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To both the Muslim faithful, the name Prophet Muhammad is not alien. Previous to his birth, many kinds of religious beliefs and practices reigned supreme but he came with another definition of what faith in Allah truly is. His beliefs can be truly referred to as revolutionary. According to general school of thought, revolutionary refers to “the overthrow of an established government by those formerly under its authority” (The Harcourt Brace School Dictionary: 628). It could also mean “great change in a condition” (The Harcourt Brace School Dictionary: 628). The transition of America from the monarchical political system to new governmental foundation for the colonial states was as a result of values gathered from years of being enlightened due to deep thoughtful period is correctly referred to as revolution whereas a revolutionary refers to an individual who is involved in effecting the radical change.

The prophet of Islam, Muhammad ibn Abdullah, was truly a revolutionary. Major spheres of life such as religious, social and political received a new meaning due to the philosophies Prophet Muhammad brought into these areas of life. Many events concerning him were penned down by some scholars: many shared belief in some of these writings while so many people were also in doubt of these. Some even called him “Apostle of Allah” Ibn Ishaq -(Muhammad ibn Ishaq (d. 767 or 761) (justislam). Prior to Islamizing Mecca, there were many tribes which was headed by the tribe known as Quraysh and accumulated much of its wealth from the tribes that would make pilgrimage to Mecca which was an important holy site for the polytheistic religions of the nomadic Arabs. As at then, The Arabs “worshipped spirits associated with natural features such as stones and trees” (William: 26).

When the Prophet Muhammad brought one of the most important part of Islam, Tawhid which is translated as (Uniqueness and Unity of God), this message principle coded in this message immediately challenged the existing religious beliefs because it completely disapprove the worship of other tribal idols. Tawhid is contained in the 112th chapter of the Qur’an. It is to be noted that Qur’an is the holy book of the Muslims and contains divine message to the people (sufibooks). Prophet Muhammad’s messages really did not go down well with many people. These people were already entrenched in theory local beliefs that they (the Meccan elite) “saw him as a revolutionary leader espousing an ideological message that threatened their social, economic, and political dominance.” (Mir Zohair Husain : 45).

The theological tenets of Muhammad was so strong that he left no stone unturned when he “purify it by smashing the polytheistic idols” (Frederick: 66) when he entered Mecca and approached Ka’ba. All his messages are already contained in the holy book (Darultawhid). Considering the fact that Islam is a holistic way of life its religious tenets present quite a number of social repercussions. The Prophet’s message of Islam was revolutionary on this front as well. Muhammad made it know to them that the Arab’s pre-Islamic social life was referred to as the period of jahiliyya or the period of ignorance. Because of this ignorance, People’s allegiances were absolutely to their tribe and family irrespective of whether the tribe was right or wrong. A “kind of anarchy reigned among tribes” because each of them was fighting his own course and that of his tribesmen. (William: 26).

Another noticeable thing was that there was also an increasing “gap between the wealthy and the poor” (William : 27). This was causing strains in the society and made some individuals to be exploited by the elite which is considered wrong by the prophet. In addition to other things, Muhammad’s first followers were amongst the poor and were at times tortured because they were seen as expendable. The Prophet of Islam strongly countered this with the Islamic injunctions of social justice. “Muhammad frequently stated that all are equal before God” (Mir Zohair Husain : 46) which effectively eliminated tribal-elder status, socio-economic status and any superiority based on race or physical traits. “This was a revolution in the social and political history of Arabia” (Frederick: 66) which started with the bloodless victory of Mecca by the Prophet Mohammed (May peace be upon him) in 628. This political change was not simply a reform in the Arab’s political life but was a radical shift from self-interested tribes made up of families and clans to a more unified “nation” based on religious orientation.

No doubt, in today world, the revolution of Muhammad is still alive since .Islamic revivalism is an explicit illustration of this. The modern movement of Islamism is the re-emergence of Islam as a social and political force to be reckoned with in a world that is dominated by religious, social and political systems that are not in accordance with an Islamic message. Movements based upon the Prophet Muhammad’s teachings are taking place and are attempting to replace non-Islamic entities. Modern Islamism is also “global in scope” (Mir Zohair Husain : 55) and targets religious, social and political entities that may have little or no Islamic influence just as pre-Islamic Arabia’s values were founded on principles which Islamic values challenged.

The shift in Arabia is an after effect of Prophet Muhammad’s message. The Prophet’s message and cultivation of his way of life in his community would not be such a distinguished force in the world today if it didn’t espouse a new, fundamentally different, social milieu.

In conclusion, as a true fundamentalist, Prophet Mohammed has proved beyond doubt that his mission is not just humane but divine. From the time of his birth to the situations that surrounded his birth, Mohammed, no doubt has proved that he was a courier of a greater knowledge than the society and environment he met himself. Although the ancient Arabs worshiped their own gods in their own way but Mohammed made it a point of duty to preach divine truth to these people. Quite expectedly, many od these Arabs took it as an insult while so of them understood the thesis of the message Mohammed was preaching but a true revolutionary, he was unshaken and pursued his objectives with vigor.

His vigor further gave him the badge of true revolutionary and when he challenged the religious practice as this was true to his nature; fighting a just course. From which angle this great revolutionary is viewed from, he may be not be everything to everybody but he is a true revolutionary to everyone.

Islam is a monotheistic faith and one of the largest religions in the world. With a total population of almost 1.5 billion followers, it is also the fastest growing. [i] The reason for this steady rise is not only the increasing population in Muslim countries, but also the growing number of people who are turning to Islam, a phenomenon that has recently gained momentum, especially after the attacks of September 11th when the religion was put under the spotlight. [ii] However, despite all of this, questions that are often asked are, how did Islam rise to become one of the most represented group in modern times? Where did it originate and how did it all start? In order to answer these questions, we must go back more than 1400 years and trace the life of man, who almost single handedly changed the dynamics of this world.

In the year 570 AD, Muhammad bin Abdullah was born into a noble family that belonged to a clan of the Quraish, the ruling tribe of modern day Mecca. The city was home to the Kabah, a holy shrine, which attracted thousands of people every year from nearby lands who would come and offer pilgrimage. Mecca soon became an important religious center and a financial hub, linking the Arabian Peninsula with powerful empires such as the Ethiopians and the Byzantines. [iii] As a result, the city became dominated by several influential families, among whom the Quraish were preeminent.

Muhammad’s father, Abdullah bin Abdul Muttalib, died before the boy was born. He was raised by his widow mother until the age of six when she too passed away, leaving him under the care of his paternal grandfather. After his death, the orphan was consigned to his uncle, Abu Talib, who took Muhammad in as his own son. As was customary, Muhammad was sent to live for a year or two with a Bedouin family that resided in the desert outskirts of Mecca. This period of his life had important and lasting implications on Muhammad. In addition to enduring the hardships of desert life, he acquired a taste for the rich language of the locals, whose speech was their proudest art. He also learned the patience and forbearance of the herdsmen, whose life of solitude he first shared and then later came to understand and appreciate. [iv]

From his early youth, Muhammad was famous for his honesty and truthfulness. He was respected by everyone and was considered one of the most reliable people in Mecca. The people of Quraish honored him with the title of ‘Al-Amin’ meaning ‘the trustworthy’ and this purity of his nature increased as he grew older. [v] Muhammad also seemed to possess an inner knowledge that other people did not. He would refuse to worship the countless idols and gods that were central to pre-Islamic life in Mecca and would rather spend countless hours in meditation by himself, trying to seek true knowledge.

When Muhammad reached his early twenties, he started working for a woman who went by the name of Khadija bint Khuwalid. She was a widow but was known for being a rich and successful merchant. Muhammad used to actively engage in leading her trade caravans up north, making handsome profits every time he did so. Khadija was so deeply impressed by his work ethics that she sent him a proposal of matrimony which Muhammad happily accepted. Even though Khadija was fifteen years older than him, the marriage proved to be very successful. Muhammad had gained a companion who was always there for him whenever he needed moral support and comfort.

Muhammad grew more and more spiritually restless as the days went by and he started increasing the time he spent in meditation. In order to get away from the troubles and vices that existed within the city, he chose a spot in the hills that surrounded Mecca. The cave where he used to pray was known as ‘Hira’ and according to popular Islamic belief, this was where Muhammad first received the message of Islam and where his journey as a Prophet of God began. [vi] The angel Gabriel came to Muhammad with the following revelation:

“Read in the name of your Lord who created; Created man from a clot of blood; Read and your Lord is the most Beneficent; Who taught man by the pen; Taught man what he knew not” (Quran 96: 1-5) [vii]

These were the first revealed verses of the Islamic book, the Quran and since then Muhammad stopped retreating in the Cave of Hira and took upon himself the duty of spreading the message of God.

At first, Muhammad only preached to his wife and close friends. But as more revelations enjoined him to proclaim the oneness of God universally, his target circle grew; at first the poor and the slaves, but later, also the more prominent people of Mecca. However, not everyone accepted what he had to say and even members of Muhammad’s own clan denied him openly. The opposition persecuted and tortured him and his early followers in every possible manner. But this did not deter Muhammad away from his mission but rather it strengthened and sharpened his resolve to spread the light of Islam. The Quraish had always held their idols in high regards and therefore found it difficult to come to terms with belief in one unseen God, which was one of the pinnacle pillars that Muhammad’s religion was based on.

As Muslims grew in number, the severity of punishment of the local leaders also increased. They boycotted him and his followers from every kind of trade and transaction, so much so that they had to go without proper food and drink for many weeks. Soon, the opposition to Muhammad reached such a high pitch that, fearful for their safety, he sent some of his adherents to the Christian ruler of Abyssinia asking for protection. [viii] Before long, the fame of Muhammad had spread to almost every part of the Arabian Peninsula. A group of people from Yathrib, modern day Medina, met Muhammad and entered into a contract with the Muslims. When the persecutions in Mecca increased and life there became unbearable for the Muslims, the people of Yathrib invited the Prophet and his companions to migrate to their city. [ix] Muhammad accepted their invitation and this emigration from Mecca to Medina marked the beginning of an important Islamic era.

The Muslims who migrated from Mecca were called the ‘Muhajirs’ while the people of Medina who received them with open arms came to be known as the ‘Ansars’. It was here that Muhammad gradually laid the foundation of an Islamic state. Many of teachings of the Prophet in Medina were concerned with the life of a community in its social, political, economic and administrative aspects. With the help and support of the local Ansars, Muhammad was able to establish a system of government that was way ahead of the time it belonged to in terms of its form and working. [x]

When the leaders of Mecca found out that Muhammad was building a city state, they became anxious about the new influence. They feared that this position of authority and power would encourage Muhammad to extract revenge on them. The Quraish believed the best way to deal with this threat was to destroy Islam in its infancy. They gathered a large army and marched north towards Medina. When Muhammad came to find out about their intentions, he too put together an army consisting of only three hundred and thirteen men. The resulting battle was known as the ‘Battle of Badr’ and it was the first major war fought by the Muslims. Even though Muhammad’s army was poorly equipped and faced a force three times its size, they remained steadfast in their resolve towards protecting Islam and the Muslim army as a result was able to route the forces of Mecca.

The Battle of Badr was a landmark in the history of Islam and it had several important effects in terms of Medina as a city state. Firstly, Muhammad with only a handful of men was able to defeat a much larger army through sheer determination and discipline. This brought home to the leaders of the Quraish, the abilities of the very man they had driven from their city. Also, one of the allied tribes which had pledged support to the Muslims in the battle had proved lukewarm when the actual fighting started. They were expelled from Medina and Muhammad served a warning to every tribe in allegiance with the Muslims: membership in the community imposed the obligation of total support. [xi]

The Quraish, however, felt humiliated and almost one year after the Battle of Badr, they waged war again on the Muslims, this time coming with an army of almost three thousand soldiers. After establishing a strong foothold early in the battle, the Islamic army was put under pressure and had to retreat. Seeing as Muhammad and his followers were not entirely overpowered, the Quraish sent out an army again two years later in the hope of completely eliminating any sort of Islamic threat. At the Battle of the Trench, the result was completely different. The Muslims scored a signal victory by introducing a new form of defense. On the side of Median from which the attack was expected, they dug a trench too deep for the Meccan cavalry to clear without exposing itself to the archers posted behind the earthworks. After an inconclusive siege, the Meccans were forced to retire and thus establishing Medina and Muhammad’s Islam as a power to be reckoned with in the Arabian Peninsula. [xii]

The Constitution of Medina dates from this period. The charter established Muhammad as the leader of Medina and the Muslims as a separate entity in their own right. The Constitution also defined the role of non-Muslims in the society. Jews, for example, were part of the community; they were ‘dhimmis’, that is, protected people, as long as they conformed to its laws. Followers of the monotheistic religions were permitted spiritual independence. This did not, however, pertain to the Pagans as they could not be tolerated in a place that worshiped one God. [xiii]

According to Ibn Ishaq, one of the earliest biographers of the Prophet, “it was at about this time that Muhammad sent letters to various rulers all around the world- the King of Persia, the Emperor of Byzantium, the Negus of Abyssinia, and the Governor of Egypt among others – inviting them to submit to Islam.” [xiv] Muhammad so efficiently established a number of allies that, by 628 AD, he and almost a thousand Muslims were able to stipulate admittance to Mecca. This was a milestone in the history of Islam. Just a short time before, Muhammad had left the same city to establish an Islamic state and now he was being treated by the Quraish as a leader. Almost a year later he was able to occupy Mecca without any violence which. He cleaned the Kabah from the gods that were present and forever ended idol worship. At the same time Amr bin Al As and Khaleed bin Walid, accepted Islam and swore allegiance to Muhammad. Their acceptance of Islam was very important because they would later go on and through various campaigns, expand the Muslim empire. [xv]

After almost a decade since Muhammad migrated to Medina, he made his last pilgrimage to Mecca and delivered a farewell sermon to a congregation of about 120,000 people. Shortly afterwards, he was taken ill and passed away in 632 AD. The death of Muhammad was a profound loss. To his supporters he was more than a friend and a teacher. He was also a perfect role model who till this date has guided the faith and life of countless men and women and which has brought in a distinctive era in the history of mankind.

