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Sustainable Tourism Principle and Implication

Introduction

Globally, tourism has developed from 25 million worldwide voyagers in 1950 to 693 million in 2001 and by the year 2020 is expected to be two times as of now^. Thus, tourism has significant effect on numerous critical sphere of Society: the economy, the cultural and social viewpoints and nature. Notwithstanding, Unsustainable ill-advised tourism development can affect contrarily on all these aspects. In the long-haul, this can have deliberate outcomes for everyone. From few years a specific consideration has been provided for the relationship between environment and tourism.

“First official formulation of sustainable tourism may be found in Manila Declaration (1980) and in the agreement between World Tourism Organization (WTO) and United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), which was followed by the WTO’s definition of sustainable tourism as a tourism- ‘leading to management of all resources in such a way that economic, social and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled, while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversity and life support systems. Sustainable tourism products are those which are operated in harmony with the local environment, community, and cultures, so that these become the permanent beneficiaries and not the victims of tourism development’. This definition has been structured on the basis of the sustainable development definition contained in the famous Brundtland Report. As it may be noticed, the definition above is based on three pillars, namely social, environmental and economic sustainability”. Santonocito, S.D (2009)

UNWTO refine sustainable tourism definition.

“Tourism that takes full account of its current and future economic, social and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment and host communities”

Sustainable tourism advancement management practices and guidelines are useful to all types of tourism in all form of destinations, also in mass tourism and the different niche tourism sections. Sustainability standards refer to the monetary, environmental and socio-cultural parts of tourism advancement, and a suitable equalization must be made between these three extents to insurance its long haul sustainability.

Accordingly, sustainable tourism ought to:

Make ideal utilization of natural assets that constitute an important component in development of tourism, caring for necessary ecological processes and assisting to take care of biodiversity and natural heritage.
Respect the cultural and social authenticity of host people, preserve their traditional values, build and living cultural heritage, and contribute to cross-cultural and tolerance.
Ensure reasonable, long haul financial operations, providing the fairly distributed socio-economic advantage to all stakeholders, including balance employment and community service to hosts, and helping poverty reduction.

Sustainable tourism growth needs the educated participation of all appropriate stakeholders, and additionally solid political initiative to guarantee wide cooperation and unity building. Obtaining sustainable tourism is a constant process and it obliges consistent monitoring of effects, introducing the vital preventive and whenever necessary, corrective measures

Sustainable tourism ought to additionally keep a remarkable visitor satisfaction and guarantee a genuine experience to the voyagers, increasing their knowledge about sustainability issues and sustainable tourism practices have to promote amongst them. (UNWTO)

According to Horobin, H. et al. (1996)

Reports the preparatory discoveries of a study looking at the relationship between issues of sustainable improvement and the operations of small-scale tourism organizations. Shows that itemized polls were managed in the Yorkshire Dales National Park to owner administrator of small-scale tourism firms. States that the study looked to set up information levels, mentality towards sustainability, and response taken to ensure environment. Uncovers that the examination then looked to make what attributes of the organizations and their holder supervisors may lie behind these. Proposes that in spite of the fact that there is a great deal of sensitivity for the general standards of sustainability, there is general perplexity around the expression “sustainability” and even “ecological concern”. Reports an extent of response, yet an absence of valuation for how these may give an account of with a coherent business plan of action, irritated by an surprising absence of data, which is fairly something that needs to be tended to by the different open offices in the field. Prescribes that it may be conceivable to distinguish the aspects of those entrepreneurs who are well on the way to be responsive to the sustainable tourism’s principles

According to Gupta, V. (1999)

Religious journeys have occurred for so many centuries without bringing the adverse ecological, social and cultural effects connected with tourism. Typical characteristics of religious journeys are: not an inordinate burden on the surroundings ; useful to nearby communities; happen at sure times of year just; individuals convey their own particular gear and buy food, etc; pilgrims are peaceful, well behaved and law abiding; killing creatures or taking from nature is unthinkable. A few lessons could be gained from these for present day tourism.

According to Gibson, A. et al.(2003)

Applying the system of Eco tourism to a city environment is a comparatively new idea however an idea that benefits improvement in different urban communities. The idea of Eco tourism (urban green tourism), as initiated by Toronto’s Green Tourism Association, it is a working illustration that exhibits how a city can advertise itself, distinctive organizations and attractions to give an one of a kind tourism experience and produce interest for sustainability. This investigation seeks to framework how urban green tourism will be a impressive approach to tending to the concern of tourism in urban communities: development, waste, and so forth, and exhibits how sustainable tourism alternatives can exploit the existing characteristics of a urban areas. The association pushes local organizations, associations, natural and cultural characteristics through its guidebook, green sketch and Website to instruct voyagers and industry to greener practices.

According to Jamrozy, U. (2007)

Reason – The motivation behind this paper is to prescribe a change in the tourism marketing paradigm far from monetary benefit necessities to sustainability. The sustainability methodology follows a comprehensive, integrated perspective of marketing, taking everything in mind to social impartiality, environment security, and monetary liveability. The investigation tries to look at the evolving model for the tourism the earth.

Design/methodology/approach – The paradigm transformation regularly happens by following the development of marketing methodologies from handling, deals, and a buyer introduction to showcasing options, for example, responsible, green, societal, causal and relationship marketing. Acclimating a living framework tourism to tourism showcasing, a sustainable tourism marketing miniature integrates tourism into a bigger comprehensive connection and concentrates on marketing a personal satisfaction for all stakeholders in the framework.

Discoveries – While other methodologies to tourism marketing incorporate societal thought, for example, tourism impacts and ecological division methods, this research recognizes the triple bottom line as additional sustainable goals in tourism marketing and embraces an integrated aspect on tourism marketing.

Research limitations/implications – The model recommends a paradigm change that needs to be investigated further.

Down to earth suggestions – The paper delineates how tourism marketing might be integrated into additional sustainable urban marketing techniques.

Originality/value – Instead of sighting tourism as a independent for revenue driven industry, the model recommends a joining of tourism into a comprehensive, sustainable, personal satisfaction marketing methodology of living communities

According to Jayawardena, C. et al. (2008)

Reason – The motivation behind this paper is to give bits of knowledge to the applicable past examinations, philosophy and projects; and sustainable tourism improvement in the Niagara area.

Design/methodology/approach – Each of the main four part of this paper focus into particular areas. Results from first class examinations including 47 masters are accompanied by a compact literary works survey on sustainable tourism. The paper then examinations the idea of financial sustainability and analysis the results from a sketch for sustainable tourism improvement.

Discoveries – This paper examines the financial pillar of sustainable tourism by plotting the negative and positive financial impacts of the global industry of travel and tourism. Although checking the relative aggressiveness of the travel destination of world; with a concentrate on Canada’s execution, it blueprints plan of action for Niagara locale to improve its competitiveness to backing sustainable tourism.

According to Kaul, H. (2009)

Reason – The paper expects to give a comprehensive point of view on different dimensions of sustainable tourism. The exchange with key practitioners verifies the issues that have recently been distinguished.

Design/methodology/approach – The paper joins examination of government records and in addition experiences from experts. The paper examines affairs of sustainable tourism, industry’s strengths, challenges confronted and policy suggestions for the administration.

Discoveries – The paper investigates the monetary significance of sustainable tourism by plotting the strength and challenges of the tourism industry of India. The paper has suggestions for the administration and firms as far as speculation in hospitality training, infrastructure and better work for living practices.

Viable suggestions – The paper gives a guide to a portion of the initiatives that administration and industry could accept.

Originality/value – It joins together a policy viewpoint for industry stakeholder and government

According to Bowman, K. (2011)

Reason – The motivation behind this paper is to look at the state of sustainable touristy certification in flourishing nations and to present methodological and functional critiques and enhancements.

Design/methodology/approach – The study utilizes methodological refinements of fuzzy rationale and near dissection dependent upon fieldwork in seven nations.

Discoveries – Sustainable tourism projects ought to be generally planned with local logos, to a great extent performance based, and aggregation ought to be dependent upon fuzzy logic ideas of fundamental and jointly sufficient characteristics of sustainable tourism.

Originality/value – The paper utilizes political science ideas of state limit and methodological developments of fuzzy rationale to give keys to great sustainable tourism certificate programs in developing nations

According to Padin, C. (2012)

Reason – The motivation behind the paper is to depict the idea of sustainable tourism planning, building the theoretical establishments, the segments that make up the model, and the connections that guarantee the sustainability of a vacationer destination.

Design/methodology/approach – Tourism planning is dependent upon the standards of sustainability and is characterized by three measurements: ecological, monetary and cultural tourism improvement.

Discoveries – The objective of complete tourism planning is to attain monetary development and proficiency, guaranteeing effectiveness and social equity by settling the fundamental necessities of the populace and on the premise of stable and consistent environmental frameworks.

Research limitations/implications – The confinement of this research is the requirement to confirm the changing elements raised and check the vigour of the miniature in an application.

Useful suggestions – Finding the right harmony between these three dimensions is important to guarantee exhaustive long haul sustainability, while discovering plentiful references of hypothetical and theoretical structures of sustainability are dependent upon the triple bottom line, as alluded to later in this paper.

Originality/value – The paper’s contribution is to propose, inside the model itself, the systems of relation between the three extents and the connections around them, underscoring the imitativeness of the “stakeholders” the process.

According to Giudici, E. et al.(2013)

Reason – The aim of this paper is to keep tabs on assessing the rich cultural immaterial legacy of Sardinia Island, and how such a legacy can help the execution of tourism throughout the low season. The reason for existing is additionally to confirm if the improvement of impalpable legacy attractors could be an operator for the sustainability of the tourism of Island.

Approach/methodology/design – A qualitative methodology is utilized as a part of request to investigate a various research endeavour: the multifaceted outflows of the Holy Week. It is a cultural occasion that constitutes a piece of the Christian celebration of Easter, which is portrayed by conventional processions and antiquated ceremonies far reaching in different towns and urban areas around the island.

Discoveries – In Sardinia Island, intangible cultural heritage gives an extra chance to build the level of tourism.

Research limitations/implications – This study has its restriction: it centres just on a particular typology of occasion. Further studies ought to be mulled over so as to investigate if many different sorts of occasions have the ability to expand tourism in the low season, and to advertise it on a maintainable viewpoint.

Originality/value – This study of heritage tourism in islands gives data about which little has been composed. Also, it could offer a skeleton for other Mediterranean and somewhere else’s island destinations

According to Ali, A. et al. (2014)

Purpose – The point of this examination is to closer view information and communication technology (ICT) as an inventive methodology for sustainable tourism advancement of places. ICT is the innovation needed for data preparing which encourages information handling, data offering, correspondence, seeking and choice. This paper focuses on the Abernathy and Clark model and its advantage in applying ICT as inventive in overseeing Sustainable tourism.

Design/methodology/approach – An internet survey was managed to destination administrator and to e tourism specialists. Destination administrator were chosen as they were recognized as the individual answerable for the generally administration of a Destination Management Organization. E tourism masters were distinguished as somebody who owns exceptional skill, learning and aptitudes on ICT provisions to tourism and offered ability on which went from such field as electronic circulation, recommender frameworks, user-created content, online groups, portable technology, technology acknowledgement, tourism systems and Web 2.0. This was pursued by semi-organized meetings.

Discoveries – These ICT apparatuses were discovered to be inventive for data administration and dispersion for discriminating decision making. Innovation was encouraged through the utilization of ICT for Sustainable tourism by prompting a superior comprehension of the tourism item, following, measuring and assessing, anticipating patterns, creating organizations and captivating and supporting stakeholder connections.

ICT might give novel methods for approaching marketing, vitality observing, waste administration, and correspondence for destinations

Conclusion

The significance of incorporating an ecological dimension in vital administration forms has developed throughout the most recent decade, leaving no trade unaffected. Ideas, e.g., sustainable tourism advancement, sustainable tourism, and sustainable standards have been debated, and an audit of the tourism literature without any doubt shows two separate discussions ways.

From one perspective, we have investigator or researcher who have kept tabs on characterizing and comparing distinctive ideas with related to sustainability and for sustainable tourism that have created guidelines.

From other perspective, case studies based articles are there which are describing sustainable tourism development projects on their successful rates, by this we conclude project is outstanding or unsuccessful.

All the articles, reports and books investigated for present study focus on sustainability and tourism reveal that tourism as an industry has responded (or at least attempted to respond) to the guidelines given in report “Our Common Future” prepared by Environment and Development by the UN Commission in report. But most of the response came in maturity or later maturity stage of destination.

Sustainable tourism planning is to distinguish the stakeholders and open correspondences with them. NGOs, Local communities and the tourism industry all require to team up to help grow sustainable tourism ventures that are economically feasible and locally beneficial.

References

Ali, A. and Frew, A. (2014), “ICT and sustainable tourism development: an innovative perspective”, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 2-16

Bowman, K. (2011), “Sustainable tourism certification and state capacity: keep it local, simple, and fuzzy”, International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research,VOL. 5 NO. 3, pp. 269-281

Brundtland Commission (World Commission on Environment and Development)(1987), Our Common Future, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Gibson, A., Dodds, R., Joppe, M. and Jamieson, B. (2003), “Ecotourism in the city? Toronto’s green tourism association”, International Jouurnal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 15/6, 324-327

Giudici, E., Melis, C., DessA±`, S. and Ramos, B., “Is intangible cultural heritage able to promote sustainability”, International Journal of Quality and Service Sciences, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 101-114

Gupta, V. (1999), “Sustainable tourism: learning from Indian religious traditions”, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management,11,2/3, 91–95

Horobin, H. and Long, J.(1996), “Sustainable tourism: the role of the small firm”, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 8/5 ,15–19

Jamrozy, U. (2007), “Marketing of tourism: a paradigm shift toward sustainability”, International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 1 No. 2, pp. 117-130

Jayawardena, C., Patterson, D., Choi, C. and Brain, R.(2008), “Sustainable tourism development in Niagara: Discussions, theories, projects and insights”, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 20 No. 3, pp. 258-277

Kaul, H. and Gupta S. (2009), “Sustainable tourism in India”, Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism

Themes, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 12-18

Padin, C. (2012), “A sustainable tourism planning model: components and relationships”, European Business Review, Vol. 24 No. 6, pp. 510-518

Santonocito, S.D (2009), “Sustainable Tourism and Carrying Capacity in The Mediterranean Area Focus on Sicily”, 3rd Irt International Scientific Conference – Vol.1.

^Sustainable Tourism Development In Regional South Australia (2002), South Australian Tourism Commission, ISBN 1 876702 76 1

Sustainable Tourism, United Nation World Tourism Organisation, http://sdt.unwto.org/content/about-us-5

A government that effectively manages tourism creates benefits for all stakeholders. Effective management is avoiding negative impacts through a combination of general protective measures; regulations to control development; and financial restraints (Cohen, 1978; Hjalager, 1996). Improvement of the environment can be achieved by ensuring that development is harmonious with the overall plan for the destination (Batra & Kaur, 1996). Necessary tourism infrastructure such as roads, airports, parks, and visitor centers are also the responsibility of government (Jamal & Getz, 1995). Maintenance of infrastructure and facilities is expensive and residents, through property taxes, should not be the only group to bear this burden (Wong, 1996). Residents benefit when tourists spend money in the local economy and create jobs, as well as from the development of infrastructure that residents also utilize (Wong, 1996).

Residents in mass tourism destinations such as Hawai’i depend on tourism for their standard of living (Liu, Sheldon, & Var, 1987). Because tourism development usually involves a tradeoff between economic benefits and environmental or cultural costs, residents cope by downplaying the negative impacts based and emphasizing the economic gains to maintain satisfaction with their community (Dyer et al., 2007; Cavus & Tanrisevdi, 2003; Faulkner & Tideswell, 1997). Residents with the most economic gain are the most supportive of the tourism industry (Harrill, 2004).

Cavus & Tanrisevdi (2003) found that the development process controlled by planners was the primary factor in residents’ negative attitudes towards tourism. When residents perceive that the costs of tourism outweigh the benefits, feelings of resentment and irritation towards tourists can develop and lower community satisfaction (Doxey, 1975; Faulkner & Tideswell, 1997; Ko & Stewart, 2002). Residents who feel that they have a voice in tourism planning are more positive towards tourism (Cavus & Tanrisevdi, 2003). According to Choi & Sirakaya (2005), sustainable tourism is the development pathway to minimize the negative impacts of tourism. There are many ways to make tourism more sustainable but few tools for evaluating and testing a sustainable tourism framework (Choi & Sirakaya, 2005). Audits and resource valuation evaluate tourism’s costs and benefits so that they can be fairly distributed to stakeholders (Warnken et al., 2004; Wen, 1998). Limiting tourism growth (such as carrying capacity or limits of acceptable change) can also make development more sustainable (Cohen, 1978; Butler, 1980; Gossling, Peeters, Ceron, Dubois, Patterson, & Richardson, 2005; Christensen & Beckmann, 1998; Ahn et al., 2002). In these approaches, government management and stakeholder cooperation are necessary to reach a consensus for how to manage future tourism development. This is why Understanding residents’ perceptions are critical to fairly distributing the environmental, social, and economic costs and benefits of tourism; thus, ultimately increasing sustainable tourism development (Twining-Ward & Butler, 2002).

Host Community Attitudes and Perceptions about Tourism Development

This study aims at identifying the relationships between residents’ socio- cultural, economic and environmental aspect and their attitudes towards tourism by focusing on a small community where tourism is in the development stage. By conducting this research, the author hopes to come across the residents’ attitudes and capture their current perceptions about tourism development in their area. Moreover, this research is being done because most authors agree that initial community attitudes toward tourism are critical to community involvement in the industry (Murphy 1981), the formation of destination image (Echtner & Ritchie 1991).

