Category: Free Essays

The definition of Family has become increasingly controversial over the past few decades. Family in the twenty-first century is different to everyone; all families have different structures and functions, beliefs and parental attitudes. The term family refers to a unit consisting of people who are related to each other – either biologically by notions of blood relations, or alternatively by legal means such as by marriage” (Kirby, et al 2000, p45).

The definition of a family has changed a lot over the years; there are several reasons for the definition to change. The view of the typical nuclear family is no longer the norm within society. Nowadays there are more families of divorce, stepfamilies, and extended families, rich and poor families. There is not a single definition for what a family is; people have their own view of what a family is. There are many factors that make families different, such as ethnicity, religion, and economics. Levine (N.D) suggests that families have three basic goals for their children; survival, economic self-sufficiency and self-actualization” (Enrique, et al, 2007).

Family structure and family functioning can affect a childs development in many ways. Family functioning is more significant to a childs development than the structure of the family. Family structure is the way in which a family is set up, for example, single parent families, extended families and nuclear families. Family functioning refers to how family members are emotionally attached, how well they communicate emotions and information and respond to problems (Freistadt and Stohschein. 2012).

Everyone has a different view of what family is and how families should be structured. Some make the assumption that children can only be brought up successfully in a two-parent family structure involving a heterosexual relationship. Others take the perspective that children can function well in any family structure, provided certain basic conditions are met” (Wise, 2003).

The family is a social system endorsed by law and custom to take care of its members needs” (Kepner, 1983). The emotional bondings and relationships between the members of the family, and their responsibility to the family unit hold them together through the changes of transitions and the complicated connections.

Family Systems Theory

Murray Bowen developed the Family Systems Theory, he recognised that the family was an emotional unit and any changes to the family functioning would influence all members of the family. The Family Systems Theory emerged from the General Systems Theory by scholars who found that it had a lot of relevance to families and other social systems. (Morgaine, 2001).

The Family Systems Theory refers to a family as a system in which each member can never be considered in isolation without reference to the roles, responsibilities and behaviours of other members of the family. The family is seen a dynamic unit according to the Family Systems Theory. Changes are constantly occurring and each member of the family takes on new roles and responsibilities, and internal patterns are adopted. The relationships between the individuals in the family unit are mutual and constantly changing.

The family is an example of an ongoing, self-regulating, social system that has certain features – such as its unique structuring of gender and generation – set it apart from other social systems. Each family system has their own structure, the psychobiological characteristics of its individual members, and its sociocultural and historic position in its larger environment” (Broderick, 1993, p37).

The family as a system links all individuals together and understands that things going on in the environment can influence all individuals even if not all of them are actively engaged, for example parents workplace. The Family Systems Theory recognises that small things can impact the family system, for example, the loss of a parent can affect the relationship the child has with the other parent and/or siblings.

According to Bowen each member of the family system has roles and boundaries. Individuals in the system are expected to engage with each other in a certain ways according to their role and their relationship with other members. Within the boundaries of the system, patterns develop as certain family member’s behavior is caused by and causes other family member’s behaviors in predictable ways. Maintaining the same pattern of behaviors within a system may lead to balance in the family system, but also to dysfunction” (GenoPro, 2013).

There are four main principles of the Family Systems Theory; wholeness, integrity of subsystems, circularity of influence and stability and change. Wholeness refers the family as one unit however each member of the family have certain attributes of their own. Integrity of subsystems means that each relationship is a subsystem, for example; mother and father relationship or mother and child relationship or vice versa. Relationships between relationships are also subsystems. Circularity of influences means that the subsystems and relationships depend on each other and if there is a change in one subsystem it has an impact on other systems. Stability and change refers to external influences that can affect the individual or subsystems, for example parents workplace. The wellbeing of the child, therefore, can be conceived of as dependent upon the functioning of elements of the entire family system” (McKeown and Sweeny, 2001, p6).

Family systems are different in all families. Parental attitudes are important in setting up an environment in which their child can flourish. Campion (1985) says that if a child grows up in a stable and loving environment, the child will usually develop a sense of self-respect and self-discipline. The child understands what is expected of him. However it can be argued that a child who has been brought up in a family system where the parents attitudes lack maturity, the child is more likely not to flourish in the environment and not understand what is expected of them, therefore cannot develop a sense of their own competence. (Campion, 1985).

Campion (1985) suggests that children take on the roles, which have a function in their family system. It is believed that if children see themselves as the disobedient one in the family setting, they may carry out their difficult behaviours in school. Likewise a child who is obedient may also carry out this behavior at school.

The Ecological Systems Theory

The Ecological Systems Theory was produced by Bronfenbrenner in 1979.

Bronfenbrenners Ecological Systems Theory states that the environment is reflected in an individuals development. Bronfenbrenners ecological approach refers to layers of environmental influences that impact an individuals development. The interactions with people and the environment are key to development. This theory can apply to individuals at any stage of development.

The theory identifies five environmental systems in which the individual interacts with; microsystem, meosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and chronosystem.

The microsystem refers to each setting, which the individual is an active participant, such as; family, school, community, friends. This layer has the most immediate and earliest influences on the child. The relationships in the microsystem can be bi-directional; this means that the childs behaviours can be influenced by the family or friends and vice versa. The meosystem refers to the relationships between the settings in the microsystem and the individual; an example of this would be the relationship between home and school. The exosystem refers to a setting where an event happens, which affects or is affected by what happens in the setting that the developing individual is in. The child is not an active participant in this layer. The structures in the exosystem can affect a childs development by interacting with the structures in the microsystem, for example; mothers work place can affect the amount of time the mother spends with the child. Although the child is not directly involved with the structures in the exosystem, they do feel the positive and negative impacts that are involved with the interaction between the systems. The Macrosystem refers to the wider social systems, for example; government legislations and economic factors. These things affect the child indirectly however it has an impact on the developing childs life. An example of this could be that the childs family is living in poverty therefore this can cause social exclusion and the child might not have access to school trips or community play areas. The chronosystem refers to how things change over time as it relates to the childs environment. There are various elements within this system that can be internal or external. An internal influence could be the physiological changes that occur while the child gets older. An external influence could the timing of their parents getting a divorce. The older the individual gets might impact how they react to environmental changes and may be able understand how the change will influence them.

External influences

There are a lot of external environmental factors that can influence the family system and the developing child. External influences can have an impact on a childs social, emotional and physical development. The World Health Organization says, “Childhood experiences have lifelong consequences in terms of health, education and economic status” (World Health Organization, 2009).

Media

There are a lot of controversial issues with regard to media and the effect it has on children and families. Most research is concerned on the amount of time children spend engaging with media and the possible effects media has on a childs development and wellbeing. Media can impact the way children understand the world, it can also affect their family life.

Media can have a positive impact on a childs social development, for example if a child is shy, the use of social media, offers children the chance to connect with others and form positive relationships. Some children find social situations intimidating and may find it hard to respond to questions. Diaz et al (N.D) suggests the use of text messages or Facebook, has the potential to allow children to interact with more thought.

Media also poses some negative consequences on the developing child. Many parents worry about their child when they are interacting online, parents do not know who or when their children are interacting with. Media has changed a lot over the years and when some parents where younger they did not have access to things like the Internet. Parents mainly focus on the negative impacts media can have on children’s lives for example, there are stories in papers that state that children have been meeting up with strangers, this can cause distress to the parents. Online risks – being contacted by strangers or seeing inappropriate content – come fourth and fifth in the list of nine worries: one in three parents say they worry about these risks a lot (Livingstone, et al, 2012). There are tools that allow parents to restrict the content that the child might have access to and manage what sites the child uses.

However media can also be used for children to do their homework, this aspect of media is supporting a childs intellectual development. Today, children and teens frequently use home computers and the Internet for their schoolwork, and parents generally believe that computers are an important educational resource” This shows that the use of computers can positively affect the child, the use of computers also teaches the child how to become familiar with the key board, how to write emails, and use word processor. Computers are used in everyday situations; therefore children should have access to them. Parents should encourage children to use computers and show them how to search the Internet to help them develop intellectually and cognitively. If children are doing homework and achieving academically, both the parents and the child will be happy.

Media can influence a childs development. Children can use media to increase their understanding of the world around them, as well as teach positive social behaviors”. This statement shows that children can gain understandings of the world and develop socially by engaging with media such as watching television. Television viewing has been studied in children who are academically gifted, with results suggesting that selective viewing can promote academic abilities” (Pitman, 2008). This shows that TV can influence a childs intellectual development.

Television can have diverse affects on a childs development. Television can be used as a method of teaching, some TV programmes for children have educational values, for example, Sesame Street, can teach children about the alphabet, simple mathematics, culture and kindness. The educational value of Sesame Street, has been shown to improve the reading and learning skills of its viewers” (Canadian Pediatric Society, 2003). Parents should encourage their children to watch educational shows, to enhance their learning and development, parents can spend time with their child whilst watching TV shows, this will help the child develop socially and intellectually, it can also benefit parents knowing what their child is watching.

Television can also be seen as a negative influence. More than 1000 studies confirm that exposure to heavy doses of television violence increases aggressive behaviour, particularly in boys” (Huston et al, 1992). This can affect the family functioning as it can impact the relationships between the child and the family. It can cause stress on the family system, families may be prone to conflict if the child is being aggressive, this could impact the parents and cause stress between the mother and father. Aggressive behavior can impact a childs well-being and social development.

By watching television, the child tends not to engage in play or exercise activities and is more likely to eat unhealthy snacks. This can impact a childs physical development and lifestyle. Television viewing makes a substantial contribution to obesity because prime time commercials promote unhealthy dietary practices” (Canadian Pediatric Society, 2003). Fast food advertisements promote an unhealthy lifestyle, which has negative affects on children and families and can lead to eating disorders or diseases such as diabetes.

Consumerism can influence the family system; consumerism encourages the purchase of goods and services. Children are seen as potential consumers; most children want the new gadgets, toys and designer clothes. This can have a negative affect on the family system as it could cause stress on parents to buy the latest things. This can impact a family financially and emotionally. Parents are working long hours to get money to buy their children the latest toys and gadgets.

Bingham (2011) stated Britain was ranked as the worst country in the industrialised world to be a child. This is due to the rise in consumerism and media available to children.

Media affects the time that families spend together; Bingham (2011) refers to television as a babysitter and children’s bedrooms as media bedsits. Media is taking away the quality time that used to be spent as a family away.

Consumerism causes a lot of pressure on parents, which can lead to conflict between mother and father, and the child. Parents are more concerned about social perceptions then whether or not they can afford to buy new products for the children. Bingham (2011) says that a report shows that a mother was contemplating whether to buy her three year old soon a Nintendo DS, because she was convinced that if she never her son would get bullied. This shows that society has changed so much over the years; it is assumed that parents want their child to have the best things in life rather than spending quality time with their children. Parents will work long hours to provide for their children and put themselves through stress and finance issues just so that their child is not labeled as poor.

Media Advertising has a big impact on children. “Probably the clearest evidence we have that television influences children’s thinking and behavior is the fact that advertisers invest literally billions of dollars trying to influence the perceptions, choices and behaviors of children through advertising” (Clay, 2003). Advertising puts pressure on parents to work longer hours to make money so that they can buy new things for children, children can often become the victim of bullying if they do not have the latest things, this can affect the childs emotional well-being.

Teenagers often have role models that they have seen in the media, for example a celebrity. A role model is a person that sets an example and their behavior is imitated. Role models can influence an individual in various ways. Television can also contribute to eating disorders in teenage girls, who may emulate the thin role models seen on television” (Canadian Pediatric Society, 2003). This is an example of role models having a negative effect on an individual. This will not only impact the teenager it can also cause problems for the family unit. Some teenagers become obsessed with self-image, because they see skinny celebrities in magazines or on TV, this can affect their emotional and physical development. From the teenager having an obsession with being thin, it can cause parents to worry about their childs health and development. This can cause to conflict between the child and parents and can cause stress on both the child and the parents. The childs attitudes and behaviours may change which might have an impact on the family.

Children today are described as the digital generation because children no longer sit at home with parents reading books and playing board games, they are either watching television or playing video games. From a young age children are immersed in media experiences. Media can have a negative impact on a childs life, it can cause children to get distracted from doing homework, or children will begin to spend less time with parents. This can affect the parent-child relationship, as there will be no communication with one another if the child is engaged in a media activity. Overall, children between the ages of two and 18 spend an average of almost five-and-a-half hours a day at home watching television, playing video games, surfing the web or using some other form of media” (Clay, 2003).

Parental employment

Bronfenbrenner acknowledged that there are direct and indirect family related factors that can influence the childs development. A Parents workplace is an external factor that influences a childs life and the family as a system.

Parents have a significant role in shaping their childs future. Mothers and fathers employment affects both the income of the family and the time spent with their child. The early years in a childs life are most important to development, hence the controversial arguments about whether parents employment has an affect on a childs development. Most studies suggest that working mothers affect a childs development more than working fathers. Ermisch & Francesconis study ” The effects of fathers’ employment on the outcomes studied were generally less important than those of mothers’ paid work” (Ermisch & Francesconi, 2001).

