toptermpaper.com

A sports injury can be serious and cause profound physical and emotional distress. The physical aspects of the injury can even contribute to loss of a sports career. The emotional stress of a sports injury can result in affects such as anxiety and depression which result in obstacles to healing and future performance (Myers, Peyton & Jensen, 2004). After injury most athletes will suffer from a change in their mood for a short length of time. This change in mood will manifest as anger, depression, tension, and low energy levels. Normally the athlete returns to their pre-injury mental status once they are on their way to recovery (McDonald & Hardy, 1990)

Sports injuries can have a devastating impact on athletes and the search for effective psychological rehabilitation methods have been ongoing. One study using the open-ended Sports Injury Survey found that athletes that healed the fastest engaged in more positive self-talk, goal setting and healing imagery than slower healing athletes. It was found that the mental strategy of goal setting was the most productive technique and scientists believe the reason for this is that it is easy to learn and is within the athlete’s control. The results of the study would suggest that there are numerous psychological factors that play an important role in injury recovery. A number of other studies have demonstrated that speed of recovery was effected by goal setting, attitude, imagery, social support, and coping skills (Ievleva & Orlick,1991). One study demonstrated that imagery can be helpful in injury rehabilitation. Imagery is used often in training and competition, but athletes don’t use it as often for recovery from healing and need to be reminded of its efficacy (Sordoni, Hall & Forwell, 2000)

It has been found that an athlete’s inability to return to pre-injury performance levels was due to psychological factors and stressors rather than physical ones (Evans, Harding & Fleming, 2000). One of the factors with an impact on performance levels post-injury is the athlete’s perceived inability to demonstrate the same skills they enjoyed pre-injury. One example of this isa rugby player who returned to the game after suffering a shoulder injury. He favoured the injured shoulder and used the other shoulder more frequently. The result of this behaviour was that he put extra pressure on the one shoulder setting himself up for future injuries (Evans et al., 2000). When an athlete returns to the game before they are truly ready the risk for more injures or re-injury is increased. Even if an athlete has been told by his sports physician that they can return to competition they may not be ready psychologically (Evans et al., 2000). Cupal (1998) claims evidence exists that indicates when an athlete returns to the sport before they are psychologically ready they increase the risk of more injuries

There are different approaches to explaining how an athlete responds to injury. One of these approaches is designated the cognitive appraisal approach. This approach focuses on the athlete’s perception of the injury and it offers an explanation for individual differences in responses to injury and their perception of the injury (Brewer, 1994). Brewer (1994) believes that one of the positive aspects regarding the cognitive appraisal approach is that it offers explanations for the diverse responses to injuries unlike other methods that don’t provide such insight. There are a number of influencing factors with cognitive appraisal. The individual personality characteristics of the athlete that remain constant over time are a factor. Another factor is the athlete’s changeable situation which they have no control of. One example of this is time of season of the injury (Gayman & Crossman, 2003).

A study of the psychology of season ending injuries amongst skiers from the USA Ski Team was conducted (Gould, Udry, Bridges & Beck, 1997a; Gould, Udry, Bridges &Beck, 1997b). This study included lengthy interviews and revealed different factors of the injury experience. Researchers discovered that some athletes received what they perceived were benefits from the injury. If they had a problem with the stress of the competition they may see this injury as a blessing in disguise and a way out. Performance anxiety can be another reason why an athlete sees the injury as beneficial. Also, rehabilitation can be physically painful and emotionally trying (Gould et al., 1997a). Other factors researchers uncovered were the sources of stress, social support systems, and coping strategies. In some instances a severe injury can interfere with social activities especially if they are sports-oriented (Bianco, Malo, & Orlick,1999). Bianco et al. (1999) interviewed skiers from the Canadian Alpine Ski Team. What they learned was that there was an early phase when the athlete is injured or ill and then they move into a phase of rehabilitation where they begin to recover, and the last phase is when they are fully recovered and back to pre-injury activity. Every one of these phases included a set of events that influenced the emotional and cognitive responses (Granito, 2001, pg. 63). Researchers looked to cognitive appraisal to explain why some athletes suffer from greater psychological distress following an injury than others (Brewer, 1994). What they found was that the manner in which an athlete perceives the injury experience plays an important role in how well they recover and are able to return to pre-injury performance levels (Brewer, 2001, as cited in Gayman & Crossman, 2003).

The time of the year when an athlete is injured may determine how well and fast they recover and return to competition. For example, one athlete may be distraught and stressed over being injured post-season because after all his hard work and team effort he will not be able to participate in the play-offs. Another athlete may regard the injury as beneficial because they can get out of a horrendous season where the team didn’t do very well. The athlete who perceives the injury in a more positive light will have an easier time of recovery than the athlete who experiences more negative emotions surrounding the injury (Gayman & Crossman, 2003)

Pre-season is important because after a break from sports the athletes are ready to get back in the game again and are looking forward to try-outs. An injury sustained pre-season can be regarded in different ways. The more severe the injury is the greater the athlete’s frustration and disappointment (Gayman & Crossman, 2003). An injury that isn’t serious enough to keep the athlete out for the entire season may not be as devastating for some because they become motivated to heal and spend the rest of the season in the game. Different factors enter the picture for mid-season injuries. An athlete who is out due to injuries during mid-season can be more stressed because by this time the team members are bonding. The athlete will also have lost some of their physical abilities that are important to the game. The team has been traveling and playing many games together by mid-season and the injured athlete will feel that they are missing out on the camaraderie and fun (Gayman & Crossman, 2003). When an athlete is injured end of season the success of the entire team may be hindered and this is a source of great stress and disappointment for the athlete. If it’s the athlete’s last year of college, for example, the injury could end his career in sports. If the injury is severe enough regardless the season; it is devastating for the athlete and requires different and more intense coping techniques (Gayman & Crossman, 2003). Finally, the playoffs are important because the team has bonded and worked hard together for an entire season to get that far. Injuries sustained during this time could hamper efforts for the championship title not to mention the personal satisfaction of success (Gayman & Crossman 2003)

How an athlete reacts to their injury may be based on how they personally view the situation. For instance, injury in pre-season may be regarded more negatively by one athlete than another. It all depends on how they perceive the situation (Gayman & Crossman, 2003). There are different factors in the injury recovery process. One of those factors is gender differences. One study found there were differences in the perceptions of male and female injured athletes. It was found that male athletes had reported a more positive relationship with their coaches than the females. Males also were more apt to have a special person in their lives that they received emotional support from. It was discovered that female athletes were more apt to worry about how their injuries would affect their future health than the males (Granito, 2002). Regardless of male or female, it would appear that a good social support network and positive relationships with coaches are important when an athlete sustains an injury. There are, however, more factors involved in the success of an athlete’s rehabilitation and recovery than that of emotional support from others. Other interventions and coping mechanisms involve goal setting, imagery, and self-talk (Ievleva & Orlick, 1991)

There are numerous psychological intervention strategies for rehabilitation from sports related injuries. Oftentimes the athletes’ erroneous thoughts about intervention strategies keep them away from getting the help they need to recover more quickly and fully. The interventions could help them return to competition not only physically ready but psychologically ready as well. Due to a lack of knowledge and understanding leading to faulty beliefs about intervention strategies the athlete doesn’t always get the help they need. The efficacy of any post-injury therapy or treatment depends on the ability of the athlete to accept and receive different techniques and strategies (Myers et al., 2004).

One of the strategies in treatment for sports injuries that isn’t fully understood is that of positive self-talk. Self-talk in injury recovery is even less understood than other techniques and strategies even though athletes do use it for performance improvements. Athletes have used both self-talk that is instructional in nature and self-talk that consists of positive affirmations (Van Raalte, Cornelius, Brewer, & Hatton, 2000). Self-talk has been recognized as an effective tool for improvements in performance but unfortunately, has not been given as much thought as a strategy for recovery from injury. One reason that has been given to explain why there is a lack of knowledge regarding self-talk and its importance to recovery from injury has to do with understanding the fundamentals behind performance improvement in sports (Hardy, 2005)

There is a relationship between performance improvements and self-talk. It has been suggested that it’s the aspect of self-talk that involves functionality that sheds light on its relationship with performance. This includes the cognitive and motivational aspects of self-talk (Hardy, Gammage, & Hall, 2001a). Theodorakis, Weinberg, Natsis, Douma & Kazakas (2000) investigated the efficacy of self-talk with athletes using positive self-talk in proportion to the specific demands of their physical activity. Instructional self-talk was used for the technical demands and motivational self-talk was used for less technical demands such as the athlete’s strength and stamina. The researchers expected that instructional self-talk would be more effective when the demands of the activity involved skills and accuracy and the motivational self-talk would be more effective when the demands involved strength and stamina. The results demonstrated that instructional self-talk for technical demands met the researcher’s expectations, however when the demands were for motivational self-talk the results weren’t as expected (Hardy,2005). The researchers discovered that both types of self-talk generated an increase in performance in the activity of leg extensions but not in the activity of sit-ups which requires stamina. Theodorakis et al. (2000) believe one reason for this outcome is that there wasn’t an equal distribution of males and females for the study thus affecting the results. Theodorakis et al. rightly calls for more research in order to determine why positive self-talk (or negative) impacts athletic performance (Hardy, 2005).

