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In todays day and age, there is a general perception that womens rights reached its momentum with the start of the Womens Liberation Movement of the 20th century, specifically between the 1970s-1980s. However, from the Islamic point of view, women’s liberation was not started by some radical political groups of the West, but was revealed by Allah to Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) in as long ago as the 7th century. The Qur’an and the Traditions of the Prophet (Hadith and Sunna) guarantee every Muslim woman certain rights and duties.

II. Women in Ancient Civilizations

In order to get achieve a better insight of the status of women today, it is worthwhile to preview how women were treated in previous civilizations and religions that precede Islam (Pre-610 C.E).

India: During the era of the Aryan civilization (2500 B.C), women were accorded almost the same status as men. Women were educated, had a say in their marriage decisions and own their own properties. Even prostitutes were admired for their expertise in the art of music and dance and widows were allowed to remarry. This trend took a nose-diving turn with the start of the Medieval era (1500 B.C) and unfortunately resulted in practices like Satti( dying with the husband at the funeral pyre), Jauhar (wives immolating themselves when they realized that their husbands were going to die in enemy hands) and child marriages.

Rome: was a typically male dominated society; so much so that in the Roman Republic a man could legally kill his wife or daughter if they questioned his authority. Women were also kept out of positions of power. They were not allowed to be senators, governors, lawyers, judges or any of the other official positions involved in running the Roman Empire. Women were also not allowed to vote in elections.

Athens: In the 5th century women in ancient Athenian societies were given no legal rights and were allowed to leave the house only for short distances with a chaperone. It was a common belief that women were emotional creatures who were dangerous to themselves and needed to be taken care of by men. Although women might own some personal items and have charge of a slave or two, they could not own property or enter into contracts.

III. Rights of a Muslim woman

In the Qur’an Allah frequently addresses both the man and the woman. In one passage Allah reveals:

“For Muslim men and women, for believing men and women, for devout men and women, for true men and women who are patient, for men and women who humble themselves, for men and women who give in charity, for men and women who fast, for men and women who guard their chastity, and for men and women who engage much in Allah’s praise – For them all has Allah prepared forgiveness and great reward.” (33:35)

i) Social Status:

As a daughter

-In Pre-Islamic Arabian tribes, the practice of female infanticide was a norm. However, according to the Quran, this practice is prohibited in Islam:-

“And when the girl (who was) buried alive is asked, for what sin she was killed.” (81:8-9).

-Moreover, the Quran even rebukes the unwelcoming attitude of some parents:-

“And when one of them is informed of (the birth of) a female, his face becomes dark, and he suppresses grief. He hides himself from the people because of the ill of which he has been informed. Should he keep it in humiliation or bury it in the ground? Certainly, evil is what they decide”. (Quran 16:58-59).

-Parents of a daughter are expected to treat her with justice and equality:-

“Whosoever supports two daughters until they mature, he and I will come on the Day of Judgment as this (and he pointed with his fingers held together).”

-The education of girls is supported:-

“Seeking knowledge is mandatory for every Muslim.”

As a wife

Islam views marriage as an equal partnership. When a person gets married they neither marry a slave nor a master. It is the basic, fundamental ideological fundamental of a Muslim that servitude belongs to God alone. Hence the Quran states:-

“And among His signs is this: That He created mates for you from yourselves that you may find rest, peace of mind in them, and He ordained between you love and mercy. Lo, herein indeed are signs for people who reflect.” [Quran 30:21]

To foster the love and security that comes with marriage, Muslim wives have several rights: the first one is to receive ‘mahr’ from the husband, which is a gift as part of the marriage contract A wife has the right to kind treatment. The Prophet (P.B.U.H)) said:

“The most perfect believers are the best in conduct. And the best of you are those who are best to their wives.”

As far as divorce is concerned, God provides general guidelines for the process of divorce with emphasis throughout on both parties upholding the values of justice and kindness in formalizing the end to their marriage:-

“And when you divorce women and they have [nearly] fulfilled their term, either retain them according to acceptable terms or release them according to acceptable terms, and do not keep them, intending harm, to transgress [against them].” (Surah 2. 231)

God encourages the husband and wife to appoint arbitrators as the first step to aid in reconciliation in the process of divorce. If the reconciliation step fails, both men and women are guaranteed their right to divorce as established in the Qur’an, but the question lies in what is the procedure for each. When a divorce is initiated by the man, it is known as talaq. The pronouncement by the husband may be verbal or written, but once done, a waiting period of three months (‘iddat) must take place in which there are no sexual relations even though the two are living under the same roof. The waiting period helps prevent hasty decisions made in anger and enables both parties to reconsider as well as determine if the wife is pregnant. If the wife is pregnant, the waiting period is lengthened until she delivers. At any point during this time, the husband and wife are free to resume their relationship, thereby stopping the divorce process. At this time, the husband remains financially responsible for the support of his wife.

The divorce initiated by the wife is known as khu” (if the husband is not at fault) and entails the wife giving her dowry to end the marriage because she is the “contract” breaker. In the instance of talaq where the husband is the “contract” breaker, he must pay the dowry in full in cases where all or part of it was deferred.

As a mother

Mothers have greater right and deserve more kindness, help service, good treatment and companionship than the fathers because the mother is the first one to care for the children and she suffers more directly with daily hardships in their upbringing. This tradition indicates that a mother has three times the rights of that of a father due to the sufferings she experiences during the various stages of her child’s life; in pregnancy, delivery, nursing, and raising the child.

“And We have enjoined on man to be dutiful and good to his parents. His mother bore him in weakness and hardship upon weakness and hardship. The duration of carrying him (in the womb) and weaning is two years. So thank Me and to your parents; unto Me is the final destination.” [31:14]

ii) Economic Aspect

a) Woman’s Right to Property (Inheritance):

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“From what is left by parents and those nearest related there is a share for men and a share for women, whether the property be small or large, a determinate share.” (Surah 4, Ayah 7)

b) Financial Security and Inheritance Laws: Financial security is assured for women. They are entitled to receive marital gifts without limit and to keep present and future properties and income for their own security, even after marriage. No married woman is required to spend any amount at all from her property and income on the household. The woman is entitled also to full financial support during marriage and during the “waiting period” (iddah) in case of divorce or widowhood. Some jurists require, in addition, one year’s support for divorce and widowhood (or until they remarry, if remarriage takes place before the year is over). A woman who bears a child in marriage is entitled to child support from the child’s father.

c) Employment: Whilst women carry the heavy burden of bearing and rearing children, they may still be at par with men, that is, they have the right to seek employment as long as this does not interfere with her primary role as a wife and a mother. In Islam, however, the value and importance of women in society and the true measure of their success as human beings, is measured with completely different criteria: their fear of Allah and obedience to Him, and fulfillment of the duties He has entrusted them with, particularly that of bearing, rearing and teaching children.

iii) Political Rights

Any fair investigation of the teachings of Islam into the history of the Islamic civilization will surely find a clear evidence of woman’s equality with man in what we call today “political rights”.

This includes the right of election as well as the nomination to political offices. It also includes woman’s right to participate in public affairs. Both in the Qur’an and in Islamic history we find examples of women who participated in serious discussions and argued even with the Prophet (P) himself

During the Caliphate of Omar Ibn al-Khattab, a woman argued with him in the mosque, proved her point, and caused him to declare in the presence of people: “A woman is right and Omar is wrong.”

Although not mentioned in the Qur’an, one Hadeeth of the Prophet is interpreted to make woman ineligible for the position of head of state. The Hadeeth referred to is roughly translated: “A people will not prosper if they let a woman be their leader.” This limitation, however, has nothing to do with the dignity of woman or with her rights. It is rather, related to the natural differences in the biological and psychological make-up of men and women.

According to Islam, the head of the state is no mere figurehead. He leads people in the prayers, especially on Fridays and festivities; he is continuously engaged in the process of decision-making pertaining to the security and well-being of his people. This demanding position, or any similar one, such as the Commander of the Army, is generally inconsistent with the physiological and psychological make-up of woman in general. It is a medical fact that during their monthly periods and during their pregnancies, women undergo various physiological and psychological changes. Such changes may occur during an emergency situation, thus affecting her decision, without considering the excessive strain which is produced. Moreover, some decisions require a maximum of rationality and a minimum of emotionality – a requirement which does not coincide with the instinctive nature of women.

Even in modern times, and in the most developed countries, it is rare to find a woman in the position of a head of state acting as more than a figurehead, a woman commander of the armed services, or even a proportionate number of women representatives in parliaments, or similar bodies. One can not possibly ascribe this to backwardness of various nations or to any constitutional limitation on woman’s right to be in such a position as a head of state or as a member of the parliament. It is more logical to explain the present situation in terms of the natural and indisputable differences between man and woman, a difference which does not imply any “supremacy” of one over the other. The difference implies rather the “complementary” roles of both the sexes in life.

IV.Conclusion

In this report, the status of women in Islam has been described as purely given in the Quran and revealed by the Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H). However, the role of women has not only been shaped by Islamic text but also by the history and culture of the Muslim world. Moreover, the issue of women in Islam has been viewed as highly controversial through the centuries. While it is believed that these revelations on women’s liberation in the Quran made major improvements in the oppressed status of women in pre-Arab societies, the deterioration of this status took place soon after the death of the Prophet (P.B.U.H).

With the growth of the Women’s Liberation Movement in the West, many feminist writers came to view the practice of wearing the ‘veil’ as a symbol of women’s oppression and subservience to men. The hijaab in Islam is given as a way for women to conceal their attractiveness and appear dignified so that attention is drawn more to their character than physical beauty. Islam enjoins modest dress for both men and women, and in a Muslim society, the men as well as the women typically dress conservatively. The Qur’an tells them to dress modestly and cover their hair in all public situations, others insist that their whole body including hands and face are to be covered, yet others understand the guidance to mean a more general attitude of modesty both in dress and attitude. Many Muslim women freely choose to dress modestly in order to avoid the public scrutiny, judgments, and social dynamics associated with physical appearance. By dressing in ways that do not draw attention.

Additionally, polygamy is seen as a sign of inequality amongst men and women. This concept is clarified stating that polygamy was introduced as a means to protect women and children who may otherwise be taken advantage of. Moreover, there are strict conditions placed on men to provide equal time and money to all their wives. The rights of divorce are also open to the wife if she is unfairly treated. The Prophet Muhammad was married to his first wife, Khadijah, for 25 years, and he did not take other wives until after her death. His marriages to several widows and divorcees in later years were primarily contracted for political and humanitarian reasons, as was expected of a man in his position. His home life was characterised by love, consideration, kindness and respect.

Despite all these teachings in Islam it is no secret that some brutal traditions are still prevalent in many Muslim societies. In many parts of Pakistan, female infanticide is still on the rise. According to the Edhi Foundation, some 1000 babies were found dead in different parts of Pakistan in the year 2011. Even though the Hijaab is meant to be a symbol of modesty and social identity there are innumerable societies where the purdah is more of a cultural restriction than a matter of choice. Domestic violence against women is almost a norm in many societies where women don’t come forward to claim their rights.

Literally, Sunnah means a clear path or a beaten track but it has also been used to imply normative practice, or an established course of conduct. It may be a good example or a bad, and it may be set by an individual, a sect or a community.

In pre-Islamic Arabia, the Arabs used the word ‘Sunnah’ in reference to the ancient and continuous practice of the community which they inherited from their forefathers.

The Sunnah, according to the scholars of hadeeths, is everything that has been related from the Messenger (SAW), of his statements, actions, tacit approvals, personality, physical description, or biography. It does not matter whether the information being related refers to something before the beginning of his prophetic mission, or after it. The statements of the Prophet include everything the Prophet said for various reasons on different occasions. The actions of the Prophet include everything that the Prophet did that was related to us by his Companions. This includes how he made ablutions, how he performed his prayers, and how he made the Hajj pilgrimage.

The tacit approvals of the Prophet includes everything that his Companions said or did that he either showed his favor towards or at least did not object to. Anything that had the tacit approval of the Prophet is as valid as anything that he said or did himself.

An adequate answer to the question as to whether the Sunnah is a mere supplement to the Qur’an or a source in its own right necessitates an elaboration of the relationship of the Sunnah to the Qur’an is tried in the following paragraphs:

The Holy Quran is the foundation of Islamic Law. It is the miraculous speech of Allah that was revealed to the Messenger, may the mercy and blessings of Allah be upon him, by way of the angel Gabriel. It has been transmitted to us with so many chains of authority that its historical authenticity is unquestionable. It is written down in its own volume, and its recitation is a form of worship.

As for the Sunnah, it is everything besides the Holy Quran that came from Allah’s Messenger. It explains and provides details for the laws found in the Holy Quran. It also provides examples of the practical application of these laws. It is also either direct revelation from Allah, or decisions of the Messenger that were then confirmed by revelation. Therefore, the source of all the Sunnah is revelation.

The Holy Quran takes precedence over the Sunnah in two ways. For one thing, the Holy Quran consists of the exact words of Allah, miraculous in nature, down to the last verse. The Sunnah, however, is not necessarily the exact words of Allah, but rather their meanings as explained by the Holy Prophet (SAW).

The Position of the Sunnah in Islamic Law

During the Messenger’s lifetime the Holy Quran and Sunnah were the only sources of Islamic Law.

The Holy Quran provides the general injunctions that formed the basis of the Law, without going into all the details and secondary legislation, with the exception of a few injunctions that are established along with the general principles. These injunctions are not subject to change over time or with the changing circumstances of the people. The Holy Quran, likewise, comes with the tenets of belief, sets down acts of worship, mentions the stories of the nations of old, and provides moral guidelines.

The Sunnah comes in agreement with the Holy Quran. It explains the meanings of what is unclear in the text, provides details for what is depicted in general terms, specifies what is general, and explains its injunctions and objectives. The Sunnah also comes with injunctions that are not provided by the Holy Quran, but these are always in harmony with its principles, and they always advance the objectives that are outlined in the Holy Quran.