Working mothers is a factor that can have both positive and negative affects on a childs development. A positive factor could be that the mother is providing financial security for the child, for example, if the mother has a comfortable salary, it means there is more money for the family, therefore more family holidays, day trips, clothes, a child-minder, etc. However if the mother is working long hours, it might cause more stress on the mother, and less time spent with her child. Evidence from a study about parent employment and time spent with the child shows Although full-time work increased family income, less time for mothers to interact with their families tended to reduce childrens later educational attainments” (Ermisch & Francescon, 2001). This study suggests that children’s achievements are being affected by their parents employment because parents and children are not spending time together.

Parents that work will often put their child into childcare. This can have positive and negative affects on children in the early years. A positive aspect of childcare is that it provides the child with opportunities to form relationships with other children, this will impact on the childs social and emotional development, nurseries also provide enriching opportunities for children to learn and develop. A negative aspect of putting a child in childcare is that is can cause emotional stress on the child, if the child does not like attending nursery is can make parents feel guilty about leaving them and cause emotional stress on the family as a system.

An evaluation of the governments scheme to encourage parents to go back to work found mixed outcomes of the affects nursery has on a child. The study found positive as well as negative effects, however. Children appeared to gain in confidence, but those in daycare for longest were more “antisocial, worried and upset” (Melkle & Ward, 2007). These findings send out mixed emotions about putting children in childcare. The positive affects are that the child forms relationships and gains confidence. However for parents who work long hours and need to put children in childcare full-time might worry about the impact it may have on their child. This may cause some parents to think-twice about going back to work, this can have a negative affect on the families income which will impact the family system and cause problems.

Shaffer (2004) concluded What can be safely concluded is that, where conditions are optimal, children of employed mothers may actually benefit compared with those of non-employed mothers, largely as a result of extra experiences with other adults and with peers in day-care settings.” (Springwood, N.D).

A study carried out by the Institute of Child Health found that working mothers of five-year olds engaged in less active activities and more likely to eat unhealthy. (BBC, 2009). This study suggests that because parents work long hours they do not have time to make healthy meals therefore they make unhealthy snacks because it is the quicker option. There are so many mixed reviews about how parent employment affects a childs development. It seems that everything parents do will affect the child; therefore it is important that families try to balance out the positive and negative outcomes.

Working mothers are put under stress to provide for their family, spend time with their child and ensure that they live healthy lifestyles. Nowadays everything is expensive and parents have no choice but to work, to ensure that they can afford housing, childcare and basic necessities. “With many more mums having no choice but to work these days and with government policy actively encouraging it, it is difficult to know how mums can do better” (BBC, 2009).

Economy

There are numerous economic factors that can affect families and the developing child. The community where families live plays an important part in shaping the their daily lives. The local economic systems differ depending on jobs and services provided by the business sector of the community.

Children’s economic wellbeing is directly related to their families. When families have a low income they are less likely to provide for their childs needs. Parents uniformly identified poverty as the primary barrier to their capacity to provide adequate care for their children… Parents accepted personal responsibility for their economic and parental failings, equating no income with bad parenting. Depression and despair associated with poverty were acknowledged to impair parenting and increase self-doubt about parenting capacity” (Russell, 2008, p. 83).

Failure to meet the economic needs of families can lead to social exclusion and can also cause problems that can affect individuals, families and the community, such as higher crime rates, child abuse and neglect, higher substance abuse.

A disadvantage for families living in a low economic area is social exclusion. Social exclusion affects adults; thus adults that are parents and their children. There are many negative outcomes of social exclusion for the developing child and their family. Social exclusion does not necessarily mean that the family has a low income; families may be socially excluded from society because of job loss, poor housing, and education. Social exclusion affects the whole family unit.

Poverty is another factor that is linked to the economy. It can affect the child socially, educationally and personally. Poverty is the single greatest threat to the well-being of children in the UK” (Sharma, 2005). There are many negative impacts that poverty can have on the family system and the developing child, it can cause stress for parents, and the childs diet and health can suffer. Everyone is entitled to have their basic needs met; however children that are living in poverty go without food, toys and clothes. For poor families, raising a child is not just about struggling to make ends meet; its about struggling to give the child a chance to grow and thrive” (Sharma, 2005). This can cause families to become stressed and depressed, as they feel that they have failed their child. It may also cause conflict in the family.

The socio-economic status of families can affect all aspects of a childs development. Socio-economic status is arguably the single biggest external factor in a childs development as it determines other opportunities, such as access to education” (Patrick, 2012).

The income of a family is likely to influence many aspects of family decisions and behaviours. If parents are unemployed it can impact the family system, parents may argue with one-another which in-turn may impact on the childs wellbeing, it can cause emotional stress on the family as a whole and cause financial stress. Unemployment causes financial hardship which, in turn, causes a deterioration in family relationships” (Broman, et al N.D).

Unemployment will have a major impact on the parents, therefore it will impact their children, for example, parents may struggle to provide children with laptops or books, which can impact on their educational achievements and affect their social life, which may lead to social exclusion.

Government

The government is another external influence that impacts the family system and the developing child; the government is a factor in Bronfenbrenners macrosystem. The government can have positive and negative influences on families. There is a lot of debates about how the government has cut working tax credits, this is can have a negative affect on families.

The government influences parents workplace and in-turn the child. “It is vital that those in power listen to what children and their families are saying about life in the UK. The government needs to make sure parents earn enough to spend fewer hours in work and more time with their children, protect childrens play facilities from spending cuts and consider reforming the laws controlling advertising to children” (Bingham, 2011). The government has proposed that both parents can share up to a years leave to look after their new-born children. Nick Clegg stated The changes will allow fathers to play a greater role in raising their child, help mothers to return to work at a time thats right for them, and create more flexible workplaces to boost the economy” (Department for Business Innovation & skills, 2012). This will affect the family system in a positive way as it allows both parents to share the responsibilities of caring for their child, this allows each parent to bond with their new-born child, and spend more time together as a family.

Although the child is not actively engaged with the political environment, the government can cause distress in a childs life. For example, the government decides if our country should go to war. In some countries there are wars going on this can impact on a childs development and the family system. Firstly war can cause a lot of stress on the community, violence can physically and psychologically scar children. Secondly the childs parent may be part of the army and have to go to war, this can cause stress on the child and breaks in the family system.

The government is in charge of putting new policies and legislations in place in order to make things better for everyone. The government made positive changes to legislations that affect parental leave, the right to flexible working hours, job-sharing, and paternity leave” (Springwood, N.D). The government is in charge of policies in schools. This influences the family because the child is an active participant in the school setting, which means that the parents will have to communicate with the schools, to see how their child is developing. The government has introduced home-school partnerships, to encourage parents and teachers to work together to provide the best quality care for the child.

The government can affect a developing child if they have a disability because they make the policies and legislations. There are legislations in place that impact a disabled childs life and education. The Disability Discrimination Act 1995 means that schools must include all children and make reasonable adjustments to provide enriching opportunities for disabled children. (CSIE, 2012).

The government has an affect on economy. There have been new policies introduced recently that state that better-off families will lose some or all of their child benefits. In families were one parent earns ?50,000, they will lose some of their child benefits and parents who earn ?60,000 will have their child benefit withdrawn entirely. David Cameron said that the move was fundamentally fair”(BBC, 2013).

Some families have opted out of receiving child benefits, however some families missed the deadline to opt out and will now have to fill in self-assessed tax forms each year. This causes problems for families, it can cause families to lose income that they have worked hard for which can have emotional affects on the parents. More than a million people are set to be affected by the cut, with the Institute of Fiscal Studies estimating that they would lose an average of ?1,300 a year” (BBC, 2013).

There are a lot of arguments about whether it is fair or not. It could be argued that it is not fair to punish people who have a good career. However some will argue that the better off families should contribute to society.

This change in economy will affect millions of families. It will affect the families overall income and childcare. There are a lot of issues regarding this change.

The prime minister stated “If we don’t raise that… from that group of people – the better off 15% in the country – we would have to find someone else to take it from.” (BBC, 2013).

One mother who will be affected by the child benefit cuts, believes that the cuts are being administered unfairly. I’m a single mother and I work full-time, meaning that I am reliant on childcare. My son has Asperger’s syndrome and getting him the care he needs is costly” (Harris, 2013). This is an example of how the government can affect a family in a negative way and affect the child.

Neighborhood

The neighborhood in which families live in is considered to be an external influence that can impact families lives and children’s development. Changes that occur in the neighborhood can be both positive and negative. A positive impact may be that there are lots of job opportunities in the area, t

A framework was designed and developed and came into action on 13 March 2007 and forced into action by September 2008 and is called as EYFS i.e. Early Years Foundation Stage This framework has revolutionised the learning methods and is a framework for the enhancing learning, care and improving the skills and development of children in all the spheres of life when they are in a age group of 0 to 5 years.

The Early Years Foundation Stage Profile was the new name for the Foundation Stage Profile from September 2008 with its content remaining as such.

Mainly 6 stages are there in EYFS for Learning and Development. This is equally important and is usually connected to one another. These stages of Learning and Development are collaborated inside the rules listed for EYFS.

The various areas where Development and Learning could be enhanced are:

Development in personal ,social and emotional spheres

Communication

Solving and Reasoning capacity of children

Understanding the surroundings and grasping knowledge from surroundings.

Development enhancing physical strength

Development enhancing creative strength

Most of the review conducted on the Primary Curriculum and other independent Cambridge Primary Review has highlighted the requirement to re-think and remodel the children’s educational experiences provided in English classrooms for students between the age’s group of five and seven.

Recently government initiative has provided new experiences. In early primary years education being adult directed and conducted generally in whole-class groups, in a small place for playing and should be self-initiated learning. This is familiar in Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) which controls the education of children from birth to five years.

This discontinuous pedagogy has resulted in concerns at levels like national and local levels. This study describes the complete efforts put in by teachers in one English local authority for developing practice in respective classrooms which generally is less formal and more teacher-led and desires more to the requirements and interests children in age group of 0 to 5 years. It explains the reasons for participation of teachers in this project, new difficulties and hurdles faced and the result and understanding for both teachers and children.

Discussion
PERSONAL, SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Care is taken for the children’s development with a positive attitudes and good behaviour. Individual attention is given to every child with love and care. For listening and talking, children are provided an opportunity. They share their toys and work together on activities. Children should be praise for their success by rewarding their positive behaviour and good manners. Children must be shared with experiences which will develop positive sense that will help them in interacting with surroundings; giving respect to their teachers and parents; social skills; the attitude which will allow them to gain knowledge. Adults should give children opportunities for interaction with others so that children can grasp positive ideas from society they live in.

When closed relationships are explored it generally leads to the growth of self-assurance thus it leads to promoting sense of belongingness that helps in children to explore the environment surrounding in them in a more secured way.

Children must be encouraged for freely expressing their thoughts and their ideas, their emotions like sadness, frustration, joy and fear and can also develop means of managing new challenges and stressful conditions.

COMMUNICATION, LANGUAGE AND LITERACY

Every child should talk to each other in small groups for development of extended vocabulary and better communication skills. They go through the books and rhymes through the tapes and books for re enactment of the plays. They use word games, phonics, alphabets and play all around for the written language. Children there mark marking so that they can improve their hand and eye coordination which will help in writing when they grow older.

Generally children use the language learnt for sharing and expressing their experiences. Their actions represent their thinking and how they react to events which we called as their language of thinking. Children over the time gather understanding about spoken sounds and they learn how to link different sounds and use gained knowledge writing and reading simple words. Young Child is in company of people whom they love and respect and loving relationships for e.g. family group situation, a person on which they have trust. Generally babies respond differently to every sound easily distinguish different sound patterns. Children use voices for making contact and letting people understand what is needed and what their feelings are. Once children develop skills of speaking their foundations for education is built and using the visual signs and finally preparing for reading and writing. They need to be given opportunities for working with others and exposure to resources for enhancing their knowledge like reading and writing.

PROBLEM SOLVING, REASONING AND NUMERACY

As we can see parents and teachers shall support the children for developing their understanding in solving Problem, developing a Reasoning and numerical aptitude using this they can easily find, learn and enjoy and understanding their environment. Children’s mathematical development occurs as they find patterns, make connections and remember relationships through searching out and working on counts and number matching and further sorting of accounts by comparing size, shape and measures. This derived skill is used by children to solve problems, ask new questions and make connections across different areas of Learning and Development. While talking about shapes and quantity, children use their knowledge and experience to develop ideas and to solve mathematical and other problems.

KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING OF THE WORLD

Usually the life of child consists of learning the world that is around an individual. They talk of all things like how different things work and explaining for the reason why a particular thing occurred enjoy cooking and playing with clay. Generally they find all around the experience for natural world with wide range of seasons to hunt mini beasts. Children elaborate further the water, building and sand for construction own world of imagination. Babies and children need opportunities to understand means of life, methods giving correct information developing an attitude which keeps them positive in all condition and have a understanding behaviour for others. Children must be given help so that they can learn how to respect and keep the values of elders and understanding the need to avoid negative attitudes towards others

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Children should be given a very healthy life style including rest, exercise, and eating healthy food. These children shall be given balanced food to encourage them in spending time to outside location daily. Children develop good hygiene practices like washing hands after toilet usage and before meal. Usually good and well being in physical strength allows children to enjoy the positive benefits provided by keeping themselves active and healthy. Babies gain by being active and the development takes place all along the areas thus resulting in gaining in confidence in what they can do and develop a positive sense of well-being.