After his death, Muhammad’s legacy was continued by his close companions who took the responsibility of presiding over the Muslim population for years to come based on his teachings. Muslim dynasties were soon established and subsequent empires such as those of the Persians, Ottomans and the Mughals of India, were among the largest and most powerful the world has ever seen. The people of the Islamic world created numerous sophisticated centers of culture and science with far-reaching mercantile networks, travelers, scientists, hunters, mathematicians, doctors and philosophers, all of whom contributed to the rise of Islam.

Plato and Rousseau are the most important world famous educationists who have contributed much to the advancement of human civilization. Present education system of the world stands on both the above thinkers.

Plato’s educational philosophy was grounded in his famous work ‘The Republic’, ‘The Laws’ wherein the individual was best served by being subordinated to a just society. Rousseau wrote in his book ‘Emile’, ‘Discourse of Political Economy’, ‘The New Heloise’ and ‘Considerations on the Government of Poland’.

In keeping in mind the philosophies, ideas of Plato and Rousseau on education theory discussed above, this study focuses on the similarities and dissimilarities between these two philosophers share in regard of philosophy of education. It also aims at finding out the influences among the education theories of Plato and Rousseau have on contemporary and succeeding generations. All over the world in general, and at measuring the influences reflected in planning and designing the national education policy in Bangladesh in particular.

1.2 Rationale of the Study

This research is mainly for gathering knowledge. Every movement or social situation has a chronology. Without understanding this chronology, it is difficult to understand the current situation of that movement. Plato and Rousseau’s Education theories contributed much to the salvation of their country men which is really praiseworthy. Their theoretical and practical efforts helped to break the long standing superstitions, blind faith and absurd ideas. This study will be a matter of great teaching for the present and succeeding generations that will fulfill the knowledge gap existing in this area. Their realistic and utilitarian views on education certainly will play an effective role in preparing modern citizens fit for modern world. The investigated information drawn from the comparative study on the education theory of Plato and Rousseau in planning and designing can be used in the formulation of national education policy of our country.

1.3 General Objective of the Study

The general objective of the study is to –

Analyze a comparative study on the educational theory of Plato and Rousseau.

1.4 Specific Objectives of the Study
The specific objectives of the study are to –

Assess, evaluate and compare the philosophy of education developed by Plato and Rousseau.

Find out the influence of their philosophy of education on contemporary and succeeding generations.

Assess the role of Philosophy of Plato and Rousseau in planning and designing the national education policy in our country.

1.5 Research Questions of the Study

What did Plato and Rousseau mean by philosophy of education?

What roles did Plato and Rousseau play to the development of the philosophy of education?

What influences did the philosophies of education of Plato and Rousseau have on the contemporary philosophers and thinkers?

What are the results to be drawn from the comparative study between the philosophies of education of Plato and Rousseau?

What roles of philosophy of Plato and Rousseau in planning and deigning the national education policy in our country?

1.6 Definition of Key Terms
Education

Etymologically, the word education is derived from Educare (Latin) “bring up”, which is related to Educere “bring out”, “bring forth what is within”, “bring out potential” and Ducere “to lead” (Source www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=educate; video.ted.com/talks/podcast/AimeeMullins_2009p.mp4).

Theory

Some social researchers have meant by theory special ideas such as- concept, frame of reference, conceptual scheme, perspective, hypothesis, generalization, ideal type, paradigm, typology etc. (Alam, 1993, p. 107)

Education theory

Educational theory may refer to either speculative educational thought in general or to a theory of education as something that guides, explains or describes educational practice.

Philosophy

Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind and language.

1.7 Scope of the Study

This research will cover Plato and Rousseau’s thoughts along with the Major writings on them. Available information on them from Magazines and newspapers of that time are also used to find out their actual philosophy of education. We shall discuss their philosophy of education along with the thoughts of other philosophers who have contributed much to the development of education in modern society. We shall assimilate the ideas of Plato and Rousseau with the ideas of other philosophers of education. In this way the researcher would make a comprehensive study on the philosophy of education.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

The study would be mainly based on printed documents such as various articles, essays, journals, books and research works done on the comparative study on the educational theory of Plato and Rousseau. Concurrently all information from individuals related to the present study needs more time and money. There are only few research work conducted on the issue and very few articles might be published on the journals but the researcher did not find any research work on that issue in Bangladesh.

Chapter 2: Review of Literature

Reviewing literature means study of other literatures for finding out the research gap. So far as the researcher has surveyed, this is a new field to study. The researcher has gone through all the writings of Plato, as well as good number of books written on him such as: ‘The Republic’, ‘Laws’ etc. The researcher also reviewed books written by Rousseau. These are: Emile, Discourse on Equality, A discourse on political Economy, Social contract etc. Here, the researcher has presented some studies related to Plato and Rousseau’s education theory by different researchers like Patricia M. Lines, Shackling the Imagination: Education for Virtue in Plato and Rousseau. Many aspects of Plato’s recommendations for education resemble those adopted by constitutional democracies in different countries. According to him education must be compulsory and free to all, with government control and support. Plato identified four interdependent virtues (Wisdom, Courage, Discipline and Justice) as essential to be ideal in ‘The Republic’. Wisdom guides the philosopher-ruler. Courage moves the auxiliaries (the soldiers and the bureaucrats). Discipline, sometimes translated as moderation, assures that each class carries out its assigned role and that the governed obey the governors. Justice- the supreme ordering principle-ensures harmony and balance within the individual and the state. These virtues should lead to a full understanding of the Truth, the Good and the Beautiful, which according to Plato is the highest reality. Like Plato, Rousseau aims at creating an ideal citizen. Unlike Plato, he wants to prepare this citizen for democracy. Rousseau regards virtue as the ultimate goal of education. He offers a simple rule. Emile the ‘Hero’ in his book must never harm another. To achieve this goal, the tutor isolates the children from others. Both Plato and Rousseau offer a limited view of virtue. Still, both reveal a certainty that they fully understand and know how to encourage the right virtues. (www.amazon.com/shackling-immagination-education-rousseau-humanitas/dp/b0043uonp08) Samuel Scolnicov, ‘Plato on Education as the Development of Reason’. Plato stresses his Socrates’ new concept of reason (nous). Reason is not a tool for attaining goals independently thought worthwhile: possessions, honor, personal and political success; rather, rationality itself, expressed in the giving of reasons and the avoidance of contradictions, confers value to goals and opinions. The ultimate educational objective, then, is to bring about a revolution in the learner’s perception of the role of reason, namely the recognition of its normative, and not merely theoretical or instrumental nature. Plato’s theory of education aims at specifying the conditions of the growth of the Socratic man, whose soul is free from contradictions and whose excellence is justified knowledge.(www.bu.edu/wcp/papers/Anci/Anciscol.htm) Farhan Zainulabideen, ‘A Critical Review of the Aims of Education in the Western Tradition’. Plato is the earliest important thinker on education. He is also the first to have laid down a comprehensive outlook of education that was integrated with his views of society and its aims. In Republic, Plato’s primary aim of education is to produce the elites needed to govern the ideal city. The supreme product of the education process is the philosopher-king who rules the city. The highest aim of education for Plato is the knowledge of good, which in turn instills the four great virtues: wisdom, courage, discipline and justice. Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s intellectual range and achievements are staggering. He made epochal contributions to political theory, literature and education. His educational tract, ‘Emile’, transformed the debate about children upbringing and was very largely instrumental in altering the Western perception of childhood. He overturned conventional wisdom on the nature of childhood and education with a radical discourse in this fictional novel. The fundamentals of Rousseau’s educational creed are ‘nature’ and ‘freedom’. He believed that children should develop their skill and capacity in nature and enjoy freedom. This goal in education was actually the first step in ensuring a more social society, where natural law is seen to accomplish harmony and balance and to get rid of artificial man-imposed coercive restrictions (http//www.ips.org.pk/education/IIII-acriticalreviewoftheaimsof education).

Plato was disturbed by condition of society, its corruption and shallow-dreams. In his famous work ‘The Republic’, Plato tried to teach Good and beauty to his students (Lee, 1987, p. 161). Jean-Jacques Rousseau convinced that men and women had lost their worth that can be revived in natural phenomena so that we might learn to live together in ways that foster a better ethics of citizenship (Bloom, 1979, p. 25). Rousseau believes that the primary goal of education is to prepare men and women to be moral agents who, while living autonomously, also live with each other.

Many researches have been done on various aspects of Plato and Rousseau. But no research has yet been done on the problem of education theory of Plato and Rousseau. So there may be some gap in this field. For this reason this problem may be an important issue of a research work. The present study is such an attempt.

Chapter 3: Methodology

The methodology of the present research is descriptive and qualitative. Generally descriptive research is done on education related problem, academic decision making, designing plan, changing the curriculum and etc.(Samad, 2010, p.21) Qualitative research is done on some qualitative events or topics (that are related with quality). Qualitative research is very important especially in behaviorism. Because through education the personality of a man changes. (Tapan, 1987, p.21)

The main characteristic of the descriptive research is to provide reasonable explanation of the topic through data analysis. So it is found that descriptive research not only includes the description of the event or situation/state/condition but also includes comparative discussion, classification, explanation and evaluation.(Ali, 1988, p.19) In a descriptive research a researcher does not control the data. Only the process of observation, description and analysis of data can be controlled.(Zaman, 1987, p.7)

Aristotle for the first time used deductive method in case of presenting descriptive method through argument and after a century later Francis Bacon used the direct observational method. This method is known as inductive method. In this method data are collected sequentially from every field and decision is made. Inductive method is from particular to general. On the other hand, deductive method is from general to particular. (Zaman, 1987, p.11, 12)

So, Qualitative and Descriptive method fits well in accomplishing the present research study from the selection of the materials till the completion of the research work. It includes the collection of material leaving no gap in the connected aspects of the study, the scanning of the materials, their systematization and synchronization so that clear vision becomes apparent to complete the dissertation. Moreover, this method also covers, while writing the thesis, the arguments in favor of and against the problem raised and then ratification of powerful opinion with convincing evidences and arguments. First the information has been collected from primary and secondary sources. The writings of Plato and Rousseau have been considered as the Primary data (Plato: ‘The Republic’ and ‘The Laws’. Rousseau: ‘Emile’, ‘Discourse of Political Economy’, ‘The New Heloise’, and ‘Considerations on the Government of Poland’) and the writings on Plato and Rousseau published in various books, journals, article and research works have been considered as the Secondary data. The researcher has identified the contradiction carefully among educational theory of Plato and Rousseau maintaining strict objectivity to fulfill the aims and purpose of the present study. The collected data have been analyzed in order to find out the similarity and dissimilarity between Plato and Rousseau and by their thinking what kind of philosophy developed and influenced the succeeding generations. The researcher has used the logical analysis for data analysis. The researcher has followed the American Psychological Association (APA) code and conduct for using the reference.

Chapter 4: Plato

Plato’s Philosophy of Education

Plato’s educational philosophy was grounded in his vision of the ideal ‘The Republic’, ‘The Laws’ wherein the individual was best served by being subordinated to a just society. “Plato proposes a thoroughgoing communism for the guardians, and (I think) also for the soldiers, though this is not very clear. The guardians are to have small houses and simple food; they are to live as in a camp, dining together in companies; they a re to have no private property beyond what is absolutely necessary (Russell, 1946, p. 127).” Socialism is now out-dated in the present world. Most of the people in the world now believe in individual freedom. The system that Plato has talked about for philosophers with a view to building an ideal state is not effective in most of the countries including Bangladesh.

The Educational Theory of Plato

Plato’s Theory of education was an indispensable necessity for mankind. It was a positive remedy for the problems and operation of justice in an ideal state. Rousseau says, Plato’s Republic’ is not a work on polities but the finest treatise on education that has ever been written. Nothing was more important to Plato in human life as education. He considers education the greatest thing in human life as he mentions in his famous book ‘The Republic’, ‘the one great thing”.

Major ideas in Plato’s educational theory are

Education for all: Plato would educate every boy and girl to the limits of their abilities.

State education: Education should be provided by the state, not by parents.

Plato’s suggestion was that the state will take the responsibility of educating the whole nation has been accepted in most of the countries. But it is not still properly implemented in Bangladesh because of her scarcity of fund and inability of parents but the country is trying to educate her all children.

Aims of Education

“To produce future civil servants for the state.

To produce virtuous, efficient and intellectual rulers for the country.

To glorify courage and military skill among the warriors.

To develop competent, obedient, and temperate workers.

To develop a social disposition among all citizens.

Virtue is knowledge and education is the main thing to acquire virtue.” (Bhuiyan, 2010, p. 269)

“It (Plato’s theory of education) is an attempt to cure a mental malady by mental medicine (Barker, 1967, p. 314).”

Element of Plato’s Education System

The first thing should be considered in education, which is divided into two parts-

Music

‘Music’ used in broad term for drama, history, art, letters, philosophy, oratory and music in real term. “Music means everything that is in the province of the muses (Russell, 1946, p. 126).” Plato had made Protagoras speak of children’s training in music as introducing rhythm and harmony into their souls and having a socializing influence; ‘for the whole life of man stands in need of rhythm and harmony’. ‘Music’ is almost as wide as what we should call ‘culture’ (Cornford, 1941, p. 86). Music is not taught as a compulsory subject in our country as it was advocated by Plato. Nevertheless there are individual departments of Music and Theatre in public universities where students with special interests can study music.

Gymnastic

“Gymnastic means physical training and fitness” (Russell, 1946, p. 126). ‘Gymnastics’ is somewhat wider than what we call ‘athletics’. The physical training suitable for a citizen soldier is briefly contrasted with that of the professional athlete. Finally, it appears that physical training, no less than education in literature and the arts, really has to do with the soul (Cornford, 1941, p. 90). Physical exercise is not taught as a compulsory subject in our country as it was advocated by Plato. But there are individual departments of Physical Exercise in public universities where students with special interests can study physical exercise. Physical exercise is of paramount importance in Bangladesh Army. In every institution in Bangladesh there is a course on physical exercise which is mandatory in military institutions only. Plato writes in his book ‘The Republic’. I believe, gymnastic, for the body, and music for the mind.

The Curriculum of Plato’s Education System

Plato define different stages for the organization and curriculum

Primary Education: Primary education mainly consisted of reading and writing (‘Grammatic’); learning and reciting epic and dramatic poetry, lyre-playing and singing lyric poetry, the rudiments of arithmetic and geometry (‘Music’); and athletic exercises (‘Gymnastic’) (Cornford, 1941, p. 65). Co-education at primary level till the age of eighteen years.The age that Plato has advocated for primary education is not totally accepted in our country. Rather it is confined within 6 to 11 years. In our country primary education is free and compulsory. The compulsory primary education law what Plato has talked about has been passed in Bangladesh in 1992.

