parent education helps to improve caring and positive child rearing which is crucial in creating a good atmosphere for children. The risk of child abuse is more when parents do not possess the necessary abilities, back up and knowledge of child development. School parenting helps to increase the knowledge of parents on the development of children, to guide them in developing parenting abilities and make them familiar with the difficulties involved with child rearing.

Parenting programmes takes place at different levels. For instance, community awareness strategies operate at the primary level; group training sessions and one-on-one programmes such as the triple P-Positive Parenting Programme operate at the secondary or tertiary level. However, all parenting programmes serve to increase parental knowledge and decrease stress. Parental schooling helps to reach these results by training parents’ behavioural management skills, ways to solve problems, and personal adaptation abilities.

Parenting programmes are important aspects of dealing with families which are at risk. Recent audits evaluated that progress has been made in areas like preventing child maltreatment.

Factors limiting the effectiveness of parent education

There are various factors that can limit the effectiveness of parenting programmes. Parenting beliefs often unconscious are difficult to change; parents may make us of same ways of parenting even if they have come across new skills. Furthermore, courses which are not intensive do not have the desired impact on both children and parents. Parents who have psychological problems or a drug or alcohol addiction may have difficulties to grasp new skills and build better relationships; the parents’ own development needs may be an obstacle in being able to participate fully in the programme (Holzer et al., 2006).

Cultural values, negative experiences with social service providers, language barriers, time commitment, scheduling issues, travel, and general lack of interest may reduce participation in parent education programs.

Parental depression, drug or alcohol addiction, low level of education, domestic violence, marital conflict, remarriage, harsh punishment on children may decrease the effectiveness of parenting programmes. Moreover, parents with low education and low income are less likely to believe that the can control their children’s development. Also, parents that are hassled about their environment, for example violent neighbours may be less prone to gain from parent schooling (Solutions for America, n.d.).

Limitations of parenting programmes

Although parenting programmes have proved to be an effective measure to help adults become better parents and ensure a better inclusion of children in society, they have several limitations. One of the major disadvantages of parenting programmes is that it is discriminating in nature, for instance for a programme which is aiming at ensuring the welfare of the family, the children and society in general; research have shown that while delivering the course to families in risky groups the programmes are excluding families from other background who are facing difficult issues with their children (Lindsay et al., 2011).

The second drawback, concerns ethnicity, some researches conducted in the United Kingdom have shown that attendance to parenting programmes vary greatly depending on the ethnicity of the parents (Patel et al., 2011). For example, the study conducted by Patel et al (2002) showed that out of eighty participants, 37.5% were white British, 18.8% were Pakistani, Asian and black British accounted each for 10% and other minority groups accounted for less than 10% each.

Thirdly, the high level of drop out from the programmes is another limitation. According to Lindsay et al. (2011), there are 17%-19% of participants who quit the programme due to socioeconomic issue or other problems. Therefore, the programmes need to take into account motivational factors which will stimulate candidate to pursue the course till the end.

Parenting programmes and sustainable development

All parenting programs do one thing in common, that is, improving the lifestyle of its citizens by providing the right skills to the people in order to shapes the future of the youths and improves their quality of life. From this perspective, we can clearly see that the aim of parenting programmes is closely linked to the four pillars of sustainable development. For instance, by providing parents the required tools to become better guides for their children and improving their relationship, such programs are ensuring that the latter will become good citizens for the welfare of society. Secondly, parenting programmes enables the moulding of future wealth producers by ensuring that future generations have the required environment to grow up as respectable and responsible adults. Thirdly, through such programmes both children and parents learn to respect people different from them that is, from other culture, religion and so on; they also learn to be respectful towards their environment and manage resources accordingly for a better lifestyle.

Sustainable development

Sustainable development is a concept which has become popular during the 1970s and has been defined in various ways but the most recognised definition is from the Brundtland Report, (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987) stating “Sustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”. This definition highlights that when setting up new policies, governments need to take into account features such as, resources available, respect them and work towards protecting them so as to ensure that future generations could also benefit from them.