CREATIVE DEVELOPMENT

Creative Development means to explore with art and craft activities which include draw, paint, construct, stick as well as print largely. Children are very imaginative and thus can create their own pretending world. They love being chef working in kitchens, or sometimes working at bench for carpenter role. They love music making along with various instruments, rhymes and songs. Creativity develops children to gain experiences from their own explorations of surroundings, and expressing their feelings using different movements or by making things with the help of different materials existing in surroundings. Creativity helps children in exploring many functions for e.g. materials and media for creating new things which come out as a result. Children’s always react to their surroundings i.e. their experiences of watching, listening, experiences gathered using their sense organs and the manner in which they provide experiences is unique and valuable. Children learn in variety of ways and all have different interests so proper planning should be done for every child. Observation must be taken on baby to plan the best possible learning opportunities.

For all children learning starts from birth. The EYFS is helpful for practitioners to enable right experience of play for children in development of all set of possibilities. It will enable practitioners to find your child’s strengths and areas they want greater help for developing new skills, while for newly born babies this is crucial factor to make one feel comfortable all around it. This can be further aided with key person’s role in settings that result in knowing positive relations of child.

As per EYFS, the place where a child is cared to get an education for the age till five years, it uses similar principles, and is provided with principled approach for development and learning. These babies at inception stage gains a lot by the way of plays and the practitioners treat them in a way to make them learn the plays at stages for support and development of new skill set. All of the arenas are equivalent in importance with number of activities to cover number of areas to divide each of them in various stages and the practitioners can detect the sources for development and better operational activities performance.

METHODOLOGY

The methodology was made to identify how children perceive their experiences of a range of early year’s settings, and to provide information an understanding of the effectiveness and limitations of the EYFS in setting a play-based and participative approach to learning.

The qualitative research design was formed around the four EYFS principles and the related themes and commitments2 (DCSF, 2008a, p9):

A Unique Child (Child Development, Inclusive Practice, Health and Well Being).

Positive Relationship which means respecting teachers and class fellows etc.

Enabling Environment (Observation, Assessment, Planning, Support).

Learning and Development (Active Learning, Areas of Learning and Development).

According to Mosaic approach (Clarke and Moss, 2001) and participatory rural appraisal techniques (O’Kane, 2000), a verity of participative activities with children were designed to correlate with each of these 4 broad themes and to address the 4 commitments within each one.

A sample of 15 case study settings selected from across 4 Local Authorities drawn from 2 government regions in north England. It comprise of 2 children’s centres, 2 reception classes, 3 maintained nursery classes, 2 private nurseries, 1 voluntary sector setting, 1 independent school, one out-of-school setting, 4 childminders and 1 Steiner kindergarten. The sample was selected to include children growing up in urban and rural areas of social advantage and deprivation, and ethnical different communities. Children in both full day-care and sessional care are included. 146 children achieved the aim to represent a vast range of children except in relation to sampling disabled children.

Research activities, based on the EYFS themes, were designed to incorporate a different strategy for promoting talk between researchers and children to explore:

Unique Child – how good early years settings acts to the uniqueness and difference of children.

A Positive Relationships – how children view the importance of their relationships with close ones and with practitioners.

Enabling Environment – how children responds early years settings and the extent to which these provide them with good opportunities.

Learning and Development – It is very important as children’s response and thinking about learning and development in their settings is developed.

To gather knowledge about how well early years settings were responding to the uniqueness and difference of children, a 1 to 1 activity was used, to generate a digital picture book called ‘My Best Day’, which is based on the child’s best day in a setting. Alongside this we collect information about children’s relationship within settings by using an adaptation of a floor based graphical or visual mapping game. To collect information about how children respond the environment of their setting, an adaptation of the Mosaic approach ‘tour’ devised. Finally, to collect information about children’s experiences of learning and development, we used data of children’s learning, and called as ‘Learning Journeys’, which prompts to conversation. Participant experiences were also undertaken with each child or small groups of children.

Presentation of data

In the seven key scales of Personal, Social & Emotional development (PSE) and Communication,

Language and Literacy (CLL):

aˆ? 61.1 percent of girls achieved 6 or more points in every the scales, this compares to 42.8% of boys, a difference of 18.3 % points. This difference has increased since 2008 when it was 17.3 % points.

The chart below provides information about the percentage of pupils and their development in each of these 7 key scales.

Figure below shows details on EYFS conducted in PSE and CLL scales in the year 2009.

24.7 % of boys are classified as being the lowest achieving 20 % of pupils

, this compares to 15.1 % for girls. These percentages have been relatively stable since 2007.

Conclusion

Most of the study suggests for early years practitioners said that: ‘effective early years practitioners will define the time and relevant activities which are useful in a space in daily routine of life to reflect. This daily schedule will be responsible for the well being of children and they will also gain knowledge. This report aims to present proofs of that combination in various early years’ settings from children’s views. Thereby, the aim is also to gain insight into children’s perspectives of their own well-being and learning in those cases.

Studies have shown that children must be encouraged for freely expressing their thoughts and their ideas, their emotions like sadness, frustration, joy and fear and can also develop means of managing new challenges and stressful conditions. Closed relationships were explored it and its learning led to the growth of self-assurance thus it leads to promoting sense of belongingness that helps in children to explore the environment surrounding in them in a more secured way.

Although many of the proofs reported here are set with themes, commitments and guidance in the EYFS, it was also known that there are omissions in the EYFS, in part as a result of emphasis laid on children since the end benefits of a this daily schedule called curriculum generated by adults. The theme of children taking care is one such omission which we have pointed to as evident in children’s clear need to engage with the world around them, to show the know how they have about their surroundings and to maintain a category of types of relationships.

The 6 areas of Learning and Development together enhance and improve their skills, experiences and improve their knowledge as this is a important aspect for children during their growth.

These are presented as different areas which include remembering that the entire tasks link together for children and none of these shall be compartmentalized.

The problem faced by most of the practitioners is to confirm whether the learning of children’s is an output of their individual interests in planning for learning and development takes place.

Babysitters can range in age, tending to be in their pre-teens/teens, ages 11-19, yet it is not uncommon for students in their 20s to take on babysitting as a part-time job. The type of work for babysitters also varies, from watching a sleeping child, to playing games, preparing meals, teaching the child to read, or even driving (if the age is right), depending on the agreed upon terms and determined by parental permission.

In some countries various organizations produce courses for babysitters, mainly focusing on child safety and first aid appropriate for infants and children. These classes or courses can be provided at local hospitals and sometimes even schools. These classes can equip the babysitter with information to keep both the child, or children, and sitter safe in various health and weather scenarios.

[edit] U.S.

In the United States, the circumstances that babysitters face can change quickly. The American Red Cross is currently the most popular form of certification; its curriculum ranges from sleeping to emergencies to encouraging young entrepreneurship. It has been statistically shown that parents are more relaxed with a certified babysitter. [1]

[edit] Word History

The term “baby sitter” first appeared in 1937; the verb form “baby-sit” is first recorded in 1947.[2] The American Heritage College Dictionary notes “One normally would expect the agent noun babysitter with its -er suffix to come from the verb baby-sit, as diver comes from dive, but in fact babysitter is first recorded in 1937, ten years earlier than the first appearance of baby-sit. Thus the verb was derived from the agent noun rather than the other way around, and represents a good example of back-formation.”[3] The use of the word “sit” to abbreviate to refer to a baby-sitter is recorded from 1800[citation needed]. The term may have originated from the action of the caretaker “sitting on” the baby in one room, while the parents were entertaining or busy in another.

[edit] International variations in definition

In British English the term refers only to caring for a child for a few hours, on an informal basis and usually in the evening when the child is asleep for most of the time.[citation needed] In American English the term can include caring for a child for the whole or most of the day, and on a regular or more formal basis, which would be described as childminding in British English.

In the United States, the term is sometimes used when one parent is at home and the other, who would normally be present, is not.

In India a babysitter or nanny is known as an ayah or aya, a person hired on a longer term contract basis to look after a child regardless of the presence of the parents.

The Disadvantages of Baby-Sitting

Baby-sitting is a way to get some extra money in a short time period, but disadvantages are present, such as hours, behavior of children and irregular schedule. This is not a dependable way to earn income because you are at the mercy of families needing a baby-sitter.

On-Demand Sitting

Baby-sitters are needed sporadically. There is no regular schedule and are often called upon last minute. The jobs can occur once and then never again. It all depends on whether the employer ever needs a baby-sitter again and if he was happy with your work with his children.

Uneducated in Child Care

A person who is in need of a baby-sitter may require the sitter to have certain type of experience and certifications, such as CPR, before hiring a baby-sitter. However, typically, baby-sitters do not have an education in child care or several years of experience. This type of person is usually doing it to make a few extra dollars.

Hours

The hours of a baby-sitting job could be at any time during the day. If a baby-sitter limits the hours of her availability, the amount of work is decreased. Also, a baby-sitter needs to be ready for long night hours. Most baby-sitters are needed to watch children at night while the parents take in a movie, dinner or attend a work event.

Behavior of Children

The children that a baby-sitter tends to may appear have angel-like characteristics in front of his parents, but things may change when a sitter is alone with the child. The children may have foul language, tantrums if they don’t get what they want or display meanness because the parents left them with a sitter.

What are the advantages of babysitters?

One of the advantages of using a babysitter is that your baby or child will be one of a small group, and the babysitter can therefore offer plenty of individual attention.

Some babysitters take care of children from several families, and usually have mixed age groups, which closely mirrors family life. This may help your child learn to feel comfortable around older and younger children. It also makes it easier to care for all the children in a family, from babies to school age children. Often, babysitters look after children from babyhood through to secondary school, giving them a great sense of security and continuity.

Many parents like this family-friendly interaction, and sometimes what starts out as a babysitting arrangement becomes a strong friendship that lasts for years.

Taking your child to a babysitter can be the next best thing to your own home. If you’re lucky enough to find a good babysitter close by, so much the better; your child will feel even more at home.

From a practical viewpoint, babysitters can often be more flexible about pick-up and drop-off times. This extra flexibility may mean that you don’t have to organise back-up care as often and is particularly useful if you work shifts. However, like all childcare arrangements, it is important not to take advantage, otherwise you may find that you have to start your childcare search all over again.

What are the disadvantages?

If your babysitter becomes ill or takes a holiday, you may be stumped for back-up childcare. Make sure you ask your babysitter how she deals with situations like this.

Some parents worry that the babysitter’s children will get more attention than their own, which puts them off the arrangement. Even the best babysitters still have to meet the needs of their own families and the other children that they are caring for. However, all aspects of day-to-day life can offer learning opportunities, and good babysitters will ensure that the children in their care are regularly engaged in new activities and experiences.

Making a decision

In common with most childcare choices, there are pros and cons for you to weigh up. But depending on your own perspective, what one person might see as a disadvantage (such as fitting into the babysitter’s daily routine), might be viewed as an advantage by another (lots of learning opportunities in a family environment). The best decision for you will be based on what feels right in your individual circumstances.

Baby-Sitting Duties & Salary

For a great many people, baby-sitting is the first hired work experience in life. Non-professional baby sitters usually range between the ages of 15 and 22. For young people, baby-sitting is usually great non-family related flexible employment that can continue all the way through college. Baby sitters have two duties: to keep the children safe and to provide them with comfort. The rates, however, vary by location and circumstance.

Safety

The No. 1 and most basic of baby-sitter duties is to make sure that the kids are safe; that no physical harm has occurred to them on your watch. Accidents can happen, but it is the sitter’s responsibility to know where the child is at all times. If there are multiple children, it is also the sitter’s duty to make sure that they do not harm each other. Knowing the dangers in a house, especially for the first time can be difficult. It is important to go over all the safety details with the parents before they leave you. Where are all the doors? Are they locked? Do the drawers and kitchen cabinets lock? Are the electrical outlets properly covered? and so on. The best way to keep a child safe is to keep them in your attention at all times. Young children should be followed and monitored closely, older children can have a little more privacy if they desire. If you must drive make sure you have proper car seats. You must also need to know what to do in the case of emergency; where the first aid is, how to do CPR and where to call for help.

Care

Along with safety, a baby sitter’s duty is to provide the children with their basic needs. Usually you will have to feed them, bath them, change diapers or help them with the toilet. The basic needs of children depend on their age; an infant will require full attention at all times even when sleeping.

Entertainment and Comfort

Aside from what a baby sitter has a to do, there are things a babysitter should do. Many children are uneasy about seeing their parents leave, as such a baby sitter needs to comfort them by reassuring the child that their parents will return soon and in the meantime you are going to have a lot of fun together. Children love it when adults play with them; ask to see their favorite toy, or watch their favorite movie, read them a book, play outside if there is a yard, or if the parents permit it, drive to a park or bakery for the afternoon. Baby sitting is made all the more easy when the children like and enjoy the company of their baby sitter. Really good baby sitters can become almost part of the family in some cases.

Salary Rates

The wages for a baby sitter vary drastically depending on the circumstances. The average baby-sitting rate in the United States is between $8 and $10 per hour. Though the average seems low, it is higher than the minimum wage in many states. There are, however, variables. Some inexperienced sitters may earn as low as $5 per hour, or on the extreme opposite experienced sitters in wealthy neighborhoods can earn between $15 and $18 per hour. Usually babysitters can set their own rate depending on the situation; infants should generally add $1 to $2 more to your standard rate, and each additional child added should add $1 as well. If you provide yourself with your own transportation then consider adding between 50 cents and $1 to your salary.