Military Training: After elementary education two years of Physical education should be given to them and be selected for higher education to prepare for the future guardians of the state.

Military education is not compulsory in our country as Plato has proposed. It is only compulsory for those who are physically fit and interested in taking military training.

Higher Education: Higher education should be given from twenty to thirty-five years of age. At this stage a student will study mathematics, arithmetic, geometry, solid geometry, astronomy, harmonics, dialectic, program of studies, literature and philosophy. Later on he would be fit for a minor administrative position to get experience for the future more important governing positions. (Cornford, 1941, p. 230).

Our education system is not very lengthy as Plato has advocated. In our country one can enter into any profession after completing one’s higher education or can study for getting M.Phil and Ph.D degree.

Plato has divided his educational curriculum into two levels. They are as follows:

Primary level of education

Higher level of education/ Higher education.

Primary Education
First stage (0-06)

Up to 6 years children will be provided with education to flourish his/her latent talents. Meanwhile they will be taught politeness, mannerism and good taste.

Second stage (06-18)

From 6 to 18 years children will be taught only literature, music, and preliminary education on mathematics. Meanwhile children will be able to attain the great qualities such as self-control, disciplinary, punctuality, and the belief on the God.

Third stage (18-20)

Age from 18 to 20 years will be fixed for students’ physical exercise and military education. There will be no chance to teach any other subject within this time. The main purpose of this stage is to keep body fit and strong. Those who will succeed in the test at the end of the primary level will get the opportunity of receiving higher education.

Higher education
First stage (20-30)

This stage covers from 20 to 30 years. In this stage human beings will acquire knowledge on astrology, higher math, geometry, and music. In this stage they will be taught very carefully on these subjects and there will be an attempt to establish the relationship between math and reality.

Second stage (30-35)

This stage ranges from 30 to 35 years. In this stage students will be taught philosophy, logic and metaphysics etc.

Third stage (35-50)

This stage covers the time from 35 to 50 years. In this stage the students will acquire practical knowledge by combining their acquired knowledge and their real life experience, and they will be vested with small responsibilities of the state (Talukder and Awal, 2011, p. 95, 96). Plato classified the stages of education 2500 hundred years ago which has been adopted and differently categorized in four stages to meet the demands of the modern time. These stages are primary education, secondary education, higher secondary education and higher education.

Plato’s View on Women Education

Plato also gives emphasis on women education and he prescribes the same kind of education for women like men. Women should have the same physical and educational training; they should know the art of war. The main aim of Plato was that each member of the society should undertake his work and responsibilities. Plato believed that women are equal to men and in some cases women are physically weaker than men or may not. He suggested that those who are equal to men should be allowed to learn the same thing like men. In his book ‘The Republic’ Plato describes how male and female receive the same education and be given the same duties in society. Thus the male and the female should be given the same duty of ‘The Republic’. (Cornford, 1941, p. 141) Plato’s opinion regarding women education has received the attention of the people of all over the world and the present world has accepted the ideas of Plato. It has also been accepted in Bangladesh which has enormously enriched the nation. As a result, there is seen the empowerment of women folk. Plato’s opinion about women education has been received almost in many countries in the present world. The outcome of women education is as we see that many women, the Prime Minister, foreign minister, opposition party leader are in various important positions in Bangladesh.

Teaching Methods

Plato suggested different ways to educate the children such as through telling stories, play and imitation. Plato gives importance to nursery education, he thinks nursery education plays a vital role in the education of man; it helps to build his moral character and state of mind “The most important part of education is proper training in the nursery.

Enforced exercise does no harm to the body, but enforced learning will not stay in the mind. (Nath, 1979, p. 57) In our country Plato’s material for education is used for the development of education. Besides, multimedia projector and visual sound system are used in higher level educational institutions, and maps, charts and models in primary level.

Plato’s View on Moral Ethics

Plato presents his ideas for an ideal society in the ‘The Republic’ and he provided details about the curriculum and system of education. According to Plato the ideal society should care for their youth and the guardians would be responsible for the moral education of their children. Every person would know his duty and his responsibility. (Bhuiyan, 2010, p. 269) Plato talked about moral education in 427 BC, which is of paramount importance still in the perspective of Bangladesh. We teach our children moral lessons from the very beginning which is started by the parents, grandfathers and grandmothers. Moral institutions are also imparted to the student by their teachers in the schools, colleges and universities. Besides these, ethics is included in many disciplines in our country. Moral deterioration is very acute in everywhere. The only way to get rid of this problem is to practice or nourish moral education properly.

Chapter 5: Rousseau

Rousseau’s Philosophy of Education

Rousseau’s philosophy of education is called the philosophy of Naturalism. Rousseau’s philosophy of life and society has been reflected in his philosophy of education. Proper education is achieved through the understanding of natural objects and beauties. In this system, nature itself is the teacher. According to Rousseau, children will learn from three sorts of teachers such as nature, human being and objects. Having influenced and taught by this three sources is called an educated man by Rousseau. We can control human being and objects. But we cannot control nature. So education should be confined to the rules of nature. “Go back to the lap of nature” this idea is closely associated with Rousseau. In his book ‘Emile’, (Nurnobi, Fouzia and Champa., 2006, p. 277) he used nature in three senses. Psychological Nature, Physical Nature, Biological Nature

Rousseau’s views on the aim of education

Rousseau opines that the aim of education is not only to acquire knowledge but also to help flourishing of children’s talents.

The aim of education for children will be different on the basis of its age. In childhood, education should build up its physical development. There is no need of moral and social teaching.

The education in boyhood should aim at the exercise of sensual and mental development.

The purpose of female education should be preparing a woman fit for her male counterpart. Excessive learning is not necessary for the womenfolk. (Dali and Imam, 1999, p. 42)

Curriculum of Rousseau

The education curriculum of Rousseau is not definite and well planned. Rousseau launched a war against the conventional education. So he was against the traditional curriculum. Rousseau did not like reading books. He said, ‘Books teach us to talk about something on which we have no practical knowledge.’ Nonetheless, he selected the novel ‘Robinson Crusoe’ as mandatory for Emile. According to him, this book can help Emile to be self-confident and self-sufficient. According to curriculum, physical exercise and health education have been given much emphasis in adolescence. Importance has also been given on the arts of hand made goods and vocational works. He has also talked about religious and moral education. But he was against Female education. Household chores will be learning tasks of women. Rousseau’s education related curriculum is not precise and well planned. (Uddin and Das, 2006, p. 247, 248)

His education system which he advocated about 200 years ago is not fully coherent with the exiting education curriculum of Bangladesh. Nevertheless, the appeal and the necessity of his education about nature are still effective. For example, novel laureate poet Rabindranath Tagore has established Shanty Nike ton in the midst of nature. Even in Bangladesh, Rajshahi, Chittagong, and Jahanggirnagor universities are established in the midst of natural beauties so that students and teachers can learn from nature.

Teaching style of Rousseau

His teaching method was inventive. In this method, a children is kept in the place of invention. A children learns through the process of examination. (Dali and Imam, 1999, p. 43) In fact, through the process of Rousseau’s thinking laboratory method, invention method, education through work, sensual experience method were emerged.

Rousseau’s discovery method of learning is relevant to the existing creative method of Bangladesh. Because in the creative method, there is always a riddle or a story where students are to discover or find out the answers.

Educational Framework

“Rousseau suggested two types of education framework based on different conditions

Firstly, education framework for a state and society

Secondly, education for preserving survival of civilization

Stages of Education in Emile

He divided education systems in five stages. Such as-

Stage 1 Infancy (0-5): Education in infancy must be based on physique so that the limbs of a children should be developed proportionally. No need to develop any habit at this time. He said “A children is bad because he is weak; make him strong and he will be good.” Everything is good as it leaves the hands of the Author of things; everything degenerates in the hands of man (Bloom, 1979, p. 37).

Stage 2 The age of Nature (5-12): No particular traditional education should be given now. No education on language, history, geography needs to be provided now. Even religious education is not necessary. Rousseau said, “Exercise the body, the organs, the senses and powers, but keep the soughing follow as long as you can.” (Cited in Bhuiyan, 2010, p. 313).

Stage 3 Pre-adolescence (12-15): Before adolescence a children needs not to read any special book. In this stage, Rousseau has advised to include physical lesson or any sort of education related to art and culture so that he can develop a sense of respect towards Labour (Dali and Imam, 1999, p. 43).

Stage 4 Puberty (15-20): Rousseau has advised to start social education in this stage. Here children can develop a habit of social responsibility, co-operation, respect, love, and fellow feeling. Rousseau said, ‘we are born twice once for existing and again for loving; once for the species and again for sex’. (Cited in Bhuiyan, 2010, p. 317)

Stage 5 Adulthood (20-25): The adult ‘Emile’ is introduced to his ideal partner, Sophie. The final task of the tutor is to ‘instruct the young couple in their marital rights and duties’. (Boyd, 1911, p. 130)

5.11 Rousseau’s View on Women Education

Rousseau has negative opinion about women education, which is the result of his experiences in his personal and family life. His attitude towards women education is not accepted by any modern state of the world. A nation can not prosper keeping half of the population uneducated. So Rousseau’s attitude towards women education is totally unacceptable and unrealistic in the modern perspective. This is a huge drawback of his philosophy of education.

Expart 1 said that “Rousseau has proposed to keep women under male domination for children bearing because women become inactive in that time; according to Rousseau, this is the main reason of not giving the supremacy of women over men. There is another reason behind this that is the father has to be sure of the true identity of the new born children. This is the secret of Rousseau of not accepting the equality of men and women. Rousseau has been affected by the fear of women from the civilization; he has seen women as devious. In a poem Rousseau says about women, ‘Enchante

Various misconceptions come across whenever we reflect on the Islamic religion. One of these misconceptions is that of the Islamic threat or what Islamic think about Al Qaeda and whether they follow the fundamentalism that has been made aware of by everyone, mostly by through the media. It has also been sought through the media that actions of some Muslims are associated with terrorism and support their beliefs.

Although most Muslims would consider their religion to be around the concept of monotheism and that one deity does exists. The misconception of whether Muslims believe that Jesus did exist is surprising to most. Muslims believe that Jesus was a messenger and was capable of healing powers and miracles

Muslims are understood to worship a different God. Christians and other non-Muslims believe that there is only one true God who created the Heavens, the Earth and all that exists on it, and that He is the only one worthy of praise. Muslims worship of “Allah” which simply is the Arabic name for God as it is mentioned in the Qur’an, the denial of the idea of the Holy Trinity or that He, God, manifest Himself into the world has made most of the non-Muslims to doubt their believe in God.

The Qur’an, which is the Muslims’ printed version of the Holy Bible, is written in Arabic, the language of worship in the Mosque by the Muslims. This interoperated version of the Muslims’ Bible has made many to conclude that the Qur’an is merely a religion only for Arabs. Although there are Muslims all over the globe, their language in worship does not change regardless of their location whether it is in America or Africa.

Another misconception of the Islam is that of unequal treatment of women. Women are treated with a lot of sternness especially when it comes to their mode of dressing as postulated by the Muslim community. Women are expected to be very submissive to their husbands and have no power when it comes to the decision-making even if the decisions affect them directly.

After my visit to the Sheikh, I was at last enlightened on some of the issues I considered controversial to the Muslim community. One of these issues is on terrorism and Holly war. Holly war or jihad is sort according to comprehension of Islam and the direction and rulings of the scholars and state leaders. Islam evidently forbids terrorism. Jihad has been used by some of the misguided individuals to instill terror that is not in line with the teachings of the Islam.

The idea that Islam is a fatalistic religion that is brought about by the fact that Muslims are trained to utter “Praise is to God!” is as a result that Muslims know Almighty God is the provider of all things whether good or bad and whatever happens must be for the better. Islam’s teachings outlines that human beings can act in their lives as long as it is according to the teachings of Muhammad.

Muslims also believe in one God, Allah, who created the entire Universe and humankind. Allah is simply the Arabic for God. It is only that they differ with other religions especially the Christians as Muslims reject believe in the Holy Trinity or incarnation of God in the world. They too believe that He is the only one worthy to worship. It is believed that approximately 15% to 20% Muslims are Arabs. The presumption that Islam is a religion entirely for Arabs is wrong. It is only that Islam originated from the Arabs and thus the Qur’an in Arabic. Over the years, Muslims made their effort to spread the Islamic religion all over the world.

There exists misconception of religion individuals as everyone considers his or her own religion to be the true religion. Christians for instance argues that Christianity is the only true religion whereas Muslims argue for their religion. As their several religions in the entire world, every person supports their religion as it has been ingrained in their blood. This is as the result of it being passed down the generations. One is born in a family of a certain religious background, grows to believe in it, and takes it to be the true faith. In order to minimize the misconception, the entire population should be enlightened on different types of religion. People should be educated on those religion other than their own, to be accommodative and considerate when looking into those faiths in a more positive perspective.

This lovely phrase reminds us the enchanting story of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs where the wicked queen peeps into a magical mirror and asks about her undoubted fairness in the whole world. As an innocent child I was deeply inspired by the fairytale as the world of fantasy attracted me. I would often pressurize my mother to buy me a magical mirror from the market thinking it to be easily available. My mother would laugh at my innocence and explained me that such magical mirror exists only in stories and fairytales and not in the real world.

As time flew by, the thoughts of magical mirrors began to fade away from my mind and with age and maturity, I began to experience highs and lows of life. Sometimes there were colors of happiness and joy and sometimes sorrow and misery. When any problem became aggravated, I began to consult astrologers who blamed the adverse situation on the bad influence of the planetary positions. They would advise me to wear rings and amulets of precious and semi- precious stones to ward of the evil effects of the sun, the moon and other planets in our solar system. How do these rings and amulets work? Are they magical just like the magical mirrors in fairytales. Again my mind raced back to my childhood and once again a plethora of questions lay staring at me.

All these little anecdotes have two things in common and that is magic and miracle. Is there anything called magical mirror where you can peep into your past, present or future? Do the planetary positions of our solar system affect human form positively and adversely?