Attitudes are defined as “a state of mind of the individual toward a value” (Allport 1966, p. 24) and as “an enduring predisposition towards a particular aspect of one’s environment” (McDougall & Munro 1987, p. 87). Attitude of host community to tourism based development can improve if there is a boost in the tangible and indescribable settlements the host community can receive by being in based development (Choi & Sirakaya, 2006). As Attitudes are based under this understanding, this is why some researchers came to a conclusion that residents’ attitudes toward tourism are not simply the reflections of residents’ perceptions of tourism impacts, but the results of interaction between residents’ perceptions and the factors affecting their attitudes (Lankford et al.1994). Some preceding researches have proved that some most important impacts of tourism are identified along with its variables, however the theory is underdeveloped: “Currently there is limited understanding of why residents respond to the impacts of tourism as they do, and under what conditions residents react to those impacts” (Ap 1992, p. 666). Husband (1989) also addressed this issue by saying “There is, so far, no theoretical justification of why some people are, or are not, favorably disposed to tourism” (p. 239).

Various issues can persuade perceptions of the host community about positive outcomes of tourism development. Support will depend on the degree of benefits perceived. The participation of community will be discussed later on in the literature review. The acceptance of local values can also be an important factor that leads to the achievement of a tourism based development (Alexander, 2000). However over a certain period of time many findings detected that host community perceptions’ in the direction from tourism may have more positive attitudes. People who depend on tourism industry or having a better economic benefit may possibly have a higher degree of positivity than other inhabitants who do not benefit from a tourism development (lankford and howard, 1994; Jurowski, Uysal, and willimas, 1997; Sirakaya , Teye and Sonmez,2002 ).

Lindberg and Johnson (1997) mentioned that people having higher economic impacts from tourism may have more positive attitudes. However Travis (1984) has stated that it’s not only an economic characteristic such as the opportunity for jobs creation or capital generation that needs to be considered by the host community. The socio-cultural and environmental aspects are also very important. For Choi and Sirakaya (2005), the most community should also have a better environment in term of infrastructures and improved amenities such as leisure and recreational activities. They describe tourism as consisting of various supports and any development in the tourism field should ensure the protection of the culture of host community, alongside the protection of the environment.

In order to clarify the relationship between the impacts of tourism and residents’ attitudes toward tourism, several models have been developed. One of the most influential models is Doxey’s Irridex model (1975) which suggests that residents’ attitudes toward tourism may pass through a series of stages from “euphoria,” through “apathy” and “irritation.” to “antagonism,” as perceived costs exceed the expected benefits. This model is supported by Long et al.’s (1990) research results, which indicate residents’ attitudes, are initially favorable but become negative after reaching a threshold.

To have a better comprehension about the relationship between the impacts of tourism and residents’ attitudes toward tourism, several models like Butler Tourism Life cycle Area and Doxey Irridex model. have been developed. One of the most dominant models is Doxey’s Irridex model (1975). The Irridex model indicates that residents’ attitudes toward tourism will change overtime. It suggests that residents’ attitudes and reactions toward tourism contain a sense of homogeneity (Mason et al. 2000). Conversely, this concept was challenged by some research findings that reported heterogeneous community responses and diverse residents’ attitudes simultaneously existing in a community (Brougham et al. 1981,Rothman 1978).

Critics about Doxey Irridex Model and Butler Tourism Area Life cycle

Butler (1980) took a more complicated approach. He argued that tourist areas go through a recognizable cycle of evolution; he used an S-shaped curve to illustrate their different stages of popularity. Butler stated that there are six stages through which tourist areas pass. These include the exploration stage, involvement stage, development stage, consolidation stage, stagnation stage, and decline stage. His study also reveals that evolution is brought about by a variety of factors, including changes in preferences and needs of visitors, the gradual deterioration and possible replacement of physical plant and facilities, and the change of the original natural and cultural attractions, which is responsible for the initial popularity of the area. Furthermore this model is supported by Murphy’s (1983) research results, which reveal the distinct attitude differences among residents, public officials, and business owners in three English tourist centers. Although Butler’s model addresses the difficulty of residents’ attitudes toward tourism, researchers still lacked theories explaining relationships between residents’ attitudes and tourism impacts until Ap (1992) applied social exchange theory to tourism.

According to the theory, exchange will start, only when there are irregular inaction forms. Ap (1992) suggests that “residents evaluate tourism in terms of social exchange, that is, evaluate it in terms of expected benefits or costs obtained in return for the services they supply” He also argued that when exchange of resources is high for the host actor in either the balanced or unbalanced exchange relation, tourism impacts are viewed positively, while tourism impacts are viewed negatively if exchange of resources is low. Social exchange theory has been examined as a theoretical framework by researchers to describe residents’ attitudes toward tourism impacts (Perdue et al. 1990, McGehee & Andereck 2004).

However mason and Cheyen (2000) stated that that the representation of Butler ‘assumes a degree of homogeneity of community reaction’. Butler (2006) supported his model by suggesting that ‘a consistent evolution of tourist area can be conceptualized’. Different phases at a particular destination may not be understood without mistakes. The demonstration hence should be concerned only to some extent as the phase itself differs from one tourist area to another. (Tosun,2002).

The Doxey irridex model gives a clear view of how host community attitude changes over a period of time. It mentions host community perceptions, reactions and attitudes in the direction of tourism (Manson et al.2000). This can be a conflicting principle because some research came to a conclusion that various host community attitudes and perceptions may exist in the community, (Brougham et al.1981, Rothman 1978). Akis, Peristanis & Warner (1996) disapprove the Irridex Model and The Tourism Life Cycle and view it as too simple, because both models give a few hint of changing host community perceptions and attitudes over time. Other researchers like Lankford and Howard (1994, P.135) opposed against the model of Doxey(1975) because positive and negative factors that affect the perceptions and attitudes of host community are not given much consideration.

As the tourism industry keeps on changing, this may be a reason why we must give this industry continuous support for its related development. Andereck & vogt( 2000) stated that it is considered that optimistic attitudes towards tourism may entail the encouragement for further tourism development. If there is any delay in tourism project development this can be due to frustration towards tourists. Mill and Morisson (1984) even mention that, ‘an acceptance of tourism cannot be built unless the benefits of tourism are made relevant to the community’. Attitudes and perceptions of host community at a destination is of utmost importance in the accomplishment of tourism development alongside the development of the industry at large also, (Hayword,1975), (Heenan, 1978), and Hiller (1976).

There is a broad belief perception and attitudes of host community in the direction of tourism outcomes are apt to become essential planning and policy concern for flourishing development and expansion of existing and potential tourism programs, (Ap,1992). Host community attitudes and perception is very important as it will influence their behavior towards tourism, (Andriotis and Vaughan, 2003).

Sustainable tourism is now recognized when tourism is well planned, developed and managed in a controlled, integrated and sustainable manner. With this approach, tourism can generate substantial economic benefits to an area/region, without creating any serious environmental or social problems. Tourism’s resources will be conserved for continuous use in the future.

Therefore this report covers the issues, approaches, techniques and principles for tourism planning at the national and regional level of planning and management of tourism at the national level because Cancun development both involved the national and regional planning.

Cancun is one of the most important tourist destinations in Mexico. From being a fishing village 30 years ago, today it a well visited resort. Cancun is located at Yucatan peninsula, in the state of Quintana Roo, Mexico. Cancun is connected by bridges to the mainland and has a 20km Hotel Zone which is about 200m wide with shores on the Caribbean Sea, and also enclose is large lagoon.

There are over 150 hotels and resorts in Cancun with more than 24,000 rooms and 380 restaurants and most of it all welcome families. Four million visitors arrive each year in an average of 190 flights daily.[citation needed] The Hotel Zone of Cancun is shaped like a 7 with bridges on each end connecting to the mainland

Beside Cancun, is the Mayan Riviera and check out Playa del Carmen, Xcaret and Xel-Ha. The ancient Mayan ports which is now been converted into modern-day paradises. Also nearby is Tulum, a fascinating archaeological zone by the sea. It was the only walled city built by the Mayans.

Source: http://www.visitmexico.com/cancun

The Development Plan and Policy

Mexico national tourism plan was to expand the international tourism industry which by 1960 the government approved the project to promote the international tourism industry to the less unknown region and local rural areas. The Mexican government choose 5 new resorts for development because the main tourist attraction then was just the natural environment and main historic sites. This bought about the creation of Cancun which was part of Mexico’s long-term national development strategy

Cancun actually plan was first developed in the 1967 by the government under the Mexico National Tourism Plan but development did not start until 1970 when FONATUR, the Mexican Federal Government’s agency in charge of fomenting national came in place

The initial Tourism policy was articulated around the interrelated sets of objectives

Open up a road from Puerto Juarez to the island,

Design a Master Development Plan and

Build a provisional air strip

The Master Plan came about three items

To build tourism zone where there will be no residential area surrounding it, like a tourism passage with hotels, shopping centres and golf courses installed

To build a residential zone for the permanent residents

Building an international airport atone side on the mainland south of the island

The tourism zone plan development which was divided into three phases. The first comprised the area from Bahia de Mujeres to Punta Cancun and the coast up to the inner limit of Bojorquez Lagoon; the second phase ran from Bojorquez Lagoon to Punta Nizuc, and the third from Punta Nizuc south, to the limits of the territorial reserve.

There are four distinct phases in Cancun’s development, characterized by times of growth and crisis: From 1969 to 1975;

From 1976 to 1983;

From 1984 to 1989;

From 1990 to 2007

At some time during these periods of growth, seemingly insurmountable problems darkened expectations for the area- a lack of regular flights, the 1982 devaluation, natural disasters, the collapse of North American tourism due to the terrorist attacks of September 11 and, more recently the hurricane Wilma back in October 2005. Nevertheless, the city has demonstrated its ability to bounce back on each occasion.

By 1976, Cancun was firmly established as a tourism destination: 18,000 inhabitants, stable migratory patterns, more than 5,000 jobs, 1,500 hotel rooms and 100,000 visitors in the winter 76-77 season.

The sudden spurt of growth prior to 1982 caused an ecological imbalance in the lagoon system, requiring corrective measures. From 1983 to 1988, Cancun registered explosive growth with more than 12,000 hotel rooms and another 11,000 projected or under construction and more than 200,000 inhabitants.

From 1989 to date, Cancun has been the nation’s most dynamic city. It contributes a large percentage of Mexico’s tourism-related revenue and accounts for much of Quintana Roo gross domestic product. There are currently more than 500,000 inhabitants in the urban area. Cancun has become the country’s largest tourism resort and is the most prosperous city in the Yucatan Peninsula. It is also the Caribbean’s premier destination, surpassing even the Bahamas, Dominican Republic, Jamaica and Puerto Rico.

Strategic for Managing resorts

Tourism as extensively damage the lagoon, the sand dunes as to the extinction of species of animal and fish and also the rain forest which surround s the island as been destroyed. Until recently after 20 year the Mexico government decided to limit project along the coast to prevent further damage to the island.

Environmental problem: Deforestation. This is caused by the over construction of hotels, restaurant and other tourism catering facilities and it also causes wildlife destruction and further environmental damages

Impact and effect: medium and regulation

Type of measure: regulatory standard. No regulatory body or law for controlling tourism development

To achieve the management and control of Cancun some sustainable indicator have to be consider

Carrying Capacity

Cancun’s carrying capacity has been exceeded to a point where the benefits of tourism are beginning to significantly diminish. Therefore the government established a carry capacity standard. The carrying capacity of Cancun can be defined as the threshold of tourist activity beyond which facilities are saturated (physical capacity), the environment is degraded (environmental capacity), or visitor enjoyment is diminished (perceptual or psychological capacity). Among these three capacities the latter two are the most relevant to Cancun’s current situation.

Regulatory improvement

In Cancun, the government of Mexico established local and regional zoning laws that restrict development and bans development in conservation zones of the Cancun-Tulum corridor, locate in the states of Yucatan and Quintana Roo

Land use

Formally, development is guided by a master plan affecting land use and building patterns. The plan limits the number of floors of hotels, guarantees public access to beaches, and preserves the five mile zone separating the tourist zone from the City of Cancun in the mainland

Actions Taken for Competitiveness

Product development action: how to make attractions better

Market development

Re-launch of Cancun

Quality assessment

Managing and Co-ordinating actions

The Competitiveness Program of Cancun as been considers into 5 important components:

Product Development: Physical Recovery of the Tourism Product is based on rescue and rehabilitation projects, such as the rescue of beaches, ecological rescue and lagoon maintenance, restoring and the rehabilitation of the central zone of Cancun city, reforestation and signage, remodelling of the Convention Centre, and other important modernization and rehabilitation programs

Re-Launch of Cancun: Have as its purpose a qualitative transformation of the city’s image and the adding of new values. In this section, projects are being developed, such as Puerto Cancun as a large international yachting attraction, a multimodal transport terminal in order to define a new policy in municipal public transport, a sub-aquatic museum and artificial reefs, a project to construct a race car dome, and enlarging the Cancun airport.

Quality Assessment: Raise Service and Quality Levels: through the recognition of the workforce’s efforts, collaboration among different tourism business sectors and the facilitation and systematic improvement surveillance of visitor experience. This includes specific actions such as the Mexican Caribbean Quality Tourism Norms, tourist safety, facilitation of immigration and customs systems in the airport, utilizing protected areas, and a centre of business linkage.

Market Development: New Marketing for Cancun will attend to the problems of Cancun’s image, and includes actions such as new promotional and marketing campaigns, which revalue the destination’s attractiveness, as well as the development of new tourist products, principally other than the sun and sea niche.

Managing and Co-ordinating actions: Long-Term Planning for the State of Quintana Roo in the Year 2025: considers that in the next few decades, tourism as economic development will consolidate around the tail end of the state.

Conclusion

From 1989 to date, Cancun has been the nation’s most dynamic city. It contributes a large percentage of Mexico’s tourism-related revenue and accounts for much of Quintana Roo gross domestic product. There are currently more than 500,000 inhabitants in the urban area. Cancun has become the country’s largest tourism resort and is the most prosperous city in the Yucatan Peninsula. It is also the Caribbean’s premier destination, surpassing even the Bahamas, Dominican Republic, Jamaica and Puerto Rico.

Mexico’s National Trust Fund for Tourism Development

The sustainable development of tourism has become a global major task which aims at achieving the objectives of biological preservation, prevention of climate change, and natural resources’ conservation to ensure the long-term prosperity (Narasaiah 2004). In order to obtain the positive outcomes, it’s necessary to concentrate on the impacts and implications of a destination’s environmental, economic and social areas (Sofield 2003).

Brisbane is the capital city of the Australian state Queensland with an approximate 200 million population and it’s a green and diverse city with a splendid climate. It also has become one of the fastest growing economic cities and the major business hubs in Australia. Brisbane’s outstanding economic performance mainly relies on its tourism-related industries (ABS 2010). A number of 5.8 million arrivals to Australia during the year ended October 2010 has increased 5% when is compared to the same period of last year. Besides, an expectation of 20 million international arrivals will be received by the year 2020. The tourism industry has played an important role in Brisbane’s economy whereby it becomes the third-most popular destination after Sydney and Melbourne (TA 2010).

Therefore, the sustainable tourism development is an ideal execution which is balancing the social, economic and environmental areas to ensure long-term sustainability in both mass and special interest segment of a destination’s tourism industry (Black and Crabtree 2007).

Sustainability of Brisbane’s tourism
Natural resources

Being the heart of Queensland, Brisbane has the wealthy energy and water resources so that it can be able to contribute to the development and execution of sustainable energy and climate change policies to maintain adequate energy supplies for the tourism-related industries (Australian Government 2010). The beaches, mountains, rivers and bays of the city have made it a destination with lively nature. It’s also rich in heritage which can simply reveal by the architecture and art of the city. However, Brisbane is now facing the problems of greenhouse gas, peak oil and climate change. It is now taking measures to enhance the energy security and manage the natural resources (BCC 2010).

Hence, Australia’s abundant natural resources have been the key accelerator of its economic prosperity and international competitiveness. This is the reason that the sustainability is a crucial issue for both business and government in such a country with unique natural environment.

Developmental strategy

The Australian Tourism Board released the ‘National long-term tourism strategy’ which practised the long-term policy to position the tourism industry as economically vibrant and sustainable industry in order to further its sustainable development (Australian Government 2010).

The tourism industry of Australia will double over the next ten years due to the substantial growth in both nature-based tourism and ecotourism. The ecotourism is a nature-based tourism which is involving the education and explication of the natural environment so that it can be conducted to be ecologically sustainable. It’s able to help Brisbane’s cultural components and the ecological sustainability of natural environment to obtain opportune gaining to the local community and long-term conservation of the resources (Fennell 2003). Australia is well-known for its ecotourism after it has made the great achievements in the developments between various stakeholders which are including government, industry and community groups (TQ 2002).

Brisbane is increasing the reverse and connectivity of bush land to provide extra protection of natural areas; it can also improve the carbon pollution and the climate changes (BCC 2010). Furthermore, Australia has set up the sustainable population strategy to make sure that it can reply to the variations in its population to develop a sustainable Australia. The strategy is aim at improving the present and future generations with more suitable recognitions and managements to the influence of population changes (AG 2010). It also can direct the development of principles to meet the population needs of Australia’s future. All of those strategies which have been mentioned above will become the strong means to ameliorate the sustainable tourism development of Brisbane.