Babysitting Older Children

Babysitting older children generally takes less work than taking care of toddlers or infants. Whereas babies need constant nurture and attention, older children can tend for themselves in a lot of areas. However, there still remains a fair share of work to be done when babysitting older children. Depending on the circumstance, you may be responsible for tasks like driving them to sports practices, helping them with homework, cooking them meals, and making sure their lights are out at bedtime.

Often your babysitting responsibilities will be based on everything from your age to the specific needs of the children. Before beginning to babysit for older children, be sure to inquire as to exactly what the parents expect your responsibilities to be. It can also be helpful to obtain a babysitting checklist from the parents that will guide you with helpful instructions and reminders.

Balancing Babysitter Responsibilities

Taking care of children is rarely an easy task, and handling your responsibilities as a babysitter can sometimes be difficult. For example, if you are babysitting three or more children, or if one or more has special needs, the job can seem overwhelming. That is why it is important to properly balance your babysitting responsibilities so you do not exhaust yourself completely by the end of the evening. Babysitting is work, but it should also be enjoyable. Here’s what you can do to keep your babysitter duties balanced:

Ask the parents to explain their expectations for your babysitting services and derive a clear picture of your specific responsibilities for each child.

Obtain a babysitting checklist from the parents, which will help you keep track of important information and requirements for each child.

If you feel like too much responsibility is being put on you, speak up and tell the parents in a polite manner. Some parents do not realize what a handful their children can be, let alone all the tasks they want you to perform for them or around the house. Letting them know that you are being overwhelmed will cause them to realize they need to give their children more responsibilities of their own or, in some cases, to hire an additional babysitter to help you out.

How to Use a Babysitting Checklist

Babysitting checklists are given to child care providers by parents to give specific instructions, and contact information in case of emergencies.These checklists are important to obtain and utilize as a babysitter because they will detail how your responsibilities should be carried out.

That way, if an issue arises, you will have the information that you need to deal with it. Some items that should be included include where the parents can be reached, the number of someone to call if you cannot get in contact with the parents, the child’s doctor and insurance information, and a signed emergency treatment release for the child.

With this information, you will be prepared for anything that might happen while you are babysitting. Once you are given a babysitting checklist, be sure to keep it with you in a pocket or purse at all times. Read its contents thoroughly before the parents leave, and scan through it several times during the day or evening so that you ensure all of your responsibilities are done properly.

Managing Babysitter Responsibilities

Managing babysitter responsibilities is one of the most important tasks involved in child care. When you agree to provide babysitting for someone’s children, it is imperative that you understand what your responsibilities are and how you should carry them out. Babysitter responsibilities can vary from job to job. Just as children differ, so will the ways in which they need to be taken care of.

In order to have a solid understanding of the responsibilities a parent will want you to uphold, you should first discuss exactly what will be involved in babysitting for them. If they are not upfront with explaining the specific responsibilities for the job, be sure to inquire about them. Some babysitting jobs will simply necessitate watching and playing with the children. Others will include more extensive responsibilities like driving, cooking, changing diapers, cleaning and doing light housework.

It is also helpful to obtain a babysitter checklist from the parents. This checklist will contain, among other things, information that will direct your specific responsibilities, such as how much TV the children are allowed to watch, how to discipline them, and what they can or cannot eat. These instructions will help you understand how to carry out each of your responsibilities so you are not left guessing on your own. With clearly defined expectations and a babysitter checklist from the parents, you will be on your way to managing babysitter responsibilities like an expert.

Responsibilities for Babysitting Young Children

Babysitting young children brings its own set of unique responsibilities. While older children can tend for themselves in a lot of areas, infants and toddlers require constant nurture and attention. Babies must be fed often and, as a result, their diapers must be changed on a frequent basis.

Infants tend to spit up and toddlers make messes wherever they go, so you can expect to spend a significant amount of time cleaning up after them. Infants will also need to be held and comforted often. Young children require naps at certain times, usually specified by the parents, and it is important to make sure they get the rest they need. Most young children cry a lot and it is important to know how to handle such situations when they arise. In order to be fully prepared for babysitting young children, take a class on the subject and speak with parents who have experience. Also, be sure to ask the parents of babies you are considering taking care of what responsibilities they would expect you to have.

Responsibilities of a Babysitter

Babysitter responsibilities vary widely from job to job depending on the age of the children, their specific needs and the particular requirements set by the parents. For younger children, responsibilities may include diaper changes, feeding, and holding; on the other hand, babysitting older children may involve driving them to soccer practice or helping them with their homework.

While some children are nearly self-sufficient, all will have certain needs. This could include anything from fixing them a snack to helping them with a physical disability. Circumstances that may surround the job, such as the parents going away on business or the children wanting to take a trip to the museum, may require you to take on heavier responsibilities such as staying overnight or driving.

Specific expectations of the parents will also determine what you will have to do as a babysitter. For example, some parents want their children in bed at a certain time. In this case, you need to make sure that they change into pajamas and brush their teeth before that time comes. The best way to determine the responsibilities you will have as a babysitter is ask parents directly.

Nanny Vs. Baby-sitting

In-home child care from a professional nanny or an individual doing simple baby-sitting duties offers a parent greater flexibility and control with schedules, compared with day care. Though it may be more costly than day care, a nanny or baby sitter may be the best way to care for children. Ages of the children, the hours needed for care and additional expectations determine if a parent needs just a baby-sitter or a professional nanny.

Parent Expectations

A baby sitter is usually called when the need arises, or she may have regularly scheduled hours to care for children. Typically, the job of a baby sitter is to ensure the safety and comfort of a child while the parents are away for a few hours. A nanny usually is more involved with children for a major part of the day on a regular basis. The Nanny Network website says the responsibility of a nanny is to “partner with the parents to help raise their charges to be responsible, competent young men and women.”

Experience

A baby sitter may be a responsible teen or a trusted adult living in the neighborhood. Teenagers and adults who are serious about working as baby sitters receive training and certification from the American Red Cross. Professional nannies have experience that’s backed up with written references, whether they’re working independently or for an agency.

Household Duties

Household duties are negotiated with either a baby sitter or nanny for additional pay. In either situation, care of the children is considered a priority over chores. Younger children require greater levels of care than school-age children, so expectations about extra duties like laundry and kitchen cleanup must be reasonable.

Child Education

Both the baby sitter and the nanny can be expected to read and play with children or help school-age children with homework. A nanny will take a greater interest in teaching children and may serve as a tutor. Since the goal of the nanny is to raise children to become responsible adults, she will also educate children in manners, etiquette and how to care for themselves.

Child Discipline

Merriam-Webster offers three definitions for discipline: instruction, self-control and punishment. A nanny is involved in all three areas of discipline for the training of children, which may include corporal punishment at the parent’s discretion. Typically, a baby sitter is less involved in the child’s life and merely informs the parents about the child’s behavior.

Rate of Pay

As of July 2010, the hourly rates for baby sitting average $8 to $12 an hour, but can be as little as $4 or more than $18 an hour, according to the Babysitting-Rates website. A number of factors affect the costs of hiring child care providers. Some of the variables are the number of children, the experience of the provider and expected household duties.

In the Los Angeles area, Mirta’s Domestic Agency reports salaries from $250 to $500 for a five-day week for live-in nannies working up to 60 hours, or live-out positions for up to 40 hours per week. “Nannies usually receive one-week paid vacation after a year, plus six paid holidays,” Mirta’s says.

How to Describe Baby-sitting Responsibilities

Although all baby sitters share basic responsibilities, such as caring for children, providing entertaining activities and attending to the needs of the children, different parents and families may have their own expectations of their baby sitters. Help your baby sitter understand what your expectations are and what her responsibilities will be when watching your children by clearly describing her duties. By clearly defining the baby sitter’s role for the person you hire, you will help both yourself, your children and your baby sitter have the best experience possible.

Instructions

1

Schedule a meet and greet with your baby sitter before her first day caring for your children. After giving the baby sitter time to introduce herself to your children, communicate with her about her role as a baby sitter. Discuss simple things such as rate of pay, bedtime routines and television policies first.

2

Communicate with your baby sitter about tasks that you feel she should complete as a part of her job responsibilities. For example, some parents prefer the baby sitter to make lunches and dinners for the children, while other parents prepare meals before leaving. Let her know whether it’s OK to take your children for outings to the park, an ice cream shop or on bike rides.

3

Develop a baby-sitting checklist that your baby sitter can refer to when you are gone, especially if you have a lot of rules and responsibilities for her to abide by. Remember that getting used to another family’s routine may be overwhelming at first, so developing a checklist for your baby sitter of tasks to accomplish while you’re gone can be a huge help.

4

Remind your children about the rules of the house and ask them to remind your baby sitter if any of the rules are broken. For example, make sure that your children understand that they are not to watch television while the baby sitter is over if that is your rule. Ask them to remind her if she turns on the television out of habit.

How to Find a Babysitter Job

Babysitting is a great first job for teenagers. Babysitting is a flexible job that can fit around any schedule involving school work, extracurricular activities, and weekends. Through babysitting, you can learn patience, how to be a responsible role model, and how to handle money. To find a job, show parents of young children that you have the skills and commitment needed to babysit

Instructions

1

Create a resume. Include any babysitting experience you have had as well as the hours you are available. Ask parents if you can use them as references, and ask them for letters of recommendation that indicate your strengths as a babysitter.

2

Ask for referrals. Call family and friends for referrals of parents who are in need of a babysitter, or use a local referral program. Many states have free babysitter referral programs that screen families and teens to find the best fit. Call your local chamber of commerce to find a referral program in your area.

3

Take a CPR course. The American Red Cross provides training classes for all ages. Ask adults in your class if they need a babysitter or if they have any referrals, and hand out your resume. Parents are more likely to hire you when they know you are certified in CPR.

4

Post fliers around your community in grocery stores, churches, businesses and day care centers. Cut seven to 10 strips on the bottom of your fliers that parents can easy tear off and take with them. On each strip write your name, telephone number, and that you’re a babysitter. Get the manager’s approval before hanging up any fliers in a business.

5

Use the Internet. Advertise your babysitting services on your blogs and community pages to tell your friends and their friends you are looking for a job.

This essay will highlight how children’s health and the laws to protect them from being exploited by employers through the introduction of Parliamentary Acts have been effective. It has also been important to discover how taking children out of the workforce impacted on society and how it was able to support them. A further issue to be investigated will be how important it was to rescue children from living rough and trying to support themselves which was taken up by Nonconformists such as Thomas Barnardo and how the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC) was founded (Cunningham-2006). Another aim of this assignment is to seek out how children’s health has improved through both Government and other organisations’ intervention. Therefore, what Government Acts were introduced to improve the living standards of the very poor and how they have been updated to deal with the problems of the twenty first century. Another part of trying to improve the lives of all children has been focused on providing all children with an education that would link into them achieving a better standard of living and being able to make a positive contribute to society. This has been a theme of Barnardo’s homes since Victorian times (Rose. J 1987) and is still been seen as a necessary goal in the Government’s green paper ‘Every Child’s Matters’ (2003) and the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS-2007). Therefore this will be the final area discussed in how different historical and sociological views of childhood are linked to the in present day UK.

Cunningham (2006) & Miller et al (2002)research states that Victorian times saw fifty per cent of recorded deaths in children aged five years old and under, the biggest killers being diarrhoea, whooping cough, measles and small pox. In 1840 it became compulsory to be vaccinated against small pox; a vaccination founded in 1790 by Edward Jenner a country doctor working in a practice in Gloucestershire. He had a chance conversation with a milk maid who had contracted cow pox and she told him that folk lore said that if a person had survived cow pox they could not contract small pox. His vaccine was an important discovery as small pox was the biggest killer in Victorian time; in today’s terms it claimed as many lives as cancer or heart disease. During this period ten percent of the population suffered from the disease in rural areas, this rose to twenty percent in towns and cities who contracted the virus and subsequently there was a higher death toll due to overcrowded conditions. The largest group was of children, as one in three died. Jenner’s assertion was “that the cow pox protects the human constitution from the infection of small pox” (Health affairs, 24 No 3 2005) He called it the “Speckled monster” (www.Jenner museum.com-30/12/10). In 1853 an act was passed that made it compulsory that all infants under three months were to have the vaccination. If parents failed to have their children immunised they could be ordered to court where they would be fined, property confiscated and finally imprisoned. However, this did not deter some parents across all classes who continued to battle with the authorities until their children were fourteen years old and did not have to have the vaccination. This was because many parents feared that the conditions in which the procedure was carried out were not sterile. Their fears were well founded as there was evidence that other disease were spread e.g. erysipelas, syphilis and scrofula (Baxby, small pox vaccination). Although Jenner gave this vaccination to the world for free, the doctors charged for this service therefore many poor people, who were amongst the most vulnerable, could not afford it. If doctors had not charged for this vaccination, small pox would have been under control a lot soon than it was. (www.History Learning Site.co.uk-30/12/10).