If my answer is positive, you may call me crazy and brand me superstitious as modern science do not believe in the supernatural powers of the universe. But you have to give me one chance to prove myself right and for this I have to narrate the life story of a strange man who was a distinguished alchemist, physician, astrologer, magician, philosopher and so on. His life story is simple but his unique ways of practicing occult science, magic, alchemy, medicine, astrology, cosmology and pneumatology was simply incredible and each trait needs to be highlighted to give this great man justice and recognition.

So let us fly on a magical carpet into the world of Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus, nicknamed Paracelsus which simply means in par with Celsus, a Roman Encyclopedist who wrote a lot on medicines. It was Paracelsus who advocated that magical mirrors can be created, planetary positions can be a cause of worries and happiness. But above all this, as a devout Christian he firmly believed in the supremacy of the almighty and once quoted, “Everything that happens takes place through the will of the supreme and faith into the things of the earth should be based upon the holy teachings of Christ.”

BIRTH AND FAMILY BACKGROUND:

William Bombast of Hohenheim was a distinguished physician who was successfully practicing medicine in a hospital near Maria-Einsiedeln, Switzerland. It was here that he fell in love with the matron of the hospital (name is not known) and the two exchanged wedding vows in the year 1492. Their marriage soon blossomed and the couple was blessed with a bonny baby boy on the 17th of December 1493 in the vicinity of Maria-Einsiedeln, Switzerland.

William’s happiness knew no bounds and he named his precious bundle of joy as, Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus. But their joy was shortlived as tragedy struck the Bombast family when young Theophrastus lost the warmth and affection of his mother who expired after a brief illness. William was devastated by the loss of his beloved wife but soon gathered courage and began to pull the strings of his life. His sole objective was to nurture his young son and to fill his life with joy and happiness. Young Theophrastus was the apple of William’s eye and both lives not only began to revolve each other but also completing each other.

STRONG FOUNDATION KEY TO SUCCESS:

Not much is known about the primary and secondary education received by Paracelsus so we have to move to his adolescence age. As Paracelsus entered into his youth, he received valuable coaching in science from his father who tutored him with the fundamentals of alchemy, surgery and medicine. His father was not only his teacher but also his mentor, guide and best friend. This golden relationship between the father and the son laid a strong foundation which later on became the key to Paracelsus success in the field of medicine.

Paracelsus too did not disappoint his father and picked up the nuances of science with much ease. William was quick to discover that his son had the required potential to become a great physician and decided to impart him formal education. He was soon enrolled in a convent of St. Andrew located in the beautiful valley of Savon, Switzerland and under the supervision of learned bishops, Eberhardt Baumgartner, Mathias Schedydt of Rottgach and Mathias Schacht of Freisingen acquired valuable knowledge on medicine and surgery.

At the young age of sixteen, Paracelsus was enrolled at the University of Basel, where he received instruction from the famous Johann Trithemius of Spanheim who was a master in alchemy, magic and astrology. It was under Trithemius shadow that Paracelsus developed inclination towards occult science. Trithemius was impressed by Paracelsus love for occult science and directed him to gain entry into the laboratory of Sigismund Fugger of Tyrol, who was not only a celebrated alchemist but also possessed valuable secrets of occult science.

Exactly how long Paracelsus studied alchemy, astrology and occult science under Sigismund Fugger is not known and so we move on to the next chapter of Paracelsus life.

LIFE OF A VAGABOND:

After his formal education under the supervision of learned bishops, Paracelsus decided to go on a global spree. He travelled widely to destinations like Germany, France, Netherland, Denmark, Sweden and Russia. When he reached Italy, he received an opportunity to serve the Imperial Army and experienced many warlike situations. This period of globe- trotting can be called as the turning point of his life as he came across many physicians, surgeons and alchemist who shared similar passion for occult science like Paracelsus.

During his stay in Italy, he entered into physical relationships with several gypsies, fortune-tellers, midwives, barbers and shepherds and although it may sound vulgar but he did so to gain knowledge from the act. He was always found in the company of vagabonds on the highways and at public lodges and inns due to which he earned a bad name and was criticized by his narrow minded foes.

Paracelsus was often criticized for his passion for wandering but his critics did not realize that travelling was the fundamental tool to acquire knowledge which according to him cannot be acquired in the comforts of a laboratory or a library. He strongly believed that knowledge cannot be confined within the boundaries of our own country, it does not follow us but waits for us to go in search of it. According to Paracelsus, “Those who remain at home may live more comfortably, and grow richer than those who wander about; but I neither desire to live comfortably, nor do I wish to become rich. He who wants to study the books of nature must wander with his feet over its leaves.” Paracelsus recommended that every part of the world signifies a single page in the book of nature and all the pages taken collectively formed the book that reveals its richness and abundance.

PARACELSUS- A MIRACLE MAN:

Paracelsus travelled extensively for a period of ten years, sometimes practicing his talents as a physician, or magician or an alchemist. At the age of thirty-two, he returned to Germany where acquired fame as a man with miraculous cures.

He had surpassed all his colleagues with his superior medical skills and was termed as Dr. Miracle by the masses. Many patients that had been termed as incurable by other renowned doctors turned to Paracelsus for treatment and had been cured. Among the many patients were eighteen princes who were pronounced to be incurable by leading doctors.

But what made Paracelsus different from others? Why were his medical skills considered to be superior than his colleagues? Did he possess some supernatural powers to cure the incurables or did he adopt a different strategy for treatment? To answer these questions, we have to analyze his skills of that of a physician, magician, astrologer and alchemist in detail. But first, we have to understand in depth Paracelsus’s views and explanations on the cosmic structure as a whole, mankind and the doctrine of holy spirits. It is rather difficult but not impossible to get a perfect understanding for our readers, unless they use their own intuition, and get into the mentality and skin of Paracelsus.

STUDY OF THE COSMIC STRUCTURE- COSMOLOGY:

According to Paracelsus, the entire cosmos is created by God and we are his children. His view is inspired from the prayer in bible, “In the name of our father and our sons and the holy spirit, Amen.” God is the Constructor of the world, Carpenter of the universe and the Sculptor of all forms. God created man from four core elements, namely Air, Water, Fire and Earth. To bring him to life, he added spirit into them. Thus spirit is living and life is spirit which unite together to produce all things.

Nature is that part of the universe which is created by God to essentially provide us a cushion to breathe easy. Thus all living organism in nature have to sympathize and live in harmony with each other. Paracelsus termed all the living products of the constellation as Macrocosm and man as Microcosm, both with one breath, one time, one fruit and above all one authority. Man is dependent on nature for its very survival and nature is dependent on the state of mankind. According to Paracelsus, that part of science which can describe the principles governing the Macrocosm and Microcosm and the relationship between them is termed as ‘Astronomia’.

Paracelsus termed a part of astronomia as magic, wherein he states that magic is a science used to discover the ideal relation or connection of the soul to our physical body just like the way the sun shines through a glass. Further he explained that each organ of our body is in harmony with other parts. For example, there exist harmony between the heart and the lungs and between the stomach and the brain. He also established a connection between the stars and the plants and between plants and human body. Just like a magnetized bar of iron may produce magnetic effects on the other part of iron, leaving copper and brass unaffected, same way some medicinal plants may act as remedies to cure certain diseases.

VIEWS ON MANKIND AND THE HOLY SPIRIT:

Paracelsus strongly believed that the constitution of man is based on seven principles which are stated below.

The Physical or the elementary body, i.e. Stool Sharira.

The Mumia or the vital force, i.e. Jiva.

The Astral body or the Sidereal Body, i.e. Linga Sharira.

The Animal Soul or the Kama Rupa.

The Human or Rational Soul, i.e. Karana Sharira Manas.

The Spiritual Soul, i.e. Buddhi.

The Spirit or the Divine Atma.

He has given a very comprehensive explanation regarding all the seven principles constituting a man in his work called, ‘Philosophia Sagax’. But the principle which needs to be mentioned here and which every human being is afraid is the ‘death of a man’. According to him, death is nothing but the end of the daily labour of man. Being a devout Christian, he strongly believed that every human being possesses the elements of earth and earth is his mother. When he dies, he re-enters in to her and loses its flesh. And perhaps referring to Christ he says, “Only the real man will be re-born at the day of the resurrection into another spiritual and glorified body”.

According to Paracelsus, after death, the physical body decomposes into dust but a vital part of the principle which comprises the highest essence of life passes into a higher state called, ‘Olympus Novvs, where they unite with their origin, the Mysterium Magnum, the essence of life or the Parabrahman (mentioned in the Vedas of Hindu Scriptures) Paracelsus cautions that this fate is met by people who die a natural death but not for those who die prematurely either due to accidents or suicides. In such cases, the invisible residues of the human body remains in the state till death would have arrived naturally and according to the laws of nature. They remain in the earths sphere and are full of earthy passions and desires. Paracelsus calls them ‘Caballi Lemures’ and they often lurk in places where they have spent or resided during their lifetime.

People often believe that such spirits cannot be destroyed by sprinkling holy water or by burning incense and even arranging religious ceremonies for the purpose. According to Paracelsus all these have no effect on the spirit and the best way to keep evil spirits away is positive will power. If we stand by good and love the source of good we will never succumb to the evil powers of the force. If however evil spirits causes severe depression to you then Paracelsus recommends wearing of red corals to ward off melancholy as they are stimulated by Sun. A healthy mind is like a temple which cannot be invaded without the will of its priest. Minds that are pure and illuminated by the force of truth cannot be possessed by evil spirits.

PARACELSUS- A MEDICAL GENIUS:

According to Paracelsus every vital organ in the human body is in sympathy with certain principles in the universe. The heart is influenced by elements of the sun, the brain with the moon, the gall bladder with planet Mars, the lungs with Mercury, the liver with Jupiter, the kidneys with Venus and the spleen with Saturn. Accordingly, there are various plants and herbs which have a corresponding sympathy with these astral influences. Each herb or plant has to be plucked when the planet to which it is related rules the hour and its substance or the essence should be absorbed when it is fresh. Paracelsus has categorized each planet in conjunction with the plants as follows:

Sun- Rosmarinus officinalis, Lavunda officinalis and Melinda Officinalis for the treatment of acute inflammation, heart disease and rheumatism.

Moon- Thymus majorna, Ruta graveolens and Helleborus niger for the treating patients suffering from insanity, hysteria, and nervous diseases.

Mercury- Pulmonia officinalis, Althaea officinalis and Plantago laureola for the treatment of Pneumonia and inflammations of Mucous Membrane.

Venus- Onosis spinosa, Verbascum Thapsus and Apium petroselinum for curing diseases of kidney and bladder.

Mars- Carduus Benedictus, Urticaria diocia, Erythraea Centaurium for fevers, eruptive fevers and diseases of violent nature.

Jupiter- Ruta graveolens, Hepatica Nobilis, Cannabis Sativa for curing jaundice and other diseases related to liver.

Saturn- Chrysosplenium alternifolium, Scrophula Nodosa for the treatment of piles, hypochondria, etc.)

Paracelsus criticized other physicians as he discovered that they did not pay any attention to the planetary positions and killed more patients than they cure as the medicine that may be effective at one time may be harmful at another depending on the prevailing astral influence.

Thus Paracelsus proved that planetary positions do not directly effect upon the physical body of men but on their essence which constitutes the elements of the universe. In simple words he has repeatedly emphasized that the vital parts of our body are representatives of invisible energy that are circulating in the whole system.

PARACELSUS- AN EXTRAORDINARY ALCHEMIST

Alchemy is an art that cannot be comprehended without spiritual knowledge and astrology cannot be understood without proper knowledge of mathematics and logic. Just as chemistry is the study of physical matters, alchemy deals with astral ideologies. Astronomy is the study of planets and stars and astrology deals with influences of these stars on man.

Paracelsus defined alchemy as an art in which the fire of nature i.e. the astral light is the main artist. According to him, a human being is composed of three elements namely Sulphur, Mercury and Salt. A person is healthy if these three elements maintain their proportion with respect to their quantity. But the moment any of these elements deviates from its correct proportion, disease strikes the human body. These three elements are not visible to the naked eye but are acted upon the fourth principle which is called Life.

Paracelsus was critical of physicians who prescribed endless list of medicines without discovering the cause of the disease. Paracelsus has mentioned his valuable secret of alchemy in his work called, ‘Tinctura Physica’ which is a bible of alchemy.

He confirmed that composition of pure metals produces a scintillating effect around us. Paracelsus was of the view that if we create a composition of seven metals in a desired proportion and at the proper time, then we will acquire a metal which will contain the qualities of all the seven metals. Paracelsus termed the metallic mixture as, “electrum”. The preparation of electrum magicum is quite daunting task as each metal has to be in its purest form. The metals have to be prepared in its right proportion and during the conjunction of various planets at that time.

Many astonishing devices can be created from electrum such as amulets, magical finger rings, arm rings, bells and other things containing magical powers. According to Paracelsus’s calculations, magical mirrors can be created from the electrum magicum where you can peep into events of the past and the present, see your hidden enemies and long lost friends.

PARACELSUS VIEWS ON ASTROLOGY:

Paracelsus was of the view that astrology is closely connected with magic, medicine and alchemy. He believed that each body attracts planetary influences when in harmony and repels the others. For this man has to understand his own constitution to comprehend the influence of the astral influence which rules the sky.

Paracelsus did not approve of anyone calling him a professional astrologer who simply makes horoscopes. He understood the higher trait of astrology by which the relation of Macrocosm and Microcosm are understood. According to him, “No one needs to care for the course of Saturn: it neither shortens nor lengthens the life of anybody”.

Often we grumble or are envious of other people’s success and riches and blame it on our stars. But Paracelsus refutes such allegations and strongly emphasizes that stars are free for themselves and force nothing into us. It is actually the spirit of oneself that makes a man more appropriate than the others. At the same time he strongly condemned those ceremonies that attract spirits by saying that, “Whatever comes from the ‘spirits’ is sorcery.” According to Paracelsus, our body is created from elements, our soul from the star and the spirit comes from the almighty. Paracelsus refers stars as not merely the physical bodies that exist in our solar system but the principles in the cosmos.

The sun and the moon attract something from our body and our body too attracts something from them as each body is in harmony with the astral influences of the heavenly bodies. This is evident from the use of talisman and amulets which produces an astral form on the bearer.

Man should obey the will of God as wisdom can be acquired from God. If this inner consciousness is awakened then the mysteries of nature will be easily comprehended by spiritual knowledge.