One factor that may impact the effectiveness of self-talk on an athlete’s performance is how they interpret their self-talk as far as it relates to motivation. The athlete may regard their self-talk in either a negative or positive light (Hardy, Hall, & Alexander, 2001b). If an athlete regards their self-talk asde-motivating it certainly not help them recover faster and can even keep them from getting back to pre-injury performance levels. Theodorakis et al.(2000) explains that the lack of differences across groups in his study is that there are motivational aspects to the instructional self-talk and some of the self-talk used by the athletes may have been either motivating or de-motivating. Self-talk is supposed to be positive for the athlete. The attitude of the injured athlete is important to their recovery. If the athlete is optimistic their chances of recovery are greater and they have better coping mechanisms. Suggestions to encourage the athlete are for them to use only positive words, language and tone, during the rehabilitation-in and out of the clinic (Mind, Body, pg.1). Examples of positive self-talk are: “I will get through this” “I will recover fully” “I will get back to playing my sport, better than I was before” “I will get 115 degrees of flexion today” (Mind, Body, 2005, pg. 1). These self-talk strategies will create a more positive and healthy mind set in the injured athlete (Mind, Body,2005). In a study with tennis players it was found that instructional self-talk had a positive outcome on performance but not on self-efficacy (Landin & Hebert, 1999). It is suggested then that practitioners determine if the athlete finds self-talk is to be de-motivating or motivating. An athlete can learn to perceive themselves in a healthier and more self-affirming manner by engaging in positive self-talk (Hardy, 2005).

The speed with which an athlete recovers from injury can be increased by using certain mental strategies. It is up to the athlete and their physician to determine, in light of the patient’s situation and personal preferences, what would be the best strategy to ensure a rapid and full recovery from injury. The athlete and their sports doctor can be creative in coming up with what techniques seem to fit. Special attention should be given to the psychological state of the athlete and the seriousness of the injury. A comprehensive approach to injury management has been proven to be successful through research suggesting that by using more goal setting, positive self-talk, and imagery, athletes recover more quickly from injuries (Mind, Body, 2005, pg. 1)

Self-talk is useful for injury recovery and quite often for the management of physical pain and distressing emotional states. Self-talk is described as, .the endless stream of thoughts that run through your head every day (Chronic Pain, 2005, pg. 1). This self-talk or automatic thinking can be positive or negative and based on logic and reason (Chronic Pain, 2005, pg. 1). There are times when self-talk can be negative and based on faulty perceptions due to inadequate information. In order for self-talk to be effective for recovery from injury the faulty thinking must be recognized and changed. In order to recognize the faulty thinking it’s important to recognize the different categories of non-productive thinking. One method of thinking that is not positive self-talk is generalizing. An example of this is when the individual regards one event as a trigger for a never ending series of negative events. As the pain continues the individual thinks they will not be able to carry on as before and they begin to devalue themselves. Another example of negative thinking is when the individual thinks in terms of catastrophes. With this type of thinking the individual imagines the worst case scenario. For example, they imagine that the pain from the injury will become a problem and they will become embarrassed if out in public or with friends (Chronic Pain, 2005). Another example of catastrophic thinking is when the athlete thinks things will never change and they will never get any better (Lake, 2005). Polarizing is another thinking style that leads to negative self-talk. This is when the individual sees everything as black and white, good or bad, positive or negative. They cannot concede that there is oftentimes a place in the middle. One of the more serious consequences of this thinking is that the individual feels they have to be perfect or else they are a failure; there is no acceptance of the fact that they are human like everyone else and can make mistakes while not seeing themselves as losers. Filtering is when the individual looks at the negative thoughts in a situation through a magnifying glass and minimizes the positive thoughts. One example given of this is when the individual did a great job at work that day but when they get home they realize they forgot to do one thing. The entire evening is ruined because the individual sits there and ruminates on that one task they failed to do. All the accolades they received that day from boss and co-workers is forgotten and only the negative is focused upon. Another negative thinking pattern that leads to unhealthy self-talk is that of personalizing. When something unpleasant, unfortunate, or bad happens the individual thinks that they are blame, even if it’s something out of their control and has nothing to do with them. Emotionalizing is thinking where the heart rules the head. Objectivity is pushed aside for irrational thinking. One example of this is if an individual feels they are dull or stupid and therefore they believe that is what they are (Chronic Pain, 2005).

This type of thinking is dangerous for the athlete especially one who is recovering from an injury. The athlete must recognize the negative thinking and begin the exercise of positive self-talk. An interesting rule of thumb regarding the process of positive self-talk is as follows:

Don’t say anything to yourself that you wouldn’t say to someone else

Be gentle and encouraging. If a negative thought enters your mind, evaluate it rationally and respond with affirmations of what is good about yourself. Eventually your self-talk will automatically contain less self-criticism and more self-acceptance. Your spontaneous thoughts will become more positive and rational. (Chronic Pain, 2005, pg. 1)

What people say to themselves all too often sets the stage for how they look at life and what they do about it. One example of this is when the individual comes home after a day of working and says, I don’t want to exercise today. It’s cloudy outside, there’s no one to walk with, and besides, I’ve already exercised twice this week (Managing Your Pain, 2005, pg.1). A more positive way to respond to this situation is to say, “I don’t feel like exercising today, but I know I’ll feel better afterward and have an easier time falling asleep” (Managing Your Pain, 2005, pg.1). These examples are very important in retraining the mind to engage in positive self-talk. The self-talk one engages in can literally change the way an individual experiences physical pain. Negative messages can lead to increased pain, while positive messages can help distract you from pain (Managing Your Pain, 2005, pg. 1)

There are several steps to take in order to change negative self-talk that leads to increased pain into positive self-talk which speeds up the healing process and leads to decreased pain. The first of these steps is for the individual to make a list of all negative self-talk engaged in. The second step is to change each negative statement on the list into a positive statement. One example would be the following, I’m tired and don’t feel like attending my support group tonight, but if I don’t go I might miss out on some good tips like the ones I learned last month. I can always leave the meeting a little early” (Managing Your Pain, 2005, pg. 1). The third step is to practice the positive self-talk. Even though it doesn’t come naturally and may take some time to become comfortable with keep at it until it becomes second nature (Managing Your Pain, 2005, pg. 1).

Sports studies with business

Chapter 1 – Introduction

The importance of physical activity and physical fitness in terms of “… health and longevity …” have been linked since the “… earliest records of organized exercise used in health promotion … (which were) … found in China around 2500 B.C….” (Hardman et al, 2003, p. 3). Hippocrates, who is “… often called the Father of Modern Medicine, wrote …”:

“… all parts of the body which have a function, if used in moderation and exercised in labours in which each is accustomed, become thereby healthy, well-developed and age more slowly, but if unused and left idle they become liable to disease, defective in growth and age quickly” (Hardman et al, 2003, p. 3).

The link between exercise and health has been a long established fact in medicine that also traces back to “Cicero in 44 BC (who was himself echoing Aristotle) …” who believed that health as one ages is improved by having a good diet along with exercise and mental stimulation (Harlow, 2006). In fact, Cicero “… saw old age as something yet to happen to him …” when he was in his sixties and writing his treatise in an period when less than “… seven percent of the population reached sixty” (Harlow, 2006). The preceding three factors of diet, exercise and mental stimulation as mentioned by Cicero are ingredients that are present in when one participates in sports.

The subject of elderly participation in sporting activities in the United Kingdom represents one of considerable importance as the percentage of older adults increases in proportion to the UK’s total population. This examination shall seek to equate the participation rates for sports in the United Kingdom, delving into how, and if social class represents a contributing factor concerning the potential of this group participating in sporting activities in later life. The prospect of sport participation in later life shall also be undertaken along with whether social class enters into this facet as well concerning participation rates.

The importance of age is impacting the population in the United Kingdom whereby the number of people over the age of 65 has increased to 16 percent, with the age group 85 and older comprising 12 percent of the total population (National Statistics, 2007). The significance of the foregoing is that people are living longer as a result of better nutrition, health care, and living conditions as well as life styles (Quanten, 2004). Interestingly, Quanten (2004) makes the observation that medical science has determined that our basis for calculating the longevity of ancient civilizations is faulty in that the technique utilized in estimating age was based upon bone density. The bone samples generally belonged to middle aged men and women, thus the formula utilized to determine age was based upon the weakening of said density which was slower then than it is now (Quanten, 2004). Thus it was found that the estimation of age has been seriously under represented, putting the average life span of early man in the range of somewhere between 80 and 100 years, meaning that in modern terms civilization has lost ground in aging as opposed to gaining, as was the consensus of thought (Quanten, 2004). Evidence supporting the preceding in today’s world can be found in the fact that there are many examples of individuals living to 120 to 130 years, with the vast majority of them living in extreme conditions where a high degree of physical labour is required for survival, as represented by jungles untouched by modern society, and harsh climates as found in Northern Russia (Quanten, 2004). The common fact linking the ancient study and present day examples of individuals living 120 to 130 years is that their environments were and are more physical in their demands, with the lifestyles requiring more exercise.

Kligman and Pepin (1992, pp. 33-34, 37-44. 47), the American College of Sports Medicine (1998, pp. 992-1008), Dishman (1994, pp. 1087-1094) and Nelson et al (1991, pp. 1304-1311) along with numerous other sources all attest to the benefits of exercise in early life as well as throughout life as beneficial in staving off disease as well as prolonging life. Studies as undertaking by Shepard (1993, pp. 61-64) and, Paffenbarger et al (1989, pp. 605-613) for example, cite incidences in Finland as well as Harvard University in the United States where those who consistently exercised lived on average 2 to 3 years longer that their more sedentary counterparts.