The issues of sustainable tourism development
Social impacts

The growing complexity of communities and the relationships between them pose significant challenges for the sustainable development of tourism (Hall and Richards 2000). For example, the Brisbane City Council has worked with the social development industry to improve the living and working environment more sustainable. It also provided the grant to encourage the sustainable tourism development in the community such as roads, buildings, green spaces, and tourist attractions of the city (BCC 2010). One of the most obvious reasons is that the growing number of population and tourists will inevitably influence the quality of local residents’ lives (Faulkner 2003).

Brisbane is deeply concerning on the sustainable development since a growing number of domestic and foreign people like to buy their second and retired homes to spend their lives here after discovered through tourism. This may also help to conserve its heritage, culture and classical architecture in order to maintain the charms to the international market because the tourism will influence the culture and nature environment (Horner and Swarbrooke 2004).

The productivity of labour plays an important role in affecting the sustainable tourism. Brisbane has developed a Multicultural Employment Infrastructure Program to assist the skilled people from high unemployment migrant into appropriate occupation of tourism industry such as hotels, restaurants, attractions, etc. and thus creating more sustainable employment outcomes for the local society (TA 2010). The sustainable development with the good encouragement can help to provide large training opportunities and great employment for the residents. The positive labour productivity growth of Australia tourism was contributed mostly by the accommodation and transport services industries from 2003 to 2009 which has been indicated in Figure 1.

There is an issue that Brisbane is making efforts to dispose the gender discriminations in the tourism industry because of only 36% of female managers. The other major jobs are diminutive such as housekeeping, kitchen work, waitress, etc. and thus Brisbane is trying to improve this situation and providing better chances or conditions for the women in the tourism industry (Helium 2010).

Another social issue is that the Aboriginal culture has become a tourism product due to a growing area of tourism interest after it was exposed by Australia to the international tourism market. It has enhanced the economy and improved the quality of life for the Aboriginal people. The Aboriginal culture also helps to differentiate Australia as a distinctive destination from its global competitors of the marketplace (Butler and Hinch 2007).

However, the tourism will have the negative impacts on society in term of the activities of local community. The reason is that the tourism development may result in the loss of its cultural identity by playing up to the perceived demands of the tourists, especially the international markets. For example, some historical buildings in Brisbane are now facing demolition or reconstruction due to the new construction plans of city council. The community is under a debate of the purpose of these buildings and the value of attractions in the future because some local committees are trying to protect these heritage properties (Moore 2010). Hence, the local society has to always focus on not to meet the anticipated touristy ideals in order to ensure it can conserve its own culture or heritage in a right direction.

Figure 1 Average annual labour productivity growth in tourism industries (%)

Source: TRA 2010.

Environmental impacts

A destination will strengthen its policies on protecting the environment due to the rapid growth of tourism industry. However, the environmental impacts can also bring the negative outcomes to the nature-based tourism (Jafari 2000).

Brisbane is now facing the worst flash floods coming from the Toowoomba city. The floods entered Brisbane with the floods level of 4.5 metres which is expected higher than 1974’s peak. A large number of shops in the central business district have closed because of the floods. More than 10,000 properties and 200,000 people have been influenced in the New Year floods. Many residents and visitors are forced to evacuate out of the disaster areas. The Queensland Tourism Board mentioned that flooding and heavy rains had hit the tourism industry badly with lots of roads, rail links and airports were blocked (ABC 2011).

The destination will also take actions to minimising the negative environmental impacts for the sustainable tourism development (Jafari 2000). Nowadays the Australian tourism is tending to the ‘low carbon travel’ because of the carbon pollution of the country. Both locals and tourists are encouraged to experience the low-carbon vacation and lifestyle so that a lot of tour packages have been provided on village or vineyard journeys (TA 2010). Hence, Brisbane pro-actively works on sustainability positivity will be better positioned than its competitors to survive as the travellers grow more environmentally conscious in selecting their destinations.

The environmental auditing is required by legislation as a self-regulative implementation which can be valuable controlling tool in order to achieve the sustainable tourism development (Jafari 2000).

Being one of the largest cities of Australia, Brisbane has invested in dealing with the greenhouse gas emissions, climate changes, and use of fossil fuels. The reason is that Australia is one of the most carbon-emitting countries and thus Brisbane is taking actions to improve the environment which is affected by its growing tourism industry. It has identified that the public transports and rail freights are the key factors to handle the reduction of carbon emission; nevertheless the Australian tourism is so dependant upon its international and domestic aviation links due to its unique geography. Therefore the airline industry of Australia increased the fuel prices when the tourism was affected directly (TTF 2008).

The environmental influence of tourism has also motivated the destinations to concentrate responsibly in enhancing the quality of their environments and lives (Elliott and Thomas 2009). Australia is challenged to solve the variety of environmental issues since the global community is focusing on the ‘green tourism’. Brisbane has developed the Climate Adaptation project which is aiming to set up the climate changes strategies and policies of climate adaptation to help the tourism and increase the local livelihoods through the sustainable tourism (TA 2010). This can help the city to recognise the risks of future climate change in sustainable tourism and ensure that the strategies are flexible to face the challenges within a right direction.

Economic impacts

Sustainable tourism is acting an important role in economic aspect of the community and global levels by minimising the negative impacts to ensure sustainable use, as well as providing sufficient tourism revenue to reinvest an affirmative segment of investments (UN 2001).

The Australian tourism is acknowledged by its regional communities as a significant economic driver due to its strong competency to provide a large number of jobs and income. The total expenditure from the tourists has increased by 5% to about AU $59 billion since 2008. The state of Queensland was the highest area where the visitors spent the most to its regional tourism. Besides, Australia has created a Tourism Impact Model for local councils to operate the economic impacts of tourism and therefore it can efficiently generate the income of tourism to improve the industry (TAV 2008). The sustainable tourism development is always measuring the economic activities so that it can obtain and focus the future impacts to the industries. This has become a cardio tonic for Australian economic growth.

The tourism industry has the capacity to bring grant benefits when it also has to utilise the costs on host communities. The benefits and costs of tourism are contributed equally. Instead of concentrating great efforts on advertising tourism or on measuring all of the benefits and costs, the regional development may become an effective tool to achieve larger return from the efforts that the communities are able to increase the tourism’s net revenue (Moscardo 2008). Australia is applied itself to increase the tourism’s net economic contribution to its economy and to foster an industry which is promoting the regulations of economic responsibility and sustainable tourism development. For instant, the state of Brisbane, Queensland has provided a ‘Smart State’ program with $120 million to develop a state where knowledge and innovation drive economic growth to solve the challenges of the technology industry and improve the quality of tourism (TA 2010). Therefore, the positive economic influence of tourism will rely on the way it managed and planned.

The tourism has to always concern on the economic areas when it is planning for the sustainable tourism because the economic issues is not only provide positive achievements but also affects the tourism negatively (Sofield 2003).

The Australian dollar strengthens currently to make lots of overseas travellers who are forced to tighten their purse strings. The impact of the stronger Australia dollar will make it to become a more expensive destination for the overseas visitors. Some hotels were affected by this issue as the business of international customers dropped five percent when compared with the previous months. This also meant that the overseas travellers would spend less time in Australia. Furthermore, the impact of the flash floods in Brisbane has also caused about AU $6 billion in damage which is including the budget of reconstruction and the raise of food prices. This may affect the local business which provides the products and services to both residents and tourists, especially in hotels and restaurants. They will hardly cut down the costs to attract the domestic and international tourism (PMN 2011). Both the stronger dollar and floods impacts of tourism industry will shorten Australia’s economic growth in 2011.

Corporate Social Responsibility

Corporate Social Responsibility is the persistent guarantee by business which contributes to the economic development through improving the quality of the local communities and the life of labour force. It is an effort of the companies to develop significant relationships between the corporate division and the remaining of the society (TA 2010).

The Australian airline Qantas Airways Limited have announced a new three-year partnership with the tourism board to promote and strengthen Australia as a desired tourist destination through marketing campaigns, business and trade events. It will have an effective outcome due to Qantas as one of the strongest brands in Australia and being known as the world’s top long distance airline. The company has a significant strategy which is encouraging its employees to participate the Australia sustainable tourism programs to ensure that they will bring the social responsibility into their work. The programs are including the education about the link between climate changes and sustainability in business and the conservation of Australia’s land care. The company will awards its staffs after they have showed the proactive leadership to carry out the environmental schemes throughout the business (Qantas Airways 2010).

The Qantas airline is committed to the sustainable growth of Australia in order to promote and enhance its distinctive destinations and environment. The airline spends almost AU $3 billion on the jet fuel and emits large amount of carbon and exhaust gas. Qantas has taken steps to reduce the carbon emission by signing contract with a US fuel producer Solena. They considered building a trial plant to convert waste into bio-fuel. The source of the bio-fuel includes food packaging, scraps and tree cuttings. Besides, Qantas is trying to improve its water efficiency in all aspects of its operations by investigating procedures to reduce consumption of potable water, such as use of the grey-water and aircraft wash-water recycling. The organisation’s target is to reduce 25% of water consumption by 2011 to foster sustainable tourism (Brisbane Times 2010). The airline will conclude a feasibility study for the waste-based of aviation fuel within one year and thus the bio-fuel will be trialled on aircrafts. The bio-fuel and the water conservation will be the key components of its environmental strategy of sustainable tourism.

Moreover, Qantas has launched an annual award for those who perform excellent in Australia sustainable tourism since 2008 (Qantas Airways 2010). This award can motivate the local communities to improve the business environment of the society and thus it can help to promote the country to become one of the top sustainable tourism destinations.

Australia announced that the grants of tourism development program had been provided to support the sustainable growth in the tourism industry by developing creative products and services, contributing to long-term economic development, and creating high quality visitor experiences and services.

Brisbane has supported a project ‘Brisbane Ambassadors for Life: Sustainable tourism development’ which is proposed by the local hospitality organisations. It’s an innovative program designed to create sustainable economic value by attracting overseas students, leisure, and convention visitors to the greater Brisbane region. Some of them will become ambassadors for Brisbane in other countries, with Brisbane’s sister city relationships to generate increased visitation and length of stay in Brisbane (TA 2010).

Conclusion

The sustainable development of Brisbane’s tourism is in a steady process which is influencing to its social, economic and environmental areas because sustainable tourism is significant to Australia’s cultural and natural wealth. The government has provided a lot of sustainable practices to support the development of tourism and encourage both domestic and international tourists to explore the treasures of Australian tourism. This will also motivate the corporations and stakeholders to resolve the challenges and collaborate to improve the tourism industry so that it can provide the social and economic gains to the destination and survive in such a high extent of the global competition.

Today, the Australian tourism is rapid growing industry which has significantly contributed to the country. It has affected the lives of communities and developed variety of sustainable programs for its tourism development. However, Brisbane is currently facing a series of problems which are including the damages of the flash floods, the raise of food prices and the carbon pollution. Especially the floods, it will cost Brisbane a large amount of funds to reconstruct the disaster areas. These critical issues will be the difficult tasks for Brisbane to settle in its sustainable development. Therefore, the measures of sustainable development will be focusing on the current consumptions of the industry in order to satisfy the needs of the future generations. Moreover, it may guide the policies as well as implementations to be a powerful tool towards the sustainable tourism of Brisbane.

Introduction

Tourism is an ancient phenomenon and already the people during the times of the Mesopotamian society travelled. However, tourism only started to expand significantly post-Cook are of 1880 and mass tourism appeared post-war 1950’s (Weaver and Oppermann, 2000). Following were rapid, uncontrolled and unsustainable tourism destination development as can be observed on the Spanish Coast, where large hotels make the once regional, physical and social structures indistinguishable from many other mass tourism coastal areas (Richards and Hall, 2000). This chaotic mass tourism has led not only to irreversible environmental, socio-cultural and economical damages, but also has it made those destinations undesirable to tourists. And in fact; “There are examples from almost every country in the world, where tourism development has been identified as being the main cause of environmental degradation” (Lickorish and Jenkins, 1999:85).

Therefore, sustainable tourism development seems to be one of the fad words of modern tourism management, and is thus on all the tourist companies’ agendas.

The following assignment will investigate the issue of sustainable tourism, how “serious” and complex the subject really is? It will by no means be an extensive assignment, due to the time and word limitations at hand. Therefore further research would need to be undertaken to gain a full picture of the issue.

Discussion

Sustainable development and ethical tourism?

Sustainability is a contemporary issue in tourism development that came in fashion during the past 20 years (Winpenny, 1991). Considering the Brundtland Commission in 1987, development is sustainable when “it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (1987, cited in Winpenny, 1991:3). A different definition of sustainability is offered at the Globe ’90 Conference in Vancouver: “Sustainable tourism development is envisaged as leading to management of all resources in such a way that we can fulfil economic, social and aesthetic needs while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversity and life support systems” (Tourism Stream Action Committee 1990, Ledbury cited in Hein, 1997:30). These definitions show how complex the subject of sustainability is in its very nature of having to encompass so many things. And also “In the USA GNP per capita is $24,240 whilst in Kenya it is $964. Are the needs of either countries population met? And who is to decide what these ‘needs’ are? The UN? Or perhaps the World Bank, who service the ‘needs’ of developed economies by removing greater wealth from Africa through dept repayments than is injected through meagre aid budgets? This reality – that some people meet their needs by preventing others from meeting theirs – is overlooked” (Butcher, 2003:131). Therefore leaving the choices those countries (third world) are faced with is to accept aid or investment on the terms offered, or not accept them at all (Butcher, 2003: 123). Now the question is, is this really sustainable, and most of all ethical?

The impacts of tourism are divided into three elements; economical, environmental and socio-cultural (Coltman, 1989). Therefore, it could be argued that the sustainable discussion should be looked at in those three headings. According to this concept of sustainable tourism there are three points that are to be achieved through tourism development:

Increasing economic value of tourism
An improvement in the life quality of people
Protection and responsible use of natural resources (Keyser, 2002)

McKercher (1993:131) states that “the inherent vagueness of “sustainability” is its greatest weakness” and he notes on how the term is used to legitimize and justify activities and policies by the industry and the conservation movement for mutually exclusive activities. McKercher is not the only one supporting views along this notion. Smith and Duffy (2003) argue that business ethics is about reacting to customers’ values and expectations and is merely an attempt to improve an industries image and thus increase its sales.

Along with this fad for sustainability, many new terms for alternative tourism have emerged. Hein (1997) actually suggests that many of those new forms of tourism, like green, progressive and alternative tourism is purely a reaction to the contemporary green and environmental movement that we are experiencing in Western societies. Therefore, that would then imply certain superficiality and that this whole trend is more about attracting customers, rather than being really concerned about sustainability. However, Fennell (2003) on the other side notes that the trend has initiated many new fashionable tourism forms, like ecotourism, which when applied properly, should be beneficial. However, caution should be the word to consider, as those labels are easily abused as marketing tools.

The chances of marketing abuse is debatably encouraged by the argument that consumers are driving this movement at least partially, as their demands are changing when it comes to the consumption of tourism services. Goodwin (cited in Jenkins et al. 2002) argues that the movement for responsible forms of tourism is beginning to impact mainstream consumer preferences. And Butcher (2003) notes that there has been an important shift to a growth in ethical consumption, not only in tourism, taking Body Shop as one success example.

And while this ethical tourism is debatably having a clean image of being “good”, it may not be all as shiny as it sounds. “Ethical consumption ends up moralizing about exaggerated problems between people, hosts and tourists, and moreover, neglects an assessment of the social inequalities that characterize relationships between nations” (Butcher, 2003:3). He also argues that the promotion of nature-based tourism shows little prospects in regards to the potential to address the real problem, namely the poverty and inequality.

A good example is Ethiopia and the case of the 5 star Sheraton Hotel in Addis Ababa. The owner of the hotel was praised for his sensitive treatment and re-homing of the shack-dwellers who used to live there. However, the area of this luxurious hotel is surrounded by poverty. And for being in one of the poorest countries in the world, it is questionable of how moral it is to rub such wealth of a luxury 5 star Sheraton Hotel into the faces of the people who have to live under extreme poverty (Smith and Duffy, 2003).

Codes of ethics and chain of distribution and the impact on the tourism industry

Firstly one should outline what exactly a code of ethics is. A “….codes of ethics or conduct are lists designed to elicit a change in behaviour of particular stakeholder groups; a form of compliance for acceptable behaviour at a tourism setting” (Fennell, 2003:11).

Environmental commitment, responsibility, integrated planning, environmentally sound management, cooperation between decision makers, and public awareness, are according to Genot (1995, cited in Fennell, 2003) the core principals of any code of ethics.

One can easily recognise the complexity of the subject, especially when considering that it has to be applied to everyone involved in the tourism process and hence all the chains of distributions. Arguably a code of ethics could have positive impacts on the tourism industry and its channel of distributions. Simply because it would clarify what exactly ethical and sustainable development and tourism is. However it would prove almost impossible to monitor al the chain of distribution outlets. And also may the codes be against certain chains own value system, which bring us to the locality of ethics which will be discussed later on in the assignment. Wheeler (1994, cited in Fennell, 2003:186) is also critical of the implementation of codes of ethics and the sustainability and ecotourism trends, and so he notes: “… a never-ending series of laughable codes of ethics: codes of ethics for travellers; codes of ethics for tourists, for government and for tourism businesses. Codes for all – or, more likely, codeine for all…. But who really believes these codes are effective?”

In Zimbabwe there is the aid-funded Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (Campfire). Limited ecotourism and game hunting are organized here where the revenues support the rural population. While this is advertised as appropriate development but is this symbiosis per se a good thing? (Butcher, 2003). And moreover, how is it going to be possible to ensure that everyone adheres to the code of ethics, when the people are rural and unable to identify with the Western values and ethics system?