The Sunnah is a practical expression of what is in the Holy Quran. This expression takes many forms. Sometimes, it comes as an action performed by the Messenger. At other times, it is a statement that he made in response to something. Sometimes, it takes the form of a statement or action of one of the Companions that he neither prevented nor objected to. On the contrary, he remained silent about it or expressed his approval for it.

The Sunnah explains and clarifies the Holy Quran in many ways. It explains how to perform the acts of worship and carry out the laws that are mentioned in the Holy Quran. Allah commands the believers to pray without mentioning the times that the prayers had to be performed or the manner of performing them. The Messenger clarified this through his own prayers and by teaching the Muslims how to pray. He said: “Pray as you have seen me praying.”

Allah makes the Hajj pilgrimage obligatory without explaining its rites. Allah’s Messenger explains this by saying:

“Take the rites of Hajj from me.”

Allah makes the Zakat obligatory without mentioning what types of wealth and produce it is to be levied against. Allah also does not mention the minimum amount of wealth that makes the tax obligatory. The Sunnah, though, makes all this clear.

The Sunnah specifies general statements found in the Holy Quran. Allah says:

“Allah commands you regarding your children: to the male, a portion equal to that of two femalesaˆ¦” (Holy Quran 4:11)

This wording is general, applying to every family and making every child an inheritor of his or her parents. The Sunnah makes this ruling more specific by excluding the children of Prophets. Allah’s Messenger (SAW) said:

“We Prophets leave behind no inheritance. Whatever we leave behind is charity.”

The Sunnah qualifies unqualified statements in the Holy Quran. Allah says:

“aˆ¦and you find no water, then perform tayammum (dry ablution) with clean earth and rub therewith your faces and handsaˆ¦ (Holy Quran 5:6)

The verse does not mention the extent of the hand, leaving the question of whether one should rub the hands up to the wrist or the forearm. The Sunnah makes this clear by showing that it is to the wrist, because this is what Allah’s Messenger did when he performed dry ablution.

The Sunnah also comes emphasizing what is in the Holy Quran or providing secondary legislation for a law stated therein. This includes all the hadeeths that indicate that Prayer, the Zakat, fasting, and the Hajj pilgrimage are obligatory.

An example of where the Sunnah provides subsidiary legislation for an injunction found in the Holy Quran is the ruling found in the Sunnah that it is forbidden to sell fruit before it begins to ripen. The basis for this law is the statement of the Holy Quran:

Do not consume your property amongst you unjustly, except it is a trade among you by mutual consent.

The Sunnah contains rulings that are not mentioned in the Holy Quran and that do not come as clarifications for something mentioned in the Holy Quran. An example of this is the prohibition of eating donkey flesh and the flesh of predatory beasts. Another example of this is the prohibition of marrying a woman and her aunt at the same time. These and other rulings provided by the Sunnah must be adhered to.

The Obligation of Adhering to the Sunnah

A requirement of believing in Prophet-hood is to accept as true everything that Allah’s Messenger (SAW) said. Allah chose His Messengers (SAW) from among His worshippers to convey His Law to humanity. Allah says:

“aˆ¦Allah knows best with whom to place His Messageaˆ¦” (Holy Quran 6:124)

Allah also says:

“aˆ¦Are the Messengers charged with anything but to convey the clear Message?” (Holy Quran 16:35)

The Messenger is protected from error in all of his actions. Allah has protected his tongue from uttering anything but the truth. Allah has protected his limbs from doing anything but what is right.

Allah has safeguarded him from showing approval for anything contrary to Islamic Law.

In conclusion, it may be said that both sides are essentially in agreement on the authority of Sunnah as a source of law and its principal role in relationship to the Qur’an. They both acknowledge that the Sunnah contains legislation which is not found in the Holy Quran. The difference between them seems to be one of interpretation rather than substance. The Qur’anic ayat on the duty of obedience to the Holy Prophet (SAW), and those which assign to him the role of the interpreter of the Qur’an, are open to variant interpretations. These passages have been quoted in support of both the views, that the

Sunnah is supplementary to the Qur’an, and that it is an independent source. The point which is basic to both these views is the authority of the Holy Prophet (SAW) and the duty of adherence to his Sunnah. In the meantime, both sides acknowledge the fact that the Sunnah contains legislation which is additional to the Qur’an. When this is recognized, the rest of the debate becomes largely redundant.

He (SAW) is the most beautifully complete of Allah’s Creations. This is clear from how Allah describes him in the following verses of Holy Quran:

“By the star when it sets. Your companion has neither gone astray nor has he erred. Nor does he speak of his own desire. It is only revelation that has been revealed.” (Holy Quran 53:1-4)
QUESTION:
Kamali asserts that “The essential unity of Sharia’ah’ lies in the degree of harmony that is achieved between revelation and reason. Ijtihad is the principal instrument of maintaining this harmony”. Discuss how personal reasoning (Ijtihad) has helped to develop Islamic jurisprudence?
ANSWER:
1. Introduction:

Ijtihad played an important role in the development of Islamic legal theory. The aim of this essay is to discuss the concept of Ijtihad in the development of the Islamic legal theory. Thus it will not be out of place to give a brief introduction of the concept of Ijtihad.

2. Ijtihad:

The Arabic word Ijtihad is derived from the ‘Juhud’ which means ‘expending of maximum effort in the performance of an act’. In Islamic jurisprudence Ijtihad means the effort made by the Mujtahid in seeking knowledge of the Ahkam (Rules) of the Sharia’ah through interpretation. (Nyazyee, Ch. 14: P. 263).

This definition implies the following:

That the Mujtahid should expend the maximum effort, that is, he should work to the limits of his ability so much so that he realize his inability to go any further.

That, the person expending the effort should be a Mujtahid. An effort expended by non-Mujtahid is of no consequence, because he is not qualified to do so.

The effort should be directed towards the discovery of the Rules of the Sharia’ah that pertain to the conduct.

The method of discovery of the Rules should be through interpretation of the texts with the help of other sources. This excludes the memorization of such Rules from the books of Fiqh or their identification by the Mufti. Thus, the activity of the Faqih and the Mufti cannot be called Ijtihad.

3. The Three Modes of Ijtihad:

The Jurists in general practice three types or modes of Ijtihad. In reality, the activity of the jurist cannot be split up into separate modes. Ijtihad is single seamless process, but for simplification and ease of understanding this activity is divided into three types as follows;

In the first mode, the Jurist stay as close to the text as he can. He focuses on the literal meaning of the texts, that is, he follows the plain meaning Rule.

When the first mode of literal construction is exhausted by the Jurists, he turns to syllogism, which is Qiyas. This mode is confined to strict types of analogy. These are called Qiyas Al-Ma’na and Qiyas Al.illah.

The second mode of Ijtihad is confine to the extension of the law from individual texts, while in the third mode the reliance is on all the texts considered collectively. This means legal reasoning is undertaken more in the line with the spirit of the law and its purposes rather than the confines of the individual texts.

4. Role of Ijtihad in the development of Islamic legal theory.
Early notion of Islamic legal theory and the concept of Ijtihad:

At the time of the Holy Prophet (SAW) the only source of the Sharia’ah was revelation. That revelation had two types, one was the direct speech of Allah, namely the Holy Quran, and the other was indirect speech of Allah which the Holy Prophet (SAW) expressed in his own words, that is termed as Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (SAW).

The Holy Quran by nature is implicit. It does not provide details of each and every individual case, rather it describes general principles, examples etc. the Holy Prophet (SAW) used to explain and implement those principles and general rules in individual cases, that is Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (SAW), in that sense the Sunnah is the explanation of the Holy Quran, though as it is mentioned earlier that explanation was also directed by the God.

Although as it is mentioned earlier that the only source of law at that time was revelation, but some time the Holy Prophet (SAW) practiced Ijtihad in its narrow sense in the absence of reveled rule(s) as the Holy Prophet (SAW) said, ‘when I do not receive a revelation I adjudicate among you on the basis of my opinion’ (Abu Dawud, 1984:1017). However, the difference of that Ijtihad with ordinary Ijtihad bil ray is that whenever, He (SAW) mistook, a verse would be revealed in order to inform him the correct decision. For instance, once the Holy Prophet (SAW) was asked by a woman about the rule of dhihar. The Holy Prophet (SAW) answered her “I don’t think that the rule is different from that of divorce”. Then Allah revealed verses regarding the hukum of dhihar, which was not similar to divorce and then the hukum of dhihar had been corrected.

The companion of the prophet used to do Ijtihad at that time also. When the Prophet was not available or when the Prophet sent them to somewhere, they use to do Ijtihad in the absence of explicit Qur’anic verse or Sunnah of the Prophet. They use to interpret the verses of the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet as well as in cases of completely new issues they use to do Ijtihad on the basis of the principles of Sharia’ah. The advantage of them was if they mistook they could correct themselves by asking the Prophet or Allah would revealed the correct rule(s). Therefore, Sharia’ah was very much based on the revelation at that time, i.e. either Allah would reveal the hukum of a certain mas’ala or He would approve the decision(s) of the Prophet and his companions or He would disapproved and correct their decision(s). Hence, despite the fact that the practice of Ijtihad was started from that time, but it did not get the status of a source of Islamic legal theory then.

Development of Islamic legal theory and the concept of Ijtihad:

After the death of the Holy Prophet (SAW), the gate of revelation has been closed for ever. Therefore, in order to deal with new problems, the companions of the Holy Prophet (SAW) used to depend on the Ijtihad. However, it did not substitute the Holy Quran and Sunna at all, rather whenever they faced a new phenomenon regarding which they did not know any Qur’anic verse or Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (SAW), they used to ask the other companions whether they knew any Hadith of the Holy Prophet (SAW) concerning that. They used to do Ijtihad in the absence of the revealed rule and whenever they found any Hadith regarding that case they use to abandon their Ijtihad and followed that Hadith.

Because of the quick expansion of the Muslim world in first century, a huge number of people embraced Islam. A number of the companions of the Holy Prophet (SAW) migrated to different places in order to teach the new Muslims the science of Islam. People gathered around them to learn Islam. Through their teaching they created groups of scholars. Those groups were the producers of the different schools of thought.

Two distinctive trends of thought emerged at that time, namely Ahl al-Ray and Ahl al-Hadith. The trend of Ahl al-ray can be traced back to the second caliph Hazrat Umar (RA) and a renowned companion Hazrat Abdullah ibn Mas’ud (RA), whereas the trend of Ahl al-Hadith can be traced back from two renowned companions and scholars Hazrat Zaid Bin Thabit and Hazrat Abdullah Bin ‘Umar (RA) (Abdur Rahim,2003:55). Ahl al-ray are those who depend on personal opinion (Ijtihad bil ray) in order to solve the problems and analyze the Ahkam of Sharia’ah and extract the major causes of those in order to draw out those to new phenomena’s. Ahl al-Hadiths are those who depend on only authentic evidences. There strategy is to express exactly what is in the authentic narrations. They do not involve in causation of the Ahkam of Sharia’ah and extend those to new phenomena’s. Nevertheless, the more the Muslims faced new problems the more the former trend became prominent, because of their wide practice of Ijtihad they could solve the new phenomena’s better than Ahl al-Hadith School of thought. However, Ahl al-Hadith school of thought did not completely deny or overlook the concept of Ijtihad. Ijtihad also played a big role in the development of that school of thought. However, their concept of Ijtihad was narrower than that of Ahl al-Ray as discussed in the following section of the essay. Hence, it could be said that by the end of first century, Ijtihad became an important source of Islamic jurisprudence through the practice of it by the companions of the Holy Prophet (SAW) and their followers, although there were difference of opinion among them about the definition, scope and way of practice of it.

Institutionalization of Islamic legal theory and the role of Ijtihad in it:

The last companion of the Holy Prophet (SAW) died in the end of the first hijra. Around that time the process of institutionalization and compilation of Islamic jurisprudence started. The notion of Madhhad (School of thought) emerged at that time in different places. Although there were countless Madhhabs, but, apart from four Madhhabs others are not existed now a day. We will discuss here the development of those four Madhhabs and the concept of Ijtihad in those.

Hanafi school of thought: Hanafi school of thought is based on the jurisprudence of Imam Abu Hanifa. The Usul of Imam Abu Hanifa as he describes, is as follow:

“If I find any hukum in the Holy Quran, I confined myself with that. If I do not find that there, I accept Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (SAW) which has come to me through authentic narrators. When I do not find that in the Holy Quran and in the Sunnah, I follow the opinion of the companions meaning their general consensuses. In case of their disagreement with each other I accept or abandon which ever I want, but I do not prefer others opinion over theirs’. In case of the opinion of others, I have the right of Ijtihad as well as they have”.

The Maliki School of thought: The Maliki Madhhad is based on the jurisprudence of Imam Malik (93-179 A.H.). The method of his jurisprudence which is the method of Maliki Madhhad as well is that, in order to find out the hukum of a certain issue he first used to look in the Holy Quran, if it is not available in the Holy Quran then he used to look it in the Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (SAW). Similarly if the Quran describes the principle or indirect hukum of the issue he also used to search the Sunnah in order to find out the details of that. He used to consider the practice of Ahl-Medina as Mutawatir Hadith. If he did not find the solution in the Holy Quran or in Hadith he would refer to the general consensus of the companions who were known as faqih, if there were no general consensus regarding that matter then he would follow the individual opinions of the companions or would do Qiyas. If it was an abstract matter where there is no room for Ijtihad bil ray then he would follow the opinion of a companion, else he would prefer Ijtihad bil ray.

Al-Shafi School of thought: Imam Al-Shafi emerged during the period of the compilation of the above mentioned two school of thought’s jurisprudence. He is credited as the inventor of Usul al Fiqh. However, Kamali argues that the Usul al-Fiqh was existed before but until the time of Al-Shafi it was not in a form of science. Imam Al-Shafi authored a book regarding the principles and rules of jurisprudence namely Al-Risalah, which is considered as the first book on Usul al-Fiqh (Kamali, 1991:3, 4). The motivations which prompted Al-Shafi to introduce the usul al-Fiqh are some inconsistencies which he observed in the discourses of his predecessors. He mentioned those in the beginning of his book kitabul Umm.