The foregoing brief examples and analysis of age and exercise has been conducted to provide an initial foundation for understanding the framework of this examination which shall delve into elderly sports participation rates in the United Kingdom. The topic of this study is to attempt to determine, if possible, how social class affects the likelihood of doing sporting activities in later life, with its aim to see if social class does have an influence on people taking/carrying on sporting activity in this context. In conducting this examination, the foregoing also seek to compare individuals in the age group representing 55 years of age and above who participate in sporting activities against those who do not through a comparison of their social class backgrounds as represented by working middle class and upper middle class classifications to determine if any correlation exists.

Chapter 2 – Literature Review

Resnick et al (2006, p. 174), in “Screening for and Prescribing Exercise for Older Adults” advise that there is substantial scientific evidence that supports the benefits of exercise in maintaining “… function, health, and overall quality of life for older adults. The article advises that physical activity represents “… one of the greatest opportunities to extend …” an individual’s active as well as independent life and reduce the incidence of disability, and that regular physical activity by older adults are more likely to have better health (Resnick et al, 2006, pp. 174-182). In spite of the clear evidence of the preceding, most adults do not participate or engage in either sport or physical activity, and unfortunately the prescription of a regular physical regime is not yet a routine clinical practice (Resnick et al, 2006, pp. 174-182). The article went on to state that the best methodology via which to engage in a sport or physical exercise is to first seek the aid of a physician to reach a determination of one’s present medical and physical state in order for a person to understand the types of activities they should / can engage in, as well as seeking help with a program to ease them into a proper regime.

The Council of Europe (1993) defines sport as encompassing “… all forms of physical activity …” which includes casual participation for which the aim of the activity is to improve “… physical fitness and mental well-being …” along with the formation of social relationships and or obtaining competitive results. As such, the foregoing expands what one traditionally understands as the defintion of sport into a broader context that includes individual sport as well as fitness activities that include certain dance activities, and aerobics along with walking and cycling (Rowe et al, 2004). The Council of Europe’s (1993) definition includes informal and casual participation, along with the more serious club and professional pursuits (Rowe et al, 2004). The study conducted by Rowe et al (2004) defined participation as at least once a week in the activity, and found that the evidence collected indicated that the United Kingdom had moved towards stagnation with regard to participation levels. The following chart reflects these findings:

Table 1 – Sport, Game and Phyisical Activity Participation in the United Kingdom

(Rowe et al, 2004)

Age

Participation %

1987

Participation %

1993

Participation %

1996

16-19

80

81

79

20-24

69

70

69

25-29

65

67

65

30-44

57

59

58

45-59

35

43

40

60-69

24

28

30

70+

9

15

12

The preceding indicates the fluctuating levels of particpation occuring at the rate of at least one time a week over a four week period for the indicated periods. The following Table shows the foregoing, but excludes walking.

Table 2 – Participation in Sports, Games and Physical Activity

(Excludes walking)

(Rowe et al, 2004)

Age

Percent

Males

Percent

Females

30-44

76

52

45-59

50

39

60-69

45

29

70+

20

10

Social class differences explored in the study by Rowe et al (2004) showed a marked difference in sport participation between the highest and lowest social classifications, as one would expect owing to differences in the ability to spend time on pursuits as a result of disposable income and time, in addition to living closer to facilities and or having the transportation and or a circle of friends who also participate, thus making sport an increased part of their lifestyle.

Table 3 – Differences in Social Class, Sport Participation 1987 – 1996

(Rowe et al, 2004)

Social Class

1987

(Percent)

1990

(Percent)

1993

(Percent)

1996

(Percent)

Professional

65

65

64

63

Senior Manager

52

53

53

52

Junior Manager

47

49

49

48

Skilled

49

50

46

45

Semi-skilled

34

37

35

36

Unskilled

27

28

30

24

Table 4 – Projected Chanages in Number of Sport Participants between 1996 – 2026, Based on Trends Established 1990 – 1996

(Rowe et al, 2004)

Age

1996

(in thousands)

2026

(in thousands)

30-44

6,300

5,500

45-59

3,500

3,600

60-69

1,300

2,400

70+

700

950

The total number of estimated particpants in varied sports activity is shown projected into the year 2026 in the above Table. The increased number is due to the rise of the number of people in these age groups as opposed to actual increased participation (Rowe et al, 2004). Older aged individuals, as shown by Tables 1 and 2 have significantly lower sport activity participation rates which to a large degree, as expressed in the study conducted by Rowe et al (2004), is due to reduced participation in their social group, aliments, lack of income, non-inclusion in their lifestyle as well as being uninformed that sport and exercise represent a healthful benefit that should be continued throughout an individual’s life.

Thurston and Green (2004, pp. 379-387) support the previous contention of the development of more active lifestyles for older individuals, as does the Department of Health (1995) in their document “More People, More Active, More Often. Physical Activity in England”, and Department of Health douments in the years 1999, 2000, 2001 and 2002 that all make references to the overwhelming evidence that indicates that frequent and regular physical activity is beneficial to health. The foregoing includes an increased life expectancy, diabetes, control over obesity, reduction in coronary heart disease, positive health outcomes, increased mobility and coordination as well as other benefits (Thurston and Green, 2004, pp. 379-387). Studies have shown that even if an adult begins sport and exercise programs as late as 60 years of age they can improve their life expectancy by 1 to 2 years, however 40% of adults in the above 60 year age group do not partake in such a regime even if they were aware of the benefits (Thurston and Green, 2004, pp. 379-387).

The understanding of the importance of the older generation as a part of the overall national profile as well as economic, health, medical and social system, the House of Lords published is document titled “Aging: Scientific Aspects”, in 2005 (House of Lords, 2005). The Report stated that the “… economic implications of changing life expectancy are … of great importance …”, with the “… urgency of these matters … “made plain from statistics that point out “… for the first time the number of people in England and Wales aged 60 and over was greater than the number aged under 16” (House of Lords, 2005). When the figures for what is termed the ‘oldest old’, meaning individuals above the age of 85 are included, the implications are even more striking:

Table 5 – Oldest Old Comparisons, UK and the World

(House of Lords, 2005)

Age

Year

UK

Globe

85

1900

5%

1%

85

2000

16%

7%

85

2020

20%

12%

85

2050

—

20%

The growth rate of the aging population in the United Kingdom is outstripping the global rate to the point whereby the UK is projected to reach a figure of 20% of its total population in 2020, fully thirty years before the global population will reach that figure, thus making the prospect of old age health an important one for the country.

Table 6 – Life Expectancy, United Kingdom

(House of Lords, 2005)

Sex

Year

Age

Year

Age

Increase

In Years

United Kingdom

Males

1981

70.8

2002

75.9

5.1

Females

1981

76.8

2002

80.5

3.7

England

Males

2002

76.2

Females

2002

80.7

Scotland

Males

2002

73.5

Females

2002

78.9

The above Table indicates that the life expectancy in England is higher when counted alone. In examining the elderly sports participation rate for the older population in the United Kingdom utilizing social class distinctions, it is important equate the defining aspects of these groups. The following defines the preceding as found in the House of Lords document “Aging: Scientific Aspects”:

Table 7 – Social Class Segments

(House of Lords, 2005)

Class Description

Examples of Occupations

Non-manual

Professional

Doctors, chartered accountants,

professionally qualified engineers

Managerial and

Technical/intermediate

Managers, school teachers,

journalists

Skilled non-manual

Clerks, cashiers, retail staff

Manual

Skilled manual

Supervisors of manual workers,

Plumbers, electricians, goods

Vehicle drivers

Partly skilled

Warehousemen, security guards,

machine tool operators, care

assistants. Waiters and waitresses

Unskilled

Labourers, cleaners and

messengers

Table 8 – Life Expectancy by Social Class

(House of Lords, 2005)

Class Description

Life Expectancy Gap

Life Expectancy Gap

Non-manual

Males

Females

Professional

7.4

3.1

Manual

Unskilled

5.9

2.6

The preceding Table represented an aid in the later determination of social class and if this factor has any bearing, and or influence upon participation in carrying on sporting activities in later life. The House of Lord’s report on “Aging: Scientific Aspects” did indicate through the study of varied reports as well as consultations that it came to the conclusion, which is a consensus view, “… that aging is caused by lifelong accumulation of molecular and cellular damage …” as opposed to the theory of a “… rigid inner clock …” (House of Lords, 2005). Importantly, the ‘Report’ indicated that the process of aging “… is more malleable than has been generally appreciated …” and that the “… mechanisms governing health in old age …” are processes that are ongoing throughout the lives of individuals (House of Lords, 2005). In reference to the implications of this examination, the ‘Report’ “… summarized what appears to be a consensus view …” regarding the key factors promoting good health as well as slowing down the ageing process as (House of Lords, 2005):

physical activity;
having a social role and function;
good nutrition;
absence of risk factors such as smoking and drinking to excess; and
good mental health and well-being

The ‘Report’ stressed that physical activity represents a ‘key’ facet of good health and “… is the major modifiable influence on health in old age” (House of Lords, 2005). In making such a statement the ‘Report’ referred to ‘The Royal Society of Edinburgh’ which stated that exercise has been shown as being a critical factor in maintaining as well as modestly increasing bone density of adults, and more importantly can aid in the minimization of bone loss in older individuals (House of Lords, 2005). The overall ‘Report’ on “Aging: Scientific Aspects” provided key background information that proved helpful, with regard to general information, and indispensable with regard to demographic groups, exercise, and the government’s recognition of the importance of the issue as well as the specific and key identification of key points.