Fair trade and ethical tourism

Ethical tourism has been said to be synonymous with sustainable tourism, alternative tourism, appropriate tourism or sympathetic tourism (Hall and Lew, 1998). Hall and Lew (1998) argue that it is Western values and ethics that provide the base for the implementation of the concept of ethical tourism, and in thus impose its Western culture on the host domination. Is this then ethical in itself?

Following are some examples for fair trade and ethical tourism initiatives illustrated in the case of the Gambia:

Fair Trade practices in tourism (just like Fair Trade bananas) are being established by the Gambia Experience in conjunction with Tourism Concern (Author Unknown, 2002).
TUI and First Choice take part in a revolutionary scheme to raise awareness of under-aged prostitution. Therefore the Crimestoppers lines in the UK now accept calls from holidaying British people. Those tourists have on their flight into the Gambia been taught the signs, and encouraged to report inappropriate behaviour of under-aged prostitution (Baldwin, 2004).
The Gambia Tourism Concern has various initiatives; a street newspaper called Concern Magazine, an in-flight video aiming to raise awareness and encourage appropriate behaviour (Smith, 2002) and there is a weekly radio programme for the locals, educating them about issues of tourism (Williams, 2002). This debatably is to inform both, the tourist and the locals, of appropriate ethical behaviour towards the other party.
Conclusion

The definition of sustainability and hence the term sustainable tourism can be interpreted in various ways, and thus makes measurement a difficult task. It is questionable whether sustainability in tourism really does exist as there are always some aspects of concern. However, sustainability and ethical consumption seems to be in fashion, and hence making the possibilities of the terms being (ab)used for marketing purposes even bigger.

To clarify the standards for sustainability, ethical codes should be implemented across the tourism industry. However, this again in itself might pose an unethical aspect, as it might impose culturally dependable aspects on host communities, and what is right in one community, may not be right in another community. Also would it be impossible to control the adherence of the different chains of distribution units.

To conclude, it could be said that there is no single answer to this complex conundrum of sustainable and ethical tourism. And while there may be some superficiality in its use within the industry, it may be questioned whether it is not at least better to have some effort, than none at all.

References

Author Unknown (2002) Small operators push change, Travel Trade Gazette UK & Ireland, 26/08/2002, Issue 2528, p20

Baldwin N. (2004) Sex tourism fight scores first victory, Travel Weekly: The Choice of Travel Professionals (Reed), 20/08/2004, Issue 1732, p68

Butcher J. (2003) The Moralization of Tourism, Sun, Sand … And Saving The World? London; Routledge

Coltman M. M. (1989) Introduction to Travel & Tourism, An International Approach, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold

Fennell D. A. (1999; 2003) Ecotourism, An Introduction (2^nd edn.), London; Routledge

Hall C. M. and Lew A. A. (1998) Sustainable Tourism, A Geographical Perspective, New York; Longman

Hein W. (1997) Tourism and Sustainable Development, Hamburg; Deutsches Uebersee-Institut

Jenkins T., Birkett D., Goodwin H., Goldstein P., Butcher J. and Leech K. (2002) Ethical Tourism, Who Benefits?, Reading: Hodder & Stoughton

Keyser H. (2002) Tourism Development, Cape Town: Oxford University Press

Lickorish L. J. and Jenkins C. L. (1997) An Introduction to Tourism, Oxford; Butterworth-Heinemann

McKercher B. (1993) The unrecognized threat to tourism, Can tourism survive ‘sustainability’?, Tourism Management, April 1993.

Richards G. and Hall D. (2000) Tourism and Sustainable Community Development, London; Routledge

Smith M. K. (2003) Issues in Cultural Tourism Studies, London; Routledge

Smith M. and Duffy, R. (2003) The Ethics of Tourism Development, London; Routledge

Weaver D. and Oppermann M. (2000) Tourism Management, Brisbane; John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd

Williams S. (2001) The Gambia, African Business, Jul/Aug 2001, Issue 267, p44

Winpenny J. T. (1991) Values for the Environment, London; HMSO

Bibliography

Cooper C. and Fletcher J. and Gilbert D. and Wanhill S. and Shepherd R. (1998) Tourism Principles and Practice (2^nd edn.), Harlow; Longman

Heery E. (1992:825) The management of international Tourism (Book Review) Journal of Management Studies, Nov. 92, Vol. 29, Issue 6, p825

Middleton V. T .C. and Hawkins R. (1998) Sustainable Tourism, Oxford; Butterworth Heinemann

Sharpley R. and Telfer D.J. (2002) Tourism And Development, Clevedon; Channel View Publications

Theobald W. F. (1996:2005) Global Tourism (3^rd edn.), San Francisco: Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann

Witt S. F., Brooke M. Z. and Buckley P. J. (1991) The Management of International Tourism, London: Unwyn Hyman Ltd.

To what extent can tourism be sustainable in developing countries?

Introduction

Tourism Sustainability

Conclusion

References

Introduction

When one looks at monetary flows, along with the creation of jobs, the tourism sector represents one of the largest industries globally^[1]. The preceding aspect is an important one, as tourism provides the opportunity for small and medium sized (5 through 500 employees) businesses to form, along with micro enterprises that typical consist of fewer than six people, and usually represent family operations^[2]. These types of enterprises create employment opportunities, and in tourism, particularly in developing countries, the influx of tourist money provides openings for street vendors, cart food services, transport, and other self employment^[3]. An example of the importance of micro enterprises and SME’s is provided in an International Finance Corporation report authored by Hallberg^[4] that states these types of firms represent the majority of employment. She points out that in Ecuador firms with less than 50 employees represents 99 percent of all enterprises in that country, and 55 percent of employment^[5]. In the case of Bangladesh, enterprises with less than 100 employees represented 99 percent of all companies, employing 58 percent of all workers^[6].

The preceding has been brought forth to provide the context for this examination in the extent that tourism can be sustainable in developing countries. The point being made is that the hard currency flows represent an economic benefit that is important not only in tourism monies spent, but also as a basis for foreign investment and the creation of opportunities for foreign businesses to set up operations, with tourism as the entree.

The foregoing economic benefits represent a critical facet in approaching and understanding the importance of tourism to developing countries. The preceding importance also holds true for developed countries as well. The importance of tourism in developed countries is brought forth by the Assistant Secretary General of the World Tourism Organization, Geoffrey Lipman, who stated “Showing the full economic impact of the sector in the Index will enhance travel & tourism’s relevance for policy-makers…The Index makes clear that, although industrialized states currently dominate, poorer countries have a massive potential to be the leading force in international tourism,”^[7]. The significance of mentioning this Report in the context of this examination is that it provides an analysis of key drivers regarding competitiveness, which are thirteen pillars, as represented by “1. policy rules and regulations, 2. environmental regulation, 3. safety and security, 4. health and hygiene, 5. prioritisation of travel and tourism, 6. air transport infrastructure, 7. ground transport infrastructure, 8. tourism infrastructure, 9. information and communication technology (ICT) infrastructure, 10. price competitiveness, 11. human capital, 12. national tourism perception, and 13. natural and cultural resources^[8].

The benefits to a country and its populace as a result of tourism can have long term implications economically, however, the foundations, as set forth by the foregoing pillars, indicates that attaining such a goal requires commitment and a national plan to achieve.

Tourism Sustainability

The preceding brought forth the complexities involved in conducting tourism, highlighting that it is not a segment that can be entered into lightly if long term and sustainable results are to be achieved. An example of the Index illustrates the foregoing:

Chart 1 – Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index – Regulatory Framework

Segments 1 through 5^[9]

Pillars

1. Policy 2. Environment 3. Safety 4. Health 5. Priority

Rules Sustainability Security Hygiene T&T

Country

Rank

Score

Rank

Score

Rank

Score

Rank

Score

Rank

Score

Albania

104

3.69

93

4.08

71

4.93

59

476

104

3.55

Argentina

91

3.95

107

3.94

98

4.45

40

5.62

70

4.23

Austria

22

5.04

53

4.63

21

5.85

37

5.72

32

4.92

Bangladesh

114

3.31

121

3.71

129

2.83

117

2.11

122

2.77

Bolivia

127

2.88

104

3.98

92

4.53

14

6.51

91

3.81

Botswana

74

4.13

68

4.42

50

5.26

97

3.24

82

3.95

U.K.

5

5.54

10

5.56

65

5.01

41

5.58

43

4.69

U.S.

19

5.22

100

4.02

119

3.75

44

5.50

21

5.26

Chart 2 – Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index – Regulatory Framework

Segments 6 through 10^[10]

Pillars

6. Air 7. Ground 8. Tourism 9. ICT 10 Price

Transport Transport Infrastructure Infrastructure Compettive

Country

Rank

Score

Rank

Score

Rank

Score

Rank

Score

Rank

Score

Albania

112

2.20

116

2.55

86

2.53

86

2.16

90

4.33

Argentina

67

2.94

90

3.05

53

3.91

54

3.03

41

4.94

Austria

29

4.25

10

6.03

1

7.00

20

4.88

104

4.17

Bangladesh

116

2.12

69

3.56

122

1.29

122

1.52

10

5.44

Bolivia

108

2.25

114

2.59

99

2.21

106

1.81

14

5.32

Botswana

77

2.72

72

3.50

78

2.80

92

2.05

6

5.49

U.K.

4

5.65

11

5.85

16

6.18

9

5.46

127

3.44

U.S.

2

6.34

19

5.45

6

6.74

13

5.23

105

4.18

Chart 3 – Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index – Regulatory Framework

Segments 11 through 14^[11]

Pillars

11. Human 12. Affinity 13. Natural 14. Cultural

Resources Resources Resources

Country

Rank

Score

Rank

Score

Rank

Score

Rank

Score

Albania

58

5.03

6

6.32

130

1.87

75

2.17

Argentina

60

5.01

74

4.69

12

5.01

41

3.29

Austria

19

5.62

23

5.45

37

4.00

11

5.59

Bangladesh

107

4.26

125

3.95

100

2.61

109

1.44

Bolivia

98

4.60

116

4.18

15

4.86

62

2.45

Botswana

124

3.36

58

4.85

31

4.20

113

1.37

U.K.

7

5.87

90

4.54

27

4.35

4

6.28

U.S.

5

5.91

114

4.29

2

6.04

7

5.83

The preceding Charts provide a summary look at the varied areas that a country needs to consider in order to make tourism work in the face of the high rate of competitiveness. It points out the comparative facets inherent in generating tourism as well as a basis for understanding areas of deficiency and potential strengths in crafting a plan for sustainability. In order to increase and build the tourism sector, the country, its business community as well as populace need to be able to contribute as well as participate in the process. Britton^[12] helps us to understand that tourism entails “…travel flows; microscale spatial structure and land use of tourist places and facilities; economic, social, cultural, and environmental impacts of tourist activity; impacts of tourism in third world countries; geographic patterns of recreation and leisure pastimes; and the planning implications of all these topics” as vital areas. In order to arrive at the point of sustainability in tourism, third world countries have to have or be in the process of developing the underlying structures that create and generate attraction for potential visits, with the understanding that other locales are engaging in the same objectives^[13].

Thus, sustainability means building upon what currently exists via definitive plans to maintain present levels, and of course enhance them in order to compete effectively. Richards and Hall^[14] advise that sustainable tourism represents a broad range of issues, which the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index illustrated^[15]. It, sustainable tourism, includes cultural facets, social accountability, environmental practices, economic considerations, quality of life, safety and security issues in terms of crime and policing. Universally, there is no agreed upon framework for sustainable tourism as the conditions, circumstances and allied facets for countries differ. However, sustainability in tourism is a real factor, one that demands the coordinated and concerned effort of the government, businesses and populace to work. In understanding the sustainability aspects and why such is important, one needs to be mindful of the economic ramifications that are the foundation for the importance attached to tourism by all countries, not just developing ones^[16]. Tourism is an economic pursuit, and as such it aids a country, and more specifically city and or region to grow, improve and earn currency from travellers, investment, and new business openings^[17]. The importance of tourism as an economic force is evidenced by the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), which developed the first legally binding multilateral agreement that deals with trade in the tourism sector^[18]. Its main provision sets forth the elimination of barriers to prevent foreign service providers and investors from participating in market access^[19].

In order to make tourism sustainable, governmental policies, standards and practices need to ensure that there are a series of planned steps to enhance the efforts in the tourist sector, which unfortunately is not usually the case in developing countries^[20]. Usually, in developing countries, efforts to promote tourism have been initiated and implemented by the private sector as well as in some cases citizen’s groups^[21]. The foregoing represents a core issue in that these types of efforts are doomed to be short term actions based upon surges in popularity of an area generated by avant garde travellers that have discovered a quiet, generally unspoiled location, and other disjointed means that does not have an official plan behind it^[22]. As shown by the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index^[23], competition in the tourism segment is marked by a broad number of underlying foundations that require concerted efforts and involvement on the part of the aforementioned government, private business sector, and community. Obvious facets that require government participation on a defined level represent marketing and promotional activities through an official tourist agency, the long term and consistent development of infrastructure related areas such as airports, transport, roads, and other support factors^[24].

The United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development^[25] points to the importance of national, regional and local governments in planning for sustainable development as the “…providers of social services, builders of economic infrastructure, regulators of economic activity, and managers of the natural environment, local authorities have many direct instruments at their disposal to influence development”. The U.N. Commission on Sustainable Development^[26] adds to the preceding by telling us that planned tourism activities are essential to ensure that the local communities have a level playing field in terms of inclusion and involvement concerning the economic wealth generated by tourist activities, along with planning to minimise environmental impacts, and improvement of the social welfare. Tourism is an industry that competes with like locations on the international stage, with many developing countries organised for this area in a concerned manner.

To compete on this level, sustainable tourism must operate like a business. Place or destination marketing is a hallmark in the process, which Gold and Ward^[27] advise “… is defined as a process whereby local activities are related as closely as possible to the demands of the targeted customer … (with the intention) to maximise the efficient social and economic functioning of the area concerned, in accordance with whatever wider goals have been established”. Each locale has to identify its special features and communicate the advantages that it has to prospective travelers through concerted efforts. Products and services offered by companies are geared toward the long term, noted by their comprehensive marketing, promotional and related plans to seek competitive advantages, and induce consumer trial^[28]. To be effective over the long term, sustainable, destinations need to treat their locales in the same manner that companies do.

Conclusion

Sustainable tourism in developing countries represents an important economic aspect that can help to spur foreign investment in a broader sphere of industrial areas outside of tourism if conducted in a concerted manner. The importance of the preceding is that tourism is an important economic tool that can be utilised for broad range of areas that can benefit a developing country if its government has the vision, commitment and foresight to see the real world implications and demonstrated successes that tourism can bring.

As pointed out, tourism represents a commitment to infrastructure, marketing, promotion, and the involvement of the private business sector along with the local communities that will be impacted to set the foundation for programs, facilities, business opportunities and commercial realisations that benefit the locale. Tourism is a means to change external opinions and perceptions of an area through internally directed programs such as place marketing. While some destinations may have been discovered by travellers or writers and became trendy ‘in spots’ that position will dwindle for the next ‘in spot’ unless the government takes notice and seizes the opportunity to make the location one that stays on the tourist radar. In other instances, locales can be put into the tourist arena as a result of their special circumstances and conditions, such as weather, beaches, lakes, snow, forests, wild animals, monuments and ancient cities, cultural festivals and the like, Whatever the nuance, the building of travel requires planned infrastructure to enhance the experience. Easy transport access, rent cars, power, Internet lines, police, etc. Sustainable tourism requires sustainable efforts in order to make it work.

References

Apostolopoulos, Y., Gayle, D. (2002) Island Tourism and Sustainable Development: Caribbean, Pacific, and Mediterranean Experiences. Praeger Publishers. Westport, CT, United States

Beirman, D. (2003) Restoring Tourism Destinations in Crisis: A Strategic Marketing Approach. Allen & Unwin. Crows Nest, New South Wales

Britton, S. (1991) Tourism, capital and place: towards a critical geography of tourism. Vol. 9. No. 4. Environment and Planning Development

Bull, A. (1995) The economics of travel and tourism. Longman Press. Melbourne, Australia

Coleman, S., Crang, M. (2002) Tourism: Between Place and Performance. Berghahn Books. New York, New York, United States

Duffy-Smith, M. (2003) The Ethics of Tourism Development. Routledge. London, United Kingdom

Font, X., Bendell, J. (2002) Standards for Sustainable Tourism for the Purpose of Multilateral Trade Negotiations. World Tourism Organisation. Madrid, Spain

Gold, J., Ward, S. (1994) Place Promotion: The Use of Publicity and Marketing to Sell Towns and Regions. John H. Wiley & Sons. New York, New York, United States

Hallberg, K. (2001) A Market-Oriented Strategy for Small and Medium Scale Enterprises- International Finance Corporation. Discussion Paper 40. Washington, D.C., United States

Mahdi, A., Osman, M. (2000) An Assessment of the Effectiveness of Small and Micro-Enterprise Finance in Employment Creation. Retrieved on 6 January 2009 from http://www.iceg.org/NE/projects/labor/epicfinal.pdf

Mowforth, M., Munt, I. (2003) Tourism & Sustainability: Development and Tourism in the Third World. Routledge. London, United Kingdom

Richards, G., Hall, D. (2000) Tourism and Sustainable Community Development. Routledge. London, United Kingdom

Porter, M. (1980) Competitive Strategy: Techniques of Analysing Industries and Competitors. Free Press. New York, New York, United States

The U.N. Commission on Sustainable Development (1999) Tourism and Sustainable Development: The Global Importance of Tourism. The U.N. Commission on Sustainable Development. New York, New York, United States

UNCTAD (2002) Growing Micro and Small Enterprises in LDCs. UNCTAD, New York, United States

United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (1999) Tourism and Sustainable Development: Sustainable Tourism, A Local Authority Perspective. United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development, New York, New York, United States

World Economic Forum (2007) The World Economic Forum’s First Ever Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report. 1 March 2007. Retrieved on 6 January 2009 from http://www.weforum.org/en/media/Latest Press Releases/Tourismpressrelease

World Travel and Tourism Organisation (1999) The Global Importance of Tourism. Commission on Sustainable Development. World Travel and Tourism Organisation, New York, New York, United States

1

The term sustainable is used for a tourism which does not affect or damage the destinations tours economy, environment and the tradition culture. Therefore the prime purpose of sustainable tourism is to do everything they can in order to that tourism remain positive experience of people of tourism destination together with tourist alike.