The terms sustainability and sustainable development is sometimes used interchangeably and although they seem vague in nature, they in fact consist of three main components, namely economic prosperity, social justice and environmental protection (GoodPlanet.info, 2008). The economics aspect involves the creation of employment, increasing production, income and wealth for everyone; and using new technologies to attain these objectives. The social component means that everyone should have access to justice, healthcare, participation in social activities, education and so on. Finally, the environmental component comprises good resource management and conservation (The Encyclopedia of Earth, 2011). Since the year 2000s, culture has been added as a fourth pillar to sustainability. With globalisation, the world has become a global village, as such for development to occur; governments need to take into consideration cultural diversity. In addition, cultural sustainability also implies the protection of cultural values, arts and heritage (Nurse, 2006). Below is a picture illustrating the four pillars of sustainable development and what are their aims (Just Focus, 2009).

Source: Just Focus, 2010, available at http://www.justfocus.org.nz/tag/education-and-training/

The concern about sustainable development started in 1962 with the publication of the book Silent Spring by Rachel Carson which provided an insight of the relationships between the environment, the economy and the social well-being of people (International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2002). However, sustainable development is said to have started with the declaration of human right in 1948 as it promoted universal rights for freedom of speech, belief and movement (Pesqueux, 2009). In addition, it is only in the 1970s that the concept gain popularity, with the focus being mainly on the environmental component due to the increase awareness about the depletion of our resources due to the growth of human population. This lead the creation of several movements such as Green Peace or Chipko movement in India; it lead to the organisation of several major conferences such as the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, also known as the Earth Summit or the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg in 2002 (Sustainable Development in Government, 2011).

Several agreements were reached during the Earth Summit, under the Agenda 21, pertaining to programmes leading to sustainable development in the twenty-first century (One World, 2012). Since then, awareness about our resources has been on the rise resulting in the emergence of new managerial concepts and responsible business practices, for example Corporate Social Responsibility which was adopted by business after the Enron case but also with changes in legislation. Furthermore, in line with the Rio summit, the Millennium Summit in 2000 lead leaders around the world to adopt the United Nations Millennium Declaration which consist of eight diverse goals, including eradication of poverty; universal primary education; combat HIV/AIDS among others, to be achieved by 2015 (The Encyclopedia of Earth, 2011). Therefore, it can be seen that sustainability can achieved through better health, alleviation of poverty or access to education; this leads us to the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development which was proclaimed in 2002 as a programme which promote education as “an indispensable element for achieving sustainable development” (DESD, 2002).

Education for sustainable development

As said above, the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development, 2005-2014 was launched in 2002 by the United Nations. It is a programme which is under the supervision of the UNESCO and whose target is to provide quality education for all, inculcate values, beliefs and behaviour for a better and sustainable future (DESD, n.d). However, the concept of using education to achieve sustainability was introduced much before, for instance as Pace (2010) mentioned, during the Tbilisi Conference in 1977, environmental education was proposed as a framework for sustainability. Both frameworks are quite similar except that the environmental education was more focus on the preservation of our resources whereas the DESD is a global approach aiming at achieving various issues such as alleviating poverty or disaster risk reduction (UNESCO, n.d.). At the Rio

They are responsible for people between the ages of eighteen to thirty during activities and night life entertainment which is normally held in the clubs around. They have to meet and greet people at the airport so it’s their job to make sure they know the amount of people they have to pick up at the airport. They are responsible to have great communication skills and to be able to meet new people everyday who they will then have to look after for a couple of days.

To the organisation

As they will be clubbing away most of the nights including the representative they have to make sure that the surrounding areas are safe for their customers. Health and safety checks are important this is in case of an incident which could occur especially if customers get too drunk so therefore the most important thing is to keep the place clean as possible and keep things where you found them.

To suppliers

There job is also to sell excursion like club and pub crawls, events outside the hotel and pool parties so therefore there responsibility is to make sure they are buying tickets from appropriate suppliers at a reasonable price especially because the representative look after a lot of people every week.

Roles and Duties

Meet and greet (Roles)

18-30 representatives have to take thousands of passengers all over the Mediterranean every summer and so therefore they have to meet and greet many people. In order to be keep the passengers entertained they need to have a great knowledge in communicating with them and have loads of confidence and enthusiasm.

Transfers

They transfer guests to and from the airport and hotels every day, they control airport transfers which means it’s an early start to take the departures to the airport and meet all the new arrivals. They are there to make sure that there are no problems with lost luggage or coaches.