It is appear from the reform activity of Al-Shafi that the objective of that was to make the Ijtihad systematic and to demolish the tendency of unconditional imitation of the predecessors Fatwas and hence to reopen and widen the scope of Ijtihad. Although, he excluded Ray from the category of Ijtihad, especially he was critical about Istihsan, and emphasized more on qias but he made the point clear that he is against ‘the following of one’s personal whim and amounts to unjustified legislations.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, it can be argued that Ijtihad played an important role in the development of Islamic legal theory. It appears from the essay that some of the school of thought emerged as a reaction against Taqlid or blind imitation of predecessors and the objective of them was to reopen and widen the gate of Ijtihad.

QUESTION:
In Islamic legal theory the law preceded society and is considered to be eternal as Allah. Explain, how today’s states, with elected governments and independent judiciaries apply these rules of law.
ANSWER.
Introduction:

The Holy Quran is a complete code for mankind and provides guidance for man in all walks of his life. It has its own concepts of ethics, politics, economics and sociology.

It is an irony of fate that, now a days the demand for the enforcement of the Islamic law has come to surrounded by such a thick mist of misgivings that a mere reference to it raises a storm of criticism not only in non Islamic but even in Islamic countries also. Thus for instance, the questions are asked: Can a centuries old legal system be adequate to fulfill the requirements of our modern state and society.

To be sure, these questions are not the outcome of any antagonism towards Islam but mostly of sheer ignorance which must quite naturally breed suspicion.

The first task, therefore, is to explain to people the meaning and applications of Islamic Law, Its objectives, its Spirit, its Structure and its categorical and unchangeable injunctions along with the reasons of their permanence.

They should also be informed of the dynamic element of Islamic Law and how it guarantees the fulfillment of ever increasing needs of the progressive human society in every age.

Islamic Law:

The establishment of political authority which may enforce Islamic Law requires a Constitutional Law and Sharia’ah clearly laid down its fundamentals. The Sharia’ah has provided answers to the following basic questions of Constitutional Law.

What is the basic theory of the state?

What is the source of the authority of its legislation?

What are the guiding principles of state policy?

What are the qualifications of the ruler of an Islamic State?

What are the objectives of an Islamic state?

In whom does the sovereignty reside and what are the different organs of the state?

What is the mode of distribution of power between different organs of the state, viz.: Legislature, the Executive and the Judiciary?

What are the conditions of Citizenship?

What are the rights and duties of Muslim Citizens and what are the rights of non Muslim citizen?

The guidance which the Sharia’ah has provided in respect to these questions constitutes the Constitution of Islam.

Besides laying down the fundamentals of Constitutional Law, the Sharia’ah has also enunciated the basic principles of Administrative Law. Beside that there are precedents in administrative practice established by Holy Prophet (SAW) and the first four rightly guided Caliphs of Islam (Khulfah-e-Rashidin). For instance, the Sharia’ah enumerates the sources of income permissible for an Islamic State and those which are prohibited. It also prescribes the avenues of the expenditure. It lays down rules of conduct for Police, the Judiciary and Administrative machinery.

Elected Governments and Islamic Law:

The Holy Quran and Holy Prophet (SAW) encourage Muslims to decide their affairs in consultation with those who will be affected by that decision. The concept of consultation is known as SHURA in Islam. Shura is an Arabic word for “consultation”.

Majlis al-Shura and a Parliament

Many traditional Sunni Islamic Jurists agree that to be in keeping with Islam, a government should have some form of council of consultation or Majlis al Shura, although it must recognize that sovereignty belongs to ALLAH ALMIGHTY and not the people. Jurists have written that members of the Majlis should satisfy following three conditions:

They must be just,

They have enough knowledge Islamic Injunctions to distinguish a good caliph from a bad one, and

They have sufficient wisdom and judgment to select the best caliph.

Many contemporary Muslims have compared the concept of Shura to the principles of western parliamentary democracy. For example: What is the Shura principle in Islam?

It is predicated on three basic precepts. First, that all persons in any given society are equal in human and civil rights. Second, those public issues are best decided by majority view. And third, that the three other principles of justice, equality and human dignity, which constitute Islam’s moral core, are best realized, in personal as well as public life, under Shura governance.

Judiciary and Islamic Laws:

Islam is the religion that Allah wants for mankind from the time that He sent Holy Prophet (SAW) shows great concern for the judicial system and those appointed to carry out its responsibilities. Islam prescribes for it many legal injunctions. How else could it be, when Islam is the religion of mercy, equality, and justice? It is the religion that comes to free people from worshipping Creation and bring them to the worship of Allah. It is the religion that comes to remove people from oppression and iniquity and bring them to the highest degree of justice and freedom.

Allah’s Messenger (SAW) was the greatest of judges. He used to act in the capacity of judge in the city of Medina, which was the first Islamic state. He used to appoint people to be judges in other cities

In the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, the head of state continued to be the one to appoint judges, govern their affairs, protect their independence, and keep the governors and political appointees and even the Caliphs subject to the judge’s verdicts. Hazrat Umar bin al-Khattab (R.A.), the second Caliph, was the first person to make the judge an independent entity, distinct from the Caliph and the governors.

So it was Islam that not only called for independent Judiciary but also the first religion and state that actually setup the independent Judiciary.

Conclusion:

The Islamic Law, the Law which Holy Prophet (SAW) delivered unto mankind for all times to come, this Law admits of no difference between man and man except in faith and religion. Those religious and social systems and political and cultural ideologies which differentiate between men on grounds of Race, Country or colour, can never become universal creeds or world ideologies for the simple reason that one belonging to a certain race cannot get transformed into another race, one born in certain country cannot tear asunder his entity from that place, nor can the whole world condense into one country, and the colour of negro, a Chinese and a white man cannot be changed. Such ideologies and social systems must remain conned to one race, community, or country. They are bound to be narrow, limited and nationalistic and cannot become universal.

Islam, on the other hand, is universal ideology. Any person who declares belief in LA ILAHA ILLALLAH MUAMMAD-UR-RASULLULLAH enters the pale of Islam and entitles himself to the same rights as those of other Muslims. Islam makes no discrimination on the basis of race, country, colour, language, or the like. Its appeal is to the entire humanity and it admits of no narrow minded discriminations.

This law is eternal. It is not based on the customs or traditions of any particulars people and is not meant for any particular period of human history. It is based on the same principles of the nature on which man has been created. And as that nature remains the same in all periods and under all circumstances, the law based on it unalloyed principles should also be applicable to every period and under all circumstances. And this universal and eternal religion is Islam.

The secularization of 19th century England was multicausal. Various factors contributed to this process. Among them were post-effects of The Enlightenment namely humanistic philosophy that manifested itself with the spread of deism and Enlightenment aesthetics. Other factors included science and natural theology. Natural theology was the attempt of the church to stave off secularization, but in fact hastened the process. Clearly science was more responsible for the secularization of nineteenth century England than Enlightenment humanistic philosophy. This essay will explore the watershed of natural theology and its demise in nineteenth century England.

Recognizing the intellectual context and environment that existed at the turn of the 19th century helps illuminate why humanistic causes contributed to England’s secularization. There was, as Thomas Kuhn states, a “paradigm shift” in society. The industrial revolution led to massive urbanization that often occupied previously religious building for commerce and industry. Cathedrals, abbeys, and churches gradually became merely additional spots in a city and no longer the city centres or primary places of gathering. There was a shift from superstitions and spiritual explanations for different phenomena to physical and reason-based explanations especially between the 17th century before 1660 and the Enlightenment of the 18th century. (155) For example, before this paradigm shift people dealt with the insane via exorcism because their insanity was attributed to Satan. (Brook 1993, 155) Afterwards, new medical elites deemed these practices madness and attributed insanity to non-spiritual causes. Among these events specific groups formed, which were led by this appeal of rationality over conventional religion such as the aesthetes and deists.

The aesthetes, such as Irish author Oscar Wilde, deists and other groups resented bourgeois society particularly the rigid conservatism, oppressive hypocrisy and suppression of intellectualism of the church. Historians of Victorian intellectual life such as David J. DeLaura have recognized that numerous Victorian atheists and agnostics left the Christian church because they believed Christianity was becoming immoral.

“The loss of religious faith in such representative early Victorian agnostics as F. W. Newman (John Henry Newman’s brother), and J. A. Froude was not due to the usually suggested reasons of the rise of evolutionary theory in geology and biology. The dominant factor was a growing repugnance toward the ethical implications of what each had been taught to believe as essential Christianity –the doctrines: Original Sin, Reprobation, Baptismal Regeneration, Vicarious Atonement, and Eternal Punishment.” (DeLaura 1969, 13).

Murphy’s journal article The Ethical Revolt Against Christian Orthodoxy in Early Victorian England (1955) in The American Historical Review explains how it was predominantly ethical rejections of Christian Doctrine that led to the secularization of 19th century England. He presents case studies of three individuals F. W. Newman (1805-97), J. A. Froude (1818-94), and Mary Anne Evans (1819-1880). Murphy explains that contrary to the popular views, that once Darwin and Lyell demonstrated that neither the origin of the earth nor the origin of man according to Genesis was congruent with scientific discovery that the majority of thinking people became agnostic or atheist, secularization occurred during the Victorian age predominantly due to conflicts between orthodox dogma and meliorist ethical bias of the times. (Murphy 1955, 801) Murphy argues that science did provide important ammunition once the attack on orthodoxy had begun, but it did not produce the attack. The records of these three people leave no trace of having read Lyell and they all had left the church 10-20 years before Origin of Species was published. Newman grows up in a Christian home but later writes a book Phases of Faith where he describes that he is disturbed by the dominant Christian doctrines believing them to be unethical. Newman finds through critical reasoning that the sacrifice of Christ serving as atonement was not logical because attacking the infinite strength of Christ was evading not satisfying justice as Christ was not really harmed. (Murphy 1955, 803) Murphy explains that Froude “did not waste time on fine points of science or Biblical scholarship, but came straight to the main point: the intolerable ethical primitiveness of the vicari-ous-atonement principle” (808) Froude states the atonement principle’s claim that the guilt of a man’s sin be transferred, even voluntarily, to an innocent Christ is a perversion of justice. Furthermore to then state that a man’s sin is a loss that God suffers by which He would need satisfaction that needed to be paid, without it mattering by whom, is an insult to God’s persona. Finally, Evans deviates from the faith because she believes that it is unethical and untrue that religious faith is a necessary prerequisite to attaining moral excellence. In an article entitled “Evangelical Teaching: Dr. Cumming” (Westminster Review, October 1855) she writes about Dr. Cumming, a self-righteous admired London preacher to be teaching Christian doctrine found “to be subversive of true moral development and therefore positively noxious. ” (Evans 1855, 1) Thus, these case studies demonstrate how the secularization of 19th century England occurred due to meliorist rejections of ethical issues found in church doctrine.

However, what even more greatly contributed to the secularization of nineteenth century England was the development of science. “Science was viewed as a vehicle of social and intellectual liberation.” (Brooke 1993, 155) Natural Theology attempted to make theological claims about the existence of God by observing nature and drawing conclusions via the design argument instead of making claim’s based on God’s own self-revelation via scripture. The design argument is proposed by Paley in his work Natural Theology (1802) “There cannot be design without a designer; contrivance without a contriver; order without choice; arrangement, without anything capable of arranging.” (12) Paley believes nature is a mechanism, and hence was intelligently designed. He made this connection because he was writing while England was experiencing the Industrial Revolution.

American Philosopher Alston in Perceiving God defines natural theology as “the enterprise of providing support for religious beliefs by starting from premises that neither are nor presuppose any religious beliefs” (Alston, 1991b, p.289) Natural theology as defence of Christian theology proves fatal. Swiss theologian Barth rejects Natural Theology. He states that this belief causes a bifurcation of knowledge of God into natural knowledge of God and revealed knowledge of the triune God, which is scientifically & theologically intolerable. “Barth argues that unless rational structure [is] bound up with the actual content of the knowledge of God it [becomes] a distorting abstraction.”(Torrance, 1970, 128). American philosopher Platinga views Natural Theology as an attempt to prove or demonstrate the existence of God. This is a problem because it supposes that belief in God rests upon evidential basis. Hence belief in God is not a basic belief and self-evident. Belief in God necessitates being grounded on a more basic belief, but doing this gives the more basic belief greater epistemic status than belief in God. Platinga argues that belief in God is itself basic and does not need justification with references to other beliefs.

Natural theology provided deists and atheists new ammunition to establish their own arguments. If God could be explained exclusively with empirical evidence, then His non-existence could also be explained exclusively with empirical evidence if that evidence could be attributed to another origin. Lyell in his Principles of Geology (1830) argues for “uniformitarianism” stating that the same physical and geological forces observed in the present have been active over a colossal span of time in the past. Darwin in On the Origin of Species (1859) poses a similar argument along with counter-teleological arguments of natural selection, presenting “directionality within nature without implying progression or purpose.” (McGrath 2010, 36)

Biologist Thomas Huxley and Physicist John Tyndall make significant contributions in delegitimizing natural theology and using science to secularize England. Huxley debates and rebukes Oxford bishop Wilberforce when Wilberforce denounces Darwin’s evolution theory in their debate of 1860 at the British Association meeting at Oxford. This was but one of many events concerning the clergy’s lost domination of intellectual life in Britain. When the British Association for the Advancement of Science was founded in 1830 clerics composed 30% of its total members. During the period 1831-1865 forty-one clergy were in association. Then in the period 1866-1900 only three remained. (Brooke 1993, 50) “Between 1660 and 1793 the scientific world established more than 70 official scientific societies (and almost as many private ones) in urban centres as far removed as St. Petersburg and Philadelphia”. (Brooke 1993, 152) Huxley and his colleagues use the conflict thesis of science vs. religion to attack the Anglican and Roman Catholic churches. Draper’s History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science (1874) and White’s History of the Warfare of Science and Theology in Christendom (1896) made the Conflict thesis well know arguing that it is the nature of science & religion to be in opposition. Draper in his work states, “The history of Science is not a mere record of isolated discoveries; it is a narrative of the conflict of two contending powers, the expansive force of the human intellect on one side, and the compression arising from [traditional] faith and human interests on the other.” (Draper 1874, vi) Northwestern University History Professor Heyck argues that Victorian scientists “wanted nothing less than to move science from the periphery to the centre of English life” (Heyck 1982, 87) Tyndall in 1874 gave a speech in Belfast, a very religious city, before the annual meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. He argues that science holds greater authority than religion or non-rationalist explanations. In his attack on religion Tyndall upholds rationalism, consistency and scepticism.