However, children’s survival rate did increase as they got older although other health factors came to the forefront. Life expectancy was reduced due to the hazard of death at work, from dust in mines, quarries, barns, mills and bakeries alongside many accidents involving using dangerous equipment. In 1842 the mines act (Maybin.J, 2003) was passed so that no child under ten years old or woman were to work underground in mines but this did not stop them from working above ground where the conditions were not much better. Many acts were also passed in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century that tried to control the hazardous, and what proved in many cases the fatal occupation of chimney sweeps or “climbing boys” as they were called (Cunningham, H 2006). All these previous acts proved ineffective and it took a court case in 1875 about an eleven year old boy, George Brewster who died when sweeping a flue at Fulbourn Hospital in Cambridge. The post-mortem showed that George had suffocated, his head was congested and he had large levels of black powder in his lungs and windpipe. Lord Shaftesbury then put forward another bill to parliament, this time with success. This ended what the Times newspaper called the worst “public scandals of the Kingdom”. (Strange, K.H, 1982)

Other Acts of Parliament were also passed to try and safeguard children in cotton mills and factories over a period of time e.g. 1802 Health and Morals of Apprentices Act and the Factory Act of 1819 (Maybin,J.2003) but no provision had been ordered for these acts to be enforced. Things did not really improve until 1832 when thousands of children and adults marched to York to listen to speakers calling for a ten hour day act. The outcome of this was the 1833 Royal Commission on the Employment of Children in Factories Act (Maylin, J.2003) which said that no child under nine years of age could work in a factory and it also said that the eight hours older children spent at work had to be matched with eight hours of time spent in school until they were fourteen years old. This was supposed to be implicated by inspectors even thought there were only four for the whole of Britain. However, their work did go some way to put into place regulations that refined a system that progressed through the century. This meant that children spent equal amounts of their time in work and in school until 1918 (Cunningham-2006).

Although these acts gave children more rights they were also the cause of other problems for society and the policy-makers. The poor law amendment act of 1834 (PLAA) was still in place, which was a problem for certain authorities who had to care for the children as the work they were allowed to carry out was getting more difficult to find. However, factory masters in Northern England and the Midlands needed children to work their machines in these remote sites. This led to the London authorities who were in charge of the poor houses, to take these factories’ needs as an opportunity to send cartloads of children to these valleys to work. One boy, Robert Blincoe tells of how 80 girls and boys were promised “Roast beef and plum pudding “,but instead were forced to work 14 hours a day, were regularly beaten and given insufficient food .( Cunningham, H.2006)

Thomas Barnardo became one of the most famous men in shaping children’s history in Victorian Britain. He arrived in London from Ireland in 1866.The city at the time was coping without much success with the effects of the Industrial Revolution. London was over populated had bad housing, poverty, massive unemployment, and an outbreak of cholera had just ripped through the East End of London.3,000 people had died leaving many children without family, homeless and also many were left with terrible injuries sustained from accidents in factories. Barnardo was appalled at the site of these unfortunate children and in 1867 set up a ragged school, so called because of the condition of the children’s clothes, in the East End of London for poor children to receive some basic education. A young boy Jim Jarvis from the mission showed Barnardo round the streets one cold night, children were sleeping on roofs huddled together for warmth. This sight effected Barnardo greatly and he decided to dedicate his time and efforts to helping destitute children. In 1870 Barnardo opened the first home for boys in Stepney Causeway. One evening a boy, John Somers was turned away from the home because it was full. He was found two days later dead from malnutrition and exposure. The home from that day had a sigh which read “No Destitute Child Ever Refused Admission”. Barnardo opened a home for girls in Barkingside which housed 1,500 girls. The aim of these homes was by the time children left they had a skill to help them make their way in the world and make a contribution to society. Boys learnt a craft or trade, girls learnt domestic skills. Barnardo believed that family life was the best for children to be bought up in. He started the first fostering scheme boarding out children to well to do families; he also started a scheme to board out babies born to unmarried mothers. The mothers worked in service nearby so they could still see their off spring. Victorians looked upon poverty, something they had helped to create, as shameful. They believed it came about through vice and laziness. Thomas Barnardo felt that all children, no matter what background they had come from deserved a chance and the best start in life . A philosophy that still inspires the charity today.

Even though Barnardo was seen as a benevolent person there were still those who opposed him and tried to undermine his efforts. He was accused of having liaisons with a prostitute, falsifying photographs by dressing children in ragged clothes and miss using funds. All this was unfounded.(Cambridge University 1998)

In 1946 The Curtis Report was published it was a national report on children “deprived of a normal home life”. Children were acknowledged as the nation’s responsibility. This report was the backbone of the Children’s Act of 1948 which placed local authorities responsible for the care of homeless and those children in need.

Another Act that helped to change history and the plight of children for ever is the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. The Reverend George Staite caused a public stir in writing a letter to the Liverpool Mercury dated 1881 in it he asked “Whilst we have a society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, can we not do something to prevent cruelty to children?” This statement summed up the callous way the late Victorian era still treated its children. Social attitudes of Victorian people saw a very distinct line between public and private lives. Lord Shaftesbury, who himself had campaigned successfully for the Mines Act of 1842, warned Reverend Staite against trying to help protect children using the legal system. Shaftesbury said “the evils you state are enormous and indisputable, but they are of so private, internal beyond the reach of legislation”. However by 1884 The London Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children was born. Lord Shaftesbury was given the post of President and the Reverend Benjamin Waugh and Reverend Edward Rudolf were joint honorary secretaries. Waugh lived in Greenwich in London, and after seeing the high levels of child cruelty in the area, wanted to draw public and government attention to the unnecessary suffering of the children. The London Society lobbed parliament hard and succeeded in changing the law through what was called “Children’s Charters.” These charters reduced the parental powers. The society recognised that most neglect and abuse happened at home. An annual meeting was held in 1889 and the name of the society was changed to the “National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children.” Queen Victoria became patron and Waugh the director. In 1889 the society had thirty two branches across the UK. Inspectors were paid by raising funds. They investigated reports of abuse and neglect usually from neighbours. The public had finally got behind this Act and by 1901 the NSPPC had 250 inspectors and had had over 50,000 complaints. The NSPPC continues to uphold the traditions set in place by its founders; it acts as an independent voice of children and young people to this day.(Hendrick,H.2003)

With more children now attending school scientific studies showed that were serious health issues. These studies lead to the 1906 Welfare Act .Until this Act was in place free school meals for children of poor families were suggested but optional so some local authorise did not provide them. By 1914 150,000 children were getting one good meal a day. These studies also paved the way for the 1907Act that meant that all children who attended school were entitled to a free health check. The floor in this Act was that not all children went to school and were still working more times than not to keep their family from poverty.

In 1986 a National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act (NCVIA) came into effect in the UK and a similar attitude to that of the Victorians recurred with parents having concerns about links between vaccinations specifically the MMR and neurological problems. Research was headed by Dr Andrew Wakefield at the Royal Free Hospital London. The research suggested that there were links between the MMR vaccination and autism in children. It went on to also make possible links to bowel disease. Two reports in1998 and 1999 looked at the evidence from Dr Wakefield’s team and concluded that firstly there was no evidence to link the MMR to autism or bowel disease and secondly that there was not enough information available to cause concern about the safety of the MMR vaccination. The Department of Health did acknowledge that the final decision was with the parents or guardian of the child but they had no hesitation to advice the use of the MMR vaccine. In 2001 (WHO) the World Health Organisation came out in a report supporting the MMR vaccine (MacLeod-Brudenell 2004).

Even though things have improved for children from Victorian times, things are still not ideal for our children of today. Poverty is still a major concern in the 21st century .Three times as many people are living relative poverty compared to 1979. Families are experiencing high levels of divorce, separation and traditional networks decrease(DSS 1999a).These changes have an adverse impact on children’s emotional well-being and physical health. Children who live in families experiencing relative poverty are; less likely to eat healthy, to be breastfeed for any length of time, to do well in school and more likely to have childhood accidents, to have parents that smoke and have parents that suffer from depression. After the death of an eight year old girl ,Victoria Climbie, she was tortured and killed by her aunt and partner. Lord Laming chaired a public inquiry it asked how in the 21st century this little girl could have been failed so miserably. After the Laming Report, a minister for children,. The government published the green paper “Every Child Matters.”(DfES 2003)The spirit of this paper is positive. This policy outlined the care that needed to be in place to protect our children including the National Service Framework(NSF) for children’s health, Sure Start for families with children under five, improve access to health food, and reduce child poverty.(Miller,L.2002)

In conclusion, from Victorian days up to modern times there have been pioneers who developed vaccinations such as Edward Jenner’s small pox inoculation to Lord Shaftesbury’s law to protect the chimney sweep boys. However, any changes no matter how well intended have had some serious implications to families’ ability to survive poverty. Further, even though there were laws to ensure the authorities did take care of the poorest in society, reforms to protect children from working had serious implication to their ability to fulfil their role.

Video modeling is an evidence based practice used to teach a variety of socially relevant behaviors for children with Autism. Many times children with Autism are visual thinkers and learners. They learn best when information is presented to them visually rather than orally. Using video modeling, the children are provided with a visual model of a peer, adult, or themselves engaging in the targeted behavior they are expected to learn. After watching the video several times, the children are provided with an opportunity to imitate and generalize the behavior observed on the video.

A number of studies have shown that video modeling increases play conversations between children with Autism and adults and peers. Since children with Autism struggle with social skills, it is beneficial to teach them to initiate play with others. Video modeling produces faster acquisition of the behavior and greater generalization in children with Autism than live modeling and without the use of reinforcements or prompting. Studies have confirmed that with video modeling, verbalization and play actions was maintained over time. Video modeling can be implemented from early childhood to adulthood and taught by professionals and parents in a variety of settings. It can be used in the classroom and at home by the parents to teach new skills the child needs to be successful.

A benefit of using video modeling is that it allows for parents, teachers, and people collaborating with the child to use the same method to teach targeted skills. It is difficult to learn and master a skill if the child is practicing different ways with different people. Because children with Autism have difficulties generalizing it is important to work together to teach targeted skills the same way. Video modeling allows for caregivers to do this. By everyone working together the child can learn the initial skill quicker and then work on generalization systematically. The child will experience success when everyone is working together, using the same video, and teaching the same skill the same way. Video modeling procedures have been used successfully to teach a variety of adaptive behaviors such as social, play, self care, and academic skills.

Types of Video Modeling

There are several types of video modeling that are used with children with Autism. The most common types of video modeling include basic video modeling, video self-modeling, point-of-view video modeling, and video prompting. Basic modeling involves recording either an adult or a peer modeling the targeted skill. The child watches this video at a later time. Video self-modeling records the child with Autism displaying the targeted skill. The child then watches themselves in the video at a later time. The point-of-view video modeling shows a video recorded from the perspective of the child with Autism. Video prompting is used when teaching a step by step skill. It is recorded by breaking the targeted skill into steps and pausing after steps to give the child with Autism an opportunity to practice each step. Many studies have found great success when combining models.

Research

A study by Macdonald (2009) evaluated the effects of video modeling has in teaching children with Autism to engage in reciprocal pretend play with their peers without disabilities. The play included verbal interactions and cooperative play. The study consisted of two pairs of children, one with Autism and a peer without Autism. The pair was shown a video consisting of two adults acting out the sequence of pretend play. The children were directed to play and their responses, actions, and verbalizations were recorded. Both pairs demonstrated successful gains of play actions and increased verbalization between peers. The performance was maintained over time. The results of this study concluded that video modeling produced sequences of reciprocal pretend play between children with Autism and their peers without Autism. In this study, video modeling was an efficient strategy for teaching cooperative play. The appropriate play skills were gained with short exposure of the video and in the absence of reinforcements and prompting.

A study conducted by Allen et al. (2010) examined the effects video modeling had on teaching vocational skills to four young men with Autism. The participantsaˆ™ ages ranged from 16-25 years old. Video modeling was used to teach the four adolescents to wear a WalkAround Mascot costume and entertain the customers in a store. The video for the training showed a mascot performing in a scripted and naturalistic setting. The participants watched the video twice and were then taken to the store to imitate for 10 minutes the behavior seen in the video. According to the results of this study, all participants learned to use the vocational skills after watching the video model. The young men enjoyed the experiment and reported they would be interested in continuing to perform at the store when the experiment would be over. Allen (2010) states aˆ?video modeling was an effective way to teach adolescents and young adults with ASDs to perform a vocational task in a social settingaˆ?.

A study designed by Nikopoulos and Keenan (2007) was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of video modeling on building sequences of social behaviors. The study included three boys with Autism from the ages of 6.5-7 years old. The boys were given common objects that included a ball, a table, two rags, a vacuum cleaner, a plant pot, and a jacket. These objects were selected because of familiarization and to avoid instructions of using the objects appropriately. The participants were shown the video and data was collected after 5 minutes by observing behaviors in the areas of social initiation, reciprocal play, imitative responses, and object engagement. The study data suggest that the participants were successful in building a sequence of social behaviors. All of the students performed the activities in the same sequence as presented in the video. The participantaˆ™s showed generalization across peers and the appropriate behaviors were maintained after the 2 month follow up period. Research proved that video modeling was successful for children with Autism in this study.

In the presented studies, video modeling has proven to be effective on children and adolescent with Autism. Results from these studies have demonstrated success across different settings and with the application of different skills. The results have also indicated that video modeling teaches skills at a rapid pace and with short exposure to the videos.