Welcome meetings

They have to conduct welcome meetings which could be every day depending on the amount of clients or customers coming into the resort that you are currently working at. Welcome meetings consist of all the information that the guests need to know regarding excursions and activities within the hotel itself.

Information booklets

They are busy every day looking after their customer’s and participating in many activities and going on different excursions but they may have a bit of free time to get together an information booklet. This will give customers an idea of what they will be doing during their stay.

Health and safety checks

They complete risk assessments and health and safety checks which is very important and they will also have to make sure everything is up to standard. When they conduct these checks they will need to report any concerns they may have to someone who is higher than them in their career, they report incidents which they think is serious and they are not able to resolve on their own.

Selling (e.g. excursions, car hire)

They organise the entertainment for pool parties, club and pub crawls and party nights and they print off all the tickets needed for the events during the week. They also get involved in the activities; they make sure all clubs are safe and that the activities are located in appropriate areas.

Calculating payments (e.g. currency, commissions, liquidation)

They have to collect and balance foreign money and have a great knowledge to how to give discounts; this may be used if a customer is not happy with their hotel room for example the flush handle on the toilet is broken. Calculating foreign money can be quite difficult so they have to make sure they are giving the right amount to the customers because all pounds and notes are different world wide.

Administration and paperwork

They sort out all the reports and make sure that everyone has all the paperwork which they will need for the airport and the resorts in general. They also check that no last minute bookings have been made and report all the tickets that have been sold and expenses and suppliers that have been paid out that week.

Problem solving (e.g. overbooking’s, complaints)

They answer customers’ queries and problems, for example a passenger may have an accident in one of the night clubs and have to been taken to hospital in an emergency so it’s their job to go on that hospital trip with that passenger. This is because you will have to explain everything that happened and also because you are their representative during their stay.

Non routine incidents (e.g. accidents, illness, emergency situations)

Accidents and illness’ are a major situation and if for example a customer has jumped into the pool completely drunk, 18-30 representatives’ job is to make sure that there is a life guard around to jump in and get the passenger out as soon as possible.

Transfer Representatives

Responsibilities

To the customer

They are responsible to meet and greet passengers at the airport and take them to their hotel resort along with a talk on their journey to their accommodation keeping them entertained with commentary talk. They also have to keep an eye of each customer’s luggage so they get given the right one and their main job is to collect money from their customer’s followed by a receipt to show proof that they have paid.

To the organisation

Their responsibility is to let the receptionist at the hotel know how many passengers they will be bringing in and taking out each day so they know what rooms to clean. Health and safety checks regularly are important so all passengers can feel safe around the area these include checking hotel facilities and if they meet the customer’s requirements.

To suppliers

Transfer representatives are required to transfer passengers to and from the airport so therefore they have to keep in touch daily with coach companies. The reason for this is because the drivers of the coaches will need to know what hotel and airport to travel to and also the number of passengers they will be carrying as there will need to be luggage space at the bottom of the coach.

Roles and Duties

Meet and greet (Roles)

They meet passengers as soon as they get off the plane and arrive at the airport with a welcoming smile and the company placard which is always needed as you don’t know what your customers look like. This is followed by showing them their way to the coach with their bags and luggage.

Transfers

They accompany holiday makers to and from the airport and hotels by coach and they are the first to be seen by the passengers so therefore they always need to be approachable and carry a smile with them everywhere they travel.

Coach commentaries

During the coach trips down to the resorts they will have to keep their passengers welcomed and entertained and are also responsible for conducting a welcome talk that includes basic information about the resort which they will be staying in.

Welcome meetings

They are normally held in the hotel itself which explains the drop offs which they will have to do regularly either at hotels or the airport, how long the trip will last altogether and when their welcome meetings will be conducted.

Notice boards

They have to read the transport department notice board on a daily basis to remind themselves what coach they will be picking their passengers up with, the time and date, name of airport, name of hotel and also the number of passengers they will be collecting.

Health and safety checks

They have to ensure all health and safety requirements are met in relation to transfers and carry them out on all hotels. This is important because you do not want passengers to carry a complaint about the rooms especially if it’s their first time staying in that hotel.