Thus, at the close of the 19th century, the concept was cemented into the English psyche that science and religion were in grave conflict and that, as such, science needed to be divorced from religion or non-rationality. Natural theology had been warped into a new breed of naturalistic science where the observations of nature provided evidence for an evolutionary origin not needing a religious explanation.

Although post-effects of the enlightenment clearly did contribute to the secularization of 19th century England, they were not as significant as the contributions of science. Secularization in England had to do with changing society so that it was no longer under the control or influence of religion. The argument that meliorist objections to the ethical components of Christian Doctrine were the driving force that disempowered the church does not hold. Issues regarding ethics did decrease the membership of churches, but it did not disempower the church like science did. Science through the rise and fall of natural theology gave birth to a whole new generation of figures such as Huxley and Darwin who undermined the role of the church in society. Ethical grievances marginalized specific groups of people such as the aesthetes from the church but it did not remove the church’s influence over society to the same degree that scientific development did. The demise of natural theology led to a series of publications and conferences that took away the church’s predominant role in the field of science and society. Post enlightenment effects such as questions on ethics acted as a catalyst for secularization, but it did not lead to significantly greater removal of church influence. The enlightenment and science are inextricably linked but the effects science and natural theology had on removing church influence and supremacy in Victorian England caused greater paradigm shifts in society than ethical conflicts as evinced by the sources.

Thus, it is clear that science to a far greater extent led to the secularization of nineteenth century England. The evidence demonstrates that Natural Theology did not strengthen but instead weakened the church. By attempting to demonstrate God’s existence and presence by empirical analysis exclusively theologians provided a platform for a new emergence of deism and atheism. Lyell, Darwin, Huxley, and Tyndall acted as catalysts to this process as they used the premises of Natural Theology to draw new conclusions about the origins the earth and living organisms. Draper and White towards the end of the nineteenth century concluded that science and religion had become enemies in their conflict thesis undermining religious activity as non-rational. Post effects of the enlightenment, such as the meliorist objections to the ethics of church doctrine and the emergence of new anti-religious groups such as the aesthetes did contribute to England’s secularization but to a lesser extent. Hence, science was the predominant factor in the secularization of England in the 19th century.

Word Count: 2054

The above essay is all my own work: the source of all material used in its compilation has been duly cited and all help received is acknowledged. The essay does not substantially duplicate material previously or simultaneously submitted to academic staff at any academic institution.

Jesse Alvarez

Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s ‘The Rime of the Ancient Mariner’ is said to be his attempt to bring supernatural terrors to a naturalistic setting. Some critics have argued that the moral truths of the poem are not only unintelligible but also irrational. But for other critics, this irrationality is what gives the poem its greatest quality. In analyzing and critiquing Coleridge’s poem, an in depth analysis of the irrational is needed. This irrationality is not Coleridge’s failure to explain the supernatural but actually an evidence of its Christian moral code and that the poem’s irrationality emerges because of Coleridge’s inner conflict with his conversion from Unitarianism to the Anglicanism religion. This hermeneutic must be in mind when attempting to interpret Coleridge’s poem.

Before we can look at modern critics such as Christopher Stokes, J Robert Barth, John T Netland, and even Jerome J. McGann, we must first look at how earlier critics have looked at Coleridge’s work through a Christian eyes. The article “Coleridge And The Luminous Gloom: An Analysis Of The ‘Symbolical Language’ In ‘The Rime Of The Ancient Mariner’” by Elliott B. Gose, Jr. examines the poem through a Christian perspective only because Gose believes “the poem is filled with Christian trappings” (239). Gose shows how symbols carry a Christian ideology and spends considerable time on examining how the sun (whether glorious or red) represents God while the other forces in the poem represent the forces of nature. In the end, Gose claims that nature is subordinate to God and that the Mariner’s voyage does not deal with a physical voyage but it represents a “Romantic urge to explore the eternal soul and the temporal emotions” (244). But throughout the article, Gose fails to fully explain the other stranger elements in Coleridge’s poem. For instance, he brings up life-in-death, who wins the Mariner in a gamble, but then dismisses her by stating how “she is obviously outside the Christian hierarchy and is connected with a whole strand of non-Christian figures, incidents, and images in the poem” (242). He interprets this from the obscure explanation given from the gloss and continues with the rest of the poem still in Christian ideological framework. More modern critics will point out how though much of the poem seems to use Christian terms, the more stranger elements and the ambiguous details create distance between familiar and unfamiliar which gave trouble to many earlier Christian critical readings of Coleridge’s text.

Gose’s confusion with the gloss and its obscure Christian emphasis can be explained in “Reading And Resistance: The Hermeneutic Subtext Of The Rime Of The Ancient Mariner” by John T Netland. He suggests that the poem displays an “incongruous mixture of pagan and Christian symbols” (38) and examines the use of the gloss as a hermeneutic. Although the “gloss-writing editor” is responding to the original poem and seeks to interpret it for a modern audience, the editor marginalizes the Mariner’s experiences and emphasizes the Christian overtones of the poem. Netland states the gloss and the poem itself create a unique tension “between contrasting religious imaginations” (41). One is a world of categorized and rational set of religious experiences (inferred from gloss) while the other a spiritual, mystical, irrational religious sublimity (from the poem). Netland states that Coleridge may have gotten his idea from Bibles at that time with their gloss notes that gave a clearer interpretation of the biblical text. This is very similar to Jerome J. McGann’s examinations in his brilliant article, “The Meaning Of The Ancient Mariner”, where McGann briefly details the poem’s history from its initial criticism to Coleridge’s embracing of Christian ideology to his Higher Critical analytics of the re-interpretative process of the Bible to Coleridge’s attempt in mimicking this layered hermeneutic upon his own work. McGann points to the fact that Coleridge’s poem was originally a literary ballad among all the other lyrical ballads found Wordsworth’s printed work, Lyrical Ballads. With the second edition, and with Wordworth’s concerns, Coleridge made alterations to make the poem less a literary ballad and more a lyrical ballad. Coleridge may have realized what he was doing was similar to what occurred in Biblical narratives. Coleridge had argued in length on issues of Higher Criticism that Scriptures were “not an unmediated and fixed biblical text but an evolved and continuously evolving set of records which include the Church’s later glosses on and interpretations of the earlier documents” (47). McGann remarkably suggests that Coleridge’s revised version of his poem shows four clear layers of development: “(a) an original mariner’s tale; (b) the ballad narrative of that story; (c) the editorial gloss added when the ballad was, we are to suppose, first printed; and (d) Coleridge’s own point of view on his invented materials” (50). The last shows Coleridge’s own theory of religious and symbolic interpretation. McGann believes that “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” is Coleridge’s imitation of “a culturally redacted literary work” (51).

But coming back to Netland’s article, the gloss, he believes, becomes an inadequate hermeneutic for analyzing the poem. Netland suggests that the gloss is inadequate as a hermeneutic since the editor reduces the Mariner’s spiritual journey, actions, and sufferings into a straight-forward neat plot to emphasize Christian redemption. Netland states that “the Marineraˆ¦has experienced something of the religious sublime (whether real or delusive), and his compulsive retellings of his story point to the inexplicable profundity of his experience” (51). The writer of the gloss fails to understand this and the gloss represses the Mariner’s heightened religious experience. Netland suggests that we instead respond like the stunned Wedding Guest which is far more consistent to Coleridgean hermeneutics when analyzing the journey of the Mariner.

But can the gloss be ignored? McGann disagrees and states that the changes (as well as the addition of the gloss) from 1798 to 1817 show an important story in Coleridge’s development of the purposes of his poem. Many believed that these changes were “a reactionary movement in which a daring and radical poem is transformed into a relatively tame work of Christian symbolism” (42) when Coleridge retreated from his radical views to his later Christian ideology. McGann, in his article, dives deeply into Coleridge’s understanding of the Higher Critical analysis of the Christian Bible to show Coleridge’s Hermeneutic Model of his poem originating from his ideas of the process of the Bible’s creation. Coleridge saw how God’s Word was “expressed and later reexpressed through commentary, gloss, and interpretation by particular people at different times according to their differing lights” (43). Coleridge’s poem is presented as just this type of reinterpreted text retaining its own ideological coherence even through the fragmentation from reinterpretation. McGann states that the poem shows Coleridge’s process of “textual evolution” and the symbolic meaning of that process is a Christian redemptive one.

We can see how the very nature of religion affected Coleridge in his earlier 1798 version and his later 1817 version (with gloss) and can conclude that the poet himself and his faith must be examined. J. Robert Barth’s book, Romanticism and Transcendence: Wordsworth, Coleridge, and the Religious Imagination, delves deeply into Coleridge’s theories, struggles, and faith. Although, he spends the first four chapter exploring Wordsworth’s works and how it practices Coleridge’s theories of imagination, he examines closely the nature of religion in “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” in chapter 6. Although Coleridge had theological speculations, he was a “practical Christian” (89). Coleridge believed in living out the practical aspects of his faith. Barth does not give a complete examination of Coleridge’s poem, but hones in to what he believes gives strength and beauty to Coleridge’s poetry. The notion of “polarity” (a “balance or reconciliation of opposites” (6)) is central to Coleridge’s theories of imagination. Opposite objects, qualities, or “tensions exist within the same ‘field of force’” (6). Barth also looks at prayer as a means of bringing these two forces into harmony (natural and supernatural). Coleridge is concerned with prayer but at a deeper level as a means of “uniting the creature with the Creator” (90). Coleridge’s guilt and need for redemption is bound to his longing for forgiveness and friendship with God. Coleridge calls prayer the “the effort to connect the misery of Self with the blessedness of God” (90). It is a means of connecting the natural to the supernatural, the temporal to the eternal, and the immanent to the transcendent. Barth states that even though Coleridge does move from his Unitarian ideology to his Christian ideology, a shift that can be seen in the poem and its revision, this idea of prayer is still deep within Coleridge’s soul. Although, Barth explores prayer within the poem during Coleridge’s conversion, this shift of faith can be explored further as means for a proper hermeneutic in interpreting Coleridge’s poem.

Christopher Stokes’ article “‘My Soul In Agony’: Irrationality And Christianity In The Rime Of The Ancient Mariner” explores the struggle between the physical and the spiritual world in Coleridge’s poem. His poem contains strange elements that seem unintelligible and irrational. Stokes states that these elements stem from Coleridge’s Unitarian moral theory that he subscribed to at the time. Because these strange elements are unintelligible, there is an ambiguity between the supernatural events and orthodox religion. Though much of the poem seems to use Christian terms, there is still details that are ambiguous and this creates distance between familiar and unfamiliar. Stokes states that these ambiguous moments create a divided tone and he claims this is from Coleridge’s difficult transition from Unitarianism to Anglican Christianity. Coleridge struggled with Christianity’s concept of “original sin” and a closer examination must be conducted to understand why he possibly struggled with it.

The concept and doctrine of “Original Sin” was developed by the early Roman church and was based on Paul’s teachings found in the Book of Romans. In the Old Testament (specifically from Genesis), Adam and Eve disobeyed God in the Garden and the result was that they were cursed and banished out of the Garden. Because of the actions of Adam and Eve, “sin” (a propensity to disobey God) originated in the Garden and continued to all future generations. Paul teaches a reinterpretation of this Genesis story. In Romans 5.12, Paul states that “just as sin entered the world through one man, and death through sin, and in this way death came to all people, because all sinned.” At the time of Paul’s teaching, audiences of the early Gospels will be familiar with the story of Jesus (especially since Mark and Matthew may have been circulating prior to Romans being written). The audiences would understand that Jesus died as a sacrificial lamb for the sins (actual personal committed sins; a personal disobedience) of all man. But Paul goes to reinterpret Christ’s death to add that Jesus died to not only remove our personal sins but also to remove the hold of original sin on humanity which results in death. “For just as through the disobedience of the one man the many were made sinners, so also through the obedience of the one man the many will be made righteous” (Romans 5.19). This meant that all humanity was guilty for their personal sins and guilty for the sin of Adam and Eve that was passed to generations.

Later under the Roman church, Saint Augustine of Hippo taught that all of humanity was in a state of sin that came from Adam. Man is born with sin and a weakened free-will that gravitates toward sin. Adam and Eve’s sin and guilt is carried onto each generation (Kelley, 34-38). This was the concept of “Original Sin.” This is a belief that is still held today by Catholics and Protestants (although, it may vary based on demonization).

But Unitarians do not believe in the concept of “Original Sin.” They do not believe that the sin of Adam and Eve corrupted all of humanity and that we still carry their guilt. They state “it would contradict the love and justice of God to attribute to us the sin of others, because sin is one’s own personal action” (JoI?zsef, 107). This was a key to why Coleridge struggled in his conversion to Christianity and is evident in his poem. Stokes, in his article, explains the struggle readers have with the strange and irrational elements in the poem are reflective and evidence of Coleridge’s struggle in his departure from Unitarian ideology to Anglican ideology. An example can be seen with the killing of the Albatross which many critics agree is a strange element to the poem. The Mariner simply kills the bird with no thought prior and the only shock is from the Wedding Guest. The crew at first thought it wrong, but then agreed that the bird was bad luck. Without the gloss notes (and in the original 1798 version), it seems that even nature is unmoved by something that seemed like a crime and the reader isn’t given any reason that the killing set any clear event in motion (a “determinative effects of motives” based on Unitarian moral theory (5)). The albatross’ death is a “powerful but initially unintelligible event” but has “no obvious moral or religious significance” (6).