Marcel Proust has write about tourism that there are many people who want to see the entire world with their own pair of eyes but the real journey would be when they will try and see the one single place but with the eyes of hundreds of people. Tourist can make their holidays exciting and enjoyable together with making sure that sustainability requirement of tourist destination by looking for and following diversity and promotion of sustainability when selecting tourism destination.

The following are the few basic criteria given by an organization called global sustainable tourism group

Demonstrate effective sustainable management
Maximize social and economic benefits to the local community and minimize negative impacts.
Maximize benefits to cultural heritage and minimize negative impacts.
Maximize benefits to the environment and minimize negative impacts

The name Disneyland is very well known as being a resort for the holidays and recreational activities. It is located in the Marne-la-Vallee, which is a comparatively a new town can be found with in the eastern suburbs of Paris, France. The exact location of Disneyland is about 20mile or 32 kilometres always from the Paris centre and located in the commune of Chessy, Seine-et-Marne.

The Disneyland of Paris, France is made up of two theme parks, seven wonderful cosy comfortable hotels owned by Disney with one retail, dining and entertainment district. Disney land was in operation since the year 1992 and is first Disney resort which is located not inside into the United States.

The estimated figures show that the number of visitors to both Disneyland Park and Walt Disney studio part were about 15 million in 2009 and that makes it most visited place in Europe.

The key fact relate with how the creation of Disneyland in Paris affect tourism revenue for France.

The total visitor who tour France some 4.8% visited Disneyland as part of their trip

Disneyland has attracted around 0.2 billion people since its inception.

1/3 of our foreign visitors combine a visit to the Resort and to Paris

In 2008, 6.43% of foreign tourist spending in France was generated by foreign visitors at the Resort

5th largest hotel accommodation capacity in France (after Paris, Lourdes, Lyon and Nice): over 8,000 hotel rooms and apartments in vacation residences (5,800 in Disney Hotels)

71% of all room-nights sold in the Seine-et-Marne department and 10.11% for the Ile-de-France region

France’s leading integrated business tourism venue: 2 convention centres host 1,000 business events every year in more than 23,500 sqm dedicated to seminars and conventions

Disney Village, the leading urban leisure centre in Ile-de-France (after Paris).

Sustainability, including identification and actions to correct any areas of un-sustainability.

The history of Disneyland from the creation of it shows that this project was result of public and private partnership which leads to creation of one of the leading destination for tourism. Together with Disneyland, a new town with name of Val d’ Europe. Both projected took almost thirty long years and used a land 1943 hectares.

There is an ongoing partnership within the framework of a “decision-making triangle”, associating the French Government, Euro Disney and local authorities including the Ile-de-France Regional council, the Seine-et-Marne Departmental Council and the Val d’Europe New Town Association (SAN) which encompasses five municipalities (Bailly-Romainvilliers, Chessy, Coupvray, Magny-le-Hongre and Serris).

the development of Disney started when Walt Disney company had identified the location for their European resort in Marne-la-Valle which was a relatively newly develop town in France but the company estimate that due to it central location it will attract a market of large number of people because of ease accessibility which is estimate at around 310 million potential visitor. But the government of France want it in lle-de-France due to number of reason such tax revenue, employment etc and most importantly they wanted to sustain environment and therefore during the implementation of this project every possible step is taken in order to not only follow the norms but to protect environment (not only the natural environment but the preservation of demographic characteristic, structure of the building and employment issues etc were also part of it) and therefore make project more sustainable from its very inception.

The Disneyland resort project were conducted in the environment where regulation were high and that make this project more sustainable as the most common problem with deregulation is that sustainability issues went into background.

This environment of high social regulation is the basic characteristic of french deregulation model as France were not yet ready to follow free market and privatization as way of controlling and monitoring and governing the industries.

The company is now in discussion with France government for further development of resort which will ensure the well being of population in that of part of the France together with improving investment in sustaining environment.

The company is very well committed to sustainability of its resort and therefore have got very detail plan in order the resort as prime sustainable tourist destination which not only limited to Europe but the whole world and therefore company’s approach towards sustainable environment, improving quality of life of its employee and local community in which it operate and especially company promote children and families in particular and make the resort number one choice for every child and environmentally conscious families who are looking for the best but sustainable tourist place.

The company is involve in number of project whose main emphasis is on the fulfilment of needs children and families and make special donation and participate in charitable activities related with children and arts. The major factors which make Disneyland resort a renown in name sustainable tourist destination is its commitment towards maintaining a sustainable environment but Disneyland Paris doesn’t stop it here but together with involving and donating generously to charities dream world improving lives of thousands of people if not million of people through creation of employment, contribute in economic growth by purchasing local material and products, hire services of local community for various initiatives, with all of these Disneyland Paris contribute in national tax revenue.

In order to promote and sustain the development of local community through education and learning as company hire people and provide them necessary training and together with that Disneyland Paris support those employees who improve the local community and has system of Cast Member in place through the company ensure that people got training from company become active citizen of their communities and help those people who desperately need help.

Disneyland Paris has created a separate department named as community relations department in order look after the community in which it operates. There is another program which is named as Disney Volunteers program in which company sponsor the voluntary actions of employees.

Since its beginning Disneyland Paris has special focus on environmental impact of its activities and taking environmental stewardship is its legacy and company has taken some real steps towards making environmental steward a part of its culture and consideration to environmental impact of its policies and decisions as automatic and embed process and part of the Disneyland culture.

How the destination has been and is being managed to achieve sustainability

Regarding environmental impact Disneyland Paris has recently publicize its environmental goal which will result in better management of the impact of its activities and decision on environment and will also inspire the visitors to promote sustainability.

The basic approach which Disneyland resort has followed in past and will continue to do so in future is based on effective use of and conservation of water, energy and ecosystem together reducing substantially the carbon emission, reducing the waste.

Disney land has announce in 2006 that it would increasing its renewable energy as of energy with at least 15% of its total energy requirement will be from renewable source which will have positive on environment .

Disneyland has taken solid and concrete step towards implementation of recycle bin across the resort and in that connection since last year 2008, there were twenty new recycle bin were put in place across the Walt Disney Studio park that’s another step in right direction by Disneyland, shows that Disneyland resort is fully committed to the sustainability objectives and is taking steps towards reduce its carbon footprint in order to protect environment.

Another example of Disneyland’s solid commitment towards improving the environment and sustain the climate is the use fully certified plastic bags which are made up of 80% of recycle material which is very encouraging step and is protecting and environment climate alike while these plastic bag are truly certified from an independent agency that is recognized for environmental labelling in Europe.

Disneyland has collected waste weighted around ten tonnes since 2008, as it is fully committed towards making Disneyland a sustainable tourism destination and environmentally responsible company.

Disneyland has one of the effective and efficient strategies towards reducing its energy requirement through effective and efficient use of existing energy resource, one of these strategies is installation of motion detectors across the 139 banglows which can automatically control lighting and therefore will save the energy and reduce the environmental footprints of Disneyland resort.

Together with the motion detectors there is water conserving showers as a replacement for bath tubs which are very effective reducing the wastage of water. These bath tubs were installed in combination with tin roof, picture window walls which make sure the natural light comes in.

Disneyland but the story is not finish here as Disney land has taken further step towards reducing wastage of water by installing 185 hand dryers which are made up of high technology but the good things is that they take 80 % less energy than traditional hand dryers in order to preserve the climate and reduce energy use while these hand dryers will also reduce the wastage paper towels which is another positive step from Disneyland in order to make it a real sustainable tourism destination.

Like any other resort water is very important for Disneyland as it has very crucial role to play in Disneyland magic and experience and that’s why is one of the areas of sustainability and environmental protection on which Disneyland has taken concrete steps and make the prime efforts to use water resource as efficiently as possible and Disneyland hope to achieve this through onsite environmental management system operate by control team which ensure the consumption of water reduced and it work by helping the maintenance people to perform effective control over the consumption of water.

The Disney company is world wide known for following an aggressive policy to achieve sustainability and as matter of fact company installed a new synthetic skating rink which replace its ice rink and this development will result in efficient usage of water resource together with energy and most importantly it will avoid the ise refrigent fluid which is not environmentally best option.

Disland has installed Rockefeller Plaza skating ring which will result in reduction in wastage of water as it will be permanently iceless and therefore that makes it the largest open air rinks in the entire Europe.

Disneyland Paris is fully aware of the threat climate change poses and therefore did every possible efforts to reduce its environmental footprints and in consistent with this strategy the Disneyland is considering taking a bold step by introducing a commuter plan which will make sure that car use is minimize as much as possible and will result optimization of travel regarding business, the project is estimate to take five more years.

In order to take immediate steps Disneyland has encourage staff on less usage of car by offering them exciting incentives, an example of is availability of scheme which encourage Cast Members towards the usage of public transport instead of personal vehicle by offering them incentive of paying 65% of cost of travel by company. Currently some 28% of total Cast members are availing this opportunity and using public transport therefore saving the carbon emission.

Another program implemented by Disneyland is regarding the carpooling which is already launched and Disneyland considering expanding this program, due to effective of this program towards the goal of sustainable environment.

This statement is proved through discussing the various plans and strategies Disneyland Paris have taken in above paragraphs. The company has another program with the name of “Green” which is program design to raise awareness across the globe and through which Disneyland give sufficient powers to its Cast Members in order to make them able to reduce their environmental impact and as result of this program Disneyland has reduce the use of bottled water by around 60% by creation of 335 water fountains backstage, a significant number of (almost over thirteen hundred) cardboard across the resort are recycled and they are replace with cardboard compactors and not only this but there were less usage of paper by an estimated of 8% were also result of this program and by the way the paper used is 100% recycled with duly certified.

Conclusion:

Disneyland is an environmental responsible and sustainable company which not always adhere to follow minimum requirement but take critical step necessary in order to achieve sustainability across all the boundaries.

Disneyland Paris has always show itself as a leader in order to achieve sustainable development and implement sustainable policies and is firmly dedicated to create an internal working environment which safe and sustainable. Disneyland Paris has invested significant resource in developing and implementation effective and efficient training and development program for its Cast Members to make this step a example for other companies to follow in order the a sustainable and environmentally aware society. Disney land support its Cast Member through offering various option together with providing them all the require tool and technique in order make them live a life which is healthier.

The number of people applying to become Cast Member in Disneyland shows that the company is putting significant resource in its program and Show Company’s commitment towards suitability.

Disneyland is truly a sustainable tourist destination with all the policies in place and implemented effectively in order to make it ensure that environment is protected and green house gas emission are reduce and together with other objective Disneyland is fully committed towards improving the lives of its employees and community through taking various initiative.

As per the discussion in the annual meeting, please find attached the business report focussing on the environmental issues caused by the company’s cruise tourism. A detailed analysis of the problems faced is stated in this report, it also discusses the existing scenario of our company; ecotourism suggested as a corrective measure for business sustainability is critically analyzed while recommendations and suggestions of the concerned issues are mentioned which might give an opening for strategy shift.

I hope this report caters to your requirement and is useful in resolving the issues concerned.

Yours sincerely,

Upali Aparajita

Senior Strategic Director

Executive Summary

This business report addresses the impacts of cruise tourism offered by Royal Caribbean Cruises Ltd. on the environment and its related issues. It aims to attend the necessity of Ecotourism as a sustainable business for the company.

Although Royal Caribbean (the world’s second largest cruise with 23.8% of world’s market share) has contributed positively to regional growth by diversification, creating job opportunity, earning foreign reserves but it has diverse issues related to economic, socio cultural and the environment. However the main focus will be on environment which is strongly affected by the increase in cruise lines and there is a need to protect the ecosystem.

The issues pertaining to the environment arises because of three important reasons; lack of proper waste management, selection of improper tourists destinations, and lastly because cruises doesn’t restrict to the number of visitor carrying capacity of the tourism destinations, resulting in site congestion, gathering of wastes, deterioration of archaeological and historical sites. Tourist destinations should be wisely selected by the company. Instead of choosing fragile destinations as a part of cruise itinerary it can consider national parks, flora and fauna etc. Cruise doesn’t have proper waste management. Harmful wastes are released into the water body thereby affecting the aquatic habitat as well as marine environment. Royal Caribbean was found guilty of illegal dumping of wastes to the sea and obstruction of justice in the late 1990s, for which the company has pledged to clean up its act and in 1999, it also paid a fine of $ 18 M (Environmental Crimes Section, 2004). These hefty fines not only add up to the financial expenses of the company leading to huge losses but also affect the brand image.

Even if cruise tourism is the fastest growing business of the travel industry however if the growth is not planned properly it may cause economic, environment and socio-cultural impacts on tourist destinations. Thus, the need for responsible tourism is highly recommended for the sustainability of the business, which can be achieved by ecotourism. Ecotourism is defined as the “Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well being of local people.” (TIES, 1990) This is one form of tourism, which addresses the negative impacts associated with mass tourism through the implementation of sustainable practices. Its impacts and benefits are critically analysed and it was recommended for the company to implement it.

Necessity of Ecotourism as a sustainable measure for Royal Caribbean
1. Introduction

Royal Caribbean Cruises Ltd. was founded in 1969 and it is the world’s second largest cruise company. The company has been instrumental in changing the cruise industry from a trans-ocean carrier service into a vacation option in and of itself. It offers a variety of different itineraries and its ships call at more than 160 destinations in the Caribbean, Alaska, Europe, Bermuda, Mexico, New England, Canada and many more. “Royal Caribbean International” and “Celebrity Cruises” are the two separate brands maintained by the company. It is a Liberian corporation that operates globally, however majority of its passengers are from North America. Main competitors are Carnival Corporation, NCL Corporation, and Star Cruises Ltd.

The main objective of this report is to identify the issues, analyze the impacts of the issue on the sustainability, recommend a solution to fix the issue, find out its benefit, and its implementation by the company making it a sustainable business.

The issues and challenges faced by Royal Caribbean cruises in terms of social, economical and environmental factors are discussed in this report. RCCL was convicted with the criminal charges of ocean pollution for illegal dumping of wastes and oil spilling in its water body by U.S. federal government. This raises the key issues of corporate responsibility that affects the company’s operation and the difficulties of regulating the fast growing cruise industry. The environmental aspect is crucial which needs to be considered sensibly and cruise tourism should be viewed from the lens of responsible tourism.

The problem that was identified with the cruise tourism of RCCL was the improper waste management which lead to ocean pollution thus affecting the marine as well as terrestrial environment. The poisonous oil leakage from the vessels killed people and also had harmful effects causing deadly diseases. This impacted the environment as well as society. The economy of the company was negatively impacted because Royal Caribbean had to pay heavy penalty for polluting the environment. This raises the issue of sustainability because for the company’s long term business, it is essential to have a balance between these three factors. Ecotourism is suggested as a tool for sustainability. However it is important to critically analyze the potential of ecotourism as a strategy for development, evaluate the impacts and benefits of ecotourism, and the ways to improve ecotourism practices and policies for Royal Caribbean Cruises Ltd.

2. Issues

With the increase in popularity of leisure tourism, the company focuses on providing adventure, relaxation and entertainment to passengers from across the globe and tourist destinations as a part of the cruise package deals. It is not only essential to maintain the splendour and beauty of such destinations as it is linked to the environmental performance but the future of tourism also depends on it. Also it needs to protect the marine life which is the base of shipping industry. Cruise ships, passengers and the crews generate a high volume of wastes, pollutants into the water body which affects the marine environment. Royal Caribbean was found guilty of illegal waste-handling practices where the executives disposed the toxic waste into the Alaska’s Inland Passage waters polluting the marine environment and for which it has to pay a fine of $18 M. Just a month after the first guilty pleas, the ship illegally dumped oil waste overboard. Royal Caribbean reported that incident to federal officials and dismissed two employees. The $9 million and $18 million fines each set a record for the largest pollution penalty for a cruise-ship company. Together, the $27 million that Royal Caribbean paid exceeds the $25 million fine imposed on Exxon for the environmental damage caused by the grounding of the Exxon Valdez (Fishman, 2000). These pollution scandals not only increased the expenses but also affected the company’s gracious public image. The socio- cultural issue in Haiti has also put Royal Caribbean under a heavy media fire. The company brings the vacationers to a private resort maintained by it in Labadee, Haiti, which is 60 miles away from the earthquake-ravaged Port-au-Prince (Bennett, 2010). Ms. Martinez, Manager Corporate Communications said, “the company is very sensitive to the idea of delivering a vacation experience so close to the epicentre of the earthquake,” but given the financial and social challenges the country is now facing, it needs the positive economic benefits Royal Caribbean’s cruises provide. Despite Royal Caribbean’s various pledges to the Haiti relief effort, donating a $1 M as relief fund, the company is charged for bringing cruisers to this place. Moreover, they said the cruise line should never have tried to mix its commerce and humanitarian efforts in telling its side of the story.”This strikes a nerve with people, and the brand will take a hit.” (Bush, 2010).