With regard to sport, the Department for Culture, Media and Sport (2007a) aims to encourage wider sports participation, and in regard to the focus of this examination, to promote sport at the grassroots level, which has implications concerning facilities that the older generation either has available, and or needs (Department for Culture, Media and Sport, 2007b). In its Report “Where are we Now: The State of Sport Today”, it clarifies that the government does not run sport, but recognizes it as an important factor in the health, and well being of children, adults, and the older generation (Department for Culture, Media and Sport, 2007b). Overall, across all age and demographic groups, the United Kingdom ranks in the middle of the European Union in sports participation by the general public, as shown by the following:

Table 9 – European Union General Population Sport Participation

(In Percent)

(Department for Culture, Media and Sport, 2007b)

Country

Participate

more than

12 times a year

Occasional,

less than

12 times a year

Non-Participant,

takes part in some

other physical

activities

Non- Participant,

no other physical

activities

Finland

79

2

16

3

Sweden

70

0

8

22

Netherlands

57

6

37

0

UK

47

20

15

19

Ireland

43

21

10

26

Spain

25

6

43

26

Italy

18

5

37

40

In terms of intensity, individuals in the United Kingdom participate in sports on a less regular basis, and with less intensity (Department for Culture, Media and Sport, 2007b). The last aspect does not have applicability with regard to older adults, however the former is a telling statistics concerning its bearing on older sports participation.

Table 10 – UK Sport Participation

(In percent)

(Department for Culture, Media and Sport, 2007b)

Rate of Intensity

Country

Intensive

Regular

Occasional/rare

UK

18

10

72

Sweden

37

22

41

Finland

39

34

27

The following table indicates the rates of participation of residents in the UK.

Table 11 – Competitive and Organized Sport Participation in the UK

(Department for Culture, Media and Sport, 2007b)

Age Groups

Percent

16-19

54

20-24

47

25-29

36

30-34

35

35-39

30

40-44

25

45-49

20

50-54

19

55-59

17

60-64

14

65+

10

The ‘Report’ indicates participation rates among social economic groups varies, however it does not break out these statistics into age groups.

Table 12 – UK General Population Sports Participation by Social Economic Group

(Department for Culture, Media and Sport, 2007b)

Socio-Economic Group

Males

Females

Unskilled manual

34

19

Semi-skilled manual

49

29

Skilled manual

48

34

Intermediate/junior

Non-manual

61

43

Employer/manager

56

49

Professional

61

67

Table 13 – UK Sport Participation by Ethnic Minority

(Department for Culture, Media and Sport, 2007b)

Ethnic Group

Male

Female

Black Caribbean

45

34

Black African

60

34

Black other

80

45

Indian

47

32

Pakistani

42

21

Bangladeshi

47

29

Chinese

53

39

Other

51

41

National Average

54

39

Sport England (2005) undertook a study that systematically reviewed published and unpublished research studies regarding children, and adult reasons concerning participation as well as non-participation in sport, which this examination utilized to add to the other research and literature sources. An important facet that was identified in the study was one representing an individual’s personal appearance and proficiency levels. The preceding two aspects are generally overlooked factors that are a part of a person’s sport participation consideration. The very real concern of having an unfit body, being out of shape, not able to conduct certain aspects of sport participation performance on a level that could potentially lead to personal embarrassment, are very real concerns that could and do enter into dissuading individuals from participating in a sporting activity (Sport England, 2005).

Facilities and availability are also factors that enter into the participation equation, along with costs. For example, the incidence of parks, walkways, golf, tennis, cricket, bicycle paths, gym facilities and the like are more likely to be located near to upper income neighbourhoods than lower income

Critically analyse how the physiological benefits of exercise contribute to an improvement in coping with the physical demands of everyday life in this client group and how it compares with traditional Physiotherapy Techniques (Postural Drainage and Percussion)

Cystic fibrosis is an inherited disease very common among Caucasians, but rare in Asians and Negroes. It is an autosomal recessive condition, with an estimated one in twenty of a Caucasian population heterozygous for the condition. The number of live births of children having cystic fibrosis is high; between 1 in 500 and 1in 3000 (P. Howard, 1991 p.137), or 1 in 2000 (P. McGowan, 20003 p.142, G.K. Crompton, 1987 p.289). In the UK a figure of 1 in 4000 is given (W.J.M/ Kinnear et al, 1999 p.52). Kinnear et al (p. 52) also suggest a reason for the extremely high number (1 in 20) of heterozygotes in the population, that perhaps this high number is the result of some selection advantage, in this case possibly providing some protection from severe secretory diarrhoea caused by for example cholera.

A mutation in a single gene (called pf) causes a defect in a plasma membrane protein called cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTC). This gene is found on chromosome 7 (W.J.M. Kinnear et al, 1991 p. 52), and it is this gene that normally controls the movement of calcium ions. With it non-functional, calcium ions cannot pass through the membrane (P.H. Raven & G.B. Johnson, 2002 p.261). As with many other inherited disorders, the pf gene has pleiotropic effects, i.e. one gene has multiple effects, in this case overly sticky mucus, clogged blood vessels, salty sweat, pancreas and liver failure and many other symptoms (Raven & Johnson, 2002, p.253).

Sometimes the gene appears to have the correct amino acid sequence but the condition is still produced. This appears to be due to a defect in one of the chaperone proteins, proteins that enable the gene product to fold to its final form. With the chaperone protein defective this does not occur and so cystic fibrosis is still the result (P.H. Raven & GB Johnson, 2002 p.44). The table below shows (a) features of cystic fibrosis, (a) and (b) some complications arising from it.

FEATURES OF CYSTIC FIBROSIS

Respiratory manifestations

Gastrointestinal manifestations

Recurrent bronchopulmonary infection

Meconium ilius

Bronchiectasis

Rectal prolapse

Diarrhoea

Failure to thrive

Malabsorption

COMPLICATIONS OF CYSTIC FIBROSIS

Respiratory complications

Other complications

Bronchiectasis

Abdominal pain

Cor pulmonale

Biliary cirrhosis

Haemoptysis

Delayed puberty

Lobar collapse

Diabetes mellitus

Allergic aspergillosus

Gall stones

Sinusitis

Growth failure

Nasal polyps

Male infertility

Wheezing

Portal hypertension

Pneumothorax

Rectal prolapse

(Definitions:cor pulmonale: disease of the heart characterised by hypertropy and dilation of the right ventricle and secondary disease of the lungs or their blood vessels.

Bronhiectasis: a chronic inflammatory or degenerative condition of one or more bronchi or bronchioles marked by dilation and loss of elasticity of the walls. Anon, 2006 in Medline Plus, Medical Dictionary)

Other complications can also occur, some these being given by P. McGowan (2003 p.142) as Meningitis, Metastatic abscess (e.g. in the brain, and Amyloid formation (e.g. in the kidney).

At present cystic fibrosis is always a fatal condition, death occurring either from the condition itself, or from one of its many complications. However the outlook for the patient, both in terms of life span and quality of life has continued to improve over the last few decades. Where once it was largely a disease of childhood with only about 5% reaching the age of 17, a 1987 publication estimates perhaps 25% surviving to age 20 (G.K. Crompton, 1987 p. 292). By 2003 though, the mean survival had risen to 29 years (P. McGowan, 2003. p.143).

There are several methods of treatment for cystic fibrosis, improvements in some of these being responsible for much of the improvement in outcome for patients seen today. These methods will be discussed, in particular the traditional physiotherapy methods of Postural Drainage and Percussion, and compared to the effect of exercise on the patient’s prognosis. But first a brief consideration of the effects of cystic fibrosis so that it is clear what the treatment is aiming to change.

Cystic Fibrosis: Signs and Symptoms

Cystic fibrosis is primarily a disease of the respiratory system, although various other parts of the body are also affected. It is caused by the gene mutation referred to in the introduction. There are up to 500 different mutations, but 3 main ones, which cause 90% of the cases (W.J.M. Kinnear et al, 1999, p.52). These adversely affect the exocrine glands and the mucus-secreting glands, resulting in excess mucus and difficulty in clearing it. All such glands are affected, thus its wide ranging effects on other organs apart from the lungs, e.g. the pancreas. The excess mucus production is difficult to remove, due to impaired ciliary action in the airways leading to repeat infections and bronchiectasis.

The disease is normally present at birth, although initially it may be asymptomatic or confused with other respiratory conditions such as asthma. Early signs of the disease are not always of a respiratory nature however, as some new-borns present with meconium ilius, while in some young children malabsorption and failure to thrive occur (W.J.M. Kinnear et al, 1999, p.52). Respiratory complications are however, the main feature, and generally present by age ten. Thick, viscid mucus is produced which is difficult to shift, and the bronchial obstruction it causes leads to infection. This leads to further obstruction as DNA from dead bacteria increases the viscosity and so produces a cycle of infection and increasing viscosity.

Coughs, occasional at first, become more frequent, eventually leading to bronchiectasis with persistant purulent sputum expectoration. There may be blood in the sputum (haemoptysis), wheezing and intestinal obstruction, and the patient may become breathless (P. Howard, 1991, p. 28). These conditions worsen, nutrition may be poor leading to stunted growth, and finger clubbing becomes common as bronchial infection takes hold, and finally, in the terminal stages there may be cyanosis and cor pulmonale

As can be seen from the aforementioned, cystic fibrosis is not a straightforward disease, and often, especially in babies and young children positive diagnosis can be difficult. Symptoms may be similar to other respiratory conditions, particularly in the early stages, plus secondary conditions may occur. These include infections such as with Staphylococcal pneumonia, this initial infection allowing further infections with other bacteria, particularly where broad spectrum antibiotics have been used so removing non-pathogens and allowing colonisation by drug resistant Staphylococci. If the patient survives to 16 or 17 years of age gastrointestinal problems may continue, but then respiratory disease tends to dominate, ending with cor pulmonale and/or respiratory failure (P. Howard, 1991, p138).