Calculating payments (e.g. currency, commissions, liquidation)

They will have to collect money from clients followed by a receipt to show evidence that the passenger have paid and also keep in mind the number of passengers they are taking making sure they identify their baggage. To help speed up the routine they could count the number of baggage personally.

Administration and paperwork

They have to accurately complete paperwork relating to transfers in relation with company guidelines and resort timeframes, complete basic records and write reports.

Problem solving (e.g. overbooking’s, complaints)

They have to deal with lost luggage and any injuries and thefts which may occur either at the resort or at the airport before getting picked up.

Non routine incidents (e.g. accidents, illness, emergency situations)

If any serious accidents occur or someone is seriously ill then they call for help as their role is to only complete the paperwork where they record the accidents for example; time, date, place, name of person and the accident that has happened.

Children’s Representatives

Responsibilities

To the customer

They are responsible to look after young children and keep them entertained by involving in a variety of activities in the hotel itself as well as outside and also to organise events and day trips out. Their main job is to tidy up after every mess they make and this is all due to health and safety, if an accident was to happen involving a child you will have responsibility for that and their parents will not feel safe to leave their child with you.

To the organisation

As they will be busy entertaining young children with board activities, quizzes, painting and drawing they have to make sure every area is clean and suitable for the kids to move around the room. Activities which are held in the resort itself can be quite nosy especially young children as they get excited easily, so therefore it’s the representatives job to make sure they are on their best behaviour and can keep the noise down as there will be people in their rooms and moving around the building.

To suppliers

Children Representatives are mainly required to hire a hall or a room at a hotel for the kids to be kept entertained for a day or two so they will have to rely on staff working in the hotel. This is because they will need to know where everything is to put it back at the end of the day and what equipment they are allowed to use.

Roles and Duties

Meet and greet (Roles)

They have to build a great rapport with the children as well as their parents on arrival and explain how you will be their guide throughout their holiday; they will be responsible for escorting guests to their hotel.

Welcome meetings

They also hold a welcome meeting which consists of promoting holidays to the children and their parent’s advertising the children’s club alongside an overseas consultant.

Notice boards

Notice boards are required as they have to advertise what they will be doing each day, the times of each activity including snack and lunch breaks and also where the activities are going to be placed. The notice board will be up for the children’s parents to keep them informed of details of excursions as this includes travelling outside of the hotel.

Information booklets

Information booklets can be given out to parents and their children either on the coach, at the resort itself on the reception desk or even in their hotel rooms; this includes all the activities, excursions to do, restaurants around, fire exits and contact details of the hotel and the representative.

Health and safety checks

They have to focus on the health and safety of the children within the club environment and during the activities they participate in. This is to ensure no accidents or injuries occur within the resort and to make sure that the hotel is environmentally friendly. They also complete risk assessments for the children’s club and off-site as well as identifying the risks.

Selling (e.g. excursions, car hire)

They organise the activities to do and also the excursions meaning days out and taking the children to visit somewhere, they have to contact wherever they wish to visit and to let them know roughly the times they will enter and leave and also the number of children visiting.

Calculating payments (e.g. currency, commissions, liquidation)

They will have to collect payments from parents if they wish for their child to exit out of the hotel building and visit places with their guide and other children. They also need to have some background knowledge of different currencies because different countries require different types of money.

Administration and paperwork

Children’s representative complete accident forms in case of a serious fall which required an ambulance and they record incidents including; time, date, place and what happened. Their job is also to maintain attendance lists and register this is in case of an emergency where everyone has to leave the building, occasionally count that they have the right number of children with them, collect parent’s contact details and book in and out procedures.

Problem solving (e.g. overbooking’s, complaints)

They answer any questions parents may have and deal with any complaints for example a child was wearing a cardigan outside the hotel on her excursion with her team leader and came back to her parents without the cardigan. The parents will then argue about their daughter’s cardigan and it will be the children’s representative job to try and get it back by phoning wherever they had visited for the day.

Non routine incidents (e.g. accidents, illness, emergency situations)

Children have different needs; some have walking difficulties so therefore uses a wheelchair, some may be either blind or deaf, others may have an allergy to a certain food whereas others may have health needs e.g. eczema, asthma or diabetes. If any child has a serious accident for example a child on a wheelchair falls over then they will have the responsibility to deal with that so before looking after children they have to make sure they know each child’s personal details.