Coleridge, after his conversion and firming in Christian ideology, comes to term with original sin and revises his work (through additions, subtractions, and including a gloss for the poem) giving it a more Anglican tone. The gloss becomes an Anglican hermeneutic bringing the poem under a Christian ideology and moral order. The poem under the gloss gives it a Christian “salvational trajectory” (20). It is only through the gloss (and Coleridge’s later revision in 1817) that we learn that “the ancient Mariner inhospitably killeth the pious bird of good omen.” Stokes understands the common critical belief that “the Mariner conspicuously relies on Christian rituals and beliefs . . . the Christian doctrine fails to explain his world of excessive suffering and irrational events” (11). But he states that before we dismiss these strange elements as irrational, we must explore Coleridge’s religious thinking at the time of writing the poem and both its revisions. It is only through the examination of his personal faith and conversion that we can develop a proper hermeneutic to interpret Coleridge’s poem.

It would be erroneous to assume irrationality as a failure of the poem’s Christian moral code. One must look at Coleridge’s conversion as well as his struggle with the Christian doctrine of original sin that creates the irrational or at least creates ambiguous language. It is only through this hermeneutic that we can fully understand and appreciate Coleridge’s poem where he attempts to understand and present to us the concepts that are beyond understanding.

What Contributions did your individual make to the Renaissance, Reformation or Scientific Revolution? Why is your individual unique and why were his/her contributions necessary to advance European and western civilizations?

Based on the Information, I have gathered Galileo Galilei was born in 1564, and died in 1642.Galileo had made quite a few major contributions to the renaissance. One of Galileo’s Improvements towards the Renaissance was to the branches of physics and Mechanics. In 1586, He Improved Science and had deployed the telescope and eventually changed our view of the nature and the solar system universe completely, and later on he had became aware of the sunspots. His most adventurous moment was in January 1610, he had watched Jupiter for the first time telescopically, and had found out that the plant has 4 satellites. Galileo’s Pisa experiment was unique because he proved that an item with a heavier mass doesn’t mean it will fall quicker, in fact an item with a lighter mass had fallen much quicker than one with a heavier mass. Also, I believe that Galileo was a big role in why the renaissance had moved towards advancing in European and western civilizations. I think that without Galileo we would have never advanced in science as far as we did in the renaissance. Galileo had a quite impact on the scientific revolution in the renaissance; he had brought the studies of physics to today’s culture. He had also made quite a few different objects, he had invented the first telescope to let us view our nature in a different way and he also brought us the method of a hydrostatic balance. He had let us see science in a whole new different way than we would have without his improvements during the renaissance period.so like I said before I believe the Galileo had a huge impact on the renaissance Era as we still use some of his inventions today! Galileo had made some big inventions during the renaissance era and had helped improve science for today people, without him and all his contributions to science in the renaissance, reformation, and scientific revolution I don’t believe that science would be what it is today because of everything he had done!

Who influenced your individual and who did your individual influence in turn? In Other words, how did your individual rely upon previous scholars and how did your individuals work affect others and the world today?

Based on the information I have gathered, I have to come to a conclusion that Copernicus influenced Galileo. Copernicus created the sun-center, also known as the heliocentric theory! This astronomy theory had concluded that the center of the universe had to be the sun, and that all the other objects in the universe had rotated around it but the sun had never moved. Galileo had a pretty big impact on Science. Galileo additionally created many advances in scientific fields and inventions that area unit still relied upon in some type or another to the present day. I believe that Galileo had influenced Isaac Newton, Who had created the Laws of Motion. Galileo had branched modern science off into the Astronomy field. Galileo was also tackling the problem of motion. I believe without Galileo we would not be in modern science like we are today, because he had invented the telescope so we could see nature’s solar system in a whole different view. He had also invented the hydrostatic balance for the determination of relative densities. One of Galileo’s major improvements to the renaissance was the theory of falling bodies. He had stated that a body will move along a flat surface. .i believe that Galileo had influenced a lot more people also, i mean a lot of people still continue to talk about his inventions and accomplishments today. Galileo was a very brilliant man and he is very intelligent and also he is very well known for what he did, he is still talked about quite a bit in today’s science classes!

Question 3: Describe a “day in life of your individual. Where did you individual live, and what did he/she experience on a daily basis. Your response should NOT be a history of the life of your person.

Though Galileo is nearly universally proverbial by his name, he was born urologist on Feb fifteen, 1564 in Pisa, a city of northern European nation. His father, a poor member of a decent family from Florence, was Vincenzo. Vincenzo was distinguished by his skills as a musician and a man of science. Galileo was a bright kid and initially his father steered his kid aloof from a career in arithmetic. He had hoped that Galileo would eventually create his fortune in business. However Vincenzo was wise enough to visualize that his son had alternative skills and interests that may higher suit him in some type of knowledgeable career. In 1581, at the age of seventeen, Galileo’s father sent him to review drugs – a profession that paid way more than one within the educational world – at the University of Pisa. Interest and talent notwithstanding, Galileo was compelled to quit the University in 1585 Galileo’s 1st real contribution to physical science came within the year 1604 with the looks within the heavens of a “new” star. I believe that Galileo’s day of life had started as the sun rose, Galileo had woken up and ate breakfast, and then he had briefly checked on his latest inventions. Galileo then had made his way over to the University and started to advance his career in the field of study of Astronomy! Galileo had always believed that Astronomy was going to be today’s future which in a way it did. But After Galileo was done at the university, he then returned back to his lab to advance in his latest inventions which at this time just happened to be the telescope. Galileo then had slowly started to end his night as he invented he had then started to settle down and slowly started to bring his day to an end. Galileo had invented quite a few different inventions while he attended the university and while he advanced his career into the Field of Astronomy and many other areas! Galileo had a very interesting and very long “day of life” as you would say. His Day of life consisted of many different contribution towards his advancements in his inventions. He had also attended a university to advance and extend his career in many different ways.

Sources:

Hard Copy Source:

Hauptman, Fleischmann, Science Biographies Volume 4

Danbury, Connecticut: Grolier Education 1996, Biography

Internet Sources:

Works Cited.

Graney, Christopher. “Seeds Of A Tychonic Revolution: Telescopic Observations Of The Stars By Galileo Galilei And Simon Marius.” Physics In Perspective 12.1 (2010): 4-24. Academic Search Premier. Web. 31 Jan. 2013.

Works Cited.

A. M. Nobili, et al. “Dynamical Response Of The Galileo Galilei On The Ground Rotor To Test The Equivalence Principle: Theory, Simulation, And Experiment. I. The Normal Modes.” Review Of Scientific Instruments 77.3 (2006): 034501. Academic Search Premier. Web. 31 Jan. 2013.

Works Cited.

Morgan Reynolds, Inc. “Galileo Galilei And The Science Of Motion October.” Galileo Galilei & The Science Of Motion (2004): 1-38. History Reference Center. Web. 31 Jan. 2013.

To understand this article The Case for Contamination, it helps to know that Kwame Anthony Appiah is an advocate of Cosmopolitanism, a global ethics which aims to establish universality and shared values as a determinant or common denominator.(Appiah book, 2006). Cosmopolitanism is still a brewing concept, although the idea has been traced to the cynic Diogenes of Ancient Greece (410 B.C.) who claimed world citizenship and to the 2nd century stoic Hierocles who drew the Concentric Circle Model of the “self” opening out for concern to family, local group, citizens, countrymen and humanity. Whether it is simply an idea, an ethical way-of-life or a movement, Cosmopolitanism is still to gain wider acceptance by present-day thinkers, moralists, and ideologists. In his book Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers,” Appiah clarifies that Cosmopolitanism is basically an ethical principle. Still, he forewarns, not every ethical principle, inclusive of religion, which claims universality, is Cosmopolitanism. To understand this mind-set, Appiah’s aforesaid article deserves examination.

Analysis

Unlike his book Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Stranger, the article under consideration focuses less on Cosmopolitanism and more on the phenomenon of cultural change. Through personally drawn examples, expressed in a descriptive narrative way, Appiah shows that cultural assimilation takes various forms. And in his own home place in Asante, Ghana, Appiah finds exotic traditional customs being observed by fellow-Ghanaians, even as they show signs of modern 21st century living, wearing Western suits and using technology gadgets like cellphones. And while rooted in their traditions, Appiah comments, Ghanaians have established connections with the West, and such is the case with his Ghana president who is a Catholic and an Oxford graduate, while Ghandian youths are students and working immigrants in London, the United States, Japan and other developed countries in the globe. Appiah notes that there are cultural purists, who advocate the preservation of pristine cultural values and traditions. However, this attitude does not conform to the ethics of globalization or Cosmopolitanism. For him the appropriate object of moral concern in Cosmopolitanism is the individual, not whole nations, tribes or peoples. Each and everyone is a citizen of the world, but the world is not closer to Cosmopolitanism, he adds, when homogeneity means only superficiality or artificiality in cultural changes. He describes how common it is for people to change in ways they like “inventing new forms of differences: new hairstyles, new slang, even new religions” (Appiah article, 2006). Also, some changes may be liked, while others disliked. For example, the influence of global economy may be a problem to those who have to adjust crops and livelihood, although acceptable even exciting for the well-placed who find opportunities in global change. In the case of religion, Christianization may have succeeded by way of mass conversions, but some elements of folk religious practices continue to prevail showing the fact that Christianity has been accepted in external form, but not in essence.

In this article, Appiah treats religion in two distinct ways: First as a cultural artifice, subject to change as any other, and secondly as a dangerous new form of anti-cosmopolitanism. In the first form, religion plays the role of a cultural artifact, which undergoes change, and evokes different responses, good or bad. In this way, religious cultural change is like other cultural changes that are brought about by increased globalization of ideas. It plays a common role as other aspects of culture, such as dress, language or custom. It simply affects change, and some people like that, some do not.

Appiah thinks that diversity in culture, including religious traditions, is an acceptable situation. However, the process of cultural change which creates only one cultural mode is unacceptable. This is so, since artificial cultural diversity and homogeneity may actually be an entrapment which prevents man’s evolving into a higher nature. Rather than artificiality and homogeneity, diversity may be more conducive to man’s nature to attain the maturation of his mental, moral and aesthetic potentials, as well as to man’s getting a fair share in happiness in life.

For Appiah, religion can play a second and more dangerous role. He cites the neo-fundamentalist idea of a global utopia, which can be a problem to humankind. In his book, Appriah explains that a religious utopia displays a facade of faith in human dignity and shared ideals with people in many countries (2006). However, behind this facade is intolerance which can embolden utopian ideologues to make war against any nation that goes in the way of their sense of universal justice. For Appiah, whenever religion is upheld with a fundamentalist attitude to culture, the imperialist disposition is unleashed. He drew similarities from sinister ideologues like Marx, Mao and Pol Pot who used the name of universal humanity, but who also sought to stamp out religion.

Alternative approach

Appiah’s portrayal of the roles religions play in cultural change contributes to his aim to advance Cosmopolitanism along substantial cultural change that advances global citizenry in the world. He appears too defensive however, of Christian fundamentalism and centuries of hybridization which, for example, transformed through the centuries the historical Nazarene from a beloved teacher to a Pauline liberator of the gentiles, a God-Word among Gnostics, a God-Son in Roman Christianity, the Pantacrator or Omnipotent in Greek Christian Orthodoxy and many other forms comprising what scholars consider as the mythical Jesus. Artifice in religious cultural change may be blamed but the imperialistic connivance by state and religion is more likely to the cause of prolonged religious separation, bias and violence in human history. Thus, the barriers to genuine Cosmopolitanism and universalism appear more formidable than it seems. Even today, while radical fundamentalism is worrisome, institutional differences among religions are the main barriers to Cosmopolitanism. Ethical advocates like Appiah may call for tolerance and respect for the freedom of individuals to make their own choices, but the world will remain divided among hundreds of institutional churches and thousands of religious denominations, sects and cults in the world.

The historical Jesus was faced by the dilemma of separation among orthodox Jews and the unorthodox Samaritans, and was asked outright whether Jews should worship in Jerusalem or Samaria. To the surprise of his listeners, Jesus said it is in neither of the two places will Jews and non-Jews worship God. Rather than worship localized in places, Jesus predicted that in a future time worship will be done only “in spirit and truth.” He may have spoken his mind on Cosmopolitanism.

Conclusion

Cosmopolitan advocates speak in various ways, but they all agree on the need for non-curtailment of cultural freedom. Within this cultural freedom based on political, economic, religious, circumstances, autonomy should be respected in order to provide the foundation for otherness. Otherness is comprised by cultural differences in aims, structures, and other differences. I argue, however, that while religion is situated within cultures, it is also innate in nature, which has been awakening through the centuries in defining truth, knowledge, acceptance and other facets of human harmony with life.

Religious cosmopolitanism? It is an idea that already finds concrete application in the United Nations and international agencies, foundations, and organizations. The man of the world actually came during the ancient times of Greek Stoicism, but his message was far beyond his time and above the grasp of the people of his days. Through the centuries state-church imperialism held its reign and the “his rule, his religion,” principle established empires, kingdoms and fiefdoms. The social and political landscape continued to change until the advent of Humanism in the fifteenth century, paving the way for the Reformation and the Period of Enlightenment which broke Christendom and ushered in modern society. After the industrial and technological revolutions, we may have an emerging phase of civilization favorable to cosmopolitan identity. However, as Cosmopolitanism makes a demand for estrangement of one’s culture and history, the political system of nation-states may take more time to change. The fundamentalist adherence to religious culture that foments global terror is also especially problematic today. This situation makes it more difficult to say if ethical universality is near. In the end, the answer may be found in the words of the mystic George Macdonald: “Our consciousness will not be rebuilt in a night. It takes a long time to finish the new creation of this redemption.”