Because of the variety of symptoms and the difficulty sometimes of diagnosing cystic fibrosis, there is no one specific treatment, treatment being aimed at the removal of mucus secretions so aiding prevention and control of pulmonary symptoms (GK Crompton, 1987, p. 291). And this is the more effective the earlier in the disease process it is started. Thus a definite diagnosis as early as possible will lead to more effective treatment.

Various tests are carried out when cystic fibrosis is suspected. This may be because of a family history of the disease, failure of the child to grow at the expected rate, gastrointestinal problems or other respiratory problems such as asthma with which it may be confused. Pre-natal diagnosis may be carried out by amniocentesis or chorion-villous sampling if parents are known to be carriers of the condition. Otherwise various tests, e.g. the Guthrie test, the Immunoreactive trypsin test or most commonly the Sweat test (in which raised levels of sodium and chloride in the sweat are taken as a clear indication of the disease and is the most accurate test for this) are carried out. However the sweat test is not always so effective in adults.

Traditional Treatments: Postural Drainage and Percussion

Once the condition has been diagnosed treatment should be started immediately, even if the child has only minor symptoms or is asymptomatic. Treatment(s) may be based on any or all of the following: Physiotherapy, Antibiotics, DNase (to degrade the bacterial DNA that builds up in the airways, Anti-inflammatory drugs and nutritional support. It is the physiotherapy treatment that will now be considered.

The two traditional physiotherapy techniques that are used for Cystic Fibrosis patients are Postural Drainage and Percussion. As the name implies, the former technique centres around placing the patient in a particular posture to facilitate draining of excess mucus from the airways. It is used in the treatment of bronchiectasis and lung abscesses, and the patient is placed head downwards so that the trachea is down and below the affected area so allowing drainage to occur (Anon, 2006). The use of postural drainage has quite a long history, with the first reference to its use in 1901 by W. Ewart in the Lancet (L. Lannefors et al, 2004). Ewart suggested continuous drainage for hours, with the patient sleeping in the position if possible.

For postural drainage their are 12 positions, one for each lung unit, and once the patient is in the appropriate one percussion is applied (L.Lannefors et al, 2004). Percussion is a technique used to assess changes in the thorax or abdomen, and is carried out by tapping the surface to deduce the underlying structure. It is “done with the middle finger of the right hand tapping on the middle finger of the left hand, which is positioned with the whole palm on the body” (Anon, 2006). This can produce four different sounds, sonorous, hypersonorous, relatively dull sound, or completely dull sound, these indicating the structure below. For example a solid mass will produce a dull sound, while a hollow, air-containing structure will produce a sonorous sound.

No studies have been carried out on the effects of manual percussion, but it is thought that air trapped between the chest wall and the cupped hand produces a vibratory wave that loosens secretions attached to the airway walls. These two techniques are often used in conjunction, a problem with the postural draining being the time that the patient must lie in the appropriate position, an hour being suggested as the effective time. For babies and toddlers an hour in this position is only likely to be possible when they are asleep. For older patients compliance with the treatment may be difficult – how many children or teenagers can happily stay still in a particular position for up to an hour without boredom setting in?

But what of the actual effectiveness of these techniques? They have been used for a long time now often with modifications to the original method. There is much in the literature concerning these methods but including much that is conflicting, leaving the benefit of these treatments not always clear.

There are now many techniques for airway clearance including variations on the two in question, thus it is difficult to make a straight comparison between them all. SG Butler and RJ Sutherland (1998) looked at several airway clearance techniques and concluded that no one technique was shown superior to the others. But a long-term study comparing conventional postural drainage and percussion with the positive expiratory pressure (PEP) technique found PEP to be significantly better. One other study looking at several techniques concluded that there was no particular difference between them, but that all were better than no treatment (J Thomas & D Brooks, 1995).

More recent papers indicate a lesser use of postural drainage in its original form, for example BM Button et al, (2004), compared traditional postural drainage with a modified form and found that the latter resulted in less episodes of gastro-oesophageal reflux. Similarly a review of the physiotherapy management of hospitalised children (K Farbotko et al, 2005) revealed a significant decrease in the use of postural drainage, but an increase in the use of a modified postural drainage system, and positive expiratory pressure devices. Other methods showed no significant change in their use.

Another recent study (F Dennis & MJ Rosen, 2006) considered non pharmacological airway clearance therapies by reviewing many papers on the subject, and concluded that such therapies did increase airway clearance, but that their effect compared with the unassisted cough was unknown. Thus there are many studies but they are often not comparable, they assess different methods, do not always have large enough sample sizes to make statistical comparisons, and of course are using different groups of patients who may vary in many ways. For instance in age, sex, seriousness of their symptoms, or in compliance with the treatments. CM Oermann et al, (2000) found that it was the sicker patients who were more likely to be compliant, something that could skew results if not taken into account in further studies.

Benefits of Exercise

In recent years more emphasis has been placed on the use of exercise as a means of treating cystic fibrosis patients, and for these an improvement in aerobic capacity is particularly useful. Exercise has benefits for all, and changes in both anaerobic and aerobic systems can occur depending on the type of training undertaken. Improvements in anaerobic systems are of more use in preparing for short-lived events requiring power or speed, e.g. weight lifting or sprinting, while improvements in aerobic systems are needed for distance events. In patients whose respiratory systems are compromised as in cystic fibrosis there will often be a reduction in lung volume or distensibility, with a corresponding reduction in vital capacity, total lung capacity and also inspiratory muscle strength (M Estenne et al, 1993). For these patients aerobic exercise is likely to be useful.

Aerobic respiration causes various changes in the individuals’ metabolism and in the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Some of these are listed below, the list being compiled from Exercise Physiology, by McArdale et al, (1996)

Metabolic Adaptations
Mitochondria from trained skeletal muscle become larger and more numerous
Increased capacity to generate ATP
An increase in the trained muscles capacity to mobilise, deliver and oxidise lipids
Increased carbohydrate metabolism
Selective hypertrophy of fast and slow twitch muscle types depending on use
Cardiovascular and Respiratory Adaptations
Heart size generally increases
Increase in plasma volume
Heart rate decreases as a result of aerobic training
The heart’s stroke volume and cardiac output increases
A significant increase in quantity of oxygen extracted from the blood
Aerobic training causes a large increase in total muscle blood flow during maximal exercise
Blood pressure is reduced both at rest and at sub-maximal exercise
Psychological benefits.

A consideration of the above list indicates several changes of interest for the cystic fibrosis patient, for example the increase in oxygen extracted from the blood and an increase in the ability to oxidise lipids. And psychological changes produced by sport or any physical activity are important for both the healthy individual and the CF patient. It can reduce mild depression, aid in sleeping, and give confidence in ones physical abilities, all which will make the patient more confident in themselves and in their handling of their condition. Although exercise alone is not going to replace all other treatments, it has a definite place as one of them, especially in the earlier and milder stages of the disease.

An overview of treatment for cystic fibrosis (L Lannefors et al, 2004), describes the methods used at the Lund CF Centre in Sweden, starting in the 1980’s. There the treatment is tailored to each individual, with an emphasis on physical activity and absolutely no use of postural drainage or percussion (not used there since 1983). The treatment is started as soon as the condition is diagnosed and incorporates much physical activity. This is particularly important for babies or very young children, as they need to get used to someone applying physiotherapy. Left to the age of 3 or 4 years the child may not be very amenable to what to them is a boring and pointless activity, but started sooner is more likely to accept the treatment.

The activity part of the treatment is tailored for each individual with their input taken into account, and aims to keep air-ways as clear as possible using physical activity, and physical activity as therapy for adults with bronchiectasis has been described ( J Pryor, 2004). Although there appears to be little to back the approach considering the lack of rigorous clinical studies available, it does appear from accumulated clinical experience that patients benefit from it.

The paper by DM Orenstein et al, (2004) considers at length strength and aerobic training in children with cystic fibrosis, with many similar points made as in L Lannefors et al, (2004) overview of CF treatments. The introduction to this paper contains a brief review of many others, often showing similarities in results but not backed up by rigorous clinical studies. This study is the first fully randomised trial, measuring fitness, pulmonary function and quality of life, and was tested on a home based exercise programme. The CF patients were chosen according to pre-set criteria and randomly allocated to treatments. Thus the results could be analysed to check for any significant changes in outcomes.