MAGIC VERSUS SORCERY:

Paracelsus has clearly made remarkable demarcation between magic and sorcery. Magic causes illumination, light and is white in form whereas sorcery is concerned with darkness and black in form. Magic is the study of supernatural powers of the nature and an individual must possess complete knowledge of natural science to acquire the skills of magic.

Strong imaginary power and enormous faith are the two vital ingredients to construct the temple of magic. By imaginary power, Paracelsus refers to creative power of a man. According to Paracelsus, women possess stronger imaginary power because of their compassionate nature and stronger desires as compared to men. This is evident from the fact that if a woman loves anyone, she will love with all her devotion but if she hates somebody, God save him.

Strong faith has fantastic powers and we human beings do not realize it. An evil spirit, like a spear may try hard to pierce our body and cause some disease but if our faith in the supreme power of God is strong, it will act as an armour and protect us. Diseases can be effectively cured if men understood the power of faith and not superstition. The secret behind Paracelsus magical cure was his enormous faith in the power of the God who acts through him. Paracelsus also cautions that those physicians who cure diseases only with a belief that he will be able to overcome it, beliefs in superstition, but physicians who realize that he possess the power to perform and is aware of his power will perform what is called, ‘a miracle.’

VARIOUS REMEDIES BASED ON PHILOSOPHYICAL AND THEOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS:

According to Paracelsus, strong reasoning power is a prerequisite to be a proficient philosopher and a true theosophist must possess the knowledge to perceive spiritual powers. To obtain spiritual power, we first have to realize what is good and what is evil and without knowing evil we will never be able to realize what is good. The moment we understand what is good, it becomes a reality and we attain the highest degree of happiness as God resides within the spirit of man.

Often it happens that we are thinking of a person from a long time and all of a sudden that person calls us. The very first expression is, Oh! I was just thinking to call you and see you called. What a coincidence? But according to Paracelsus it is the magical power of will of the person which sends signals to the other person to contact him or her.

Paracelsus also believed that it is possible for us to communicate with the spirit of the deceased by keeping his or her picture under our head with a question you wish to ask. The answer will be interpreted in our powerful dreams. But this experiment should only be initiated if you have undeterred and enormous faith in the spirit, because it is our faith which will strike communication with the spirit.

According to Paracelsus, Man belongs to two spirits- Animal Spirit or Human Spirit. A person who belongs to animal spirit will behave and live like animal during his life and will be animal after he dies, but a man with human spirit will always remain human.

Another important aspect of Paracelsus theological work was his study of medicinal herbs which serves as an Elixir of Life. In the mythological story of ‘Ramayana’, Lord Ram’s brother Laxman, who was seriously wounded in the battle with Ravan, King of Lanka, was saved by a medicinal herb called ‘Sanjivani Booty’, the Life Elixir, prescribed by sage Agastya. Paracelsus believed that a person who has taken birth has to die but there is nothing wrong in protecting himself from evil astral influences, accidents, epidemics and old age. Paracelsus strongly recommended, a remedy called ‘Primum Ens’ for prolonging the age of human being. The Primum Ens Melissae is prepared by a unique concoction of pure carbonate of potash, a plant called Melissa and alcohol.

Finally one of the most secretive and valuable remedy which Paracelsus discovered was, ‘Zenexton’, a unique tablet made by grinding live toads, roots of certain medicinal herbs, pearls, coral, saffron, musk and amber and many other elements. When the mixture dries up it has be to cut in to tablets when the moon is in the sign of Scorpion. The tablet has to be draped in a red silk cloth and to be worn as an amulet around the neck to ward off evil astral influences, diseases, poison and black magic.

Thus from the above, we have discovered the secret of Paracelsus success in the field of medicine, surgery, magic, alchemy and occult science. But as Paracelsus rose to fame he was subject to professional envy as other physicians lagged the intelligence and foresight of Paracelsus. He was also kind enough to treat the poor without any charging any fees, an act which was met with much

resentment among his colleagues. But what an irony, many a times his noble act was not acknowledged and was often ridiculed. Once a rich wealthy, Count Philippus of Baden, who was termed as incurable by celebrated physicians, Paracelsus cured him in short time. But instead of being rewarded for his generosity, he was shown the door. This only gave his oppositions an opportunity to rejoice but that did not discourage Paracelsus as he continued to perform his wonderful cures.

PROFESSOR OF MEDICINE:

As Paracelsus enjoyed travelling a lot, he visited Basel in the year 1527 and was appointed as Professor of Medicine and Surgery by the City Council for which he received handsome salary. Unlike his colleagues who merely lectured on works written by other medical healers like Hippocrates and Avicenna, Paracelsus designed his own course material. The principles he imparted his students were of his own and hence his popularity among them increased. Also he gave lecture in German instead of Latin which again was not favoured by his colleagues.

As a part of the Office of the City Council, he voluntarily offered his services to supervise the conduct of the Compounders, whether they are aware of their business and whether they have stock of genuine drugs to prevent them from inflating the prices of essential drugs. He would often admonish other physicians to stop digging gold and instead pay attention in the search of new medicines.

FAME ATTRACTS ENVY:

No sooner a person gains fame and popularity, his list of foes grow endlessly. The City druggist began to hate Paracelsus for his measures to control prices of essential drugs. Other physicians and professors too grew jealous of his increasing popularity and success in curing diseases. They all joined together and demanded an explanation from the University for hiring Paracelsus’s services. These envious people declared Paracelsus as a stranger, a quack and requested the University to probe whether Paracelsus is a ‘real doctor’ or not.

In order to prevent events from turning worse, Paracelsus resigned from the University and left Basel in the year 1528.

From Basel, Paracelsus arrived at Colmar and later on visited Esslingen in the year 1529 and Nuremberg in 1530. In Nuremberg too, physicians called Paracelsus a quack and an imposter. Tired of being taunted a quack on numerous occasions, Paracelsus decided to confront the situation. He requested the City Council to send some patients suffering from incurable diseases. The City Council obliged and sent few patients suffering from elephantiasis which Paracelsus cured successfully in a very short span of time and free of cost. He

SUCCESS MEETS DEATH:

Inspite of achieving success in Nuremberg, Paracelsus efforts and services were drastically ignored. He continued his life as a vagabond wandering from places to places. He visited places like Noerdlingen in the year 1530 followed by Munich, Regensburg, Amber and Meran. In the year 1531 he visited St. Gall and then to Zurich in the year 1535. All this while, he gathered few disciples who were impressed by Paracelsus cures and desired to acquire his secrets and art of medicines. Among his followers were Johannes Oprimus, Adam von Bodenstein, Alexander von Suchten, Peter Severinus, Oswald Crall and many others.

As he continued with his passion of travelling, he reached Salzburg where the Duke of Ernst of Bavaria requested him to join his court as a physician. Finally, Paraclesus acquired a position where his medical skills were recognized and obtained widespread fame.

But fate was not in favour of Paracelsus. This joyous period of richness and fame ended tragically as Paracelsus succumbed to a mysterious death in a small Inn called, ‘White House’ on the 24th of September 1541. His remains were buried the next day in the grave of St. Sebastian.

There is not much evidence to prove that Paracelsus was indeed murdered. Primary investigations revealed that Paracelsus was hit by a blunt object on his head by some anti-social elements hired by local physicians which eventually led to his death. One German physician Dr. S.Th.von Soemmering, who examined the body of Paracelsus, discovered a fracture on the skull believed to be the cause of death.

Paracelsus bones were unearthed in the year 1527 and entombed in the Chapel of St. Philippi Neri, in the vicinity of the St.Sebastian where his monument proudly stands today.

PARACELSUS RICH LEGACY:

Paracelsus himself was not an avid reader or a writer, a fact which is corroborated by his disciples and followers. He would only dictate his work to them without utilizing any manuscripts and books. According to him, “Reading never made a physician. Medicine is an art and requires practice.” Few of his work were published during his life time namely, ‘De Gradibus et Compostionibus Receptorum et Naturalium published in the year 1526 and ‘Chirurgia Magna’ published at Ulm in the year 1536. To display their affection and gratitude to their master Paracelus, his disciples, Gerhard Dorn, and Martin Ruland composed a dictionary called ‘Lexicon Alchemicum’ which comprises unique terms used by Paracelsus.

However Paracelsus was quite discreet when it came to sharing his valuable secrets as he feared it may be go in wrong hands. One of his disciple, Johannes Oprimus who served Paracelsus for three years was upset with Paracelsus’s secretive nature and connived with his enemies. However after Paracelsus’s death, Oprimus turned remorse and repented for his indiscreet behavior.

Paracelsus did not leave behind him material goods but his work which displays his abundant knowledge of medicine. Even when he died, the only things found in his possession were a copy of Bible, a Biblical commentary on Bible and a book written on medicine.

CONCLUSION:

Paracelsus was among those few who treated patients as his textbook and the sickbed as his course of study. His passion for travelling was instrumental in acquiring knowledge and found his best teachers among vagabonds, gypsies, barbers, midwives and executioners. Phenomena’s of nature were of more value to him and his love for God an essence for survival. If you have read and understood this biography you will be amazed to discover that Paracelsus’s doctrines are based on his study of Bible and bear a striking resemblance to the Vedas.

The main reason why Paracelsus principles and work are not implemented today is that his system has not been completely understood by our modern medical practitioners. Hope a time will come when his fundamentals will be understood and a breakthrough is achieved in the field of medical science. Till then my dear readers, ‘Be Good to Others, have Faith in God and your Life is Insured’.

QUOTES BY PARACELSUS:

Medicine rests upon four pillars-Philosophy, Astronomy, Alchemy and Ethics.

But is not He who created it for sake of the sick body more than the remedy? And is not He who cures the soul, which is more than the body greater.

The interpretation of Dreams is a great art.

What sense would it make or what would it make or what would it benefit a physician if he discovered the origin of the diseases but could not cure or alleviat

“Education is a treasure that can never be robbed. It is a pleasure that can never be possessed. Education is the greatest wealth one can attain in this world and it is a necessity in today’s world. It is a wealth that gives satisfaction and saves you from destruction”

According to some scholarly people, the word “Education” has been derived from the Latin term “Educatum” which means “the act of teaching or training” and some say that it has come from another Latin word “Educare” which means “to bring up” or “to raise” and few others says, the word “Education” has originated from another Latin term “Educere” which means “to lead forth” or “to come out”.

Education = Learning + Implementation + Improvement = Behavioral change

Education means nourish the good qualities in individual and draw out the best in every individual. Education seeks to develop the innate inner capacities of individual.

Concepts of Education by some prominent Indian educationists are as follows.
“Education is something which makes man self-reliant and selfless”.
Rigved
“Education is for liberation”.
Upanishad
“Nothing is more purifying on earth than wisdom”.
Bhagavad Gita
“Education is the realization of self’”.
Shankaracharya
“Education means training of the country and love of the nation”.
Kautilya
“Human education means the training which one gets from nature”.
Panini
“Education is the manifestation of the divine perfection, already existing in man”.
Vivekananda
“By education, I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in the Child and man body, mind and spirit”.
Gandhi
“The widest road leading to the solution of all our problems is education.”
Tagore
“Education which will offer the tools whereby one can live for the divine, for the country, for oneself and for others and this must be the ideal of every school which calls itself national”.
Sri Aurobindo
Concepts of Education by some prominent Western educationists are as follows.
“Education means the bringing out of the ideas of universal validity which are latent in the mind of every man”.
Socrates
“Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at the right moment. It develops in the body and in the soul of the pupil all the beauty and all the perfection which he is capable of”.
Plato
“Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound body. It develops man’s faculty, especially his mind so that he may be able to enjoy the contemplation of supreme truth, goodness and beauty of which perfect happiness essentially consists.
Aristotle
“Education of man commences at his birth; before he can speak, before he can understand he is already instructed. Experience is the forerunner of the perfect”.
Rousseau
“Education is complete living”.
Herbert Spencer
“Education is natural harmonious and progressive development of man’s innate powers”.
Heinrich Pestalozzi
“Education is enfoldments of what is already enfolded in the germ. It is the process through which the child makes internal external”
Friedrich William Froebel
AIMS OF EDUCATION

Education imparts the intellectual skills, knowledge, understanding, and appreciation needed to make wise decision and good judgments, and to logically analyze problem and work toward their resolution.

Objective of education are :-
Mental Development

Objectives related to this aim of mental development have been expressed in various ways:

Developing mental faculties.

Acquiring the capacities of understanding, appreciation and expression through word and act.

Education should be to make children self- confident and self dependent.

Develop every child’s character, personality and culture and as much knowledge as the child can assimilate not merely memorize.

The complete development of an individual and the harmonious development of personality, mean directed to the aim of enlightenment of head and heart; illumination of consciousness for all-round development of individual personality. Education should enable a human being to attain the greatest possible harmony, internal and external, spiritual and material, for the fullest possible development of human potentialities and capacities.

Social Development

An individual lives in society and has his obligations towards his society. It should be able, to discharge its natural functions and must correspond to its structure, goals and content in the interest of society development and progress and create a sense of coordination, cooperation, identity, unity and patriotism.

Physical and spiritual Development

The purpose of education should be the development of the fullest possible capacities and potentialities physical and spiritual of a `total man’. It should make a man capable of earning his livelihood reasonably well to enjoy a happy, satisfactory and secure life while making effective contributions.

These are the areas which education roofed are:-
Cognitive Field
Affective Field
Psychomotor Field
Information

Memory; ability to recall; bringing to mind appropriate information.

Lowest level of learning
Understanding

To grasp the meaning of material; understanding without perceiving implication; interpret; one step beyond memory.

Lowest level of understanding
Relevance

Ability to use learned information in new situation; can apply rules, method and concept.

Higher level of understanding
Investigation

To break down material into its component

parts; organization and relationships

between parts made clear; identifying;

Selecting; inferring;

Higher intellectual level
Production

To put parts together to form a new whole; produce new outline, routines, or structures; creative behavior stressed out.

Assessment

Judge value of ideas, concepts, based on definitive criteria or standards;

Highest learning outcome.
Receiving

Sensitive to existence of certain events, stimuli; awareness; readiness to receive or attend to experience.

Responding

Dynamically presence to Stimuli; reacts to situation beyond simple perception; open response.

Valuing

Stimuli or exceptional assigned significance; learner places a value on events; characteristics of belief or an attitude; appreciation.

Organizing

Internalizing value and organizing them into system; determines interrelationship among value; arrange value in hierarchical form; compare, relate and create significance.