Organising activities (e.g. children’s club)

They organising daytime and evening activities which include singing competitions, quizzes, board games, ball games which is held in the club, around the club and off-site. Excursions include children theme parks, aquariums, water parks, swimming pools, farms and zoos. They read bedtime stories to get them to fall asleep as some kids can be hyper from their day out and therefore cannot fall asleep. They also create safe activities for all ages, including anything from pyjama parties and sports days through to pirate and fairytale themed shows and activities.

Managing groups

Using their communication and observation skills they help all the children they look after to manage behaviour, resolve conflict and help them participate in activities. This will help them boost their confidence and enjoy something they have never done before or anything they thought they would never be able to do.

Cleaning

After each activity they are responsible to tidy up the mess which is left after a full day of different activities, this will help reduce accidents and injuries which could occur during the day if for example someone left a chair in the middle of the room.

Dating relationships starts earlier than expected nowadays. According to the teen dating relationship survey, nearly three to four teens say boyfriend or girlfriend relationship usually begin at the age of 14 or younger. The majority of teens have been involved in a romantic relationship, and almost one-half of teens reported that they have had at least one sexual experience. Learning more about how teens view these kind of relationships can provide insights that can help policy program providers, makers, parents, and others promote healthy youth development in general and address the problems of early pregnancy, that is alarming that the number of teenage mothers is increasing, from 7.1 percent in 2000 to as high as 11.7 percent in 2010(Taradji, 2012) and STDs in particular.

Different relationships affect teenagers in various ways. Friends impact teenagers almost the same amount as their parents. Teenagers go to their friends for help or to ask questions that they could not ask their parents about. Most of the time their friends give them good advice but then there is the down side when they put pressure on their friends to do something like to smoke, drink, and do drugs. In most cases they tell their friends how to dress and act when around certain people. Love relationships just make it even harder for a teenager to get a good education. Some start to fail in school because they are hanging out with their boyfriend or girlfriend instead of doing their work. Throughout adolescence, teenagers are positively and negatively impacted by several relationships such as friends, family, and love relationships.

Friends have a big influence on teenagers because they can say and do many of things to teenagers who think they were friends. They also start rumors and take their friends girlfriend or boyfriend and have them cheat on their friend. Some go out to drink, smoke, or to do drugs just to have fun but some think of driving home and most teenagers do not even make it to their driveways. Some teenagers who are so depressed about their social problems even think about committing suicide. Most start to hurt others turns into “goths” by dressing in all black. Many of depressed people show how they feel by dressing differently by acting out and hurting others in school.

Parents have a big influence on teenagers because their children look up to them and 90% of them grow up to act and do things just like their parents did with them. Teenagers who have parents that are in jail, or do drugs do not always have a good education or a household. “Children who have experienced a family break-up may have lower achievements than children brought-up in an intact family” (Ernisch, 1989). Some even get into trouble and end up with their parents in jail. Many teenagers pass away every year from doing drugs because they copy what their parents do like, for example a big one is going out to sell drugs. Research says, “Additionally, it is shown in research that a parent’s failures are also “associated with a number of other disadvantageous outcomes for having a higher risk of unemployment, smoking, psychological distressed in early adulthood” (Ernisch, 1989). Families should stay intact or their teenagers will develop many problems,

Love relationships affect teenagers because some become less interested in their education and more with their boyfriend or girlfriend. Most teenage girls have reported about being abused by their boyfriend. As shown in an article, “They note that over 25 percent of adolescents are victims of dating violence or aggression, and that dating violence precedes martial violence in up to 50 percent of cases”(Rheinheimer, 1992). This is happening at young ages: “The strongest risk factor for sexual intercourse is in grades 7th through 12th” (Rheinheimer, 1992). Many teenagers are abused every day, some die, and others survive by running off with their “soul mate”, or every get married because of an unexpected pregnancy. Many teenagers go missing every day of the year because of these reasons. Some teenagers have search parties looking for them but most are never found and if they do 9 out of 10 times they are found dead.

As previously stated, teenagers are affected by many relationships which involve their friends, family, and their love relationships. The relationships affect them so much that most teenagers change their ideas about how they should live their lives in a different way and to change their future goals. They should be influenced to help themselves or to help others.