In a nutshell, the main issue figured out was cruise tourism which had the serious problems like lack of provision for waste disposal leading to environment and economic crisis, destination selection raising social issues. We will further analyse the effects of cruise tourism in this report.

Impacts of Cruise Tourism on the Environment

The cruise tourism is likely to have effects on various aspects of the maritime and terrestrial environments. There is always a high possibility of oil spills by the ships in the sea which is very difficult to clean up in the cold remote locations. The impact of vessel activity in the breeding ground and feeding areas of marine mammals risks the wild life and is an area of concern. Whereas the terrestrial environment is affected by the numerous passengers who often make shore visit to places of natural and historical interests as a part of their cruise holiday package, either by speed boats, zodiac or helicopters thereby creating noise pollution and destroying the archaeological sites. Another potential threat is there to the flora and fauna of the place because these species have low tolerance capacity which leads to the destruction of the ecosystem. Not only this, there is a social and cultural disruption among indigenous people whose communities play host to cruise visitors on an increasingly regular basis.

While cruise tourism has the potential to disrupt local communities it also has the capacity to enrich them. It can contribute positively to the economies of remote communities and also can be viewed as an environmentally sustainable option.

Aspects of global environmental change with relevance to cruise tourism

The effects are on three sectors: Infrastructure, Access, and Attractions. Cruise tourism increases the open water which leads to storm surges and shoreline erosions. This creates structural damage and raises construction and engineering problems. An effect on Access is because of declination in sea-ice extent causing extended shipping season and melting of glaciers also causes iceberg hazards. Effect on the attractions is because environmental changes alter local activity possibilities, changes scenic values locally and variations in ecosystem lead to alterations in distribution and abundance of existing animal species (Gissling & Hall, 2005, p. 44).

3. Recommendations

Royal Caribbean should adapt Ecotourism business to address the sustainability dimensions which will provide a diversity of economic benefits to the company, environment and the community. The benefits of implementing this sustainability practice will reduce operating costs, protect the brand image, provide credible marketing advantage, increase client base, and improve the business efficiency.

It is recommended for Royal Caribbean to discourage mass tourism because travelling in small groups helps to conserve energy and the waste needs of passengers are managed in a better way, thereby having low impact on the environment. The travellers should be educated on practices respectful to the local environment and the benefits of small-group responsible tourism. So limit in cruisers number will help to protect the local tourism infrastructure for future generations.

Cruise destination should be selected wisely because travel to unspoiled virgin areas is harmful and may damage areas of the environment that are exceedingly rare and fragile. It should sail to nature based places like national parks, areas of conservations where flora, fauna, and cultural heritage are the primary attractions.

Reduce, Reuse, Recycle should be the strategy for waste management. It should recycle all materials like glass, plastic, paper etc. Water bottles can be reused; special processing of wastes such as toner cartridges, wooden pallets and cooking oil should be done by approved shore side vendors. The outstanding garbage can be reused in some countries as road fill, or can be treated as special waste for further processing or disposed of in a landfill. The unconsumed foodstuffs by the guests can be sent to the crew galleys; remaining food scraps can be treated inside the vacuum system of the ship and can be discharged to the sea. Similarly water waste is filtered and purified into potable water.

Tour can contribute financially toward the local economy and nature conservation. It should contact the local guides, local activity providers for the travel guide to the local places; the cruisers can purchase from the local buyers thereby promoting the local business, visit the national parks.

Support the integrity of local cultures by integrating tours within the cultural fabric of the sites. The passengers should be encouraged to stay in local hotels, visit places, and participate in activities that foster meaningful interactions with them. It helps in providing employment, encourages cultural exchange and strengthening of intercultural understanding and tolerance for both guests and hosts.

Ecotourism

Martha Honey defines as “Travel to fragile, pristine, and usually protected areas that strive to be low impact and (usually) small scale. It helps educate the traveller, provides funds for conservation; directly benefits the economic development and political empowerment of local communities, and fosters respect for different cultures and for human rights.” (Honey, 1999, p. 25)

Advantages of Ecotourism

It can help in protecting the ecosystems, preserving natural areas and increase the tourism.

Increase the awareness on environment; educate people about the consequences of exploiting natural resources.

Help in providing employment to the local and regional people, e.g. selling of handicrafts, local food items etc.; this also creates some entrepreneurial skills.

Increases foreign reserves of the region, enhances economic growth.

Raises the warmth to multitude country’s political, environmental and social climate

Cultivate a feeling of pride and community through a revival or safeguarding of customary beliefs, practices and enriching techniques.

Untouched destinations and natural activities may become a craze for tourists creating scope for ecotourism.

Diversifying the tourism package into interesting events such as halt in country boats, trail walks etc. will help retaining the revenue generated with the local people and promote local economy.

Figure 1: Sustainable Development Triangle (World Conservation Union, 2003)

Utilizing the above figure of sustainable development triangle we can say that ecotourism puts a balance between these three sides i.e. economy, environment, and the society. For the long term development of a company it is necessary to be sustainable; Ecotourism will bring future and current benefits as well as work as a form of sustainable development.

4. Implementation

As an implementation to the suggested recommendation, Royal Caribbean is considering the new criteria for destinations in a cruise ship port of call. The global chief officer & VP at RCCL, Jamie Sweeting says, “We feel a responsibility in working with destinations to try to increase the positive and minimize the negative impacts of our visitations.” (Wilkinson, Global Sustainable Tourism Council, 2012)

A third party verification of its land excursions adhering to Global Sustainable Tourism Council-recognized standard by 2015 will be done as announced by the company. After the final GSTC Criteria for Destinations are in place, they will provide another standard by which Royal Caribbean can judge ports of call.

St. Kitts & Nevis is the new port of call as decided by RCCL. There are new attractions like “Sugar Train”, Plantation house, lush forest trekking, catamaran ride to Nevis where the guests can have beach barbeque for the tourists/guests at Basseterre, capital of Southern Caribbean where most of Royal Caribbean’s voyages stop. Maintaining the quality of these experiences means integrating the guidelines of sustainability, which St. Kitts & Nevis is now doing with the help of a GSTC consultant. (Wilkinson, Global Sustainable Tourism Council, 2012)

Exhaust gas scrubbers are installed on smokestacks, superior wastewater purification are there on the vessels. RCCL has already started implementing measures to treat all kind of wastes like solid waste, water waste and air waste. Newer RCL ships have highly developed systems like reverse Osmosis systems that use only 35 percent of the electricity consumed by older units to convert sea water into potable ship water.

In order to preserve the environment from dumping things overboard RCCL has also initiated its “Save the Waves” program. Each ship has recycled about 20,000 aluminium cans every week, and the company purchased more than one million pounds of recycled products each year. (Royal Caribbean International, n.d.)

There is 4 % reduction in fuel consumption, 3% in NOx emissions, refrigerant loss by 33% and onboard water consumption by 6% and cut its solid waste generation by 32%. (Royal Caribbean International, 2008)

5. Conclusion

Ecotourism is a win-win solution for destinations where the conservation efforts for the environment are also associated with the livelihood opportunities of the local people. For ecotourism to be effective in its true sense there is a need to develop a proper ecotourism package which should be different from the existing mass tourism packages.

Royal Caribbean’s plan to implement Ecotourism as a sustainability measure is indeed a commendable decision. The company’s initiative to sponsor programs such as setting new criteria for selecting holiday destinations, running programs like “Save the Waves” with mission as reduce, reuse, recycle will certainly help it for a long term development and overcome the challenges to sustain its business. Although RCCL’s investment will be more on these sustainable measures but it will not have a negative impact on the environment, social image and the economy as well because there will be no threat for hefty fines for creating pollution.

Abstract

Research has shown that the marine and coral habitats within the Red Sea are being subjected to levels of damage from the effects of diving activities in the areas that cannot be sustained in the long term. With this area of tourism set to increase dramatically within the next decade, there is an urgent need for the industry stakeholders and environment organisations to work together to develop and implement sustainable diving tourism policies that will allow the marine eco-system to recover, or at least halt the current pace of degradation.

The research findings from this study show that there is a general willingness on the part of the diving consumer to accept the need for such protection policies. At present, this is not a position that is shared by all of the industry shareholders. This study highlights the fact that there is an urgent need for dive tourism stakeholders, irrespective of this individual goal, to work together in partnership in order to develop systems and policies that will preserve and protect the fascinating marine and coral life that exists beneath the Red Sea for the enjoyment of future generations.

Table of Contents (Jump to)

Abstract

Chapter 1 – Introduction

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Aims and Objectives

1.3 Overview

Chapter 2 Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Marine tourism environmental issue

2.3 Marine environment protection

2.4 Sustainable diving tourism

2.5 The Red Sea and diving tourism

2.6 Summary

Chapter 3 Methodology

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Choice of research method

3.3 The questionnaires and interviews

3.4 Performance of the research

Chapter 4 Research Findings

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Response to corporate questionnaire

4.3 Response to dive club questionnaire

Chapter 5 Analysis and discussion of findings

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Research findings

5.3 Discussion

Chapter 1 – Introduction
1.1 Introduction

As most academics acknowledge, including Brown (2000), Ryan and Page (2000) and Mowforth and Munt (2003), since the liberalisation of transport in the middle part of the last century, tourism has become the world’s fastest growing and largest industry. This is evidenced by the fact that over the past two and a half decades international tourist arrivals have grown by nearly threefold (Weaver 2005, p.2) and by 2020 this figure is expected to exceed 1.6 billion. As El-Adli and Bashandy (2003) rightly observe, globalisation and technological advances, which allowed international travel to become accessible to the masses, has been partially responsible for fuelling this growth pattern.

Initially, this expansion of tourism took the form of mass excursions, such as package tours with travellers flocking to the areas of beach, sea and sun, usually for a two week summer vacation. However, more recently an increasing number of tourists have become more discerning. Encouraged by media attention on exotic locations, the mass tourist sector has given way to the traveller seeking a new and more fulfilling experience, wanting to explore natural habitats that are foreign to their domestic experiences. As a result, due to the uniqueness of their climate and geographical position, the world’s developing countries have become the focus for those travellers who want to experience firsthand the wonders of nature and its exotic species of fauna and wildlife (Mowforth and Munt (2003, p.1).

One area of nature that has particularly attracted the attention of this new breed of tourist is the growing interest in experiencing the beauty of marine life in its natural setting. This has led to an explosion of diving tourism throughout many areas of the world, particularly the marine reef regions off the coasts of countries like Australia, the Caribbean and the Middle East, which boast some of the worlds most unusual and exotic species of underwater plants, fishes and marine life. For many thousands of people, diving in exotic locations throughout the world is a tourism experience that cannot be equalled by any other water sport or leisure activity, hence its increasing popularity.

Perhaps understandably, considering the recent increase in concerns about the damage that human activity is causing to the planet and its natural environment, it was not surprising that the explosion of marine tourism attracted the attention of environmentalists, concerned about whether the natural environment could survive the impact of this growth. This has led to a plethora of research studies during the past two decades seeking to assess the level of damage marine tourism is causing to the inhabitants of these natural environments. The consensus is that the present growth rate poses a real threat to marine life and that measures need to be adopted within the tourist industry that will reduce and reverse these risks (Weaver 2005). In other words diving tourism must move to adopt and implement a more sustainable policy.

In defining what is meant by sustainable tourism, McKercher (quoted in Ryan and Page 2000, p.157) provided the following explanation: –

“Sustainable tourism is defined as when tourism is sustainable, the natural and cultural resources and the environmental, social and economic well-being of an area are maintained forever.”

However, with the international tourism industry having effectively been given a “free reign to develop throughout the world” (El-Adli and Bashandy 2003, p.1), the difficulties being faced is how to resolve the conflicting demands of all the stakeholders within the marine destinations in order to reach agreement upon policies that will address the conflicts of over-use and environmental damage. As some academics remark, there are those who argue that the term sustainable cannot be applied to an industry that is seeing almost unparalleled growth and which, by its very nature, demands environmental damage as infrastructure is created to house these tourists (Wahab and Pigrim 1997, p.2). Others believe that it is imperative that new sustainable tourism products are designed to limit the environment damage being caused to marine destinations (Buhalis and Costa 2006, p.4). However, as these authors admit (ibid, p.230), the problem is how to resolve the dichotomy of creating products that meet tourists goals and ensure sustainable growth.

It is the issue of balancing the needs of the marine environment with those of the tourism industry, particularly as it relates to diving, that has prompted this research study. To provide a focus for this research it is intended to use the Red Sea area of the Middle East as a case study. The reason for this choice can be found in Sarha et al’s (2004, p.1) overview of the area, which can be summarised as follows: –

The Red Sea is one of the most important repositories
It has attracted a significant increase in tourist activity, particularly diving
Tourism accounts for 10% of Egypt’s GDP and 4% of employment
1.2 Aims and Objectives

With the concentration of this research being related to the Red Sea, the aim of the study is to identify the level of damage being caused to the marine environment within this destination and to evaluate the current level of sustainable measure that are being introduced to address these issues. From this evaluation the research will provide an assessment of the effectiveness of sustainable diving tourism in the region.

To assist in focusing upon and achieving the aims outlined above, the following objectives have been set for the research being conducted: –

Marine environment

To provide an overview of the marine environment, which will include an examination of the types and causes of the damage that is being done to this environment and the programmes designed to address this problem.

Diving Tourism

To provide a greater understanding of the attractions and component factors related to diving tourism, specifically its relationship to exotic locations. This will include an overview of the current standards that are applicable within this sector of the tourism industry

Sustainable tourism for the diving industry

To assess and evaluate the current sustainable programmes that are being recommended and introduced into diving tourism. The assessment will consider measures being considered by all stakeholders, including the diving industry, tour operators, destination managers and the international community.

In all of the above objectives particularly attention will be paid to their relationship to the Red Sea marine environment in the Middle East.

1.3 Overview

In chapter two a critical literature is undertaken, which is intended to focus upon the main issues that arise from the aims and objectives of the research question, namely the environmental impact of marine and coastal tourism. This review will also focus upon the contribution that diving has upon this situation and an examination of the diving tourism in the Red Sea area together with an overview of some of the actions that are being taken to address this problem. Chapter three provides an overview of the methodology used for this research, which includes and explanation of the reasons for this choice and the process by which secondary and primary data was collected, analysed and evaluated. Following on from the methodology outline, the findings from the analysis of both the secondary and primary researches are presented in chapter four and these are discussed in detail in the following chapter (5). The research is then brought to a conclusion in chapter six, where appropriate observations and recommendations are made. Attached to the main body of this research is a bibliography of the resources relied upon for the study together with appendices containing other information that is considered of value. This includes copies of the primary questionnaires and interview transcripts.

Chapter 2 – Literature Review
2.1 Introduction

As previously mentioned, sustaining the natural habit of the marine environment in the face of its increasing attractiveness to tourists, particularly divers, has become a contentious issue. There are many stakeholders to consider when looking at the process of sustainable tourism and, achieving a balance between financial reliance and environmental protection, especially if the resort has no prior knowledge in dealing with these issues, has proved to be fraught with difficulty (Weaver 2005, p. 26 and 61).

This critical literature review is intended to consider the currently published arguments and discussions that address these various issues and provide a deeper understanding of the problems that need to be resolved with all the wide variety of stakeholders.

2.2 Marine tourism environmental issue

The marine environment forms an important part of the world’s eco-systems. It not only provides a source of food and other natural resources for some of the world’s population, but also is in itself a living environment that is home to wide range of underwater plants and living creatures. Each of these relies upon the other for their continued life (Cote and Reynolds 2006, Carleton Ray and McCormick-Ray 2004 and Roberts 2007). Furthermore, it also influences the CO2 levels within the atmosphere. The bio-diversity that exists beneath the oceans can therefore be seen to be important to the natural balance of the planet and any issue or activity that upsets this balance is likely to have serious consequences to the long-term health of the world and its population.

Of particular importance to this research is the area of the marine environment that includes the coral reef eco-system, as this is the area that attracts the highest level of tourist involvement, attracting millions of visitors each year. As can be seen in from table Table 2 included in appendix 1, there are a number of coral reefs world wide, covering a total area of just under 285,000 km².

The eco-system of the coral reef is unique in the diverse level of services these regions perform within the biodiversity systems and the range of products it contains (see table 1).

There have been countless studies over recent years that have recorded the levels of damage that can be caused to coral reef and the manner in which this affects the ability of the reefs to sustain their eco-systems in the longer term. The studies of Jameson et al (2007), Cesar (2003), and Agarwal and Shaw (2007) are amongst recent academics who warn that ignoring these issues will have serious adverse consequences. Although causes of damage have been highlighted to include such factors as increases in carbon emissions, the consequence of air and sea travel and marine faming and fishing, diving tourism has also been shown to have a direct impact on the reef in this respect. Consequently it has generated its own expanding area of research attention (Ryan and Page 2000, p.275). In general it is considered that damage from diving tourism manifests itself in the activities of several industry stakeholders: –

The diving fraternity

Numerous academic studies have been conducted to assess the level of damage caused to the coral reef by divers (Cesar 2003, Barker and Roberts 2004 amongst others). Most have concluded that inexperience within this marine environment is one of the root causes of this damage (Barker and Roberts 2004, p.482).