Distinguish by a value or compound

Act in accordance with internalizing value; behavior consistent with accepted values and becomes a part personality;

Highest level emotional Field

The area of observable performance of skills that requires some degree of neuromuscular coordination.

Reflex movement
Basic Fundamental movement
Perceptual movement
Physical ability
Skilled Movement
Non rational communication
Importance of Education in Modern era

Nobody can overlook the impact of education in modern era on the human society. Education not only trains the human mind, but also helps us to take the right decision. In developing technologies will help to educate maximum population and reduce cost on education because:-

Through education wisdom, knowledge and information can be received and spread all over the world. Its open windows towards outer world.

Education is a must if a nation aspires to assist growth and development and more importantly wants to sustain it.

Education can help substantially in achieving growth as professionals and even facilitate their promotion chances.

Education widens productive human resource.

Education developed human resource and with selective education programs in order to meet the rising today’s demands.

Education helps to keep pace with the high amount of research and development.

Meaning and definition of Physical Education, its aim and objective and misconception about physical Education.
Meaning and definition of Physical Education

Physical Education = Way of education through physical activity or obtain the aim of education by physical exercise and activity or sum of those experiences which come to individual through movement.

Physical Education is education through human movement where many of educational objectives are achieved by means of big muscle activities involving sports, games, gymnastic, dance and exercise.

Barrow

Physical education is a part of education which gives instructions in the development and care of the body ranking from simple callisthenic exercises to a course of study providing training in hygiene, gymnastics and the performance and management of athletics games.

Webster’s Dictionary

Physical education is that part of education which takes place through activities, which involves the motor mechanism of human body which results in an individual’s formulating behavior patterns.

Jackson R. Sharman

Physical education, an integral part of total education process, is a field of endeavor that has as its aim the improvement of human performance through the medium of physical activities which have been selected with a view to realizing these outcomes.”

Charles A. Bucher

Physical education is education through physical activities for the development of total personality of the child to its fullness and perfection in body, mind and spirit.

Central Advisory Board of physical Education and Recreation
Aim and objective of Physical Education

Aim => Wholesome development of an individual personality.

Objective => Physical development + Mental Development + Social Development + Spiritual Development

Aim and Objective of physical education in last century

Late 1800

1910

1934

1950

1964

1965

1971

1990

Sargent

Hetherington
AEPA*
AAHPER**
Bucher
AAHPER**
AAHPER**
AAHPERD***
Hygienic
Educative
Recreative
Remedial
Organic
Education
Psychomotor
Education
Intellectual
Education
Character
Education
Physical
Fitness
Mental
health and
efficiency
Social moral
character
Emotional
expression
and control
Appreciation
Develop and
Maintain
maximum
physical
efficiency
Develop
useful skills
Conduct
oneself in
socially
useful ways
Enjoy
wholesome
recreation
Physical
development
Motor and
movement
development
Mental
development
Social
development
Skillful and
effective
movement
Development
of organic
systems of
body
Understanding
and
appreciation
of movement
Understanding
and
appreciation
of scientific
principles
related to
movement
Development
of interpersonal
relationship
Health
Insurance
Contributes
to academic
achievement
Skills and
experience to
last a lifetime
Positive self
image
Ability to
complete and
cooperate
with others
Skills to perform a
variety of physical
activity
Physical fitness
Regular
participation in
physical activity
Know benefits and
implications of
involvement in
physical activity
Value physical
activity and its
contribution to a
physically active
lifestyle
* American Physical Education Association.
** American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation.
***American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and dance.
Misconception about physical Education

Peoples have different views about physical education; some of them have various misconceptions also about physical education. Some common misconceptions are:

Physical education is wastage of time as well as money as it doesn’t provide any bright future to their children.

Parents feel taking part in physical education takes their children away from their studies.

Some have the thought that physical education is a body building.

Some people think that physical education is a brainless, soft-option subject.

Physical education does not matter for girls to engage it.

Engaging in physical education make no difference to academic performance.

Physical education not include school curriculum in higher class.

Physical education is not for Children because by nature they have so much energy. So there is no need to spend time or energy teaching them about physical activity.

Need, importance and scope of Physical Education in the Modern Society and its relationship with General Education
Need and Importance of physical education –

Physical education is needed during elementary & secondary education for proper growth and development.

It is favorable during middle age to maintain good health and fitness.

Physical education is important to prevent ageing effect during old Age.

It is important as it provides us the knowledge of our bodies.

It teaches us various physical activities that can be practiced now in later life such as motor skills.

It also teaches us the value of ethical behavior in sporting situations.

It teaches us the value of physical fitness and how to become physically fit.

It is important for cultivated aesthetic sense in beauty and grace in movements.

It is also important for catharsis reasons with mean releasing of energy, emotion, tension or frustration. This way physical education helps in checking immature misbehavior.

Physical education is considered necessary because of advanced technology the lifestyle of people becomes inactive.

Scope of Physical Education in the Modern Society

Area covered by Physical Education

Age Group

New born
Infant
Toddler
Preschooler
Children
Adolescent
Or teenager
Adult
Elderly
Old
Before 1 month
1 month to 1 year
1 to 3 year
4 to 5 year
6 to 12 year
13 to 20 Year
21 to 35 year
36 to 55 year
After 56 year

Institution

Home => School=> Community => office => commercial venue => Medical setting => Nursing home => old age home

Service & Profession

Teacher => Coach => Fitness leader => Rehabilitator => Instructor => Sports Marketing => Sports Journalism => Trainer => Adapted Physical Educator

Academic Discipline

Sports Philosophy | Sports History | Sports Sociology | Sports Pedagogy | Adapted Physical Activity | Sports Management | Biomechanics | Exercise Physiology | Sports Medicine | Motor Development |Motor Learning | Sports Psychology | Sports Training | Sports Journalism
Relationship with General Education and Physical Education
Physical education is an integral part of total education and it contributed in education many significant ways:-
Physical education makes a unique contribution to development of the total personality.
No other then Physical education other curricular area contributes to development in psychomotor domain.
Physical education enhances health and wellbeing of students.
It’s preparing students to be a productive member of society.
Physical education contributes to learning readiness.
Physical education can be an important part of an integrated educational curriculum.

E:physical educationphotorunners_kids2.gif

Counseling can be a challenging, provoking, and worthwhile practice. Its challenging because it requires the use of skills such as assessment, treatment, counseling, and recommendation. It’s provoking due to high volume work and increased observation and documenting due to handling best quality care and its rewarding when a counselor sees individuals regain control of their lives. When the person(s) are family orientated, then the counselor becomes a Marriage and Family Counselor. In this paper, I will review what exactly marriage and family counseling is, what are the ethics attached to it and what type of counselor therapy techniques is involved in this precise field. Also, I will be focusing on what Christian values are inserted and emotionally involved to Marriage and Family Counseling.

Throughout life, our personal and family relationships give us both joy and challenges. The more we understand ourselves, our emotions and behaviors, the better we can communicate, manage stress and function effectively around the important people in our lives (Therapytribe, 2012).

Marriages and families are composed of people, and people can be very problematical. Sometimes, when a family is under pressure and situations are not headed in the direction they like, the use of Marriage and Family Therapy is an avenue that would be very beneficial for family tranquility.

Blame for family problems can be directly related to many issues; work, stress, money problems, etc., but the chief component that mainly effects couples and families is due to failing to communicate or, the fact that people don’t spend enough time actually talking to one another and trying to understand each other. Whatever the symptoms are, these problems are where the useful tool of a Marriage and Family counseling can be useful.

Marriage counseling is not just for unhappy or struggling couples – couple’s therapy can be used proactively to strengthen bonds and to gain a better understanding of one other. In addition, before a marriage begins pre-marital counseling can help couples achieve a deeper understanding of each other and iron out differences before their wedding day.

A Marriage and Family therapist is a person who is educated in understanding how relationships comprehend family situations, and is there to help parents, siblings, uncles, aunts, grandparents, etcaˆ¦ learn how to distinguish attitudes and feelings and improve communication with one another. In order for the counselor to help with the fullest of capabilities and keep the counselor/client relationship in harmony, there are some basic rules and procedures that he/she needs to follow: An ethical standard, therapy techniques and for a Christian, what values does the counselor hold compared to a secular counselor.

Ethical Standards

Marriage and family counselors encounter ethical and legal dilemmas almost every day. Whether new to the counseling career or have been practicing for eons, ethical challenges can still hamper therapy or confuse the counseling process. From confidentiality issues to records maintenance, from duty of client(s) care to informed consent, a counselor’s legal and ethical questions can spring up from every corner, especially when handling more than one patient. The American Counseling Association (ACA) and the American Association of Christian Counselors (AACC) have guidelines that aid the process of ethical decision making.

The first step in protecting the rights of clients is the informed consent document (Corey, 2011). The most important thought in family therapy is that the process for initiating informed consent be conducted with all persons who participate in therapy, including family members who join counseling at a later occasion. Per ethical motivations, it is vital for making the time necessary to get hold of informed consents from the entire family. This procedure will proclaim chief counseling messages such as, no one family member is more important than the other person and no one person will be considered the client while others simply observe. Also, no one will be excluded from understanding about what is going to become known.

It is typical of most families that some members are more eager to participate in therapy than others, raising the issue of voluntary participation. Obviously, coercion of the reluctant individual by other family members or by the therapist is unethical; however, this does not mean that the therapist cannot strongly encourage a family member to attend at least one

session to discover what therapy may offer (Margolin, 1982). Also, it does not imply that the counselor pay no attention to what may be core reasons adding to the person’s reluctance, such as feeling threatened. In sorting out whether or not a particular family member will participate in therapy, the therapist should identify the extent to which each person will be expected to participate, for example, whether some persons simply can attend the therapy sessions in the role of observer, learning enough about the therapeutic process so that they do nothing to impede its progress (Margolin, 1982).

Marriage and family therapists have unique confidentiality concerns because the client in a therapeutic relationship may be more than one person. Therapists respect and guard the confidences of each individual client (AAFMT, 2012). Client confidentiality is a vital part of counseling ethics. Counselors are expected to keep personal information from third parties. Disclosing information would consequently result in an infringement of trust and can lead to serious consequences, especially when dealing with dual clients during therapy sessions.

At some point during counseling, a couple that received joint treatment from a counselor may become separated and start legal action to break up the couple’s connection and initiate child custody issues. A client of the estranged couple may separately inquire about the involvement of the counselor to promote for an advantageous position in the relationship’s legal quarrel. This, in turn, creates an ethical dilemma of placing one client’s interest higher than the other’s interests. Therapists who function as an advocate of the system avoid becoming agents of any one partner of family member (Corey, 2011). Also, counselors who cease therapy with one member of a couple and maintain a relationship to offer services to the other party should keep in mind that the confidentiality continues to protect the interests of the former client. Always keeping the confidentiality of every client, former and past, keeps the integrity of the counselor and aids in the trust building to present and possibly future clients.

Counselor Therapy Techniques

Counselors of all fields are anticipated to effectively handle situations with couples and families experiencing an assortment of issues and problems. Family therapists at different periods of time may seem to be operating like one another, using similar intercessions with a family. Differences become transparent when the therapist gives details concerning a definite technique or intervention. Many of today’s family counselors go above and beyond the usual amount of techniques readily available to them for counseling. Sex therapy, reframing and family counseling meetings are techniques that are incorporated into therapy sessions that can help aid in the stress and lack of communication that seem to be symptom of many relationships.

Because of today’s demanding lifestyles, it is difficult for families to spend adequate time together. It is important, however, that each family member has a part in family decisions. Communication is one of the leading causes for families to fall apart and become disoriented to one another. Family council meetings are organized to make available specified times for the couples or family to meet up face to face and share feelings with one another. It gives everybody the chance to talk and make decisions best suited for the family. The common rule for the building of decisions in the family council is to make decisions by agreement and compromise. Agreement on the decision means that everyone comes to a consensus. It is a decision that all family members feel good about and build upon open communication in future events.

The meaning of any state of affairs or of any set of circumstances is discovered in the frame within which we perceive it. Reframing is about changing perception by understanding something in another way. It is a detailed counseling technique used by counselors to propose clients an alternative means of viewing problems or issues. It is basically inputting various positive perspectives on situations that are concerning, worrying or problematic for people.

The ability to reframe virtually any issue into a positive attribute establishes an atmosphere of acceptance and cooperation rather than one of “expert and subject” (Gardner, 1999). Furthermore, it helps with our overall reasoning and problem solving skills. It helps with continuous cognitive development. This is a fundamental shift in our cultural paradigm in that we are encouraged and rewarded to be problem-solvers from an early age (Gardner, 1999).

Many relationships between a man and women can refuse to accept seeking therapy for their challenges, especially when it comes to sex therapy. However, a quality sex life is a chief component for having a happy relationship, which is why sex therapy is a very useful tool for couples who are struggling with intimate difficulties. Many couples find it complicated to fit a healthy and therapeutic sexual lifestyle into their busy schedules and sexual stimulation is neglected due to various reasons. Also, there can be anywhere from 35 to 50 percent of people struggle with long-term sexual difficulties over the course of their lives (Baldaum, 2008). Sexual energy is powerful and can profoundly affect our mood, our thoughts, and our general state of being. Each person’s upbringing, culture, religion, and previous experiences can have an impact on sexuality (Baldaum, 2008). Without the sexual intimacy of a relationship, there can grow a giant void that inevitably ends in most people having plutonic relationships instead of being lovers. Sex therapy entails a counselor working directly with a couple to talk about the predicament, assess what might be going wide of the mark, and then talking to the couple and having them try a various number of approaches to develop their relationship, communication and lovemaking.

Christian Counseling Marriage and Family

“Christian” Counseling must counsel the soul with techniques generated by the Spirit of God; counseling which is not Christian counsels the soul with techniques generated by the spirit of this world (Gillham, 2012). The greatest differences between Christian and secular counselors is whether they will fall under the federal and state laws or follow the rules of the church. Christian counseling is also distinctive from secular counseling in that it explicitly uses the spiritual aspect of counseling, Biblical wrongs and rights, and a quest of of God’s word in a person’s life. Christian counselors do not have to support the “politically correct” notions of right and wrong. Secular therapists usually must be prepared to recognize homosexuality as a faultlessly common lifestyle, divorce as a pleasing conclusion of marital differences, and abortion as the possible solution for unwelcomed children.