They should also be role models for young students at school. Teenagers should get more involved with their community as stated in the first few paragraphs. If they get more involved in other activities there will most likely be a drop in teen violence. The community could be a cleaner and safer place for teenagers if they get more involved in their towns and cities.

They should also volunteer for jobs like being as firefighter, highway trash collector, nurse that goes around and helps the elderly. If teens get involved in those jobs they would be helping the whole community.

Teenage relationships have become increasingly commonplace. While in the older times, people thought about things like love, relationships and sex only after attaining a certain degree of biological maturity, age is no longer a bar for the cupid to strike.

As the advent of internet exposes more and more teenagers to issues of love and sex, more and more of them are getting into relationships and dating at a young age. However, it has been noticed that teenage relationships are extremely susceptible to quick disintegration. Moreover, teenage relationships lead to numerous other damaging outcomes on the physical and emotional health of the youngsters. While sometimes it is circumstantially unavoidable, teenagers must try to not get into relationships at a very tender age on account of the following reasons: Family problems are one cause of this is Lack of Parental Love, Josh McDowell, a well-renowned public speaker on teenage sexuality and author of The Myths of Sex Education, discussed in an article titled The Cause and Cure of Sexual Promiscuity that children who do not receive love and affection at home, especially from their fathers, often seek relationships early. Fathers are often worse offenders than mothers in failing to communicate love. In this same article, a survey conducted among 1,000 high school students revealed that 50 percent were unsure that their parents love.

Custodial: non-custodial conflicts, a large body of research shows that the support and involvement of both parents is associated with a number of positive child outcomes, including academic achievement, good behavior, psychological adjustment, a positive self- concept, and social competence. Furthermore, when both parents exercise control and supervision appropriate to children’s developmental level, children experience a similar range of benefits (Rollins and Thomas 1979; Maccoby and Martin 1983). Given the advantages of having two highly involved, supportive parents, the absence of the father from the household, for whatever reason, may be problematic for children. Following divorce, many children experience a decrease in the quantity and quality of contact with non- custodial fathers (Amato 1987; Furstenberg and Nord 1985). And it is well known that many non-custodial fathers fail to pay adequate levels of child support (Seltzer, Schaeffer, and Charng 1989). For most children, this decline in contact and economic support represents a net loss in parental resources and because of this most teenagers are tempted to engaged in relationships, and now have the same situation with their parents. Another possible reason for teenagers to have an early relationship is economic problems. The way teenagers are exposed to technological advances, I truly believe they are affected by everything that happens in this world. The amount of information that is thrown out there nowadays is so overwhelming to everybody, especially teenagers that is hard to pin-point specific issues. However, Teenage fresh minds are extremely vulnerable, because of their eagerness to learn, not necessary at school, but about life. The speed with which teenagers want to absorb knowledge is detrimental to their capacity of understanding and distorts the very principles of such knowledge.

Lower standard of living is the legal definition of children in most countries is persons under the age of eighteen while biologically the transition from childhood to adulthood is said to occur with the onset of puberty. Culturally defining the end of childhood is more complex, and takes into account factors such as the commencement of work, end of schooling and marriage as well as class, gender and race. According to the United Nations Children’s Fund , children living in poverty are those who experience deprivation of the material, spiritual and emotional resources needed to survive, develop and thrive, leaving them unable to enjoy their rights, achieve their full potential or participate as full and equal members of society. The Child Fund International definition is based on Deprivation (lack of materialistic conditions and services), Exclusion (denial of rights and safety) and Vulnerability (when society cannot deal with threats to children). Other charitable organizations also use this multi-dimensional approach to child poverty, defining it as a combination of economic, social, cultural, physical, environmental and emotional factors. These definitions suggest child poverty is multidimensional, relative to their current and changing living conditions and complex interactions of the body, mind and emotions are involved.