In a way, all humans are divine because we were made in the likeness of God. If we look at Genesis 1:27 So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them. Also, look at how the verse right before this one starts off; Genesis 1:26 Then God said, “Let us make man in our image, after our likenessaˆ¦..So we were made in the image of God, so in a sense all humans are somewhat divine. However, that being said, the texts we read this week all had a divine character, mostly God himself, interacting in them.

In all of the texts we read this week, the main divine character was God himself. In Genesis, God creates mankind in the likeness of himself and then he forms special bonds with some of his creations. There is not enough room to talk about all of them is this essay so let us just take a look at Noah and Abraham.

The relationship between God and Noah is from Genesis 6:8 to 9:28. It is pretty much a one sided relationship in which God comes to Noah and tells him to do certain things. God seen that the wickedness of man was great on earth and decided to wash them away, all except for Noah and his family. In Genesis 6:8 But Noah found favor in the eyes of the Lord. Genesis 6:13 And God said to Noah, “I have determined to make an end of all flesh; behold I will destroy them with the earth. Then God told Noah to make an ark and how specifically to make it. Genesis 7:1 Then the Lord said to Noah, “Go into the ark, you and all your household, for I have seen that you are righteous before me in this generation. There was a flood for forty days in which everything on earth was washed away. Genesis 8:15 Then God said to Noah, “Go forth from the ark, you and your wife, and your son and your sons wives with you.” God told him to let all the animals in the ark free so that they may multiply. Noah built an altar to the Lord and the Lord said he would never curse the ground because of man again. Genesis 9:1 And God blessed Noah and his sons and said to him, “Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth.” God also made covenant to Noah and his family that never again shall a flood be used to destroy the earth.

Next, there is also the relationship of God and Abraham. The life of Abraham is Genesis 11:26-25:10 of the Hebrew Bible. Abraham’s original name was Abram. In Genesis 12:1 Now the Lord said to Abram, “Go from your country and your kindred and your fathers house to the land that I will show you.” So Abram took his wife and his nephew and started travelling. He traveled in many different directions and to many people when the Lord came to him again. Genesis 13:15 for all the land in which you see will give to you and your descendent forever.” God also came to Abram through visions. Genesis 15:1 After these things the word of the Lord came to Abram in a vision, “Fear not Abram, I am your shield; your reward shall be very great.” God came Abraham many times and many ways and influenced and changed his life greatly. Abraham never questioned the voice of God, even when God told him to leave his country and his kin. Abraham always put his trust in the Lord.

The next part of our assigned reading this week that had the inclusion of a divine character was The Bhagavad-Gita. There are four main characters in the Bhagavad-Gita. Lord Krishna, who is its author and hero, and the three other main characters.

Lord Krishna is said to be the human avatar of Visnu. Visnu is the god who keeps order in the universe. So in this story we still have a god (divine character) interacting with humans in some way. These three other main characters can be used to represent three methods in which man can receive divine knowledge from God.

Arjuna represents method number one. He receives his knowledge using the direct method. He is one of the few people in our human history who have ever stood face to face and conversed with God. He got to speak to God personally. He is the direct descendent of the Gita.

Sanjaya can be used to represent method number two. He received divine knowledge through his advance psychic abilities. He received the entire Gita through his mind. Not only did he have perfect psychic powers, but he was also a “pure” soul that the Lord seen fit to use as a vehicle to transport knowledge to Dhrtarastra.

Dhrtarastra, the blind king, gets his knowledge through method number three. The most common way. He received his knowledge from another person. Dhrtarastra received his knowledge from Sanjaya who had already received his knowledge from God. His blindness in the Gita can be symbolic for his ignorance or spiritual blindness. You can say he was a tainted soul, too driven by his desires and very deeply attached to his family and Kingdom. His blind passion for the throne is what leads to the battle of Mhabharita.

All of these people can be defined as divine characters because of Gods influence in their lives. God has come to them in in dreams, visions, prophecies, or miracles and as a result of that divine power has changes their lives.

Let us take a look at the core value of Respect at Saint Leo University;

Respect-Animated in the spirit of Jesus Christ, we value all individuals’ unique talents, respect their dignity and strive to foster their commitment to excellence in our work. Our community’s strength depends on the unity and diversity of our people, on the free exchange of ideas and on learning, living and working harmoniously.

When reading religious texts and stories from other religions we need to keep Saint Leo University’s core value of Respect in mind. Because these texts and stories may not be our own religious beliefs, but they are someone else, and may be very important to others. Therefore they should be respected.

Though no tradition can be considered representative of all religions, this essay will focus on Islam and whether it should be considered ‘bad’ for women’s development and the pursuit of gender equality. Although focussing on Islam, it will become clear that there is no single manifestation of this religion and, therefore, some interpret it in a way which is bad for women’s development. The recent shooting of 14 year old Malala Yousafzai for promoting the education of girls in Pakistan is one of many shocking occurrences used by the Western media to paint a sombre picture of women in Muslim countries (BBC 2012). The essay will begin by demonstrating that the literature surrounding this topic leads us to assume that there is one model of ‘women’s development’ and one model of Islam and that the two are at odds. Next, it will argue that this assumption is the result of Islamophobia and more specifically gendered Islamophobia which has increased since the September 11th attacks (Zine 2006). Gendered Islamophobia relates to the negative stereotypes presented by Western media and institutions of vulnerable veiled women (ibid.). The primary purpose of this essay is to demonstrate that Islam has been considered ‘bad for women’s development’ because it seems to contradict Western ideas about gender equality, but that this is only part of the picture. It will highlight the fact that there has been a rejection, from within Islam, of the fundamentalist Islamic perception of women. It will argue that Islam has the potential to be ‘good’ for women’s development as Muslim women have been establishing new spaces of discussion and opportunity within their religion and are fighting against the negative stereotypes placed upon them.

In recent decades, the Western perception of Islam has been almost entirely influenced by the increase in what the West describes as ‘Islamic Fundamentalism’. Although I acknowledge that views within the Western world are not uniform, the term will be used to describe the mainstream political and developmental discourses on Islam and Muslim women. ‘Fundamentalism’ is a delicate term which refers to the conservative, apparently misogynistic interpretation of the Qur’an and the enforcement of Islamic law, Shari’ah. Shari’ah has increasingly been used to justify the oppression of women in all areas of their lives and child marriage and the veil are two of the more visible examples (Othman 2006; Hopkins and Patel 2006).The conservative interpretations of the Qur’an directly oppose traditional Western development discourse, exemplified in the universal aims of the United Nations’ (UN) Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) and Millennium Development Goal 3 (MDG 3) to ‘Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women’ (United Nations date unknown a; United Nations date unknown b). Feminist notions of women’s rights based on equality between men and women are central to the development of women and bills and policies such as CEDAW and MDG 3, regardless of religion. It is clear that this Western approach is at odds with the treatment of women required by some conservative forms of Islam. This leads to the assumption that Islam, as a whole, is a definitive barrier against women’s access to human rights, such as the right to freedom, the right to education and the right to safety (United Nations 1995a) and is therefore ‘bad for women’s development’.

However, the views traditionally held by the West are criticised for a variety of reasons and are, in fact, thought to be detrimental to Muslim women. Western policy depends on a simplistic and over-generalised version of Islam based on the culturally-rooted traditions of the dominant minority which are seen as the defining feature of this religion. It therefore employs secular, feminist ideals in order attempt to free women from this supposedly patriarchal religion (Tomalin forthcoming). Although some Muslims are fighting against the veil, others challenge Western ideology and defend their right to continue with what the West would conceive as ‘radical’ Islamic practices. They claim that the Western model itself has created oppressive roles for women by reducing women to their physical appearance and they believe that they could choose to cover themselves in order to be defined by their brains, not their bodies (Afshar 2000.) They challenge the generalised Western notion that the veil is an unequivocal sign of oppression and argue instead that they are examples of a woman’s agency over how her body is to be represented, which frees them from sexual objectification (ibid.). They view any opposition to this choice as an attack on their civil liberties and human rights (Critelli 2010). Nevertheless, this approach does not challenge the root problem of the objectification of women. These women are merely resigned to the fact that gender relations will always be based on sexuality and it is up to women to sacrifice their freedom in order to be protected from men. This does show, however, just how complex Islam and Islamic culture are and highlights the need for dialogue and cooperation rather than simply viewing Islam through a western lens.

Islam is unlike religions which have developed in the West, such as Christianity, as it has no one authority that monopolises religious meaning (Barlas 2004). It is a multifaceted religion which draws on more than the culture and traditions it is famed for and the Qur’anic scriptures and legal interpretations of Shari’ah law also play crucial roles in the lives of Muslims. Islam cannot easily be conceptualised and, therefore, Western institutions fail in their attempt to do so in such a simplistic way. The absence of a critical attempt to come to terms with Islam as a heterogeneous tradition in development discourse, and the universality of bills such as CEDAW and MDG 3, deepen pre-existing inequalities and strip Muslims of their own vision of women’s rights (Bradley 2011).Traditional feminist development appears to offer no way to achieve human rights and wellbeing for women other than through the Western model, which implies that women in the West are liberated and Muslim women are trapped. This approach is destined to fail since it alienates Muslim women who may be equally against radical ideologies but are not willing to reject their religious identity (Jawad 1998). Some Muslims view traditional development as a threat to Islam and this has produced increased hostility towards Western institutions (Adamu 1999). It is counterproductive to continue to view Islam in this way, as it will only ever be portrayed as a negative force against women and prevent any meaningful cooperative action from being taken.

Although there is a tendency to misrepresent or ignore Islam in the field of development, some organisations are beginning to engage with this religion. Oxfam is a secular organisation that arranged two workshops in 2004 and 2006 to determine the opportunities found within Islam (Hopkins and Patel 2006). These workshops confirmed that the stereotypical portrayals of Muslim women as helpless victims often make them invisible in the process of development. Moreover, international human rights treaties are viewed as a display of Western arrogance and are dismissed for being culturally irrelevant and incompatible with Islam (ibid.). Therefore, Oxfam is approaching development through the eyes of the recipients and use quotes from the Qur’an to try to prove that their vision of women’s rights and equality are compatible with the teachings of Islam. In addition, the secular organisation the Women’s Action Forum (WAF) in Pakistan is increasingly engaging with conservative versions of religion, as they consider this the only way to truly promote change in Pakistan (Pearson and Tomalin 2007). Including Islam in their fight for women’s rights shows that they are engaging with women on their level and in a language they understand, rather than undermining their culture using Western, secular methods. Both Oxfam and WAF are open about this engagement being a strategy. However, it is not clear whether they are doing so because it is the only way to undermine the oppressive dimensions of Islam, or whether they actually believe that Islam can contribute to women’s rights. Nevertheless, it is clear that both of these organisations understand that issues of faith and gender are intrinsically linked and that to criticise Islam as ‘bad for women’s development’, would be to ignore the reality of Muslim women’s lives.

The notion of ‘Islamic feminism’ is used to describe the way in which women are using aspects of their religion to counter the Islamist patriarchal interpretations of conservative Muslims and the gendered Islamophobia these have created in the West (Kirmani and Phillips 2011). Islamic feminists reject the imposition of Western, secular approaches which they see as reflecting imperialist ideologies. They believe that they have the right to participate in an understanding of Islam and that this right to autonomy is being denied to them both by ‘fundamentalists’ and the West (Anwar 2001). Islamic feminism calls for Muslim women to reclaim their religion by reinterpreting the Qur’an in order to establish the ‘authentic’ foundations of their religion. Islamic feminism states that the patriarchal culture of pre-Islamic Arabia heavily influenced modern Islamic law and states that Islam should not be judged for the oppression caused by the traditions carried out by Muslim people, as many of these actions are also forbidden in the Qur’an. At the fourth World Conference on Women, the Prime Minister of Pakistan and the first women elected to the head of a Muslim state, Benazir Bhutto (Bostan 2011), proclaimed that “Muslim women have a special responsibility to help distinguish between Islamic teachings and social taboos spun by the traditions of patriarchal society” (cited in United Nations 1995b: para. 14). Thus, it is culture, not Islam, that is bad for women and Islamic feminists are working towards a distinction of the two and are fighting for rights on their terms.

There are various versions of Islamic feminism. The first believes that Islam is not bad for the pursuit of women’s equality and uses the Qur’anic teaching to re-educate Muslims that inequality is not prescribed by their faith (Jawad 1998). Although sharing the common goal with the West of achieving equality between the sexes, these Islamic feminists have different visions of how to achieve equality as well as different motivations from conventional development, which is viewed as drenched in neo-colonialism. This type of development implies that in order to achieve equality and access to rights, Muslim women must reject their religion. However, some Islamic feminists claim that they can be a Muslim, a woman and equal. Sisters in Islam (SIS), for example, is a Muslim women’s organisation established in 1988 in Malaysia to promote the equal rights of women from within an Islamic framework (Bostan 2011). They draw from parts of the Qur’an that assert that men and women are equal and that men have no priority over access to education and that Muslims are to marry of free will, for example (Jawad 1998). Central to their mission is the belief that feminist interpretations of the Qur’an are the true Islam and they abrogate Shari’ah law on the ground that it is human derived and not divine (Mashour 2005; Ahmed-Ghosh 2008). This conviction has put SIS at the forefront of pressures to change family laws in Malaysia and in lobbying for women’s equality and rights (Bostan 2011; Ahmed-Ghosh 2008). The view that Islam is good for women and the pursuit of equality is the driving force behind SIS and, therefore, Islam cannot be dismissed for being detrimental to women as it depends on one’s definition of what Islam is.