Results for this study were not always as expected, particularly for the aerobic training group which showed no increase in measures of aerobic fitness over time. It did not produce any greater fitness or pulmonary function than strength training. However both groups showed significant increases in weight gain, of particular importance, as CF children are often underweight leading to increased morbidity and mortality. The trial did not always give the expected results, but as great care had been taken with the experimental design, at least the results could be properly quantified and analysed.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it would appear that work still needs to be done regarding appropriate experimental design, to fully understand the rationales for treatment, and to fully appreciate the effect of physical activity on aerobic capacity and disease progression. For as Orenstain et al comment:

“Exercise has the ability to improve the ability of a patient with Cystic Fibrosis to cope with the physical demands of everyday life” (Chest 2004, 126:1204-1214)

REFERENCES
Anon (2006) Medline Plus on-line Medical Dictionary http://www2.merriam-webster.com/cgi-bin/mwmednlm accessed 29/04/06
Butler, SG, & Sutherland, RJ (1998) Current airway clearance techniques. New Zealand Medical Journal vol 111:183-186
Button, BM, Heine, RG, Catto-Smith, AG, Phelan, PD & Olinsky, A (2004) Archives of Disease in Childhood vol 89:435-439
Crompton,GK (1987) ‘Diagnosis and Management of Respiratory Diseases’ 2^nd ed pub: Blackwll Scientific Publications
Dennis, F, & Rosen, MJ (2006) Monpharmacological Airway Clearance Therapies Chest. vol 129;250S-259S
Estenne, M., Gevenois, PA, Kinnear, W, Soudon, P, Heilporn, A & De Troyer, A. (1993) Lung volume restriction in patients with chronic respiratory muscle weakness: the role of microatelectasis. Thorax vol. 48(7):698-701
Farbotko, K, Wilson, C, Watter, P and MacDonald, J (2005) Change in physiotherapy management of children with cystic fibrosis in a large urban hospital. Physiotherapy Theory and Practice vol. 21(1)pp13-21
Howard, P (1991) ‘Respiratory Medicine in Clinical Practice’ pub: Edward Arnold
Kinnear, WJM, Johnston, IDA. & Hall, IP. (1999) ‘Key Topics in Respiratory Medicine’ pub: Biosis Scientific Publishers
Lannefors, L, Button, BM & Mcilwaine, M. (2004) Physiology in infants and young children with cystic fibrosis: current practice and future developments. Journal. of the Royal Society of Medicine vol 97 (suppl 44):8-25
McArdle, WC. Katch FI, & Katch, VL. (1996) ‘Exercise Physiology: Energy, Nutrition, and Human Performance’ 4^th ed. Williams & Watkins, pub: McGowan, P (2003) ‘Respiratory System’ 2^nd ed. Mosby, pub.
McIlwaine, PM, Wong, LT, Peacock, D & Davidson, AGF (1997) Journal of Pediatrics vol 131(4):570-574
Raven, PH & Johnson, GB (2002) ‘Biology’ 6^th ed. pub: McGraw Hill,
Oermannr, CM, Swank, PR & Sockrider, MM. (2000) Chest vol 118(1):92-97
Orenstein, DM, Hovell, Mulvihill, MF, Keating, KK, Hofstetter, CR, Kelsey, S, Morris, K, and Nixon, PA. (2004) Strength vs Aerobic Training in Children with Cystic Fibrosis. Chest. vol 126:pp 1204-1214
Pryor, J. (2004) Physical Therapy for Adults with Bronchiectasis. Clinical Pulmonary Medicine vol. 11(4):201-209 J R Soc Med 2004;97(suppl. 44):pp8-25
Thomas, J, Cook, DJ & Brooks, D. (1995) Chest physical therapy management of patients with cystic fibrosis: a meta-analysis. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. vol 151 (3 part 1):846-850

What is outward Bound

Outward Bound believe in reaching out to people who constantly seek to challenge themselves people with the will to chase their dreams and the zest to drive others forward. Through a wide range of fun and unique activities, Outward Bound brings out the dynamics of teamwork and drives people to go beyond themselves. Outward Bound believes that no obstacles are insurmountable as long as we work together.

Outward Bound Singapore is part of global network of Outward Bound centres and is recognised locally and internationally as a leader in outdoor education and adventure learning.

Outward bound is a learning adventure – one that impels you to discover more about your inner self as it challenges your body, mind and soul to respond to an unfamiliar journey.

It inculcates both mental and physical ruggedness and enables you to be more adaptable to changes and unafraid of the unknown. It also fosters teamwork and prepares you for the service of the larger community.

OBS believe that while life slices and values may be taught in the classroom, they only gain true meaning through real life experiences. Through direct and purposeful outdoor experiences, OBS facilitate their trainees to face adventures and move beyond their personal boundaries to discover themselves.

How Outward Bound (OB) was developed

OB was established in 1941 in UK. Outward Bound’s outdoor education courses are based on the principles learnt from training young British seamen to survive in the North Atlantic Ocean during the second world war. It was inspired by Dr. Kurt Hahn who was a German educator. Dr. Kurt Hahn recognized the needs of Lawrence Holt who is the head of the Blue Funnel Shipping Line which was a merchant shipping company.

During World War II, when Blue Funnle Shipping Line was hit by German torpedoes the new seamen from Blue Funnle Shipping Line could not endure the surroundings in the lifeboat as compared to the sophisticated seamen

Hahn felt that not having enough life experience might be the reason for the Blue Funnle Shipping line to be unable to endure the conditions in the boat during World War II. The German experienced seamen learnt a lot of piratical skills and they also knew how to handle a difficult situation which enabled them to have more confidence and ability to cope with the demanding challenges.

Enhancing the young people confidence and the capacity to cope with life was the main intention of the intensity and mini-life experiences of outward bound

To discover his students true capabilities through life experience that would help them find their greater capabilities, was one of Hahn’s philosophies.

The name Outward Bound was given by Lawrence Holt. “Outward Bound” is used to refer to the flag Papa, flown on a ship when it was soon to leave port. It would be a signal to the sailors to return to the ship if the “Outward Bound” flag was flying. “Outward Bound” literally refers to the moment a ship leave’s the harbour. This symbology remains important in Outward Bound, and participants on courses in many Outward Bound schools today receive a pin lapel of the flag papa.

History of Outward Bound Singapore (OBS)

In 1967, the idea of an Outward Bound School of Singapore (OBSS) was suggested by the Minister of the Interior and Defence and Deputy Chairman of the People’s Association, Dr. Goh Keng Swee. Then, the nation was going through a period of uncertainty and to face challenges ahead, Singapore’s leaders had called for the building of a “rugged society”.

The original school was started by two New Zealanders – Hamish Thomas and Al Cameron in December 1967. It began with the objectives that still form the basis of the OBS today: “To provide education, leadership and character training; developing the physical, mental and spiritual faculties of boys, girls, young men and women of all races of Singapore”.

The management of OBS was moved from the People’s Association to the Ministry of Defence (Mindef) in 1971. Besides providing adventure training and leadership training to young men and women, it was an avenue to give ordinary Singaporeans a taste of military life.

OBS was returned to the People’s Association in 1991 and the school was been renamed Outward Bound Singapore. The aim of the school was to offer Singapore’s young people exciting activities to develop their physical and mental ruggedness, personal confidence and leadership qualities.

What is OBS mission & vision, motto and core values?

MISSION

To develop character, leadership skills and team spirit through direct and purposeful experience in the outdoors

VISION

To be a world-class Outward Bound centre for outdoor education and leadership development

OBS MOTTO

To serve, to strive and not to yield

Their core values are:

Safety Minded

Safety is the foundation of the OBS. We are committed to the highest safety standard in whatever we do.

Teamwork

We contribute individually and as a team to achieve our vision and mission.

Professionalism

We strive for integrity and excellence in our work and conduct. To be the best in our field of contributions.

Learning Driven

We constantly challenge ourselves towards new areas of improvements and growth.

People Centred

We value our staff. We recognise good performance of our staff and are committed to developing them to their fullest potential.

Customer Focused

We value our customers and commit ourselves to constantly deliver excellent quality service. We strive to meet and exceed expectations.

OBS’s target group

OBS does not only target youths, it is for everyone. With the wide range of courses, there will be something for everyone at OBS. OBS courses is customized to meet the society needs. Outward Bound Singapore target groups can be categorized into: Professionals, Youths, Kids and Family and for outdoor enthusiasts.

Professionals

In the corporate arena, leadership is the key to success and teamwork is essential to getting things done better, faster and more efficiently

Many corporate leaders need to hone their ability to lead and motivate their teams. Through OBS’s specially designed programmes, they will have the perfect opportunity to unleash their true potential and take themselves and their team to new heights.

For executives looking to grow in the areas of leadership, team-building and change management, OBS’s Professional Development Programmes (PDP) has a range of course that will help equip them with skills to overcome future challenges.

Youths

At OBS, they believe in helping young people make the most of their potential. Through learning-driven outdoor activities including rafting, kayaking and climbing guided by OBS’s professional instructors, they give youths the opportunity to challenge themselves and develop valuable life skills.

Step out of the classroom and venture beyond the textbook

For kids and family

OBS offers customised programmes for students aimed at fostering independence and interdependence life skills. Making use of outdoor experience such as camping, trekking, raft building, rock climbing and more, these programmes give children the opportunity to learn from each other and develop leadership qualities early in life.

In addition, OBS’s family programmes are designed to maximise quality time together for parents and children in which emotional bonds and family ties can be strengthened.

When it comes to nurturing future leaders, an early start goes a long way.

For Outdoor Enthusiasts

Whether you’re a newcomer to the great outdoors or an experienced outdoor leader, OBS has training programme which will hone your skills and enhance your development

Nothing makes for a better outdoor experience than total confidence in your skills.

OBS’s Programmes

OBS programmes are designed to be physically and mentally rugged, the programmes utilise the outdoor settings to develop character, values, mental ruggedness and a community spirit.

By allowing them to learn through focused discussions and practical applications within fun environment, OBS’s programmes complement what the participants have learnt in schools to provide them with a complete learning experience.

Some programmes offered by OBS are:

Character and leadership programmes

Global programmes

Special programmes/Youth-At-Risk

Character & Leadership Programmes

OBS Youth Programmes are drawn out to attract the youth with an action-packed blend of adventures and surprises. Youths develop competencies such as self-awareness, social awareness, self-management, relationship management and responsible decision making as they move progressively through challenging problem-solving activities and expeditions.