Hawkins and Roberts (quoted in Cesar 2003), attributed 95% of all diver coral damage being the result of misuse of fins and hands, for example by kicking or brushing against the coral or using hands to grab onto coral and propel the diver through the water. In addition, lack of care with equipment is another contributory factor. Lack of buoyancy training or knowledge will often result in a situation where a diver’s scuba equipment will knock or fall against the coral, causing breakages. These results are confirmed by other studies carried out by Barker and Roberts (2004), who recorded 261 incidences of contact being made with the coral whilst observing 353 active divers, in other words incidences were occurring in approach 74% of dives. However, the also found that when accompanied by guides, this level of accident fell by around 80% (barker and Roberts 2004, pp. 485 and 488). This proved to the authors that guided dives were an important element of marine protection policies.

The destination resort

Increased levels of diving tourism have had an impact upon the local infrastructure of the resorts. To meet the demands of these tourists, in some cases sand is being taken from the beaches in order to fulfil construction requirements for projects such as hotels (Gladstone 2000, p.1023). In other words, through these and other actions, “resort hotels and other service providers and retailers are damaging the reefs to provide their businesses with better opportunities” (Mowforth and Munt 2003, 282).

Furthermore, the continual expansion of tourism resorts in coastal areas is creating more “sewage and other rubbish than local infrastructures can handle” (Brown 2000, p.48), which means that some of this effluence is finding its way into the seas surrounding the coral reefs. The level of waste that is being produced increases the incidence of damage caused to the fragile eco-system of the coral reefs.

Tour operators

Tour operators, whether these are international tour companies or local tour operators such as diving clubs are also criticised by the environment community, mainly because of the damage their methods of operations cause to marine sites. This criticism relates generally to two main issues. The first is the lack of knowledge and training that they provide to the diving tourist and indeed the lack of supervision (Agarwal and Shaw 2007). Research like that undertaken by Gladstone (2000) and Wilkinson (2006) indicates that when divers are being instructed and supervised in groups, the level of damage reduces significantly.

The other criticism levelled at tour operators is aimed at those who use boats as platforms from which to commence diving excursions. As Weaver (2005, p.83) and Prior et al (1995) point out, the dropping and dragging of anchors can and does damage corals. This area of activity has increased recently because beaches have become more exclusive in some exotic areas, Restricted from beach access, independent operators have had no choice but to move their operations to sea (Hess and El-bakry2007).

National and local authorities

The other stakeholder who actions, or inactions, have an impact upon the marine coral reef environment are the local and national governments and authorities. The problem in this respect is often related to the condition of the national economy and that country’s position in terms of economic growth compared with other nations (Cote and Reynolds 2006). Many coral reefs are situated close to developing countries. Many governments in developing countries, either due to lack of resources and the need for the revenue produced from marine tourism, lack the “political will” or inclination to take steps to protect the marine environment, irrespective of the consequences (Wilkinson 2006 and Roberts 2007).

As can be seen, the actions of all of the above contributing causes of damage are leading to the “depletion of coral reefs at sea” (Brown 2000, p.69). It is against the difficulties outlined above that marine environmentalists have needed to develop marine protection deemed acceptable by all industry stakeholders.

2.3 Marine environment protection

As Cote and Reynolds (2006), Carlton-Ray and McCormick-Ray (2004) and Orams (1999) research reveals, there have been a number of proposals put forward by various interested parties that are designed to reduce the impact of diving tourism on the marine coral reef environment. Some of these measures, including more supervision, charging fees to allow tourists to take part in dives in specific areas and closer control of resort planning regulations had been directly aimed at improving other stakeholders’ behaviour.

Some of these, including floating and submerged walkways (El-Adli and Bashandy 2003), are designed to improve environment use and enjoyment. However, other protection measures have been more restrictive. For example, a method of zoning is being implemented in a number of marine areas, which are seen as a means of prohibiting diving in areas that are considered particularly sensitive. Similarly, the use of mooring buoys for boats, whilst reducing the damage caused by anchors, can also be used in conjunction with zoning to direct divers away from certain marine areas (El-Adli and Bashandy 2003).

2.4 Sustainable diving tourism

Tourist destinations and tour operators have all be quick to exploit the expansion of recreational diving activities in areas of marine beauty (Wahab and Pigrim 1995, p.284) and that includes enjoying their hobby in the more exotic areas of the world that include the coral reefs eco-systems (Mowforth and Munt 2003, 147). Most observers and academics and observers are of the opinion that if they wish to continue with this pleasure activity, divers and their organisations need to change their practices to a more sustainable form (Mowforth and Munt 2003, p.4). As organisations such as the Coral Reef Alliance (2008) advice suggests, many of these conservation measures are based largely on common sense.

For example, perhaps the most basic aspect of advice is that which promotes the learning of skills such as buoyancy and avoiding physical contact with the reef (Kenally 2006). These skills will eliminate damage being caused either by physical or equipment contact. Another aspect of good diving is to stay clear of the sea bed and learn body control that avoids accidental contact (Coral Reef Alliance (2008).

In addition to this advice for diving activities whilst in the water, the Coral Reef Alliance (2008), also provides the following recommendations for divers when they are shore-side, which consists of the following: –

Support coral parks and other conservation projects by:
Paying user fees in recognized coral parks and conservation areas that are actively supporting coral reef conservation.
Encouraging and supporting the use of dive moorings.
Participating in cleanups
Volunteering your skills
Donating used equipment such as cameras, dive gear or reef ID books.
Avoid purchasing souvenirs made from coral, turtles or other marine life -often this is illegal, and it’s never environmentally wise.
Speak up; make sure your dive buddies understand these simple but important conservation practices.

Source: Coral Reef Alliance (2008)

2.5 The Red Sea and diving tourism

A stated previously, the increase in diving tourism is rising exponentially and there is little sign of this rate decreasing in the near future (Gladstone 2000, p. 1016). Although this endangers coral reefs throughout the world, as Prior et al (2007) and Harriott (2002), suggest, one of the most vulnerable sites has to be the Red Sea (see figure 2). As Hess (2007), also explains, because of its location in relation to Europe and other world nations, the coral reefs in the Red Sea act like a magnet in terms of attracting diving tourists, which places an additional burden upon the marine environment.

Although, at least up to 2004, the condition and status of the” coral reefs bordering the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden is generally good, with live hard coral cover averaging 20-50%” (Hassan et al 2002), research carried out since that comment was made indicates that there potential issues in terms of diving damage to be addressed in the area.

Egypt is planning to continue the expansion of its tourism industry, for which it has set a target of receiving “16 million tourists by 2017” (Shaalan 2005). A segment of this increased tourist population will be attracted by diving activities, continuing a trend that has been evidenced since the turn of the century (see table 2).

Already, with in excess of 250,000 dives per annum along part of the Red Sea coast, other research has revealed disturbing evidence of coral reef damage from diving activities. For example, in a survey conducted by Zakai and Chadwick-Furman (2002, p. 179), significant evidence of diver damage was reported. This survey reported the following conclusions: –

Around 10 incidents of coral damage per dive, ranging from sediment to contact damage.
Damage levels were related directly to the frequency of diving activities, and were not affected by the geographical design of the area.

Similarly, contrary to Hassan et al’s (2002) research, a similarly study carried out by Cesar (2003, p. 7), refuted claims that the coral reef remained unaffected, reporting in this case that “40% of dive sites have less than 30% coral cover, with one third having significant levels or broken and damaged corals.”

The consensus of opinion amongst academics who have studied this specific location, which includes Gladstone (2000), Cesar (2003), Zakir and Chadwick-Furman (2002) and Shaalan (2005), is that without the introduction of serious levels of marine protection and diving control policies, the current levels of damage to the marine eco-system in the area will be exacerbate. This might lead to irreparable damage to this environment.

As Shaalan (2005) also comment, all of the stakeholders, including the government, tour operators and resort managers and the divers themselves, have a role to play in introducing a range of policies and practices to ensure a level of sustainable tourism will be achieved and halt the current degradation to the coral environment that is taking place.

These concerns are aptly summarised by Jameson et al (2007, p. 309) who state that “From a historical perspective, at the Small Giftun site from 1987 to 1996, percentage hard coral cover decreased by 43% and algal cover increased over fourfold. If the diving tourism industry is to sustain itself in the Egyptian Red Sea, every management effort must be made to minimise controllable sources of stress on the coral reef system.”

2.6 Summary

From the analysis and examination of the literature indentified within this chapter, it is apparent that the marine environment is being subjected to environmental damage. Furthermore, whilst there might be some justification for those within the diving community to say that they and their activities are not solely responsible for this damage, to majority of research studied indicates that there are sufficient levels of damage being caused by this sector of the tourism industry to warrant the need for protective action.

In addition, current decisions being made regarding the future of tourism in Egypt, which suggests that 55% of the future growth is anticipated to occur within coastal regions along the Red Sea (Hawkins and Roberts 1994), confirm that the urgency of need to implement sustainable practices and policies to protect the marine and coral reef environment in the region. Furthermore, it suggests that the timescale of this introduction is limited.

The results of the primary research conducted for this study, which also concentrates upon the Red Sea area (see chapters 4 and 5), will provide an indication of the levels of responsibility felt by stakeholders in the diving sector and the level of their commitment to change.

Chapter 3 – Methodology
3.1 Introduction

The research question chosen for this research, namely to study the impact of diving upon the marine and coral reef environment was motivated by two main situations. Firstly, it is intended to examine this issue in an area that has indicated a preparedness to increase the current levels of diving tourism within the next decade by significant numbers. Secondly, the complexities of stakeholder demands within the region suggest that the creation of marine environmental protection policies that will satisfy the needs and of all those involved. Bearing in mind these limitations, the aim of the research therefore is to evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of current and future sustainable tourism policies in the region, specifically those related to the diving sector.

There has been a considerable amount of research conducted into the environmental damage being caused to the marine environment and eco-systems of the coral reefs in the Red Sea. However, despite these advances, it is the author’s view that, although the plans and policies for sustainability suggested by various environmental academics are to be applauded, their successful implementation is dependent upon the views of others. Unless agreement is reached between all the stakeholders to take action any new initiative is doomed to failure. Therefore, a major part of the focus of this research project is to assess how and if the views of commercial stakeholders and diving service users, in other words the divers themselves, coincide with those of the policy makers.

3.2 Choice of research method

Any study relating to issues of a commercial or economic nature can be conducted through the choice of a number of methods. The options available consists of research study using secondary data collection processes, which can combine a case study investigation with pre-existing literature of sufficient expertise to provide an extensive overview of the subject matter. Alternatively, the research can choose the more focused route of conducting questionnaire and interviews with representatives from the sector being studied. In the case of this specific research into diving in the Red Sea, it was decided that, in isolation, the independent use of one of the above would not provide sufficient depth the research project embarked upon. It was therefore the author’s decision to use a combination of both methods as this was deemed to enable the achievement of a more valued resolution to the research question (Denscombe 1998).

In reaching this decision, the author also considered the limitations that can apply to these research methods. For example, one area that is often of concern with the collection of primary data is the achievement of an appropriate sampling that would serve as a sufficient representation for the industry as a whole. The issue to be aware of in this case is to ensure that, whilst the primary process can result in the revelation of data and information that might be difficult to obtain through other methods, its analysis should be kept free from personal or organisational bias. One method of ensuring the lack of bias, which contributed to the author’s choice of research method, is to use the secondary data collected for the process of cross-referencing and comparison with primary findings. This ensures that the research retains a balanced and accurate approach to the issues and results being studied.

3.3 The questionnaires and interviews

In view of the issue of diving and marine conservation being studied for this project, the process of primary data collection in this case

BAGRI. S (1995) sustainable development of pilgrimage tourism in destination areas, it is important to have responsible visitors with high pro-environmental orientation and a critical minimum knowledge of pilgrimage tourism. Most of the pilgrimage, adventurous, and leisure destination in India are in ecologically sensitive locations with environmental resources, thus understanding tourists’ environmental orientation is critical for destination management. In this context, the environmental orientation and eco tourism awareness of tourist visiting some of the key environmental orientations of pilgrimage tourism and leisure tourists is presented. The exits significant differences among these categories in terms of environmental orientation compared to the leisure tourists. Thus, the study implies that the transformation of general environmental orientation in to awareness of eco tourism and pilgrimage tourism

Batra and Kaur (1996) in their paper highlighted that there were two types of relationships between tourism and environment i.e. coexistence and conflicting. Coexistence relationship presented harmony between tourism and environment. However, conflicting relationship between tourism and environment caused huge problems like visual pollution, sewage problem, water and air pollution, and lastly ecological problem. They viewed that social costs in tourism industry were much more than any other type of industries but these costs were not included in financial report of the tourism industry.

Boyd and Butler (1996) in their study revealed that ecotourism was dependent upon the quality of the environment and extra care was required by managers to minimize negative tourism impacts on environment. The study concluded that eco-tourism development occurred in more remote areas of the world which required appropriate management and eco-tourism opportunity spectrum (ECOS) was best fitted to it.

Brohman (1996) in his study highlighted that the third world countries enjoyed very fast growth rate of tourism at the cost of socio-economic and environmental degradation. The author opined that the third world countries must adopt proper tourism planning after consulting local people and tourism related investment and revenue should be used for the benefit of local community. The study suggested that alternative

tourism strategies must be designed with the help of local people to reduce negative impacts and increase positive effects of tourism during unfavourable circumstances.

Buhalis (1998) in his study viewed that because of ever increasing use of information technology in tourism sector, future success of tourism organizations and destinations would be determined by a combination of innovative management, marketing and strategic use of advanced information technology.

Gupta (1999) in this study praised Indian religious tourism which grew for many years without causing negative environmental, cultural and social impacts. The author viewed that pilgrimage had less burden on environment, benefited local communities, was seasonal and provided economic benefits to the local community. The author recommended to develop such type of modern tourism which benefited local communities without harming natural environment.

Noronha (1999) in his study highlighted that local people felt threatened and degraded by inappropriate behaviour of the tourists. The study also revealed that the benefits from tourism were not utilized for the development of the local people in Goa. The author recommended that strategies must be formulated by the state government to manage tourism trade and plug back profits received from tourism trade for the development of local people in Goa.

Kreiner and Kliot (2000) in their paper stated that there was considerable differences between pilgrims’ and tourists’ behaviour towards any religious site inspite of the fact that both had three common elements like discretionary income, leisure time and social sanctions. The study concluded that although various differences were there between tourists and pilgrims but it was very difficult to present those differences.

Madan and Rawat (2000) in their study viewed that the tourism industry in Mussoorie got its saturation point and there was a need to develop some nearby places like Dhanolti and Park Estate for the development of tourism.

Mehta and Arora (2000) in this study appraised tourism promotion activities adopted by tourism ministry in Punjab. Published material of the state tourism department was incomplete, unattractive and insufficient for foreign tourists. The study recommended that the state government must adopt standardized form of media for the promotion of tourism industry in Punjab.

Mishra (2000) in his study stated that among pilgrim sites, Brajmandal was one of the highly recommended places to visit. The study also highlighted the main problems regarding poor infrastructure, accommodation facilities, quality of food, shopping facilities, public convenience, communication and cheating and misguiding etc. faced by pilgrims in Brajmandal. The author suggested both operational measures like restructuring of tourism related laws, need for systems approach in managing tourism development, interacting with tourists in a healthy manner and supportive role of non-governmental organizations and operative measures like strategy for tourism development, creation of Brajmandal Development Board and creation of Brajmandal region on the line of Vatican City to increase the tempo of pilgrimage tourism in Brajmandal.

Harsh nevatia (2001) ” Religious tourism in India has immense potential to evolve as a niche segment. There are hurdles to be overcome. The first hurdle is the poor tourism infrastructure in general, and perhaps the even poorer infrastructure of religious centres. Adequate facilities for lodging, boarding and travelling and travel will have to be created. what needs to be done is to create nodes near religious centres, where there is already a basic infrastructure present and plan day trips from there religious tourism in India can provide an experience that cannot be had anywhere in the world, but for it to fructify, the seeds will have to be sown and the saplings will have to be natured”.

Wilson and John (2001) in this study highlighted several factors namely tourism package, good leadership, support of local government, funds, strategic planning, coordination between local people, and technical assistance for tourism promotion etc. which were essential for rural tourism development. The authors viewed that rural tourism provided income and employment opportunities to local people in rural areas having unutilized huge natural resources.

Cheerath (2002) in his study found that the main reason behind foreign tourists’ attraction towards Kerala was ayurveda. It revealed different types of ayurvedic treatment techniques like nasyam, snehapanam, sirovasthi, sirodhara and vasthi etc. used in Kerala for treatment of both domestic and foreign tourists. The study suggested that appropriate tourism policies must be formulated by Kerala government to prevent such activities.

Biju (2002) in his study made an attempt to explain evolutionary process of global tourism. The study concluded that the advancements made in transport and communication systems were the main reasons behind rapid growth of tourism globally.

Caprihan and Shivakumar (2002) in their article observed that India adopted age old tourism strategies those targeting only two countries U.K. and USA. The author emphasized on the adoption of innovative and customized tourism strategies by Indian government.

Singh (2002) in his paper gave a brief overview of tourism policy in India. The author highlighted that these policies were domestic tourism oriented rather than international tourism oriented. The study concluded that India had huge potential to develop tourism but the absence of appropriate process of policy formulation and implementation seemed to be the main hurdle in tourism development.

Singh (2002) in his research paper highlighted the need for managing the impact of tourist and pilgrim mobility in the Indian Himalayas. The study revealed that heavy flow of pilgrims and tourists during the peak season from April to June lead to problems relating to accommodation, catering, sewage, sanitation, water supply, tariff and ecological degradation. The study suggested the need for travel regulation, education of visitors, marketing of alternative destinations and targeted marketing to get rid of problems relating from mass tourism and pilgrimage in Garhwal.