In conclusion, video modeling procedures have been used to successfully teach many types of skills and behaviors in the areas of academics, social, self-care, daily living, community, vocational, and play. When used effectively research has shown to produce more rapid acquisition and greater generalization than live modeling. Video modeling has also shown that prompting and reinforcement are not necessary to help children acquire the targeted skill. Video modeling is a great tool because of the visually cued instruction that allows children with Autism to learn by observation.

As educators our role is to teach children through curriculum. Through the years many different types of curriculum have been created. Curriculum is defined as the learning programs, activities, school subjects, materials, plans, and topics of study (Arce). The Montessori Method was established over 100 yrs. ago and is still used in some form in today’s class rooms. It is commonly associated with its popular child-size furniture in the classroom, but there is much more to Montessori Method as I will discuss detail later.

The Montessori Method was created in Rome, Italy by Dr. Montessori in 1907. During this time period in the early 1900’s the common age of children to start attending school was 6 yrs old. This age was determined based on the child’s ability to walk and understand, or “therefore deemed intelligent enough to go to school” (Montessori, The Periods of Growth) . However, in the 1930’s physiologists recognized that children become receptive to adult influences between the ages of 3-6 (Montessori, The Periods of Growth) . Just as it is known today children have a sensitive period for development and during this time it is more beneficial (Montessori, Education For Life) . The Montessori Method changed the focus then from how to teach children to meet the needs of the world, and focus on the child from their birth (Montessori, Education For Life).

Under the Montessori Method the teachers’ task which was to “the first thing to be done, therefore is to discover the true nature of a child and then assist him in his normal development” (Arce). This is achieved through the different areas of learning; Practical

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Life, Sensorial, Mathematics, Language and Literacy, Cultural Subjects, and Creative Subjects (ICME ). In most Montessori Schools the children are in vertical age groups 2 ? years to 6 years, 6 to 9 years, 12 to 15 years, and 15 to 18 years (ICME ). The exercises of practical life teach the children the importance of maintaining a clean environment, cooking and the practical skills of buttoning, sewing, and lacing (ICME ).

Next is the Sensorial, the education of the senses. This is considered to be one of more import lessons and is focused on children with special needs as well as “typical” children. The materials used are didactic materials and give special needs children opportunities to learn through the senses and it provokes auto-education in “typical” children (Montessori, Education of the Senses ). Exercises within this method include children learning to recognize the differences in dimensions by assorting various shapes and sizes of blocks (Montessori, Education of the Senses ). When a child selects the wrong size they are forced to correct it themselves. Once the child has accomplished this exercise with this specific material they then have outgrown it (Montessori, Education of the Senses ).

The third area is Mathematics. The materials children use in mathematics are similar materials to that of which are used in sorting. In mathematics the materials are color coded rods, pegs and virtually anything that can be sorted or counted (Montessori, Teaching of Numeration; Introduction to Arithmetic ).

The fourth area is language and literacy. In the Montessori curriculum the writing is focused on learning to draw lines and shapes that eventually lead to the children writing

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(Montessori, Methods for the Teaching of Reading and Writing ) . Another exercise to teach writing skills involves the children tracing the letters through materials. One lesson I found fascinating was created for children to correct themselves by using sandpaper on the outside of the letter (Montessori, Description of the Method and Didactic Material Used ). In teaching children literacy they start with vowels and then constanants to teach letter recognition. The focus is on the sounds they make and pictures of object similar to the phonics system today (Montessori, Methods for the Teaching of Reading and Writing ).

The fifth area is Cultural subjects. If you notice most Montessori schools are in environments with nature surroundings. Children are able to connect with nature by taking an active role in its care.

The last area is Creative subjects which include arts and craft, drama, music and movement. In art children are encouraged to draw anything that pops into their minds. Looking at other creative materials, children are given the freedom to explore with clay and coloring materials. Music was another way for a child to express themselves. With the Montessori Method the children create their own instruments as well as music (Montessori, Education of the Senses ).

In order for the Montessori Method to be effective in a classroom that encourages self-teaching and the freedom to move around the class and centers freely discipline is required. Self-discipline is taught to children through exercise, these exercises teach children instead of verbally commanding them to be quiet and still. Children learn these different actions by

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sitting and getting up quietly, tip toeing and the use of objects quietly, and other exercises (Montessori, General Review of Discipline ).

Montessori curriculum has advantages and disadvantage in comparisons to traditional classrooms. In a Montessori classrooms children are allowed and encouraged to experiment uninterrupted in centers for up to 3 hours opposed to a traditional classroom where the child sits at their seat a majority of the day and the teacher facilitates the lesson or they are only allowed an allotted time in centers. The teachers are to mainly observe the children and let them teach themselves and not force the child to learn. However, the disadvantages of Montessori curriculum are they don’t follow traditional grade scales, but conduct evaluations throughout the school year (ICME ) . Lastly, the name Montessori isn’t legally protected, so schools and the training they provide can vary and may not reflect Montessori Methods (International Montessori Index) . Regardless of the curriculum teachers choose it is still necessary for them adjust the curriculum to the needs of their students.

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The Concept of Child/Childhood

Aries’s argument “In medieval society the idea of childhood did not exist” provoked scholars to question what had previously been considered as child/childhood. In fact what Aries criticizes is that the past lacked the specific features of the modern concept of child/childhood. At most, Aries intends to “contrast a distinctively modern awareness of childhood with a pre-modern neglect.” (20) As in 17th century child/ childhood apparently considered by society as a time of independence and innocence, has been a time of oppression for children. Aries uses the representation of child/children in the visual arts in the middle Ages and the Renaissance as evidence of the fact that, before the 16th century, there was no interest in child/childhood as a specific category. Children were seen too fragile as yet to take part in the life of adults simply “did not count”. Lawrence Stone, the author of The Past & The Present, considers the conditions of pre-modern childhood:

“as a pessimistic one of degeneration from an era of freedom and sociability to an era of oppression and isolation, a period of happy social polymorphism, in which there were no divisions of ranks or ages, no separation of the child from the adult, no privacy, no external pressures from the state or the needs of an no privacy, no external pressures from the state or the needs of an industrial economy, no internalized work ethic. Children and adults mixed together easily and naturally, wearing the same clothes, playing the same games, and working together on the same jobs. They also shared from the beginning a common knowledge of both sex and death. This easy egalitarian familiarity was one in which child abuse could not occur”(316).

Many issues points out by Stone to convey that the concept of childhood coined by modern society and it has seen the turning point in the eighteenth century rather than the seventeenth. Similarly, Richard Farson concurs that childhood is exclusively a modern concept. He claims that concept of childhood is enforced and unnatural exclusion. However, in his belief “Children did not always exist; they were invented. The idea of childhood is a European invention of the sixteenth century. Before the latter part of the middle Ages there simply was no the concept of childhood. Most of languages had no words means childhood “(17), while, for Eva M. Simms, “by the seventeenth century the division between adulthood and childhood had become a wide gulf that separated the mature from the immature”(199).

However, childhood is not regression, but it is presumably a progression toward a meaningful, not an irresponsible freedom. Concept of childhood has varied across the centuries. In spite of the fact, children are eternally seen as social agents; the dominant view is that children are unable to make persuasive contributions and effort to society on account of their immaturity, minority status and incompetent individuals who are disconnected from the social world. But, it has usually got tangled in the haul-up ropes of viewing childhood as a period of deficiency. Aries clarifies that the child as we seen, was not missing from the Middle Ages, at least from the thirteenth century on (38). He goes further and explains “nobody thought, as we ordinary think today, that every child already contained a man’s personalit”(39). He insists in his arguments in a few next lines as the child that had died to soon in life was buried almost everywhere, much as we today bury a domestic pet, a cat or dog. He was such as an important little thing. Aries, however, argues in the renaissance “There are more children, but they are miniature adults.” Children are viewed essentially passive and childhood is considered as the most critical and crucial stage in life and by its social status as a subordinate group in need of protection in order to be prepared for adulthood. (39) Although, childhood theorists have opposed this by emphasizing the significance of exploring children’s views, an approach which underpins and makes possible this study. In fact, child/childhood is considered as a crucial stage in the development of an individual due to what society considered as good or evil and the way to relate to and care for the environment. But some theorists believe that children have not been the victims of ill-treated society and they have not been oppressed. To elaborate this, Margaret Wise Brown the American author of Goodnight Noises argues that:

“In this modern world where activity is stressed almost to the point of mania, quietness as a childhood need is too often overlooked. Yet a child’s need for quietness is the same today as it has always been it may even be greater or quietness is an essential part of all awareness. In quiet times and sleepy times a child can dwell in thoughts of his own, and in songs and stories of his own.”

These tensions are due to the writing about child/childhood from various perspectives. In this respect, John Locke who popularizes the idea that children’s begin as a blank slate and their personalities and moral compasses are not inborn but formed through their experiences. He argues that “children as the recipients of an ideal upbringing, citizens in the making, fledgling but imperfect reasoners and blank sheets filled by experience “, then , he believes in the priori knowledge and has faith in acquiring knowledge gradually through experiences. In spite of fact, he proposes that “childhood being a stage in the development process whose end is adulthood.” Therefore, he sees children as imperfect, not yet rational, and incomplete version of adult. That’s why adult should have power over their children. Furthermore, he insists that “children are only white paper or wax and they have to be moulded and fashioned as one pleases”. He continues the acquisition of reason is gradual process and may human vary from animals in being rational, but this doesn’t distinguish children from adults. Though, it’s part of natural and normal process of psychological development and maturation that a child should become a fully rational control. Therefore, adulthood is a state of mind rather than a question of age. Similarly, children have seen as weak, vulnerable and incapable of providing for their own maintenance. Locke concedes that “a lack of reason is not exclusive to children; they are adults _innocents and madmen_ who remain in the state naturally defines childhood”(7) However, his definition of childhood strengthens the irrationality of childhood within the framework of psychology. Nevertheless, he never denies children rights.

While, Archard argues Aries may be wrong to think that it is only modern society which has a concept of childhood; while he concurs there is distinctively modern conception of the particular nature of childhood but there are different views of childhood. Thus, the concept of childhood is infused with myth, mixture of cultural and ideological sources. For him “The concept of childhood requires that children be distinguishable from adults in respect of some unspecified set of attributes”(21). He proposes that “societies at all times have had the concept of childhood. But there have been different conceptions of childhood”(23).Indeed, it may differ in term of “its boundaries, its dimensions and its divisions”(23). Rousseau defends the value of having concept of childhood and stresses the recognition of child as a child. He argues that ” childhood has its in the order of human life. The man must be considered in the man and the child in the child”(80), whilst Aries implies childhood as a particular of nature. In other words, childhood is to recognize that children differ interestingly from adults, while Rousseau argues that “we know nothing of childhood” as such we “are always looking for the man in the child, without considering what he is before he becomes a man”(3). As a matter of fact, concept of childhood is strictly associated with the adulthood. Being child is the opposite of being an adult, and vice versa (Achard, 23). Of course, it simply implies that childhood means absence of adulthood, but it doesn’t represent childhood against adulthood. However, childhood has thus been verified as a stage of life and also the word child has been recognized in many societies to clarify a kinship but also to indicate as an age of servitude. Variously, it has been observed the beginning of childhood to occur at birth or has even been extended at the end of breastfeeding, which lasted sometimes at around seven years. Regarding constructing an ideal concept of childhood, Jean-Jacques Rousseau as an eighteenth-century philosopher who began modern educational theory, defines childhood as the “nature age” at which there is no space for reason and knowledge as such adults have been tried to denature it. Accordingly, he argues that:

The second stage, or the age of nature, is from around two to twelve years old. During this time the child should develop physical qualities and the senses, but not the mind. As a result of this negative education which includes no verbal learning, nor moral instruction, the child will display the necessary qualities of being both eager and pleasant. (Emil, 93)

Yet, biological features haven’t always been prominent in signifying childhood. According to Kehily, Henry Mayhew an English social researcher views childhood as “a period of life where play and carefree pleasure should be indulged, where the child is protected from the adult world of work and is cared for, kept warm and well fed” (3) Similarly, Thomas John Barnardo argues that “Children have only one chance of a childhood. They deserve to be protected from harm, to enjoy good emotional, mental and physical health, and to feel that they belong in their home, at school and in their local community.” Rousseau concurs that “Nature wants children to be children before they are men…Childhood has its ways of seeing, thinking, and feeling that are proper to it. Nothing is less sensible than to try and substitute our ways… It is the curb of strength, and the child does not need this curb” (258).

The romantic view of childhood imputes children as spirituality close to God. This idea is taken up in England by William Wordsworth who claimed that “The child is father of the man.” Thereby, Diana Gittins in her book The Child in Question encounters with childhood “an adult construction that changes over time and place.” Then, she continues the concept of childhood varies between children in relation to social categories such as gender, ethnicity and social class. However, Gittins draws attention to the development of childhood as a concept that increasingly differentiated adults and children, girls and boys. Similarly, Mary Jane Kehily explores childhood in relation to issues of sexuality. But, Stevie Jackson in his book Childhood and Sexuality 1982 explains children and sex should be kept apart.