Orientation & Induction Programmes – Esprit de Corps

My Outward Bound Journey

A Leader’s Journey

Orientation & Induction Programmes – Esprit de Corps

The Orientation & Induction Programmes aims to build greater understanding and cohesion, school or class spirit in newly formed school cohorts.

This programme focuses on self and team discovery. In Primary four and Secondary One, the students are relatively new to each other. In order to build greater understanding, cohesion, class spirit and strong bonds between the class mates, there is a special designed programme which is specially made for them, which is called “Camp Discovery.”

Character Development Programmes – My Outward Bound Journey

Outward bound programmes is not only an outdoor adventure, it sis essentially an inward odyssey. It helps an individual to find out about his or her capabilities or potential and also learn to improve personal and leadership qualities.

Character building, teamwork , dealing with the unfamiliar, familiarity with Challenge, Initiative, Tenacity and Personal Mastery are what one can gain from My Outward Bound Journey.

Leadership Development Programmes – A Leader’s Journey

By developing the key characteristics and competencies of an effective leader, one can be equip with the knowledge and skills of leadership through A Leader’s Journey by OBS.

The leadership Development not only allows personal growth but as well as acquirement of team management skills. Numerous leadership theories are included in each module and can be included in the Primary Four syllabus. Characteristics and styles of a leader and models of leadership are also used in the programme.

Global programmes

OBS also has overseas programmes. They have partnered with overseas Outward Bound and adventure centres to bring richness of an overseas experience to the participants.

These overseas programmes are designed to give our youth a global outlook in life. OBS aim to inculcate:

An Adventurous Spirit

An adventurous spirit is basically helping youths to:

Accept and overcome challenges and obstacles.

Discover new horizons.

Go beyond their limits.

An Enterprising Spirit

Help youths to:

Knowledge the value of teamwork, trust, mutual support, leadership in decision making and problem solving skills.

Become resourceful and creative.

An International Perspective

To help youths to:

Knowledge the richness of culture, social and economic diversity available in other countries.

The reason why OBS started the Global Programmes was because they wanted to give young people exposure to foreign cultures and environments. Each programme helps youths in building confidence, leadership, tenacity and other personal attributes aimed at helping youths develop a more adventurous and enterprising attitude.

Through a global disclosure the Global Programmes are intended to give youth a global outlook in life, aimed to inculcate an adventurous & enterprising spirit, and cultivate an international perspective. Participants can anticipate an experience that ranges from 8 to 26 days in an abroad centre.

The programmes are categorized into series of the Adventure Challenge Courses.

Adventure Challenge – A Global Perspectives

Classic 21-Day Challenge – The ultimate of OB Experience

Other Customised Programmes

Adventure Challenge – A Global Perspective

OBS takes secondary and tertiary students on an exhilarating Outward Bound journey to Sabah, Perak, Brunei Darussalam, India, Mongolia, Philippines, Croatia, Taiwan and Australia for Adventure Challenge programme.

Having severe expeditions in deep snow conditions in South Korea, Japan and China is a challenge that will be faced by the student leaders given by OBS. Awareness of personal and group goal-setting, planning and coordinating as a group, team development and personal leadership styles are skills that will be developed in the participants through the disclosure to unknown tropical and winter environments.

Classic 21-Day Challenge – The ultimate of OB Experience

To help young adults realize their potential, a mentally and physically demanding course that features a range of activities and challenges are designed. The surrounding islands of Singapore and the rural environment of Pulau Ubin is the classroom of the classic 21-day Outward Bound programme.

The programme uses the journey concept and allows participants to experience an array of elements and multi-expeditions which keep them on the move most of the time.

It will help participants develop their personal attributes and contribution in the context of a group while also exploring their leadership potential.

Other Customised Programmes

OBS is specialized character development and/or leadership development and team development.

OBS alter programmes just to meet the precise needs of their customers. Before arriving at the final conclusion of the programme design, OBS works with their clients to establish objectives, expectations and desired outcome.

These programmes can be targeted at explicit profile groups such as Gifted Education groups, Integrated Programme schools, International schools, Specialized Independent schools, School Staff Training (Teachers/ HODs /Principal) and many more.

Sharing by two students who have attended Outward Bound Singapore’s Global programmes:

“I’ll definitely remember this Outward Bound Course for life because it has given me immense satisfaction. The safety precautions are all kept in check, and I have never once felt that my safety has been compromised. It has indeed been a fruitful experience, and it has helped in shaping my character and building up my ability to adapt to different situations and face greater challenges in my personal, academic and work life.”

– Tong Pei Shan, undergraduate (after completing her South Africa programme)

“I have learnt that as we step out of our comfort zone, we adapt to our new environment and grow stronger in the process, if we were to stay in our comfort zone, we can never be successful in life. This programme to Australia has left great impact on me and I learnt a lot in the 10 days and this is something that cannot be achieved in the classrooms.”

– Chen Libo. Hwa Chong Institution (after completing his Australia programme)

Special programmes/Youth-At-Risk

OBS does not only cater to normal youth but also there are programmes that help youths who needs special needs and youths who had once gone through a bad phase in life (youths that had done things which are against the law). The special programmes are:

Youth at risk programmes
Special needs programme

These programmes are developed by using programming principles based on psychology and social work research.

Youth at Risk Programmes

These altered programmes are made to help the youth to learn and know more about themselves. Development of life skills and promotion of healthy lifestyles, attitudes and perspectives are also achieved by these programmes.

Basically what this programme aims to do is to instil this phrase in them, “a difficult past does not mean a difficult future.” These programmes might give the youths a fast and good solution on the spot but rather it is helping them to create opportunities to help them discover that the solution they are seeking for is found within themselves and no one else.

Special Needs Programmes

In these programme, the participants may have an intellectual disability, learning disability and or a physical disability. Through this programme these participants with special needs can experience what outdoor is. They will also be able to build self confidence and develop life skills like teamwork, communication and leadership.

Below are some comments shared by the special need programmes participants:

“ Don’t give up easily, persevere, be patient, cooperate…and only we can overcome our fear. There is no way we can overcome our fear if we don’t want to, no matter how much our friends or parents or others encourage us, if we don’t want to overcome it, we can’t.”

“ I learnt that I should be more cooperative towards others and when we make mistakes, the issue is that we should learn how to admit it, learn from it and don’t repeat it again”.

“I learned life lessons – it’s our CHOICE, our LIFE. Learn to walk out of DARKNESS.”

Conclusion

OBS helps people discover and develop their potential to care for themselves, others and the world around them through challenging experiences in unfamiliar settings.

“OBS nurtures the youths to be physically and mentally strong. They develop self-confidence, resilience, leadership and teamwork. They are instilled with the resolve to strive and succeed, and the sense of responsibility to give back to the society. Through the ruggedness of the OBS course, inner strength is built up and values vital to the success of our nation are imbued.”

Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong

The question is how does OBS benefit the society? The answer is by instilling values in them, by teaching them beyond the classroom. The sense of community service, teamwork, self-confidence, discipline and values inculcated during OBS course are very important for an individual to have.

OBS does not only help youths, it helps the whole society; everyone, from young to middle age to old and even special children (having any kind of disability). One of OBS’s target groups is the corporate world. In the corporate world there will be new challenges everyday and we will need good leaders to lead. Not only do we need a good leader but a good team who can work well with each other and have the “never give up” attitude to overcome any obstacles. Outward Bound Singapore does help companies with this; Outward Bound Singapore’s programmes will have the perfect opportunity to unleash the leaders’ true potential and take themselves and their team to new heights.

Instilling values in oneself is never too early. OBS programmes for kids and family instil leadership qualities in the kids who will one day go into the working world and apply their values that they have learned in OBS. Not only that, OBS strengthens the bond between the family members too.

There is more to learn outside the classroom. Outward Bound Singapore gives the society these opportunities to learn and instil the values which will be life-long and priceless values. They help individuals to overcome their fears, challenge themselves, instil values like perseverance, confidence, discipline, teamwork and also unleash their potential.

All these do benefit the society, it benefits every individual who goes for the Outward Bound Singapore course and I think it will be a life changing experience if one were to go for OBS’s course. OBS is indeed an organization that makes a difference in the society and gets a youth ready for anything in life.

Below are some appreciation shown to OBS by some principals. The reason for putting this in this report is to show how much of a difference can OBS make in the society.

It’s very good programmes organised by OBS for my staff. We enjoyed and picked up some learning points that will be very useful for all of us.

– Mr Yap Juye Long, Principal, Yuhua Secondary School

I enjoyed the morning at OBS very much. I appreciate the meaningful work and experience at OBS. Good place for my staff too.

– Miss Yap Wah Choo, Principal, Nanyang Girls’ High School

Thank You OBS for your hospitality and for being our long-term partner in nurturing our sec 3 students each year, imparting the mental resilience they will need to succeed at their ‘O’ levels and in life.

– Mrs Tan Ming Fern, Vice-Principal, Tanjong Katong Girl’s School

By the sharing of the principal’s and the special children (mentioned earlier in the report) experience from what they have learnt in OBS I hope we all can see how important is or rather how huge impact does Outward Bound Singapore does on an individual which makes up the society.

I would like to end of the report by two sharing which is by Mr Lui Tuck Yew and Outward Bound International (OBI)

“This is an important programme because it contributes to how we prepare our young well for the future. Prepare them well and we prepare Singapore well for the challenges ahead.”

– RAdm (NS) Lui Tuck Yew, Minister of State, Ministry of Education

“As one of the longest established Outward Bound centres worldwide, your training programmes have contributed to the development of leadership, character and team spirit of Singapore’s youth and future leaders. OB Singapore has been a model global citizen, always willing and able to offer assistance across borders in many ways.”