Bansal and Gautam (2003) in their study described that Himachal Pradesh had large number of heritage sites with status of first heritage village of India. They also highlighted that lack of resources, lack of expertise, lack of ready product, mutual lack of knowledge and minimal marketing were the main reasons affecting heritage tourism in Himachal Pradesh. They suggested the introduction of entrance fees from tourists visiting heritage centres and separate heritage management board to preserve and promote the heritage sites.

Bar and Hatab (2003) in their study stated that tourism and pilgrimage tourism stood at opposite ends of a continuum with wide range of journey within these two ends. The authors revealed that the main reason behind modern tourists’ travelling was cultural curiosity, education and desire to enrich themselves. Despite this they found that pilgrims preferred to visit holy sites only during religious festivals. The study concluded that while pilgrims most of the time visited only religious places the modern tourists visited the holy places and secular places equally.

Batra (2003) in his study on different Buddhist pilgrimage sites viewed that India had tremendous potential to attract a large number of tourists from Far East and South-East Asia but due to lack of proper roads, basic amenities, infrastructure facilities and inadequate promotional efforts on the part of both the central and state government the growth rate of Buddhist tourism in India was very slow.

Biju (2003) in his paper stated that eco-tourism was both nature based and ecologically sustainable. It entailed minimum impact on environment because as required less infrastructure facilities and services when compared with conventional tourism. However, ecotourism activities lead to an unnecessary pressure on natural resources worldwide which required appropriate environmental planning and management of natural areas for sustainable development of ecotourism.

Bleie (2003) in his study discussed pilgrimage tourism in central Himalayas with the help of Manakamana temple in Nepal. The author evaluated local people’s perception about socio-cultural, economical and environmental risk associated with modern mechanical transport.The study suggested that pilgrimage tourism must build on principles of sustainable tourism to overcome the cultural, developmental, conservational and commercial risk associated with it.

George (2003) in this article emphasized the need for master plan with long term vision including development of basic tourism facilities such as road, railways, airport, walkways, drainage, benchmarking and tourism laws for development of tourism. The author also recommended a strategic management committee for tourism administration function.

Poria and Airely (2003) in this study discussed the effect of religion and religiosity on tourism industry. They observed that religion had direct impact on tourists’ consumption habits and their preference to choose any destination. The study highlighted that the tourists’ preference to visit a particular site was directly dependent upon their religion and their strength of religious belief. Moreover, different religious sites represented different things with different meanings to different tourists and these different meanings determined the behavioural pattern of tourists towards particular religious sites.

Singh (2003) in his study evaluated the relationship between travel and different aspects of societal structure with the help of a comparison between India and United States. The study highlighted different similarities like complex societies, democracies and stratification system between India and United States. To know the behavioural pattern of people towards travel he also explained differences on the basis of population, area and societal development between the two societies. It revealed that travel related decisions by the Indian middle class were directly influenced by religious thought. However, travel related decisions by the American middle class were influenced by leisure time and money. The study concluded that huge differences between societal structures of India and United States gave birth to different types of tourism i.e. pilgrimage tourism in India and secular tourism in United States.

Bahuguna (2004) in her paper made an attempt to evaluate development of tourism industry in India with the help of tenth Five Year Plan approach. She highlighted that tenth plan considered enhancing India’s competitiveness as tourist destination. Moreover, tourism study revealed that the share of India in world tourism was stagnant with only 0.38 per cent. Further, in case of domestic tourism India had prominent share of 4.3 per cent worldwide. She concluded that India had vast potential for different types of tourism like ecotourism, health tourism, pilgrimage tourism and health tourism which required proper planning.

Caprihan and Shivakumar (2004) in their study highlighted mainly four features of eco-tourism i.e. preservation, supportiveness, involvement and empowerment to provide more livelihood opportunities to local people. Authors viewed that India had vast potential of ecotourism but proper planning required for preservation of natural resources was lacking. Further only few Indian states like Karnataka, Kerala, Sikkim, Rajasthan and Andhra pardesh had announced tourism policy for the development of eco-tourism. They highlighted the issue of mis-management at national parks and sanctuaries which required a well defined eco-tourism policy and states’ strong willingness to preserve the environment.

Kolas (2004) in his study highlighted the development of ethical and religious tourism in Shangri-la. It revealed that the development of tourism in this region provided revenue to the local community. The author also highlighted that with the help of place making strategies China renamed Zhongdian County as Shangri-la and promoted this place as per notions of Tibetan religious identity. The study concluded that similar strategies could convert an unfavourable tourist destination into a favourable one.

Kumar and Chandersekar (2004) in their study highlighted that tourism had tremendous potentials of earning foreign exchange, yielding tax revenue, generating employment and contributing to the economic growth of the country. To cater the need of tourism industry, more hotels, resorts, recreation facilities, transportation facilities and other auxiliary services were required.This unplanned development of tourism infrastructure lead to several problems like congestion, overcrowding and pollution etc. The authors suggested a tourism management plan including standard for resort development, style and location of structure, planning for sewage and preservation of open spaces to be adopted by every country for sustainable development of tourism industry.

National Council for Applied Economic Research Report (2004) indicated that religious tourism emerged as booming market in India. The report highlighted that in comparison to 28 per cent share of leisure tour packages, the number of religious trips was much more with 50 per cent share. It also highlighted that with 23 million visitors, Tirupati was at first place followed by Puri and Mata Vaishno Devi with 18.17 million and 17.25 million visitors respectively. In spite of this, Buddhist pilgrimage also flourished in India. Buddhist pilgrims from Japan, South Korea, Thiland and Sri Lanka and recently from China liked to visit India to see places related to Buddha. The report concluded that India had great potential of religious tourism and therefore Confederation of Indian Industry had recommended the government to identify 25 domestic tourist sites and spend upto Rs. 22 million at each site for infrastructure development. Rana (2004) in his study evaluated behavioural perspective of pilgrims and tourists in Banars (Kashi). The study highlighted different factors like economic, social, cultural, job status and perspective of life to study the behaviour of tourists’. The study also examined tourists’ purpose of visit, accommodation used, media of information, tourist attractions, mode of transportation, expenditure, overall impression, symbolic meaning of Kashi and sound scape and smell scape in Banars. The author found that the tourists faced several problems like scarcity of parking space, non-availability of accommodation, lack of publicity material and authentic map while visiting Kashi. The study suggested that to solve the problems of both domestic and international tourists and to preserve the cultural heritage and aesthetic values in Banaras proper plans and policy must be formulated by both the state and central government.

Singh (2004) in his study discussed pilgrimage tourism in Indian Himalayas and highlighted different types of tourism like pilgrimage, adventure, wild life, eco-tourism and leisure tourism offered by modern Himalayas. He highlighted that modern form of tourism in Himalayan states like Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir was totally unplanned and had drastic effect on natural and sociocultural environment. He recommended that a well planned tourism development approach must be adopted by Himalayan states because their income was largely dependent upon travel and tourism.

Singh and Mishra (2004) in their study highlighted social, economical and environmental dimensions of tourism in Manali. They observed an increase of 270 per cent in tourist arrivals in Manali from last three decades. The authors revealed that Manali was experiencing environmental problems like acute shortage of water, overcrowded roads, heavy traffic, excessive garbage, unplanned growth and illegal constructions and sanitation problems. They also examined several variables like tourist season, expenditure pattern, tourism taxes, accommodation, transport and carrying capacity of town which were essential for tourism industry in Manali. Besides this they suggested different short and long term strategies for accommodation, transportation, water, sewage, energy and finance. The study suggested that cautious steps must be taken by the state government to avoid mass tourism and create healthy eco-tourism in Manali.

Srinivasan and Nath (2004) in their article discussed the role of information technology for development of tourism industry in India. They stated that only Kerala was making use of information technology in tourism. The researchers stressed on mainly three elements of tourism industry i.e. service providers, agencies of tourism and tourists which required an adequate information system. Moreover they presented an integrated tourism information system model to facilitate most of the functions of all the three elements of tourism industry. The authors also highlighted the importance of integrated tourism information system in hotel industry, travel industry and handicraft industry. The study recommended that India must adopt modern information technology practices for tourism to sustain in both domestic and international market.

Woodward (2004) in his article made an attempt to represent religious sites as an important source of income for many countries. He opined that the income generated by religious sites could be used for repair and maintenance of those particular sites and other religious sites. The study highlighted that most of the world famous religious sites were not able to accommodate large number of visitors at one time which lead to several accidental damages, noise pollution, overcrowding, theft incidents, littering and parking problems. The author suggested several remedies like charging for vehicle access and entry fees to religious site etc. to overcome the above mentioned problems. He felt that there was need for separate planning for those who visit for religious purpose and those who visit only as sightseers.

Anbalagan, Selvam and Amudha (2005) in their study highlighted tourism as India’s third largest export industry after ready made garments, jams and jewellery. The authors suggested five point strategy i.e. strong sustained policies, private sector involvement, liberalization of aviation, elimination of red tape and investment in human resource development to achieve sustained growth rate in tourism industry in India.

Murgan (2005) in his article highlighted that the main reason behind explosion of domestic tourism in India was world famous pilgrimage sites. Further, till 1980 it was the North that dominated the Indian tourism industry with 70 per cent market share but now it declined to 49 per cent. He viewed that the main reason behind this declining trend was more focused tourism development in the Southern region. The author highlighted that Indian tourism industry was facing several challenges like scarcity of hotel rooms, high taxes, sick aviation policies and unnecessary delay in visa etc.

Dixit (2005) in his study examined tourism pattern in Uttarakhand. He highlighted that religious tourists, pleasure tourists, and adventure and nature lovers preferred to visit Uttarakhand. Further these tourists had different behaviour patterns regarding food, transport and accommodation. The study revealed that adventure tourism was the fastest growing sector in Uttarakhand as compared to religious tourism. Moreover, religious tourism in Uttarakhand was affected adversely by seasonality syndrome. The author recommended that adventure tourism, yoga and meditation related tourism could help in overcoming seasonality syndrome of Uttarakhand. He also emphasized a close coordination of public, private and local government for expanding tourists’ season in Uttarakhand.

Rao and Sikha (2005) in their study presented Bollywood as an effective tool for promotion of Indian tourism industry worldwide. They highlighted that Bollywood produce 27 per cent of total global film production and the reach of Bollywood was 188 million audiences in Indian sub-continental, 20 million NRIs, and large number of non- Indians in other countries. Further, different countries invited Indian film industry for film shooting in their country because it generated revenue and employment for local communities. The study recommended that India should also present itself as favourable destination for film shooting.

Sarathy (2006) in this article gave an overview of religious tourism with respect to Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism and Jainism. He mentioned various levels of religious tourism like international, national and regional. He revealed that pilgrimage peak during the religious festivals and people visited the centres of their faith in groups. The author also found Hinduism as third largest faith amongst the world’s religions and having largest number of religious places. He also highlighted different religious festivals celebrated in India like Kumbh Mela, Brahmotsavam, Makar Jyoti and Rath Yatra and described Kumbh Mela as the largest religious gathering at a single place in the world. The author also explained Buddism, Islam, Sikhism and Janism as important religions in India and the world.

Singh (2006) in her study highlighted pilgrimage tourism in Indian Himalayas with the help of four dimensions of tourism namely travel, strangers, leisure and secularity. The study also highlighted four main reasons behind Hindu pilgrimage in Indian Himalayas i.e. social and national integration, social cohesion, growth of intellectual knowledge, and source of values for human beings. The author opined that increasing number of pilgrims and tourists in Indian Himalayas was responsible for several problems like overcrowding, congestion, traffic and environmental pollution. The researcher suggested that education and awareness building programmes could directly help in increasing the awareness level of both pilgrims and tourists regarding pollution free environment in Himalayas.

Sud (2006) in this study highlighted the external tourism and its positive impacts on Indian economy. It revealed that India had huge potential for tourism but problems like lack of airline seats, non availability of rooms in hotels, and lack of professional expertise to handle tourists discouraged foreign tourists to choose India as tourist destination. Moreover tour operators overseas never mentioned India because of poor infrastructure facilities. The study also highlighted that though India had inadequate tourism infrastructure yet foreign tourists liked to visit India because of its rich culture. These foreign tourists directly helped the rural economy by staying in local hotels, eating local food and buying local handicraft.

Dasgupta, Mondal and Basu (2006) in their study made an attempt to evaluate the impact of pilgrimage tourism at Ganga Sagar Island. They viewed that in India people travelled large number of pilgrimage places to earn virtue. Similarly Ganga Sagar was the place where a holy dip during Makar Sankranti earned that much of virtue which one could earn by visiting all the pilgrim centres through put life. The study highlighted that pilgrimage tourism in Ganga Sagar opened several sources of cash earning and supported several new occupations like tea stalls, hotels, vans, rikshaw pullers, auto drivers and STD shops etc. However, it had some negative social-cultural impact on their life in the form of immoral activities by tourists. The study concluded that though pilgrimage tourism had some negative impact in Ganga Sagar, the overall impact of tourism in Ganga Sagar was positive and provided a large number of economical and developmental benefits to the local people.

Kumar (2007) in his study made an attempt to evaluate impact of Tsunami on beach tourism. It revealed that about 3 lac people were killed due to Tsunami in 12 countries. Further, most of the displaced people suffered from several psychological problems. The study highlighted several natural disasters like cyclones, floods, Tsunami and earthquakes which affected beach tourism adversely in both the developed and developing countries. The author found that out of 1192 islands of Maldives 42 were lost. The study suggested several measures like installation of advance warning system, coastal zone management, community awareness and disaster training programmes to reduce the impact of Tsunami.

Motiram (2007) in his study described the impact of globalization on mass tourism in India i.e. Beach Tourism, Mountain Tourism, and Religious Tourism. The study highlighted that due to globalization the tourism industry generate more employment, and more foreign exchange earnings. Further, it facilitated infrastructure development in the country. The researcher pointed out that India was the third fastest growing travel and tourism economy in the world after Montenegro and China. The author suggested that India must develop tourism infrastructure to attract international tourists in large numbers.

Rishi and Giridhar (2007) in their paper evaluated tourism industry in Himachal pradesh with the help of SWOT analysis. It highlighted the unique natural offerings of Himachal Pradesh which it could not cash due to lack of various facilities like food, transportation, water and accommodation etc. The researcher viewed that to leverage tourism potential it was necessary to analyse the needs, perceptions, preferences and satisfaction level of tourists. The study concluded that Himachal Pradesh had vast potential of becoming one of the world’s top destinations provided it developed its infrastructure facilities and promoted its offerings in a suitable manner.

Patnaik (2007) in his article highlighted that Shree Jagannath Dham was among the 1000 most preferred destinations visited by salvation seeking foreigners and have second place in case of religious tourism in India. Further, he revealed that Mahodadhi (the birth place of goddess Luxami) was another important place in Puri for both foreign and domestic tourists and they take dip at this place during Ganga Sagar mela. The author suggested that religious places in India attract million of devotees every year and to tap the tourism opportunities, appropriate policies for religious tourism must be formulated and implemented.

Singh (2007) in his study made an attempt to analyse Buddhist tourism in India. He highlighted mainly four Buddhist pilgrimage circuits i.e. Kapilvastu, Magadha, Varanasi and Kusinagar in India having their importance at both national and international level. The study also revealed that different places like Sri Lanka, Myanmar and South-East Asia claimed that Buddha also visited their places. Further, to attract foreign tourists these countries developed themselves as Buddhist pilgrimage centres. The author opined that to survive in competitive situations and to attract more tourists, India must adopt appropriate tourism planning and strategies.

Winter (2007) in his study discussed the present scenario of tourism in Asia. It highlighted that within ten years Asia would have one of the fastest growing tourist population in the world. Despite this very little attention was received by Asian tourists in Asian countries. The author highlighted that the Asian countries mainly targeted Western countries for tourism and formulated tourism policies accordingly. Moreover, they ignored the needs of Asian tourists. The study suggested that a balanced approach which considered both Asian and Western tourists must be adopted by Asian countries while formulating tourism policy.

Chadha and Singh (2008) in their study discussed the need and expectations of religious tourists in Punjab. The study highlighted the difficulties of religious tourists pertaining to transportation, accommodation, food, shopping and hospitality. The researchers found that railways and air mode of transportation dominated all other forms of travel. They revealed that most of the religious tourists liked to stay near religious places because of convenience factor. It was also observed that problems like price discrimination in some products, lack of parking space, and improper signboards required immediate attention. The study concluded that combined approach by the Punjab Government and the State Tourism Department must be adopted to identify tourist circuits and to develop tour packages to attract more tourists to the state. Libison and Muralledharan (2008) in their study discussed the economic benefits of pilgrimage tourism in Subrimala to the local residents of Pandalam rural area. The study highlighted that the number of pilgrims visited Subbrimala temple was almost equal to the population of Kerala state. The author revealed that during pilgrimage season, a large number of economic activities including petty trading, accommodation and dormitory facilities, food and tea shops, transportation etc. took place in Pandalam which provided numerous socio-economic benefit to the region. They also found that during pilgrimage season, the standard of living of families based on food habits, clothing and saving pattern improved. The author suggested that a development committee including officials from Gram Panchayat, Devaswon Board, Pandalam Executive

Committee and local people must be formulated for development of long and short term plans to reap maximum benefits from pilgrimage season. Sinha (2008) in their study made an attempt to evaluate the impact of religious tourism on Gir Na