Regarding negative aspect of child/childhood, children are defined as a one is becoming other rather than being. For Rousseau “We know nothing of childhood”, as such adults are always looking for the man in the child without considering what he is before always looking for the man in the child without considering what he is before he becomes a man. (3)Adults “destroys and defaces all things; he loves all that is deformed and monstrous; he will have nothing as nature made it, not even man himself, who must learn his paces like a saddle-horse, and be shaped to his master’s taste like the trees in his garden” (Rousseau 4).

To sum up, as Nodelman articulates that “Adults offer children images of childhood that they expect children to mimic in order to be the right kind of children. The necessity of this process itself inscribes its inevitable failure: children are not yet and not actually what adults wish them to pretend to be, which is exactly why adults wish them to pretend to be it, for their own good” (187).

The Children Act was first introduced in 1989 and was amended in 2004 after an inquiry into the death of Victoria Climbie. After the death of eight-year old Victoria Climbie in 2000, Lord Laming was asked by the Government to carry out an investigation to know if new regulation and guidance were needed to develop the safeguard of child system in England. The Government’s answer to the Victoria Climbie Inquiry report (Laming, 2003) was the Keeping children safe report (DfES, 2003) and the Every child matters green paper (DfES, 2003), which in turn led to the Children Act 2004.

This Act’s ultimate purpose is to make the UK better and safer for children of all ages.

The Act also created a Children’s Commissioner;

putting in place services provided to and for children and young people by local authorities and other persons;

dealing with Wales about advisory and support services in regards to family proceedings;

dealing with private fostering, child minding and day care, adoption assessment panels, the explanation of reasonable penalty, the making of allowances as respects children and families, child safety orders, the Children’s Commissioner for Wales,

The publication of material in connection to children dealing in legal cases and the release by the Inland Revenue of data relating to children.

The government aims is for every child whatever their background or their conditions, to have the backing they need to:

be healthy i.e. enjoying good physical and mental health and living a healthy lifestyle;

to stay safe i.e. to be free from harm and negligence;

to enjoy and achieve i.e. to make the most out of life and to develop the skills to become an adult;

to make a positive contribution i.e. to be in touch with the community and society and not taking part in anti-social or criminal conduct;

To achieve economic well-being i.e. not being prohibited by financial difficulty from reaching their full ability in life.

The green paper suggested improvements was into four main areas which are assisting parents and carers, early involvement and effective security, responsibility and combination – locally, regionally and nationally and staff improvement.

Being healthy

It is shown by a study that those smoking regularly aged 11-15 in England has gone down since 1996 from 13 to 10 percent. But obesity level is rising. Between 1996 and 2001 the number of children who were obese having between 6-15 years old in England increase by 4 percent.

Young rates of pregnancy were lower by 10 percent in 2001 than in 1998. But UK still has the most teenage pregnancies in Europe.

The World Health Organisation published a report in 2002 that UK had the least suicide rate amongst 26 countries, but suicide is still responsible for 20 per cent of young deaths.

Staying safe

In March 2002, 59,700 children were in care in England, which is an increase of 22 percent since March 1994. But, the number on child protection registers in England have been decreasing as there were only 25,700 in March 2002 compared to 38,600 ten years earlier.

Between 1981 and 2001 the percentage of young boys in England and Wales reprimanded or sentenced of a crime decreased from 7 per cent of young boys to 5 per cent, but the same rate for girls increased from 1.3 to 1.4 per cent.

A research of criminal and harassment found that 46 percent being the target of some kind of crime in the last 12 months among those aged 11 to 16 in ordinary schools.

In most cases of domestic violence where around one in ten women involved yearly, their children were present in the same or next room, and one in three child safeguard circumstances points to a past of domestic violence against the mother.

Enjoying and achieving

The number of those aged 11 reaching the normal level in English and maths went up by 12 percent, from 63 percent to 75 percent and from 61 percent to 73 percent in English and maths respectively since 1997.

In 2002 more than half of 15 year olds got a minimum of five GCSEs at grades A*-C, a rise of more than 6 percent since 1997. However success is not steady through diverse ethnic groups like for example pupils from Chinese and Indian backgrounds succeed considerably over regular GCSE results; black pupils and those from Pakistani and Bangladeshi backgrounds do inferior in their GCSE results.

Non-attendance has stayed the same from 1995/96 at 0.7 percent of half days absent.

At the end of 2001, in every eleven youngsters having 16-18 years old, one was not in education, work or training and in every four youngsters between 16 and 18, one spend time out of education, training and employment.

Making a positive contribution

A new research of secondary students who are 11 to 18 years old showed that 86 percent had taken part in certain sort of community activity in the previous year and half participated in raising fund or gathering cash for charity.

From the 2001 General Election, assessments found that attendance was lowest between those aged 18-24, as only two in five casted their vote.

Economic well-being

Between 1992 and 1995, 19 percent of children stayed in working age jobless homes, but in 2003, the percentage had fallen to 15.2.

The percentage of children staying in homes with comparatively low earnings decreased between 1996-97 and 2001-02 from 34 to 30 after housing expenses. The percentage of children staying in homes with virtually low earnings fell largely from 34 percent to 20 percent after housing deductions.

The Children’s Act 2004 established a Children’s Fund which is aimed to support in the abolition of poverty and economic difficulties felt by disadvantaged children or those whose family’s monetary conditions leave them deprived by making sure that children aged between five and thirteen attend school regularly and also decreasing the risk of crime being carried out by these children, so that they can get the best promising start of their life.

The Children’s Act 2004 specially caters for disabled children. Local authorities have a responsibility under the Act to arrange for facilities to ‘children in need’ if these amenities will aid keeping a child safe and healthy.

After the death of baby P, there was a review conducted by Lord Laming which suggested that those dealing with children need to be properly trained to detect any problem so that social workers or other practitioners can better safeguard children under their responsibility.

The Children Act 2004 provides a strong emphasis and a new approach to children’s services but is not sufficient in itself. Its application must be part of an extensive progression of transformation, concentrating on results and brought onward by local transformation packages in 150 Local Authority regions set within a national structure.

The National Service Framework for Children, Young People and Maternity Services (NSF) is fundamental to this. It put forward a ten-year plan to encourage durable and continual progress in children’s health and well-being.

As it is applied by Primary Care Trusts (PCTs), Local Authorities and other groups including other health bodies, it will add to the realisation of the five outcomes.

What is a Child? Initially this may appear to be a simple question: we all have some experience of children and childhood, perhaps through family, friends or your own children, most people have close contact and bonds with children. There is also a wealth of people, in many different professions, who work with children of all ages in many types of settings. Also it is impossible to ignore the simple fact that every adult on this planet was, once, a child themselves. It is clear we all have some experience of children and childhood, and most people will have some very clear notions of what childhood is or what it should be. However once you begin to look a little deeper, it becomes far more complex than one might at first imagine: there are many different factors which effect childhood today. This paper will analyse this question further, looking at definitions of a child and how childhood has changed during the twentieth and twenty first century. Taking into account the effect of the media, consumerism, advertising, adults changing attitudes and child related policy, in order to evaluate how these factors have changed and shaped modern childhood…

More than sixty years ago, in 1948, the majority of the world’s country’s signed up to the United Nations Declaration of Humans Rights (Lee, 2001). This stated that all human beings were entitled to certain basic rights, which no state could remove from them. Furthermore a little over twenty years ago, in 1989, the United Nations passed a further set of rights specifically for children: the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of the Child (Lee, 2001). One might question the reasons behind this extra convention: the original declaration covered all human beings so why would children need their own special set of rights? (Lee, 2001). This gulf between children and adults within global guidelines reflects the trend of viewing adults and children as ‘fundamentally different types of human’ (Lee, 2001 pg.5). Traditionally the vast majority of societies have considered adults to be complete, constant and self regulating where as the child is seen to be incomplete, changeable and requiring guidance (Lee, 2001). The sociologist Jens Qvortrup (1994) explained this fissure between human adults and human children eloquently by describing adults as ‘human beings’ and children as ‘human becomings’ (cited in Lee, 2001 pg. 5). Now this paper will look at different standpoints, which can be used to view the notion of what children and childhood are…

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989 defines a child in the following way: ‘a human being below the age of eighteen years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier’ (UNCRC, Article 1, 1989). This definition of the child would fall under the category of a legal definition; another legal way to define a child would be by using the age of criminal responsibility. The age that a individual becomes criminally responsible varies greatly from country to country, in England and Wales the age was raised to ten years old in 1963, it had previously been eight (Children and Young Persons Act 1963, section16). However until the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 the law presumed that children under fourteen were ‘doli incapax’. Meaning the law regarded them as being incapable of distinguishing the difference between what is right and what is wrong, and therefore could not be convicted of a crime they had committed. Unless the criminal prosecution were able to definitively prove that the perpetrator was fully aware that their actions were wrong (Crime and Punishment Act 1998, section 34). The age of criminal responsibility imposed by England and Wales and the even lower age of eight in Scotland, are the lowest within the European Union. The UN Committee on the Rights of the Child has criticised the UK for the low ages imposed: stating article three of the UNCRC which requires that during criminal proceedings the child’s best interests must be held in primary consideration (Broadbridge, 2009).

Another perspective to look at when defining the child would be to study the concept from a sociological standpoint. What does the term child and childhood mean to society? What is their notion of a child? These are complex questions and the answers will inevitably vary depending on the country and culture one is studying. Michael Wyness (2006) used the ‘playing-child’ construction to define childhood: this encompasses the notion that childhood equals a time of play, without responsibilities. By using this definition Wyness also offers a definition for adulthood: if childhood can be characterised through a lack of work therefore adulthood can be characterised as being a time for work and responsibility (Wyness, 2006 pg. 9). This would suggest that childhood is a socially constructed phenomena based on the ideas that people within a given society hold. This notion of childhood being a social construction is not a new idea: the French historian Philippe Aries (1960) has also suggested that childhood is a fairly recent construction of society. Aries claimed that until the fifteen century children in Western Europe were considered as miniature adults and therefore believed to have similar mental abilities and personal qualities as adults. Although due to their smaller physical presence they were viewed as physically inferior compared to a fully grown adult (Montgomery, & Woodhead, 2002). Philippe Aries work, Centuries of Childhood (first published 1960), was influential in attracting academic consideration towards the study of childhood; however his work has been subject to plentiful criticisms. Such as how he drew his conclusions about medieval society through the means of studying art from the period. Due to the subjective nature of art, studying a society in this way may give an inaccurate picture of how that society viewed a particular subject. A further criticism was the lack of explanation for the change in attitudes towards children (Hill, M, & Tisdall, K, 1997).

A society which views children as being a completely different type of human being compared to adults, will believe that the child has different needs to be fulfilled than the adults within their society. One example of this can be seen in prosperous areas of the industrialised world, where a wealth of products are available which are exclusively tailored for children. Items such as toys, clothes, cots, food stuffs and medicine are just a snippet of the vast array of child centred paraphernalia adults will encounter in various retail outlets (Montgomery, & Woodhead, 2002). As well as these rather necessary commodities, there is also an overwhelming range of products designed for entertaining children. There are books, magazines and television channels; holidays and theme parks; educational software and computer games. These are just some of the things available which cater for children, turning childhood into a lucrative, commercialized business (Montgomery, & Woodhead, 2002).

The increasing trend in this type of consumerism aimed at children, has further led to a massive growth in advertising aimed at children. Companies now spend huge amounts of money per annum on advertising their brand to children, whereas comparatively twenty years ago the budget for this type of advertising would have been virtually nonexistent (Dunn, & Layard, 2009). Research has shown that brand loyalty develops in children from a very early age: studies have shown that even children as young as two will treat a new toy differently depending on whether that child has been exposed to the toy previously through the means of advertising on television. Once they reach the age of three children tend to prefer leading branded products, which are subject to mass media marketing compared to a non branded product which tastes exactly the same (Dunn, & Layard, 2009). The purpose of advertising is obviously to make the consumer desire a certain item or brand over any other similar items available. However advertising also has the knock on effect of making people, adults and children alike feel that they need more materialistic items than they would otherwise believe. This can leave parents feeling that they need to spend more and more money in order to make their children happy; in a survey conducted by the Children’s Society nine out of ten parents stated that advertising pressurised them into spending more than they could realistically afford (Dunn, & Layard, 2009). Consumerism also has negative effects for the child; a major study was conducted in 2004 by Juliet Schor, into the effects of the media and consumerism on children. Her study has found that; if all other aspects of a child’s life were equal, high exposure to media would led a child to be more materialistic, having problems relating the their parents and being at higher risk of mental health issues. These risks increase even more for children from disadvantaged backgrounds, who are living with little household income to being with (Dunn, & Layard, 2009).

Children’s experience of childhood in the twenty first century will differ vastly from even their own parent’s experiences just one generation before them. This is partly due to the change in children’s leisure activities which in the last decade have shifted to included much less physically active pursuits (Dunn, & Layard, 2009). Studies have shown that children are spending less time than ever before pursuing physical activities. Physically inactive pursuits such as: television, video gaming and the internet becoming ever more popular (Dunn, & Layard, 2009 pg.54). This bloom in new technologies has brought a wealth of knowledge and entertainment to our finger tips. However it has also been linked with increases in three dangers: encouraging the discourse that wealth and beauty equal’s happiness; encouraging aggressive models of relationships and that it encourages less physical activity and unhealthy lifestyles (Dunn, & Layard, 2009).