With nearly 50 percent of all first-time marriages now ending in divorce, the Church is seeing more people in pain from broken relationships and families than ever before (Clinton, 2012). From a Christian perspective, marriage was a God-given institution: He desires that it be a lifelong commitment. Divorce was initiated because of human beings’ sinfulness. Deuteronomy 24 does not command divorce nor place God’s stamp of approval upon it. This passage is an attempt to regulate the more destructive aspects of divorce, a concession made, not because God desired it, but because of the hardness of human hearts (Vikler, 1978). In other words, God doesn’t want anybody to be in an unholy bad marriage, but using divorce as a tool a hatred felt by God: ” I hate divorce,” says the Lord God of Israel, ” (Mal. 2:16, NIV). It is a last resort for a Christian counselor and should be avoided at all costs if possible.

Christian Counselors refuse to condone or advocate for the pursuit of or active involvement in homosexual, transgendered, and cross-dressing behavior, and in the adoption gay and lesbian and transgendered lifestyles by clients (AACC, 2004). One of the theories concerning same sex attraction is that it occurs from the existence deep feelings of hurt, anger, and fear. In order to properly deal with the healing, the first step is evaluating past experiences, many times reliving them in order to let go of them; performing “emotional surgery of opening infected wounds”, applying the “alcohol” of the Holy Spirit, and sewing them up so that the scars can heal in a healthy way (Carvalho, 1989). So, even though the church does not recognize homosexuality as acceptable practice, they do recognize it as a problem that can be treatable.

An uneasy and cause of many debates, abortion is at the forefront of the church and a topic that most marriage and family counselors encounter in their career. Christian counselors refuse to condone or advocate for abortion and the abortion-related activities of clients (AACC, 2004). Many Christians suppose that a human life commences at the split second of conception. Still, others question the beginning of life. Is it at the moment of conception or when the heart starts thumping? The Bible states: I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb (Jeremiah 1:5, NIV), so reading form that passage, Christians accept that scripture to represent that any abortion will stop a human being God created from entering into the world.

And even though all counseling has the ultimate goal of helping others, there are many differences in their codes of ethics. The task of ethical reflection and the application of moral judgments to the life of the individual Christian falls not only to Christian pastors but also to Christian counselors, physicians, and–perhaps in some cases more so–to others closely associated with the person seeking help (Smith, 1984).

Conclusion

Being a marriage and family counselor is a daunting and emotional career field but also a rewarding job. Marriage and family counseling permits couples and various family members to work out problematic issues. Marriage and family therapists advance the welfare of families and individuals. They respect the rights of those persons seeking their assistance, and make reasonable efforts to ensure that their services are used appropriately (AAFMT, 2012).

Also, marriage and family therapy techniques cater to the health of couples and families relationships. Clients endear their trust in their counselors, and hope that their therapists will help find explanations and resolutions to their difficulties. If it is reframing, sex therapy or family counseling meetings, it is a center point to be have an open and honest relationship. Marriage and family counselors must therefore hold on to the highest and utmost standards of professional ethics and up to date therapy techniques to make certain that the trust placed in the clients is not abused.

For some counselors, working under state and federal guidelines is not the choice path. The road for some is working for the ultimate counselor: God. In Christian counseling, God has a progression for taking us from a busted and dysfunctional state and building people up so that they can function in a spiritual manner. Therapy has a clearly defined place in this spiritual growth process. Neither, abortion, divorce or homosexualality is too big or too complicated when it comes from the healing hands of God that the Christian counselor portrays. Jesus Christ-and His revelation in the Old and New Testaments of the bible-is the pre-eminent model for Christian counseling practice, ethics, and caregiving activities (AACC, 2004).

Gandalf-is a transformational leader who can be a wonderful and uplifting experience. They put passion and energy into everything. They care about you and want you to succeed they also make continued efforts to motivate and rally their followers, constantly doing the rounds, listening, soothing and enthusing. The Transformational Leader seeks to infect and reinfect their followers with a high level of commitment to the vision.The extent to which a leader is transformational, is measured first, in terms of his influence on the followers (Bass, B. M,(1985), Leadership and Performance, N.Y. Free Presss). In the film Lord of the Rings (Fellowship of the Ring) Gandalf takes a risk at Balrog where he fights the dragon which is made up of fire until he kills the dragon, before he took on the mighty dragon he tells the Aragon, Gimli and legolas to go save themselves which shows that Gandalf is a brave person.

Aragon has a great man theory leadership style he comes from a line of Kings. He has leadership qualities in him.That leadership is an inherent ability. Prominent leaders as having the right qualities or personality for the position, implying that inherent characteristics are what make these people effective leaders.Spencer said that such great men are the products of their societies, and that their actions would be impossible without the social conditions built before their lifetimes( Carneiro, (1981) Robert L. Herbert Spencer as an Anthropologist Journal of Libertarian Studies, vol. 5, 1981, pp.171-2). In the film when on Gandalfs absence Aragon was leading Gimli and Lagolas to find hobbits Pipin and Merry. Gimli and Lagolas followed him without any hesitation because of Aragons family history coming from a line of kings and his experience in tracking and fighting ability

How effective was the Leader in the film.

Gandalf was effective in the film because he was very old person who had seen the with the word friend, Gandalf started to say words of different language which showed that his a person of wide range of knowledge where he does not think the same as the other people in the film.

Aragon is an effective person in the movie because he comes from a line of kings. At Gandalfs absence he leads the fellowship. He also is good at tracking people and at sword fighting which makes him an effective leader.

The power held by the leaders

Gandalf- Has expert power where they can influence others with their expertise and knowledge. Expert power is based on what one knows, one with experience and skills. In the film Gandalf has a lot of knowledge and experience since his a very old person. He has knowledge about elfs, oks and hobbits. Gandalf has referent power also because all his followers like him and respected him since he was old with the most knowledge. Gandalf also had legimate power he was part of the Isatari and was second of Sauramon, he was known as Gandalf the grey.

Situation in the movie since he was a wizard and of the second order the fellowship characters followed him to Mordo since he had the most knowledge and experience, on the way to Mordo and where crossing Moira Gandalf fought the Balrog where followers obeyed his orders when he told them to go as he knew that they will come and help him and will also die.

Aragon had referent and charismatic power because he made decisions which were for the betterment of the people he had qualities which motivated people and was effective while speaking and his followers liked him. In the film after everyone thinks that Gandalfs dead when he falls down a clip while fighting with the dragon Aragon takes the position of leader, with his quick decision making he is able to convince the mind of the people and lead them to the right direction.

Situation in the film and theories

A situation in the film which identifies Gandalfs leadership style was when he fought with Sauraman, he knew he was weaker than Sauraman but he still fought him so Frodo could complete his quest which is destroy he ring. As a transformational leader Gandalf thinks for the benefit of the other people first than himself. He uses his abilities to fight evil so people can be safe from Saurag the dark lord. Aragon is also a transformational leader he taught for mankind first than himself in the scene were Frodo was being attacked by the big monster Aragon jumped in to safe Frodo and was hurt in the process, his attempts was to safe Frodo so he could destroy the ring and save mankind.

Type of organisation, level of seniority and its effects

The fellowship of the ring was formed at Rivendell. The fellowship was made up of nine members to destroy the ring in the fire at Mount Doom which was in Mordor. The members in the fellowship were Gandalf, Aragon, Frodo, Sam, Legolas, Gimli, Pipin, Merry and Boromir. Gandalf lead the fellowship of the ring on his absence Aragon took over

Gandalf was the leader of the fellowship of the ring everyone agreed since he had the most knowledge and experience because his seen the world more than anyone. He was the most senior person. The Blake Mouton Managerial grid says some leaders are people and some are task oriented (Mind Tools Limited 2013). Gandalf is people oriented he cares for people.

Aragon was from a line of kings he had leadership ability in him. He used his power to motivate people with his leadership skills. In the movie he took over leadership when the situation arose, on Gandalf’s absence he took over as leader. Spencer said that such great men are the products of their societies, and that their actions would be impossible without the social conditions built before their lifetimes ( Carneiro, (1981)

Individual Culture and traits

Gandalf was a wizard in the Isatari and was of the second order. He was second behind Saruman who had misused his power and had joined forces with Saurag the dark Lord. Gandalf used his powers for the good of the people because in their organisation they were allowed to give advice to people but not use their powers on the people. Gandalf was trying to help Frodo destroy the ring and save mankind.

Aragon was the king of Gondor but secretly lived the life of a Rivendell ranger after his father death. Since leadership was in his blood he knew how to lead people. This is the reason why people followed him.

Leadership theories

Consideration- this leader care for their followers and take into account their ideas and feelings. According to findings and studies people exhibit two leadership styles which are people oriented and task oriented. In the movie Gandalf and Aragon are two leaders and both are people oriented, they take notice of their followers feeling and ideas. Both Gandalf and Aragons main motive was to destroy the ring and save mankind. In the movie seen in the end Aragon had to let Frodo go and destroy the ring on his own. Aragon made a big sacrifice choosing between individual (Frodo) and mankind survival but he still lead his followers and saved their lives.

The Whale Rider
Leadership Style

Koro- Is an Autocratic leader: is a leader who dictates procedures, decides what goals are to be achieved, and directs and controls all activities without any meaningful participation by the members of the group. “Authoritarian leaders make decisions independently with little or no input from the rest of the group” Cherry, Kendra. “Lewin’s Leadership Styles.” About.com Psychology. Web. 14 Mar. 2012. In the movie Koro always made the decision and did not take any persons input not even his wife. Koro has absolute control over his followers.

Pai is a servent leader: Servant Leadership argues that the most effective leaders are servants of their people. Servant leaders get results for their organization through whole-hearted attention to their followers and followers’ needs. Larry Spears outlined ten characteristics of a servant leader empathy, listening, awareness, healing, persuasion, foresight, conceptualization, stewardship, commitment to the growth of others, and building community. In the movie Pai is a young girl who wants to keep everyone happy especially her grandfather. When the whale needed help to go off shore Pai rode the whale to safety.

Effectiveness of the leader

Koro was an effective leader in the movie as he was old and wise. He had knowledge of his Moari culture. He is a person who makes final decisions and everyone has to follow it even if people do not agree with the decision he makes. His downfall is he did not listen to anyone’s ideas and thoughts being the whale rider.

Type of power

Koro has expert: When you have knowledge and skills that enable you to understand a situation, he has knowledge of his culture. In the movie he trains the boys in the settlement on how to become chiefs were he teaches the boys the ancient Moari fight songs and how to defend themselves as their ancestors did.

Koro also uses his power on how a chief uses their power. Koro also abuses his power mostly on his granddaughter by mistreating her because he believes that girls cannot be leaders.

Pai is a referent leader followers like her because she is influential with her words and is respected by the people. In referent power the leader sets an example for the people. In the movie when Pai was ill treated by Koro she was brave through such a difficult time.

Pai leadership style is motivating the people as she is good with her words which shows she has charismatic power.. She knows that she is from a chiefly family and wants to lead her tribe successfully in the future

In the movie Koro believes only man can be leaders he shows he is an autocratic leader. He also shows coersive power, which is the power to withhold punishment. In one of the movie scene where he tells Pai to go to the beach as she is a girl and is not part of the meeting. Koro does not want to accept changes in the world. In another scene he gets angry with Pai ‘You don’t mess with sacred things’ when he caught Pai indulging with the Moari defensive art; again he shows disrespect for his granddaughter.

In the movie scene Pai is determined to learn the Moari defensive fight, one of the boys comes to teach her the fight when he sees the determination of her learning the fight. This shows that Pai is a referent leader as people like her determination.

Type of organisation and seniority

This leadership situation in The Whale Rider: The movie is set in New Zealand in the fishing village of Whangere. Paikea the whale rider is the ancestor of these people

Koro is the chief of the village and he comes from a line of chief who was known as Paikea who arrived on the island centuries ago riding on a whale.

Koro is the chief of the village and is the most senior person in the settlement. He has a lot of knowledge about their culture and his believe is that man can only be leaders and warriors and Pai can never be a leader.

Koro has a bureaucratic leadership style ‘His way or the high way’ everything must be done according to procedure or policy. But he needed to change the way of his leadership because many people did not like the way of his leadership.

Pai is nowhere in the hierarchy as her grandfather wanted a grandson and he believes that Pai is a bad fortune. Pai does not let this matter let her down because she is an outspoken person and never gives up.

Individual culture and its effect

Koro and Pai played an effective role as leaders. Pai and Koro lives are surrounded with culture (Moari) and tradition example the whale riding story of Paikea, chanting and their knowledge (Mead, 2006, p.14).

Other leadership styles

Paikea in the movie illustrates trait theory, the qualities that she possesses as a leader comes from her chiefly background. She has the determination towards learn her culture from her grandfather, she has respect for her culture and people and in return her people respect her and trust her as well. She is a very charismatic leader, even after beating Hemi in a Taiaha fight, Hemi is willing to support her and help her. She is brave enough to jump into the sea to get her grandfather’s whale tooth, which clearly describes her quality of bravery and courageous above all her determination to becoming a leader.

The movie ends with Koro accepting Pai as a Wise Leader, and the people and the whale following her commands.

In good company

Dan Foreman is an executive in his company who learns that his company is being demoted. He is a charismatic leader, who has the ability to motivate and influence people. He is respected and liked by his people. These leaders are mostly ethical leaders. They are people oriented leaders.

Carter on the other hand is the new head of the advertisement department, because of him Dan is being demoted. Carter displays transformational leadership. Hence transformational leadership is characterized by the ability to bring about significant change in employees and the organization, thus the company believed that Carter would be the best to bring about changes in the company. Cater is also transactional leader he fired employees when the company needed cut downs.

Effectiveness of the leader

Dan is very determined, and is very effective as a leader he is able to influence people. People really liked him and have respect for him. He was the kind of leader that people wanted. Even after being demoted from as an executive and replaced by a young man half his age, he is still willing to work for the company, he shows his loyalty towards his work and as well as his employees.

Carter was also a very effective leader; because he was given the authority people always listen to him and followed him. He possesses great knowledge in his field, he had different kind of ideas as to how to promote and advertise. He also had the ability to influence people. He was not really liked by the people but because he was chosen as the head of the department people had to follow him.