Another type of Islamic feminism challenges the view that equality can be achieved at all. Certain Islamic feminists believe that Western women forfeit their biologically determined roles in order to be more like men but never actually achieving equality (Afshar 2000). These feminists see the Western vision of women’s development as a flawed model and see no reason that they should adopt it. It could be argued, therefore, that striving for equality is bad for women and what is in fact needed is equity. In Iran, Malaysia and other parts of Asia, the equality versus equity debate is prominent in Islamic feminism (Ahmed-Ghosh 2008; Foley 2004). This type of feminism believes that since women are not the same as men, equality can never be achieved. Instead of the individualistic priorities of equality, which encourage the breakdown of the family, communitarian rights found in the Qur’an are deemed to grant women rights while staying true to their biologically determined roles (Foley 2004). They state that the Qur’an grants them equal but different rights, such as the right to be provided for when pregnant (ibid. Ahmed-Ghosh 2008). This type of interpretation of Islam separates what is good for women from gender equality. Therefore, if Islam is bad for equality it does not necessarily mean that it is bad for women. This version of Islamic feminism would agree with the conventional secular approach that suggests that equality can only be discussed in secular terms and not within the framework of Islam. However, this simply means that they believe that the different but equally valid pursuit of equity is needed within Islam.

Both secular and Muslim critics of Islamic feminism continue to strip Muslim women of opportunity. It is thought that the term ‘Islamic feminism’ is oxymoronic since Islam can never been in favour of women. Moghissi, for example, asks “How could a religion based on gender hierarchy be adopted as the framework for struggle for gender democracy and women’s equality?” (1999: 126). Moreover, she argues that Shari’ah law is inherently discriminatory against women and is incompatible with human rights based on equality. However, concerns such as these are based on one view of Islam, reducing it to a narrow and negative conception which will further delegitimise the progress made by Muslim women. In addition, feminist groups such as SIS call for the rewriting and modernising of Shari’ah law to include gender equality rights. Therefore, opposition to them appears negated by the incorrect assumption that Islam cannot change. In addition, if Islam is incompatible with gender equality, this simply reinforces the feminist argument in favour of equity. However, there is also a tendency to speak of Islamic feminism as if it too had only one form. Islamic feminists in general have been criticised from within Islam on the grounds that they have no right to speak about Islam because they are not properly educated in Muslim schools (Othman 2006). However, this once again discriminates against women who can never be part of the patriarchal hierarchy put in place to ensure the continued appointment of men as the deciders of this religion. There is no consensus as to “what Islam and whose Islam is the right Islam” (Anwar cited in Hefner 2001: 227) and Islamic feminists truly believe that there is a place for all interpretations of women’s rights within Islam.

This essay questioned whether the human rights promoted by CEDAW and MDG 3 should be treated as universal and the implications on women and development in Islam. This essay has demonstrated that Islam is not a static phenomenon of patriarchy and oppression and that gendered Islamophobia only serves to worsen Muslim women’s struggle. Equally, there is no unique model of what is ‘good’ for women’s development and Islam has only been perceived as ‘bad’ for women because some interpretations contradict Western discourse. Contrary to the belief that Islam is bad for women, it has been shown that Islam is also a feminist resource. Islamic feminists must be commended for rejecting fundamentalism and the dominant secular Western development discourse and fighting for rights on their own terms. They battle the culturally-created element of their religion by using the historical texts to claim and defend the rights of women guaranteed to them in the Qur’an. The varieties found within Islamic feminism and conservative interpretations are all living forms of Islam which highlight the complexity of this religion and development institutions would avoid dangerous generalisations if they accepted this complexity and engaged with, rather than dismiss, Islamic feminism. However, it is also important to understand that Islam is just one part of women’s identities. Therefore, it is vital that Muslim women are able to speak out on national and international scales in order for them to access the rights they want and deserve. It is clear that Islam is both part of the problem and part of the solution for Muslim women and, therefore, what is good for women’s development must be defined by the women themselves.

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The ethical issue of euthanasia, which confronts our society today, is evidence of our culture’s pervasive concern with finding an easy way out of a moral dilemma. The question of freedom and autonomy of the human being is radical in the discussion of euthanasia. In the name of social justice and freedom of mankind, euthanasia becomes the solution to avoid pain, and escape suffering, in order to reach the so-called desirable “quality of life”. The quality of life argument, at times, has been used scripture narrative, by way of engaging the text politically but which has resulted in its misinterpretation. Moreover, the politicizing of scriptures lacks clarity of the author’s intention. On the other hand, the Catholic church continues to interpret scripture in order to defend the autonomy of human beings as the unique image of God according to revelation and creation. The role of social justice in the writing of the prophet Isaiah will be discussed in this essay and it will be argued that euthanasia is opposed to social justice, as described in the scriptures and the teaching of the Catholic Church.

The prophet Isaiah and social Justice

The social ethics of the prophets were thoroughly grounded theologically in Israel’s historical experience of God and the ongoing struggle of the people to deal with the faith experience in their everyday life. For Israel, social ethics was related to their understanding of what it meant to be God’s people and how they should live in the world. Both for the prophets and for the Torah traditions, that understanding was theologically anchored in the Exodus [1] .

Justice, for example, describes how the people were to live in the world. They were to practise justice toward others. In this sense, Justice does not carry the legal meaning sometimes attached to it. It is not ensuring that everyone gets exactly what he or she deserves based on the law. There is some acceptance of other traditions, where justice is what God brings to those who violate his Torah. However, in the prophets, justice means to practise grace and mercy towards those who have no power to secure them for themselves. It means to protect and defend those who are helpless and powerless [2] . One of the most powerful passages about justice comes from Isaiah of Jerusalem, as a condemnation of the city of Jerusalem (1:21-27):

How the faithful city has become a prostitute! She that was full of justice, righteousness lodged in her– but now murderers! Your silver has become dross, your wine is mixed with water. Your princes are rebels and companions of thieves. Everyone loves a bribe and runs after gifts. They do not defend the orphan, and the widow’s cause does not come before them. . . . I will smelt away your dross as with lye and remove all your alloy. . . . Afterward you shall be called the city of righteousness, the faithful city. Zion shall be redeemed by justice, and those in her who repent, by righteousness.

This text considers two important things: first, the terms “righteousness” and “justice” are closely linked. Second, justice is absent when corruption, bribery, failure to defend the orphans and plead the widows’ cause is the social norm. In the patriarchal social structure of Israel, those without family to care for them, widows and orphans, were the most vulnerable people in society. Corruption in leadership most often preyed on those who deepened the most on that very leadership for equity and fairness, usually those without the resources to seek them. Here, justice is the failure to function socially in a way that respects others and defends the weak and powerless of society [3] . Isaiah clearly expresses what God really desires from his people to act upon, as a demonstration of their righteousness (58:6-7):

Is not this the fast that I choose: to loose the bonds of injustice, to undo the thongs of the yoke, to let the oppressed go free, and to break every yoke? Is it not to share your bread with the hungry, and bring the homeless poor into your house; when you see the naked, to cover them, and not to hide yourself from your own kin?

Again, Isaiah communicates Israel’s mission to the world metaphorically as light to the nations. Here, as in other places, Israel’s own well-being finally depends on how she treats other people (58:8-11):

Then your light shall break forth like the dawn, and your healing shall spring up quickly; your vindicator shall go before you, the glory of the LORD shall be your rear guard. Then you shall call, and the LORD will answer; you shall cry for help, and he will say, Here I am. If you remove the yoke from among you, the pointing of the finger, and the speaking of evil, if you offer your food to the hungry and satisfy the needs of the afflicted, then your light shall rise in the darkness and your gloom be like the noonday. The LORD will guide you continually, and satisfy your needs in parched places, and make your bones strong; and you shall be like a watered garden, like a spring of water, whose waters never fail.

The prophets did not just condemn leaders for lack of justice or see it as a future dream for the people. From the earliest days of the writings of the prophets, they linked social justice with righteousness as God’s people. They called for both righteousness and justice to be a present reality among God’s people.

Biblical analysis of euthanasia

Biblical understanding of human life was built on the fundamental belief that man is created in the image and likeness of God (Gen. 1:27: 5:1-2), therefore all human life is sacred. Furthermore, the Bible specifically condemns murder (Exod. 20:13) and this would surely include active forms of euthanasia [4] . Another foundational principle is a biblical view of death; modern medicine defines death primarily as biological, whereas scripture defines death as spiritual. Death, according to the Bible, occurs when the spirit leaves the body (Eccles.12:7; James 2:26) [5] . This revealed fact has a definite bearing on the prohibition of direct killing: “He who sheds Man’s blood shall have his blood shed by man for, in the image of God, man was made” (Gen. 9:6). The Old Testament reveals that all human beings are made in the image of God, but The New Testament adds that a Christian enjoys a special new likeness to God, the indwelling of the three Divine Persons, through inter-personal communion with the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The internal transformation of body and soul that makes this new life possible is based on our sharing in the Divine nature (2 Pet. 1:4) [6] .

Clarifying the terminology of euthanasia

Euthanasia is a term that has no consistency in our contemporary society. In classical Greek, the term means “good death.” In modern usage, it has taken a different, more specific meaning and has come ‘to mean that one person intentionally causes the death of another who is terminally or seriously ill, often to end the latter’s pain and suffering’. Euthanasia takes the following forms: Active Euthanasia: usually when euthanasia is mentioned it means active euthanasia. It is taking action with the intention to cause death. Passive Euthanasia: is used to describe the action of withdrawing and withholding treatment, with the result that death occurs as a natural consequence of the disease process. Involuntary Euthanasia: is a compassionate act to end the life of a patient, who is perceived to be suffering and could make a voluntary request, but has not done so. Non-Voluntary Euthanasia: euthanasia in this form occurs when another person, out of compassion, act with the intention of ending the life of a suffering patient where the patient is unable to make a voluntary request [7] .

Church analysis of Euthanasia

The Declaration on Euthanasia of the Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith states that “The pleas of gravely ill people who sometimes ask for death are not to be understood as implying a true desire for euthanasia; in fact, it is almost always a case of an anguished plea for help and love. What a sick person needs, besides medical care, is love” [8] . Love for God sends us out to serve others, and it moves us to feel responsibility for those who suffer. It moves us from living as individual to being connected as one body of Christ. We should encourage the sick to discover the redemptive value of their suffering (Rom 12:1, Gal 2:19-20), which will ensure entry into the kingdom of God (Phil 3:10-11; Acts 14:22), by making us worthy of it (2 Thess. 1:4-5). The moral greatness of human life is bound up with our intimate relation to God, the Creator, who stamped an inherent dignity on our nature as persons, making us like him in operations, and he enhanced that dignity even further by the incarnation of the Word [9] .

One of the important features in euthanasia is the need to elucidate the distinction between killing a person and letting them die. To defend the justifiability of distinguishing between the two, we must define euthanasia clearly. Pope John Paul II terms it “an action or omission, which of itself and by intention causes death, with the purpose of eliminating all suffering” [10] . Since both the moral object and the subject’s intention are evil, the action itself is evil. This moral distinction may be criticised seeing it as reflecting a natural law view of morality. The Catholic doctrine on euthanasia is predicated on the idea that life is “good”, but that our highest good and ultimate end is God, the author of life. While death and suffering are most certainly evils, they are not the ultimate evil. Eternal separation from God is the ultimate evil. Therefore, suffering should be seen as a means of self-conquest and authentic self- surrender to God [11] .

Life-and-death issues have usually been addressed on the basis of personal rights. The assertion of freedom presents a challenging obstacle to those who oppose the pro-choice position. Freedom in Christianity is the ability to direct oneself to God and his service (Gal 5:13, 1 peter 2:16-17) and that we use our freedom well, by loving and trusting God’s will, imitating Jesus’ example of trusting abandonment to the Father. Therefore, suicide is an isolated act of troubled human beings who feel the “good life” has eluded them. The question whether or not one ought to commit suicide is already to answer in the negative, because to take one’s life is not a liberating act. Persons requesting euthanasia have, in some way or other, refused to allow God to be the master of their life [12] .

More attention needs to be devoted to the matter of choice, with respect to the issue of personal freedom. Who can or will develop the rules for making the choices regarding the beginning and end of life? The criteria will depend on who is asking the question and why the question is being asked. The lawyer and the physician may both be interested in determining the beginning and end of life, but for different reasons. For example, the physician is interested in the moment of death for the purpose of harvesting organs. The lawyer is interested in defining the moment of death in the interest of a client’s access to an inheritance. The chronically-ill individual may be interested in the moment and choice of death as a possible solution to unbearable suffering. The physician may have techniques of prolonging or shortening the process of dying, but his use of them may be determined by the threat of lawsuits [13] .

An answer to the justification of euthanasia in the Bible
Killing is explicitly condemned in the Bible

The sixth commandment in the Decalogue is an emphatic negative prohibition, “You shall no kill” (Exod 20:13). The word “kill” occurs 38 times in the OT. The NT quotes the sixth commandment extensively (Matt 19:18; Mark 10:19; Luke: 18:20; Rom 13:9). Thus, the NT believer is under obligation to obey the commandment, “You shall not kill”. The question arises concerning the application of this biblical teaching from the sixth commandment to the euthanasia debate. To be able to answer the question, we shall classify the Biblical concept of murder, which seems to be: intentional, premeditated, malicious, contrary to the desire or intention of the victim, and is against someone who has committed not crime deserving of capital punishment. They reason that euthanasia would not be characterised by maliciousness; they believe they are doing an act of mercy. However, as was shown above, the prohibition in the sixth commandment encompasses accidental death, a killing that does not have malicious intent. Therefore, euthanasia is prohibited by the sixth commandment [14] .

Suicide is implicitly condemned in the Bible

Suicide, the act of self-killing, is never directly addressed in the scriptures. Though examples of suicide are recorded in the Bible, it is important to note that a single word for suicide does not exist in Hebrew of Greek, making it impossible for the Bible to refer to it directly. However, the condemnation of “self-killing” is usually inferred from the sixth commandment. If to shorten the life of another through killing is wrong, then to kill oneself is also wrong. But today, this understanding of suicide as biblically prohibited killing has come under intense attack. The argument is built on the three biblical cases in support of the assertion that Scripture permits some suicides [15] .