Neighborhood, research has documented the magnitude of youth violence and the trends in that violence over time. But what do we know about why young people become involved in violence? Why do some youths get caught up in violence while others do not? There is no simple answer to these questions, but scientists have identified a number of things that put children and adolescents at risk of violent behavior and some things that seem to protect them from the effects of risk. ( Office of the Surgeon General (US); National Center for Injury Prevention and Control (US); National Institute of Mental Health (US); Center for Mental Health Services (US). Youth Violence: A Report of the Surgeon General. Rockville (MD): Office of the Surgeon General (US); 2001. Chapter 4 — Risk Factors for Youth Violence. Available from: (Bursik & Grasmick, 1993; Elliott et al., 1996; Sampson & Lauritsen, 1994).).

Education, some students nowadays are not getting the quality education and engaged in some sexual relationships, maybe it is not their fault why they cannot study in a good school, but teenagers nowadays are just so curious about many things and try everything they want to try without thinking of its consequences. The next possible reason for having early relationships is peer pressures. Peer pressure is one of the most common reasons why high school students start relationships early. The pressure to fit in and to be considered normal is at the forefront in the mind of teenagers. High school is usually the time period in a teen’s life when they start forming groups by associating with other teens that are most like them. The need to belong to something and not be an outsider is a very big deal in the identity of teens. The need for acceptance, approval, and belonging is vital during the teen years. Teens who feel isolated or rejected by their peers or in their family are more likely to engage in risky behaviors in order to fit in with a group. In such situations, peer pressure can impair good judgment and fuel risk-taking behavior, drawing a teen away from the family and positive influences and luring into dangerous activities. Media influence is also a factor for having these kinds of problem, media influence from internet, magazines, movies, and televisions. The opportunity to engage in sexual activity as a result of media influence is a contributing factor in high school teens forming early relationships. Many television shows often depict teens in relationships that involve sexual activity. The desire to be in a relationship, or to “hook up” as it is often called by teens, usually involves some form of sexual activity

The use of technology is frequent in teen dating violence. Excessive text messaging, instant messaging or inappropriate postings to social networking sites, such as MySpace or Facebook, constitute teen dating violence.

“One in four teens in a relationship (25%) say they have been called names, harassed, or put down by their partner through cell phones [and] texting”(Liz Clairborne, Inc/Teen Research Unlimited, 2007). Additionally, 19% of teens in relationships say their partner has used a cellular device or the internet to spread rumors about them (Liz Clairborne, Inc/Teen Research Unlimited, 2007).

The use of technology also involves fear and the threat of violence. Seventeen percent of teens reported “their partner has made them afraid not to respond to a cell phone call, email, IM or text message because of what he or she might do (Liz Clairborne, Inc/Teen Research Unlimited, 2007). Additionally, “one in ten (10%) claim they have been threatened physically via email, IM, text, chat, etc” (Liz Clairborne, Inc/Teen Research Unlimited, 2007).

.

In a study conducted by RAND, a research and analysis company, they found that teens who have significant exposure to sex on television often engage in activities like “making out” oral sex and intercourse. The study also revealed that teens who watch sexual content on television frequently, were twice as likely to engage in intercourse than teens who have little exposure to sex on television. There are many effects of having a relationship at a very young age. There are positive and negative effects, and some ot its negative effects, some of its negative effects are PMS or the pre-marital sex, STDs or the Sexually Transmitted Disease, which are many of the youth today are affected, with the ratio of 1 of 4 girls who admitted to have sexual intercourse have sexually transmitted disease. (Daily news, 2008).

Quantitative and qualitative research alike suggests teen dating violence can start as young as age 11 and carry through to the early 20s, when young adults have intimate relationships but do not cohabitate.[1] While teen dating violence is not dissimilar from domestic violence, and often involves similar acts, a distinction is made because tweens, teens, and young adults face unique barriers to addressing the violence they are experiencing. Dependence on parents (for housing, clothes, other basic needs), education (required attendance, limited ability to switch schools even if their abuser attends the same one), and age (under 18 and legally a minor) all affect the ways in which a tween, teen, or young adult may seek help to stop violence. Because of barriers, it is not uncommon for tweens and teens to underreport their victimization.

Teen dating violence can start early; “One in four tweens (24%) say dating violence-physically hurting relationship partners-is a serious problem for their age”(Liz Claiborne, Inc/Teen Research Unlimited, 2008).Surprisingly, many parents lack awareness of their tweens’ victimization. Only 24% of parents know of a child in their children’s peer group who has experienced emotional abuse by a partner, yet 40% of their children know a peer who has experienced it (Liz Claiborne, Inc/Teen Research Unlimited, 2008).