Type of power

Dan Forman has referent power which is the people in his department liked him as he was a people oriented person he cared for his staff. A scene in the movie where it showed he has referent power been when he was demoted the employees in his department showed sympathy. Dan Forman also has charisma power because he has the ability to speak and motivate the workers and since he is a referent power people listen to him.

Carter Duryea has legimate power because Duryea walks into Sports America with the title of Chief of Marketing. But did not have enough experience working for a magazine. His previous job was selling mobiles to kids. Carter uses his power in a negative way which was to lower expense by terminating employees

In the movie Carter tries to terminate employees who have worked in the company for years but Dan does not want that to happen as he knows that people who are being terminated have put a lot of effort in their jobs which shows that Dan cares for his workers.

Type of organisation, level of seniority and its effect

Dan Forman and Carter Duryea work for sports magazine which is known as Sports America

Carter Duryea is the marketing chief who is the senior person in the department. Which means that Dan has to work for carter? Carter has legimate power were people have to listen to him.

Dan Forman was demoted which means he was no longer a legimate power but was Carters assistant even so that does not have employees and the client listen to him. Dan Forman had referent power he had the most knowledge in his department so people listen to him.

Individual culture and its effect

Dan Forman is 51 years old and is old school; he balances his life with family. He is married with two kids. He is demoted from work but strives back to his marketing chief position. Dan Forman shows respect to all people. Forman has a good reputation in the company and becomes mentor for carter at the end.

Carter is a 26 year old and is from the new generation. He is after a successful carrier, but does not have a personal life, this illustrates the failure of his marriage. He does not believe in old school thoughts of Dan Formans. Carter did not like the work but was in it for the money.

Leadership theories

This film illustrates great man theory. Great man theory sought to identify the inherited traits leaders possessed that distinguish them from people who weren’t leaders with the premise that some people are born with traits that make them natural leaders, thus Dan illustrates the qualities a leader needs according to great man theory.

At the end of the film Carter realizes that Dan is the kind of leader that everyone wanted, therefore he tells him that he has learnt a lot from Dan. Dan on the other hand gets his position back Carter is able to learn what he lacks and he believes he could have never been better then Dan.

Now-a-days it is the trend among the people that they move in before marriage. Either love or attachment plays a vital role in it. But the main concept of men and women living together before marriage is considered as a sin in some religions, or most religions. But as the world is making progress so are the minds of people, changing according with the time. Now an individual before even engagement or marriage moves in and then tries to understand the other person. Sometimes, this is the reason and sometimes it is not depending on the thinking and mentality of people. But it can be a problem for women as well as for men. Now the basic problem is that what a person should do? Whether he should let the change happen, or he shouldn’t. A New Woman magazine study by Columbia University discovered that twenty six percent of women reviewed and a slight nineteen percent of men wed the individual with whom they were co-habiting. The mean cohabitant has several partners in a lifetime. Cohabitation involves “no public firm promise, no promise for the future, no authorized statement of love and blame. There is essentially a personal placement founded on an emotional bond. The ‘commitment’ of dwelling simultaneously is easily a month-to-month rental agreement.

There is a statement in The Future Of Marriage by Jessie Bernard in which he stated, “One fundamental fact underlies the conception of marriage itself. Some kind of firm pledge should be involved. Merely fly-by-night, feel and go relationships do not specify.” According to him the people who get married with a condition of dying with each other possess a reasonably distinct level of firm pledge, thus a quite distinct grade of security, therefore a rather distinct grade of freedom, and as an outcome a rather different grade of joyfulness than those who wed with a condition in their mind that they will last together till their love last. These types of people habitually anticipate the instant when they or their partner gets up one sunrise and discovers the fine emotion that retains them afloat has disintegrated under them. Cohabitation is a dangerous trend that has recently been too readily accepted without much resistance or criticism from society

Is cohabitation a sin or not depends on what one means by the word ‘moving in together’, in the Bible it is clearly stated that having a sexual relationship before marriage is a sin and in the Bible the word ‘fornication’ has been used to explain the forbidden deed of living together before marriage and how sexually immoral such an act is. In most of the religions practiced all over the world the concept of cohabitation is prohibited and is considered as a sin for which one cannot be forgiven. Many couples living together are happy internally but due to the guilt inside of committing a sin and the social not acceptance of their relationship disturb their bond and they are in a constant insecure state. America is a State where the society has widely accepted this socially constructed concept of living in together although Christianity does not allow that a man and women should live together before marriage as it results in temptation that leads them to cross every limit and turn into an ‘enemy of God’. Living together means two people with consensus making a decision to go against the will of God for the sake of love or sexual temptation, which can be definitely called a sin. Why a sin? Well because the whole approach undermines the value of a family structure and mainly because almost all the religions do not accept it as a moral deed.

Body:
A: Is living together before marriage wrong?

Cohabitation takes away the charm of marriage and turns it into a compromise if children are involved. Couples that move in together to try out if they can have a happy married life end up in a broken relationship which leaves a long lasting effect on their life’s. The growing trend of living together is wrong because according to various surveys and research reports the cohabitant couples are most likely not interested in marrying each other and even if they do there is a high rate of separation, sexual abuse and mental torture not only for the couple but for the children as well. How would a parent stop his/her daughter from living in with another guy if they have practiced the same act? Children of cohabitant couples have a high tendency of indulging in immoral activities in their young teenage and suffer from physical violence. The people who move in together before marriage are also expected to have extramarital affairs and are not good at commitments. Most importantly it is a religious sin and is an act if practiced pushes God’s blessing away from you. It is a physical attraction that leads to instability in life; even many satisfied live in partners end up in the torturing break ups and a constant feeling of fear and resentment. (Don Weston)

Some say cohabitation is not wrong, what is the big deal if two people want to live together and share their expenses and responsibilities? The younger generation of today finds ‘living together’ a very attractive package, one gets to enjoy all the desires without any legality. There is no risk of divorce, many justify it by claiming that moving in together before marriage gives them an opportunity to know each other more closely and decide whether to get involved in a legal relationship or not. With the rapid increase in modernization this trend has been now accepted as a culture in many parts of the United State.

B: Why do the Cons outweigh the Pro’s of ‘living together’ before marriage?

Living in together before marriage for the new generation is like a roller coaster ride for free! Whereas they don’t see the side effects of availing this package, the cons are enough for the critics to justify their criticism on living in together. Though many couples prefer moving in together rather than getting into a serious marital relationship which actually shows the level of commitment they share, and the sacred relation of marriage they are scared to get involved in. The more a couple is sexually active before marriage the greater they have a chance to get divorced, because they get over with all the temptation and craze as much as they prolong their ‘living together’ time period. (Fowler, 2005)

Conclusion:
Cohabitation is forbidden:

The couples who favor cohabitation even if are in majority cannot deny that religiously as well as morally the concept of as a Bible calls it ‘fornication’ is forbidden by God in nature. The word pornography had been originated from this same word and as it is seen the society considers such websites and acts highly immoral and against their beliefs and religion. The acceptance of this concept by society means they are accepting a trend which will destroy the institution of marriage as well as the responsibility of parents will be questioned as well due to getting involved multiply in such a deed. Although this concept has been growing in Christ but Christianity, Islam, Hinduism and many other religions are strictly forbidden from committing any such deed and if they do so they believe that they will be answerable to God Almighty and even if God forgives; it is not easy to be forgiven by the society for something that is sinful and is forbidden in nature.

Work Cited:

Grinberg, Emanuella. “Report: More women moving in before marriage.” 4 April 2013. CNN. 2013 .

Gueren, Casey. “Are You Ready to Move in Together?” 11 April 2013. The Scoop. 2013 .

Kaplan, Karen. “More Americans are living together before marriage, study finds.” 03 April 2013. L.ATimes. 2013 .

Murray, Rheana. “Half of couples move in before marriage, stay there longer: CDC.” 5 May 2013. NYDailyNews. 2013 .

Staff, Patch. “Study Reported by CDC Reveals More People Now Live Together Before Marriage.” 5 April 2013. DuluthPatch. 2013 .

Don Weston, L. M. Twenty Good Reasons why not to cohabitant Before Marriage. Kansas City, Missouri: Family Life Ministries- Church of the Nazarene Jim Pettit, PhD coordinator.

Fowler, R. (2005) Scriptures on Living Together Before Marriage

In every aspect of life, form the moment that we take our first breath to that singularly sacred moment when we breath out for the last time, do we partake in rituals; rituals that see us through all the different stages in our lives. Van Gennep (The Rites Of Passage, 1908) said that: “, a person is not just born into society, but has to be created through rites of passage as a social individual, and accepted into society.” (Oxford, Dictionary of Sociology, 2009: 653). This accounts for more than just being born, but also for being accepted into other stages or statuses in life. In this essay I attempt to explain Van Gennep’s theory of ‘Rites of Passage’ and Victor Turner’s uses of the terms ‘liminality’ and ‘communitas’ (Turner, 1969) by using an example from a ritual I have witnessed and experienced personally.

According to Arnold Van Gennep (Van Gennep, 1908: 10,11) rituals are events or actions that assists people to transition through different stages of life, whether it’s being born or getting married. It marks a change in status.

To try and explain rituals as “rites of passage” Van Gennep separated it into three stages:

Rite of Separation

Rite of Transition/The liminal phase (Turner, 1969)

Rite of Reintegration

Rites of Separation could be explained as moving or breaking away from the status or stage that the person is currently holding. Rites of transition, the phase where one is moving from one point to the next, almost like a plane in flight. Rites of Reintegration are the last part of the ritual where a person moves back into society but at a different level than when the ritual was first begun.

Van Gennep also explains that rituals differ and that emphasis of the three stages might change from ritual to ritual.

Victor Turner took up Van Gennep’s ideas and developed it further (Turner, 1969; Bowie, 2004: 152). On focusing on the 2nd stage (liminal) Turner explains that a person is in a state of nothingness, “betwixt and between”. In terms of initiation rites, usually, in this phase all the initiates are brought to the same level of status, communitas. Through being stripped of everything that singled a person out, all the initiates become one in likeness and stature, humiliation could form a great part of this process. A sense of community and mutual understanding draws the initiates closer to each other.

He explains further that the phases are often marked by the use of various symbols with some deeper meaning, especially the liminal phase.

I will attempt to explain these theories by use of the following initiation ritual:

“Adventure Camp”

Working at a performing arts ministry based in Pretoria: 13thFLOOR.

Rite of Separation

Our parents dropped us off on the first day, spending their last day with us. Everybody is eating and drinking and getting to know all the friendly new leaders that we will be having for the rest of the year. Nametags are also being handed out to everyone, your colour matching the colour of your team. At last the final greetings are being said and the parents leave.

Liminal phase

The whole team gets together in the hall and suddenly its not funny anymore. The leaders yell and ask why we are sitting when our elders are walking into the room? Have we no respect? We had to get down and do twenty push-ups, no ladies push-ups for anyone, and then run around the campus. They introduce themselves and tell all the students that they expect of us to know all their names. They also gave us five minutes to go and pack a bag with a week’s worth of things, just knowing that we will have to carry it for kilometres and will probably get wet. No food and no technology allowed.

The drive to an unknown destination lasted for 3 hours, after which we were dropped off in the middle of no-where (in the middle of the night) and told to make our way in a general direction for several kilometres until we reached a certain landmark. Upon arriving at the destination we spent what little of the night was left sleeping in a sheep-shearing pen.

The next morning they put each team (a team comprises of 17 members) in a very small cow-feeding ring (made of solid metal) with our entire luggage. No person was allowed to leave the ring and we weren’t allowed to put the ring down. Like this we walked through marshes and fields for about 15km. We were allowed water, but we haven’t had food for about 24 hours by then. Reaching the camp, each team had to build their own shelter with two torn tarps (it was raining) and make a fire old school style.

Each person was handed a raw egg that had to be kept safe through the whole of the week, if it broke you had to carry a rock, and if you forgot your rock, you had to carry two and so on and so forth. As a whole, the team were given two giant logs (impossibly heavy) to be carried everywhere and at no point was the logs ever allowed to touch the ground. As the week progressed we had to participate in various gruelling activities that took you from being beyond tired to knowing that somehow we all possessed inhuman strength. The elders would try to teach us a lesson/lessons through each activity, moulding us into a unity. We had little to no sleep, maybe and apple and a slice of bread per day (not each, for all 17 people in the team), and if you were lucky a can of dog food with a bag of chips. There were no facilities so toilets had to be dug, water fetched from the river and no one even tried to get the cow dung or mud off for the duration of the week.

Rite of reincorporation

At the end of the week we all got into the busses again, drove the 3 hours back to our campus and showered. We had debriefings and were told that we are now officially part of the team. The lessons learned at the camp would be what carried the teams throughout the year.

Many people (especially the American initiates) thought this whole ritual to be barbaric and completely out-dated. I will even go so far as to compare it to some people’s reaction towards virginity testing in South Africa (Scourgie, 2002:64-66)

Like with the Venda girls’ initiation (McNeill, 2011: 100), humiliation was used to create and equal footing amongst the initiates. This also helped enforce communitas between the initiates. Similarly, where they had three phases of initiates, there was also a difference between the initiates of the teams. There were team leaders in each team, which already implies a difference in status, though they still went through everything the same way as all the others in the group (apart from some minimal differences). The team leaders already went through the whole ritual in previous years but they are once again put through it to guide the new initiates. Their status doesn’t necessarily change through this ritual even though they are partaking in it fully, going through all the phases. In this one aspect I differ from Van Gennep and Turner, that a ritual does not always mark a transformation of some sort. But that is not the purpose of this essay and therefor I will not discuss it in further detail.

Various symbols were used in the events of the separation and liminal phases, mostly to teach the initiates lessons of some sort.

The nametag and colour: separating us into groups and creating an equal footing for everyone to get to know each other.

The cow-feeding ring: to bring the realization that we are a unity and will have to function as such in the future no matter what the difficulties.

The egg/rocks/logs: the responsibility that every member of the team, as well as the team as a whole, will have to bear through the year. It also taught stewardship.

Through trying to explain the rite of passage that I experienced by use of Van Gennep’s and Turner’s ideas, I tried to bring to attention the change and growth that going through every part of the ritual brought. And it doesn’t matter if it’s an initiation ritual or a funeral; they all mark a passage of some sort. Respectively going through a rite of passage singularly changes and forms a person for the rest of their lives. It creates memories, initiates and carries out change, and brings people together in a sense of community. A necessity for living a life that is every changing.