Five cases of suicide appear in the OT: Abimelech (Judge 9:54); Saul’s armour bearer (1 Sam 31: 4-5. 1 Chron 10:4-5); Ahithophel (2 Sam 17:23) Zimri (1 Kgs 16:18). The Biblical narrator reports each of these self-killings with neither commendation nor condemnation, which opens the possibility for arguing that, in ancient Israel, the act of suicide was regarded as something natural. However, if the biblical author gives no comment of the suicide, how can a positive evaluation be the assured conclusion? Furthermore, it is true that OT narrative usually records events with no evaluation, but the biblical reader must consider the whole presentation made, in order to draw a proper conclusion, because in biblical narrative, a proper examination of the suicide shows that it is an act of a rebel against God, not the heroic final act of a faithful person [16] .

The NT records one clear case of suicide, the death of Judas (Matt 27:5; Acts 1:18). In this narrative, the biblical text contains no statement concerning any repentance of Judas. Judas suicide was the culmination of spiritual rebellion that led him to betray Jesus into the hands of His enemies (Math 26:12-16). The suicide of Judas was not the result of repentance, but because of his lack of repentance. Thus, the six biblical reports of suicide do not convey a sense of acceptance and moral approval; rather, the overall context demonstrates an atmosphere of spiritual disobedience. Therefore, the Bible does not condone suicide, and any act of voluntary euthanasia, whether passive or active, is an act of disobedience against God, because suicide is implicitly condemned in the Bible. Thus, for those who base their ethical standards and behavior on the Scriptures, any act of euthanasia is to be rejected as direct disobedience to the Word of God [17] .

How to read the bible in the light of contemporary issues

Most biblical writings are contextual, in a far narrower sense than simply being historically and culturally conditioned, for they addressed very specific situations or they were occasioned by very particular circumstances. Therefore, it is unusual to establish connections, parallels or analogies between the situations addressed by particular biblical writers and situations, which typically confront us now.

As readers of the Bible, we are first of all eavesdroppers. This means that a proper interpretation of the biblical writers’ ethical statements presupposes the prior task of reconstruction of the situation that a given biblical writer was addressing at that time. We may need to reconstruct the unrecorded side of the interchange, to stand any chance of understanding what is being said in the biblical text, and with what nuances or emphases, in order to be reasonably sure that we are not getting the wrong end of the stich altogether. In the case of a few biblical writings, the quest for a reconstructed dialogue partner may be misguided; in the case of others, it may be desirable but impossible, for lack of clues; but in most cases, the clues are there and it would be disingenuous to ignore them [18] .

Conclusion

Essentially, from the Biblical perspective on euthanasia, is the understanding of the sanctity of human life, which was practiced in Western culture particularly Christian, unfortunately this view is moved to the “quality of life” argument. The disabled, retarded and infirm were seen as having a special place in God’s eyes, whereas today, the medical view depends on a person’s ability to perceive such a quality of life or lack of it. Life is no longer seen as sacred and worthy of being saved. Patients are evaluated and lifesaving treatment is frequently denied, based on subjective and arbitrary standards for the supposed quality of life. If life is not judged worthy of being prolonged, people feel obliged to end that life [19] .

Christians are called upon to return to fundamental beliefs that, because man is created in the image of God, all human life is sacred. Society must not place an arbitrary standard of quality of life above God’s absolute standard of human value. This means that decisions ought to be guided by an objective, absolute standard of human worth.

The evidence analysed in this investigation suggests that Thomas Cranmer established various aims to help further the English Reformation. He met with both successes and failures. The extent to which his successes outweighed his failures will determine how important he was for the progress of the Reformation. A careful analysis will be made of his work regarding introducing the English Bible, helping reform church institutions, doctrine, liturgy. In addition his contributions as a reformed theologian including the durability of his accomplishments will be considered. Other figures also helped spur on the Reformation such as King Henry VIII, Thomas Cromwell, and Queen Elizabeth I. To further evaluate the importance of Cranmer’s contributions this investigation will compare his work with these other personas of historical importance.

Cranmer set out to achieve various goals during his life regarding the English Reformation. Cranmer assumed an important role in the introduction of the English Bible. He endorsed the “Great Bible” in April 1539 was issued to the public for the first time. By late 1541 five more additions of the “Great Bible” had been released. (Dickens 1989, 152) He even contributed a preface to the second edition. Bromiley states in Thomas Cranmer: Theologian “Of all his achievements in the earlier period, the introduction of the English Bible was perhaps the most far-reaching and influential” (xiv)

The archbishop of Canterbury also helped reform the church institutions. He was involved in diplomatic work as he wanted to link England with international Protestantism. Cranmer believed true catholicism (universality) was the unification of the scattered churches of the reformation. Hence catholicity meant unity. He attempted to bring in foreign reformers to England. He successfully brought in Martin Bucer and was helped by English clerics Hooper, Ridley, Holgate ( Dickens 1989, 270) The influence that spread into England came mostly from the followers of Zwingli and Calvin.

Cranmer also made valuable contributions to the reformation of church doctrine. He originally believed in transubstantiation, but then decided that the bread and wine were only symbolic of the body of Christ. King Henry VIII was strongly in favour of transubstantiation and burned people who opposed his view. Cranmer survived due to the King’s protection.

Dickens argues that Cranmer was the English forefront man supporting the “true presence” belief agreed upon by Calvin and Bullinger in the Zurich agreement of 1549. Bullinger believed that transubstantiation was false, but that the bread was sacred, was to be revered, and that the spiritual presence of Christ was there when people took the Eucharist. Like the sun is in the heavens but we can only feel its light and heat, Christ is in heaven but he is working in the hearts of those that believe. (Schaff, I. 471)

Between 1539-1543 there is a turbulent return to Catholicism, heretics burned, and Bible reading prohibited for the laity. Cranmer opposes the 1539 act of six articles, which includes clerical celibacy and as a consequence he has to send his wife away. King Henry VIII wields absolute power and thus Cranmer cannot overtly support great doctrinal changes as long as the King reigned. “It was unfortunate for [Cramner] that he could never persuade Henry VIII to share his enthusiasm [regarding humanist reformation” (MacCulloch 1996, 213) because “The King’s own theology became a moving target during the 1530s” (MacCulloch 1996, 213)

Cranmer’s view of church doctrine was that it be scripturally based, be proclaimed by the monarch in parliament, and be accepted without fighting over minute details. (Dickens 1989, 208) The Ascension of Edward VI in 1547 opens the doors for doctrinal reform. Cranmer issues the “Book of Homilies” a set of 12 official model sermons. He even writes several of the sermons. In 1553 he issues the 42 Articles of Religion, which is a code of doctrine. Under Queen Elizabeth the Homilies are amplified and reissued. The articles lead to the Elizabethan Thirty Nine Articles. Dickens calls these Elizabethan articles “a decisively Protestant interpretation of the faith,” (Dickens 1989, 280)

However, Cranmer also encountered failure in his attempt to advance the English Reformation. Regarding his reforms of Church institutions his diplomatic work in the sense that he failed to bring any Lutheran leaders or Lutheran representatives to England. Cranmer also wanted to rewrite and arrange the canon law into an organized system but failed due to several factors. Many did not favour the canon law because they believed it was too disorganized and needed be replaced by civil law. Cranmer also wrote a plan of reform for the canon law entitled Reformatio Legum Ecclesiasticarum. Unfortunately this was not published until well after his death. Ultimately none of his proposed reforms for the canon law were enacted. He had proposed changes such as having annual diocesan conferences attended by clergy and laity, which may well have been beneficial for the church. ( Dickens, 1989, 279-280.)

The Archbishop of Canterbury beginning in 1540 focused on revision of the English church liturgy with a specific emphasis on putting it in language comprehensible by the laity. King Henry VIII showed Cranmer considerable favouritism by endowing him the authority to create and spread his own English litany while he rejected proposals of other bishops such as the 1543 Rationale of Ceremonial. When Henry authorized Cranmer to modify the mass by adding devotional passages in English the King did not anticipate great doctrinal changes. However, this laid the foundation for an extreme change of the aim of the mass, replaced sporadic communion for the laity and private medieval masses with regular congregational services of worship.

The King passed away in 1547 and Cranmer’s first edition of the Book of Common Prayer was released in 1549 under Edward VI. It was conservative but it led to a rebellion in South-Western England. Dyson Hague notes his Story of the English Prayer Book that this rebellion may have occurred due to the introduction of totally foreign concepts for those used to attending the mass such as the “The Supper of the Lord” and “Holy Communion”. (Hague 1949, 133) The 1552 second edition of the Book of Common Prayer was Cranmer’s most explicit Protestant liturgical document. Examples such as the mass became communion, tables were to be removed and altars provided, and surplices replaced Eucharist religious robes reflected Zwinglian influence. This 1552 edition later became the basis for Queen Elizabeth I’s prayer book of 1559 and the 1662 Book of Common Prayer. Interestingly the 1662 version’s Eucharistic liturgy commits several “catholic” compromises. The 1549 Prayer Book at the beginning of the sacrament states “The body of our Lord Jesus Christ which was given for thee, preserve thy body and soul unto everlasting life”. In contrast the 1552 version states “Take and eat this, in remembrance that Christ died for thee, and feed on him in thy heart by faith with thanksgiving.” Finally, the 1662 version is a merger of the 1549 and 1552 Prayer Books. (Jasper and Cuming 1990, 232-249) MacCulloch argues that Cranmer would have looked at the alteration of his eucharist by the 1662 reviser with strong suspicion and concern. (MacCulloch 1996, 628) In the 1549 Act the Parliament authorized the doctrine and liturgy of the Book of Common Prayer which is of historical significance because this had been the exclusive area of activity of the monarch since 1534. According to Dickens although not very much is known concerning the origins of the second prayer book, it is certain that its literary qualities are based on Cranmer’s book of 1549. (Dickens 1989, 277) The prayer books according to R.T. Beckwith are predominantly the work of Cranmer. (Beckwith 1992, 101-105)

A significant aspect of Cranmer’s contributions regarding liturgy is the system of canonical hours that were increments of time between prayers specifically for the morning and evening prayer sessions. The canonical hours were no longer to be exclusively controlled and regulated by the clergy. (MacCulloch, 630) MacCulloch states that Cranmer established a strong foundation of liturgy that helped the laity “look beyond the surface of events and say that there is more to human life and creation than the obvious, the everyday.” (630) Cranmer strongly upheld his prayer book in great esteem. He did not heed the Council’s request that he alter the rubric commanding that individuals receive Communion while kneeling. However, he could not stop the introduction of the” black rubric “, which denied any intention to revere the elements.(Dickens 1989, 278.) Cranmer asked for advice from his colleagues as he crafted the 1550 revision of the Ordinal. Its imperfections were later used as grounds for rejection by Rome coming from Anglican demands. The first ordinal was a conservative document, based on medieval sources, though not permitting the social ordering and grouping of bishop, priest and deacon. It maintained the tradition of providing a silver or gold plate for the eucharist bread and chalice to priests recently ordained. Bishops received pastorals staffs. Cranmer also had the priests receive a Bible to represent their purpose of preaching to the congregation. Later an extra amendment of the Ordinal was included in the 1552 prayer book. In this amendment Cranmer reformed the system so that bishops and priests received no items except a Bible. (Dickens 1989, 270)

Cranmer eased access to the liturgy, collecting everything that was indispensable in one book in the common tongue. He likely did not plan on his services being used for 400 years. However, his services were intended for repeated and frequent use. Cranmer’s text has been long revered as originating from an author sensitive providing formal English prose. Contemporary learning demonstrates the indispensable reputation of the structure of language to greater culture.. If, as MacCulloch states, “Cranmer’s language lies at the heart of our English-speaking culture”, (632.) Cranmer’s work towards the English language is likely his most important tribute. There are those that oppose this conclusion. A view is that Cranmer’s liturgies have become ingrained in English literary identity and have predisposed the religious rationale of English-speaking people. In contrast, Donald Gray states it is far too simple to romanticize the historic links between Anglican society and liturgy. Often claims made regarding the importance of the Book of Common Prayer are exaggerated elitist claims stated by and for a segment of society that possessed the time and opportunity for worship. Many enormous areas of England were not significantly influenced by the Book of Common Prayer and possessed very limited knowledge of its contents. (Gray 1991, 135-143) In addition, one may argue that contributions to English religious literature are not necessarily contributions to religious reformation. When Edward VI rose to power as a youth, the opportunity for positive change was met with rapid reformation in the church. MacCulloch demonstrates that as “as the truth liberated the populace, many came to love the Bible.” (613-614) The attacking and rejecting of orthodox beliefs such as religious processions and destroying Latin service books was received well. The walls of churches began to display Biblical messages such as The Ten Commandments, The Lord’s Prayer, and the beatitudes. When Mary ascended to the throne Cranmer was put in prison and threatened violently to sign recantations accepting fundamental Catholic doctrines. He signed the documents. However, he publicly withdrew the recantations right before he was incinerated as a heretic on 21 March 1556.

In conclusion, Cranmer was indispensable to the progress of the English Reformation. His work had impacts on events of the reformation during the reigns of King Henry VIII, Edward VI and Elizabeth I. The evidence demonstrates that he is among the most if not the most important figure in the English Reformation. Cranmer’s most important reforming achievements are demonstrated by the great documents he created. The access to the Bible and obedience to it that he helped establish was also significant. Cranmer did a great deal more than simply write liturgy and doctrine. The sources demonstrate if had not accomplished his aims at the level of excellence that he did, the efforts of the sixteenth century English reformation would likely have been far less effective and much more short lived.

Word Count: 2002

The above essay is all my own work: the source of all material used in its compilation has been duly cited and all help received is acknowledged. The essay does not substantially duplicate material previously or simultaneously submitted to academic staff at any academic institution.

Jesse Alvarez