The change in adults attitudes towards what pursuits can be considered safe for children is one reason for this decline in the amounts of physical, outdoor activity undertaken by modern children. Through the media, vast amounts of information regarding child murder cases are made available and easily accessible to the general public, resulting in these cases being more prominent in people’s thoughts (Dunn, & Layard, 2009). This leads people to believe that the number of children being murdered, especially being murdered by strangers has been steadily increasing over time; however this isn’t the case. Home office statistics show that the risk of children being murdered by a stranger are very minimal, averaging approximately eleven per year shows that for the vast majority of adults their fears for children’s safety are unfounded (Dunn, & Layard, 2009). In fact a child is at much greater risk within their own home. The NSPCC believe that for each generation more than one thousand children will be killed before adulthood, most at the hands of a violent parent or carer (Cunningham, 2006 p.235).

These high profile cases in the media have also led to children’s rights becoming more prominent within societies and indeed also the Governments thoughts. There has been a deluge of child related policy passed through the UK government, reflecting how attitudes towards children have changed; children are being viewed as separate beings that have individual needs and are in need of protection.

Just one of these policies is the Children Act 2004; this Act was developed and implemented following the findings of Lord Laming’s 2003 inquiry into the tragic death of Victoria Climbie, who died in 2002 (Duffy, & Pugh, 2010). In response to the Laming report the government published the Green Paper Every Child Matters (DfES, 2003); the prime minister at the time, Tony Blair, described it as ‘the most significant development for children for more than thirty years’ (Duffy, & Pugh, 2010 p.9). The overall outcomes that the Green Paper and the consequent Children Act of 2004 hoped to achieve was to improve the expectations of all children, narrowing the fissure between high and low achievers via the means of reconfiguring the services available for children and families (Duffy, & Pugh, 2010). The Act also set out five outcomes which all children, right from birth until the age of eighteen, should be able to achieve. These five outcomes are: to be healthy, to be protected from all forms of harm, to enjoy and achieve in their lives, to be able to contribute positively within their society and finally the ability to achieve economic wellbeing (Anning, & Ball, 2008). Whilst the intention of this Act appear to hold a child’s well being as paramount in its agenda, some professionals have voiced concerns over potential negative side effects, it might present for the most vulnerable of children (Womack, 2006). Under the Act a massive database containing information on all twelve million children living in England and Wales was created (Womack, 2006). Experts in the field of safeguarding children have suggested that the sheer amount of data recorded in this database, will make it easier for genuine cases of child neglect and abuse to slip through the net. Under a system that detects threat to a child, in even in the most trivial of matters, may mean a child under serious threat of harm will not be identified (Womack, 2006). When services are already looking for the ‘needle in a haystack’ is it really useful to make the haystack even bigger? (Womack, 2006)

Having looked at the legal and sociological perspectives of childhood and having taken into account the influence of the media, consumerism, advertising, adult attitudes and child related policy. The focus of this paper will now turn to look at the feelings and ideas that children have about what it means to be a child…

Wendy Stainton-Rogers conducted interviews with children from around the world as part of research for a book about childhood (Stainton-Rogers cited in Montgomery, & Woodhead, 2002). In these interviews children were asked, what did being a child mean to them? One child aged eight, when interviewed and asked this question replied: ‘I’m a child because, if I was a baby I would still be small. And, and now I’m a child because I’m not a baby any more. Because I’m, because I’m grown up. And a baby is sort of like, is like almost one year old, two years old or three years old’ (Stainton Rogers cited in Montgomery, & Woodhead, 2002 pg.7). This statement appears to show that the child questioned was somewhat confused as to exactly what a child is. They had some clear thoughts about what made them a child, but appeared hesitant in being able to justify their thoughts. Another child stated that they felt that they would become an adult after their bat mitzvah, saying that after that they would feel more ‘grown up’ (Stainton Rogers cited in Montgomery, & Woodhead, 2002 pg.7). This suggests that a child’s religion will impact their feelings of what it means to be a child: that childhood ends with certain religious rites of passage. One child felt that a child was somebody who was still learning and being moulded into an adult (Stainton Rogers cited in Montgomery, & Woodhead, 2003 pg.7). The answer that this child gave would fit in very well with a socially constructed model of childhood: that the purpose of childhood is for the adult members of a society to shape and mould children into acceptable members of society for the future.

From completing the research for this paper, it has become clear that there is no single, universal answer to the question ‘what is a child’. Both children’s and adults views on childhood and what it means to be a child will vary vastly depending on culture, religion and the country where they live. To state that a child is a human being under the age of eighteen simply just isn’t enough. Children are all individuals and no two will ever be the same just as no two adults ever will be. In order for children to be happy and grow into well rounded, balanced adults their individual needs have to be met and to be protected from serious harm. It is wrong for adult society to simply believe that a child is just an unfinished lump of clay in need of sculpting in order to become the adults society expects for the future. Children should be seen as important members within all societies, whom have the ability to positively contribute to the society in which they live.

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Street children

Introduction:-

Also Street children as defined by the UNICEF: is divided into children “on” the street and children “of” the streets. Children “on” the streets are the children whose have home to live in, but they have a full time work or a part time work. Children “Of” the streets are the children “whose home ties have been seriously weakened and who essentially live in the street” (UNICEF, 1993, p.22). Children “of” the streets are which lives all there time on the streets or in other words children with no shelter except for the street. Also, a “street child” is defined as “any boy or girl for whom the street in the widest sense of the word has become his or her habitual abode and/or source of livelihood, and who is inadequately protected, supervised, or directed by responsible adults”( Lusk, 1989).according to Kopoka Children whose work on streets and take streets as a shelter, usually come from poor slums and squatter settlements where everything is precarious: Family financial situation, overcrowded schools and even safe place where they can run and play. Moreover, wars or armed conflicts cause the increasing of this problem where the children parents are killed and leave them alone with no shelter or place to live . On the other hand, there are children whose have guardians, but the guardians sent them to work to help the family, others are forced to work and live in streets. Even there are children from well to do families or middle class who run away from homes. The purpose of this essay is to show some of the causes and its effects considering street children problem, and analyse the solution to differentiate between good solution and bad solutions.

Causes:-

According to Lugalla and Mbwambo, 1995; there are lots of causes for this problem, some are natural and others are man-made. Children have lost contact with their parents or families, which results the loss of the children in the streets. Some children are the offspring of prostitutes. Some families reject their children if there are handicapped. Some “respectable” parent disowned their own child because he/she is an outcome of an affair. In those causes the background is not allows poor.

Effects:-

According to Harding, 2010; for every cause there is effect, and there are devastating effects on street children themselves and on the society they belong to. The children without education are without future, which means that they will not be able to defend their future and they will face lots of difficulties to have a better life. Moreover, being undernourished from such a very young age causes bad side effects on their health like malnutrition which effects there immune system and as a result shorter life expectancy. There are approximately 48 million young ones whose are not registered in their country’s archives, which represents around 47% of the child population around the world. 20 out of every 100 births in Latin America never registered. That mean that all of those 47% are not on paper which means they do not exist. This is a huge problem as those poor kids do not have identity, which exclude them from other right like the right to vote or the right to have a proper education or even low level education. Moreover, criminal gangs which really represent a huge disaster, as they use those unregistered children to do criminals and violence. Those children have no criteria to know what is right and what is wrong. They may expose themselves to very cruel situations like prostitution, sexual violations, drug consumption and other forms of modern slavery. According to stolenchildhood.net “Street children in the third world, having no access to basic needs always become an easy prey of flesh traders. The demand of street children is high among the pimps and the brothel owners because these children sell themselves at cheap rates. These children are at high risk because they neither use contraceptives nor ask the clients to use them. Thus the chances of getting pregnant or catching a sexually transmitted disease is high”. A finite circle is problem, because when children grows to be adults. They will be the best shape for crime; there will be evil walking on his feet. There will be individual illiterate adults with low moral beliefs, with damaged psychology. Those lovely poor children in the past will be the evil which will oppress other helpless and innocent children. All of this means that street children of today will be criminals of tomorrow.

Analysis of Solutions:-

Street children are a huge problem and any solution, even if it is not good, it will at least push forward to solve this problem. ESCWA has developed good solutions which are

“1. to understand better the situation of street children through research in the following areas:

1.1 Quantitative data at national level to assess the magnitude of the problem. The statistics need to be disaggregated by sex and age.

1.2 Qualitative and quantitative research to examine the root causes that put girls and boys at risk, among them street children. This research will need to examine the link between poverty, inequality, exploitation, violence and exclusion.

1.3 Qualitative research to examine the everyday lives of the street girls and boys and the attitudes of society and the government towards them.

1.4 Policy level research examining the effectiveness of existing policies, planning and legislation and institutional arrangements and budgetary allocation targeting street children.

2. To shift the approach to street children from legalistic to preventive, protective and rehabilitative interventions, through a focus on:

2.1 Root causes and not only on symptoms

2.2 The economic and not only the social sector

2.3 Mainstreaming as well as specific institutions and actions for street children

2.4 The rights of street children as citizens and not as charity cases or delinquents 16

2.5 Street children not only as victims but also as citizens with the agency to participate in decisions which target them.

3. To enforce and monitor all international and national commitment to children

3.1 To review that all items of international conventions such as those pertaining to children’s rights and elimination of child labour are translated into legislation and other procedures.

3.2 To review that all enforcement procedures are in place and are implemented.

3.3 To strengthen all monitoring and reporting systems relating to relevant international conventions.

3.4 To review and further amend the ‘Child Law’ 126/2008 by removing all clauses that undermine its effectiveness and to put in place all the necessary procedures and monitoring mechanisms.

3.5 To review and amend articles pertaining to corporal punishment in a way that prohibits all physical violence whether at home, school, work or any other institution.

4. To establish clear mandates and lines of institutional responsibility for street children

4.1 Strengthen crossaˆ?cutting entities

4.1.1 To strengthen the establishment of a unit or department in the new Ministry for Family and Population with a clear mandate for responsibility for street children. This entity would be a catalyst advocating, legislating and monitoring the situation of street children.

4.1.2 To review and strengthen the role of what was previously the NCCM ‘Technical Consultative Committee’.

4.1.3 To strengthen the ‘Child Protection Committee’ according to the amended ‘Child Law’ through appropriate budget allocation, establishment of clear guidelines and protocols and awarenessaˆ?raising and training for the committee members.

4.1.4 To establish surveillance system such as a children’s Ombudsman

4.2 Establish responsibility of line ministries

4.2.1 To strengthen the role of economic sector ministries in addressing poverty, such as the creation of jobs for poor women and men.

4.2.2 To strengthen the monitoring systems of the Ministry of Labour in the area of child labour.

4.2.3 To lift all exclusionary conditions from access to education such as the rising cost of education, forced private tuitions by teachers, mistreatment of poor children in schools, corporal punishment and gender discrimination.

4.2.4 To establish effective internal and external mechanisms and multispectral interventions to identify children at risk and design suitable and sustainable interventions to reduce and eventually eliminate the risk factors.

4.2.5 To formulate a new Social Protection Strategy with the full collaboration of all relevant state institutions and NGOs that focus on the rights of the 17 child, with a dedicated budget and clear roles and responsibilities for its implementation and monitoring.

5. To devise a comprehensive child protection system that addresses the issues of all categories of vulnerable girls and boys in all their diversity of age, class, religion as well as family and regional background

5.1 To devise a Social Protection policy for vulnerable girls and boys.

5.2 To devise a Social Protection strategy translated into crossaˆ?cutting and sectorial programmes and projects and procedures.

5.3 To create realistic budget lines for the implementation of the various components of the Social Protection system.

5.4 To create clear institutional responsibility for monitoring and evaluation of the implementation of the strategy.

6. To devise a National Strategy, programmes and projects specifically for street children

6.1 To evaluate the implementation of the “National Strategy for the Protection, Rehabilitation and Reintegration of Street Children” of 2003, as well as all programmes and projects directly targeting street children.

6.2 To build on lessons learned and design a new Strategy in collaboration with key state institutions and NGOs.

6.3 To design innovative and participative programmes and projects that address the conditions and circumstances of children already living on the street taking into account that:

6.3.1 There is more chance of succeeding by helping children get off the streets through early intervention, before they establish their new “street kid” identity.

6.3.2 For those who have been a long time on the streets, it is possible to use participative methods and consult them in the design of the most effective activities.

6.4 To strengthen all programmes and projects that helps the reaˆ?integration of street children into mainstream society.

6.5 To put in place actions that address negative attitudes of both the general public and state employees towards street children.

6.6 To work directly with the police to address the way they perceive and treat street children

6.7 To solicit more resource allocation for items listed in recommendation 5 above from government and from bilateral and multilateral organisations.

7. To strengthen the advocacy role of civil society organisations working with street children

7.1 To strengthen CSOs ability to establish channels of communications with street children and to help make their voices heard.

7.2 To raise the capacity of CSOs working with street children in the area of advocacy and lobbying of policyaˆ?makers and politicians.

7.3 To support civil society networks and strengthens their roles as advocates of the rights and needs of street children.”

Conclusion:-

At last the author believes that street children are a huge problem that has a lot of causes which can be minimized and a lot of effects that are considered a real threat to all means of life, it is waste of man power which harm economy, it threats security and of course it is totally against human right .