A national longitudinal study of adolescent teen dating violence found 32% of teens reported emotional abuse or physical violence in a relationship over the past 18 months; approximately 12% of this was physical violence (Halpern, Oslak, Young, Martin, & Kupper, 2001). Additionally, a study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) indicates nearly 1.5 million high school students nationwide have experienced physical dating violence (Centers for Disease Control Prevention, 2006).

In a study of high school and college students, the prevalence of partner violence was found to increase with age (Malik, Sorenson, & Aneshensel, 1997). This suggests that, over time, individuals who date are increasingly likely to encounter a violent partner.

Some emotional and Psychological problems are caused by many of the youth today are experiencing the so called, broken hearted. But for every negative effect, there will always be positive effects and some of them are; Confidence, Dating increases a teenager’s overall self-confidence and standing with her peers. Teens feel good when they realize they are attractive to the opposite sex. Going out with a partner reinforces the positive feelings and sense of attractiveness. This can spill over into higher self-esteem and better performance in school and other activities. Compromise, Dating teaches teenagers about compromise. A healthy relationship requires both parties to sometimes make a sacrifice. They must each give a little to meet the other person’s needs. This is learned hands-on through the dating process to maintain the relationship. It is a valuable skill that can be used in adulthood in family and workplace situations. Trust Teen dating teaching youngsters the importance of trust and honesty. These two things are the basis of a healthy relationship. Children’s Hospital Boston explains there may be breaches of trust. This teaches the teen how to resolve problems or draw boundaries when necessary. Fun, Dating is a social activity that gives teenagers an outlet to go to movies, dances and other enjoyable places and share the fun with a significant other. This is a good outlet that offsets some of the pressure of schoolwork and extracurricular activities.

Compatibility, Teenage dating is an opportunity for a young person to figure out what he is looking for in a partner. Teens learn which traits they find most attractive in others and the things that are annoying. This information is valuable in the eventual search for a marriage partner. Rejection, Life is not perfect, and teens must learn to deal with rejection, because they will face many disappointments in adulthood. Many teen romances do not last long, and break-ups provide youngsters with experience in handling hurt and rejection. They learn to go through the grieving process and eventually move on. Maturity, Teens are in the transition from child to adult. Dating helps them to feel independent and mature. It is a step forward into “grown-up” behavior. (Nefer, 2011)

Relationships have ups and downs. Some relationships have an effect on teens’ lives and emotions. They can also cause problems with family interactions.

Being in a relationship changes teens. “Some people change who they are to make someone stay with them,” (Acosta, 2009). This is true. Everyone does change who they are when they are in a relationship.

Changing who you are can be good or it can be bad. It can be good because you probably can find out new things about yourself, like understanding feelings we have only heard about. It can be bad if you change into a person you do not want to be or do not like. Just be completely you, the majority of teens let down their guard and falls into confusion with their thoughts and feelings. Just because you have a boyfriend or girlfriend does not mean you are automatically in love. When problems occur in a relationship, they can affect the family and friends. “Teens will act differently with the people surrounding them,” (Moctezuma, 2009). “They take their anger out on their family and friends,” said Acosta. Being in a relationship can make you or break you. Be careful with whom you choose to be with and don not let if come between you, your friends, and your family. However, it is important to note that not all teenage relationships are disadvantageous. If they are lucky, teenagers may find true love at their young age and hence enjoy a consistent support system from their partner.

Teenage relationships, even when they go wrong, provide a lot of experience to the youngsters and make them stronger, more mature and more armed to deal with relationship issues in future. They also help them decide about what kind of man/woman they actually want in their life. A successful teenage relationship can do wonders for the self-assurance of a person and make them feel much happier and positive about life.

As a matter of fact, the entire issue is extremely subjective and boils down to the attitude and nature of the teenager. If the teenager can intelligently take decisions about such important issues, handle problems with calm and composure, and multi-task and devote time to every aspect of life without side-lining any, then a teenage relationship shall cause none of the above mentioned problems. However, such a situation is very rare and most teenage relationships are, regrettably, plagued by many teething troubles, and hence, must be avoided as far as possible.