– G. Kelly O’Dea, Chairman of the Board, Outward Bound International

References:

http://www.outwardbound.org.au/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=1

http://wilderdom.com/outwardbound/ob.html

http://www.obs.pa.gov.sg/1145960592565/1150181215714.html

http://www.obs.pa.gov.sg/1216716473248.html

http://www.obs.pa.gov.sg/1216716476527.html

Magazines

“London 2012’s ambition is to create a Games for everyone, where everyone is invited to take part, join in and enjoy the most exciting event in the world” ( www.london2012.com ). This is a laudable aim for those who are charged with the responsibility for producing the Games in London. The aim of this study is to look at the potential impact of hosting the Games for Britain and how this reflects the ideology of those who are running it.

In order to assess the potential impact of the Games on Britain, one needs to investigate the success or otherwise of other major sporting events that have been staged in the past. The most notable or should I say notorious failure in terms of the Olympics was the Montreal Games; Henry Aubin, a Canadian newspaper columnist commented that the Games had been “a financial disaster. There has not been a single successful legacy of the Olympics” (from Evening Standard, Nov. 2006). The event itself was poorly organised from the start, with the result that it took the organisers thirty years to pay for the Games in their entirety; this is something that Lord Coe and his team need to bear in mind.

In more recent times, Olympic Games have been run much more efficiently and have left not only a financially positive mark, but also left a legacy in terms of facilities and economic benefits which reflected not only the efforts but the ideology of those who were in charge. In Barcelona the people of the city and indeed the Spanish nation as a whole were involved in the project. The organisers realised that they needed the wholehearted support of the people, particularly the citizens of Barcelona. Their attention to detail was very impressive, even down to inviting comments to be made about road improvements before going ahead with them to give the people a sense of ownership of the developments that were taking place. The ideology that is being reflected here is that the Games are for everyone and that all can have an active part in its ultimate success (or failure). The city already had a good deal that was positive about it before plans to hold the Games began, not least a hugely successful football team in Barcelona FC along with their impressive stadium. The organisers highlighted the need for urban redevelopment to provide better facilities for the people in terms of sport, leisure, art, media, housing and transportation. Their other concern was to develop the tourist trade by improving the overall image of the city and the surrounding areas. It was evident that “…there was a clear strategy for the post-event use of this area, which has subsequently become part of the city’s tourist attractions and as such, seems to have had a positive effect on the city” (Roche 2000, P 145). The philosophy was clear from the outset – the desire to provide an excellent Games to reflect well on the city at the same time as providing benefits for the people of Barcelona in the long term through redevelopment and through tourism. The organising committee commented that “the … direct beneficiaries are the citizens of Barcelona whose surroundings have been immeasurably improved” (Roche 2000, P 144). This statement is borne out by the physical improvements that were left in the city; a new waterfront and residential area, a new international airport, two new skyline communication towers, six new sports stadia (with another being extensively refurbished), a new museum of contemporary art, a remodelled Catalonian arts museum and new media facilities. Roche (2000, P 144) concludes that “the social policy aim was successfully achieved through, among other things, the new sports facilities, transport and housing built in a deprived city area.”

The aims of the organisers of the Manchester Commonwealth games were along similar lines, “to leave a lasting legacy of sporting facilities and social, physical and economic regeneration” (www.gameslegacy.co.uk). The ideology of the government and the local organisers was one of progressive development across a number of areas through sound investment, marketing, planning and implementation. The New East Manchester Partnership aimed to double the local population, to build new homes, to create a new town centre with a large area for retail provision, to create a business park and to construct a ?100 million sports complex with a 48,000 capacity stadium. The Sportcity complex includes the City of Manchester Stadium, the Regional Athletics Arena, the National Squash Centre, the National Cycling Centre, the Regional Tennis Centre, the English Institute of Sport and numerous hotels, bars, cafes, restaurants and a superstore. The benefits of this complex alone include ?151 million investment in sports and leisure- a large amount of which was secured from Sport England (?165 million split between facilities construction and the provision for the athletes themselves), local people being involved in building the venues, community access guaranteed through targeted sessions at the venues, facilities being made available to local schools and clubs as well as people being trained as local sports coaches. “The transformational impact of Sportcity, in particular in re-positioning East Manchester as an attractive area to invest, would not have been possible without the Games” (Manchester City Council from www.gameslegacy.co.uk). Over the next fifteen years the area expects to attract in the region of ?2 billion of investment from both the private and public sectors as a direct result of staging the Games and enabling people to rediscover Manchester as both a business and tourist destination.

Both of these events and the subsequent positive effects that have been seen and felt by the community and the nation have led there to be a drive to stage further large events either in the country or even in the cities themselves. These successful ventures have led to an increased desire for the ‘feel good factor’ that is generated to be sought again. The communities in both Barcelona and Manchester fully supported the events that were being staged, which was evidenced by the huge demand for tickets for both Games. Hence both Spain and the United Kingdom have bid to host subsequent major events, with London securing the 2012 Olympic Games.

The reasons behind the London bid for the Olympics are many. The bid began with the vision of the British Olympic Committee who felt that following the success of the Manchester Commonwealth games in terms of planning and eventual delivery, a credible case could be made for London to host the 2012 Games. The Mayor of London and the government were encouraged to see the vision for the future of sport in the United Kingdom and “strategies were developed and deployed around regeneration, legacy, employment, tourism, new housing and health of the nation” (www.olympics.org.uk). The ideology that is displayed here is one of community, encouraging the nation to take part in a global sporting event just for the event in itself but also for the improvement of the nation in a number of ways; the kudos of running a global event would put the United Kingdom in the spotlight and potentially lead to foreign investment for the economic betterment of the country as a whole; the opportunities for employment both pre and post Games; the chance to enhance the lives of those in the East End of London through the provision of new housing and sports facilities as well as the regeneration of a very run down area of the capital; the opportunity to improve the health of the nation as a whole (particularly its children) through increased awareness of sporting opportunities provided across the country and through a better understanding of the need to eat a healthy diet. There is also the direct sporting legacy which will exist as a result of the provision of world class facilities which can be accessed by both elite athletes and the general public. The ideas could not solely be based on the sporting angle and had to be a multi-dimensional benefit package in order for the government to be willing to underwrite the whole venture. A successful Games would bring untold benefits not only to the capital but the country as a whole; Baroness Valentine eluded to this when she said “the 2012 Games offer a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to transform an exhilarating but rundown part of London and, most importantly, transform the lives of people who find themselves excluded from London’s booming economy” (Evening Standard March, 2007).

Those who were opposed to hosting the Games focused on the negative experiences of the cities who had made huge losses in the past and the fact that the direct benefits would only be felt by those in London and the surrounding area (with the notable exception of the sailing venue). Many highlighted the ideological vision of inclusion and opportunity for all as being undermined by the way that little consideration had apparently been given to hosting more of the events away from the capital and the financial effect that this event might have on the United Kingdom as a whole. Glyptis (1989) comments that when looking back on major events such as the Olympics, “virtually all provision had been made on the basis of assumed need and assumed benefit” which was rarely backed by evidence. Pete Wishat, Scottish Nationalist Member of Parliament for North Tayside voiced concerns when he said “I am strongly opposed to the UK taxpayer underwriting the entire cost, regardless of what that cost my finally be – and particularly when there is a very real danger of the London bid soaking up lottery funding from Scotland and elsewhere in the UK” (Daily Telegraph December, 2003). The experiences of the problems with the Millennium Dome also loomed large in people’s minds with regard to the eventual use of the facilities that were proposed for the Olympic Park. They did not want to have a financial millstone around their neck. They also voiced their concerns over the legacy that would be left – how could guarantees be given with regard to not only the facilities but also the sporting legacy for elite athletes and benefits to the nation as a whole through increased participation?

Supporters of the event held a different and ultimately successful view; “increasingly sports events are part of a broader strategy aimed at raising the profile of a city and therefore success cannot be judged on simply a profit and loss basis” (Gratton, Henry, 2001 P 36). The National Heritage Committee (1995) stated that “it is clear that bids to stage major sporting events… can operate as a catalyst to stimulate economic regeneration even if they do not ultimately prove successful.” They drew upon the experiences of the organisers of the Manchester Commonwealth Games who were left with a superb legacy in terms of urban regeneration, better sporting facilities for all and increased employment opportunities. “The Games are a shot in the arm for the UK economy at this difficult time, offering jobs on the Olympic Park for the previously unemployed and millions of pounds worth of contracts for UK businesses” (John Armitt, www.london2012.com). The lasting effects of a venture such as this can be seen above through the experiences of Manchester following the hosting of the Commonwealth Games.

The Western Mail (2005) stated that “while other nations boasted of their ability to run a smooth Games, Lord Coe’s team told the world how much it would mean to the future of this country and the Olympic movement if London was given the opportunity to stage the 2012 Games.” Lord Coe continued the theme of legacy when he said “we’re serious about inspiring young people because they will be touched most directly by our Games” (The Mirror July, 2005). There is also the ‘feel good factor’ of improved mood and morale in the country which can never be underestimated, as was evidenced by the huge crowds for the parade held in London for the medallists from the Beijing Olympics – “even though they are not present at a sports event, millions may gain benefits of this nature from it” (Gratton, Henry 2001 P 31). Many more can be reached as a result of the influence of the media and the blanket coverage that an event such as this receives and this has been a factor which has made sport far more important to all nations in recent years (Houlihan 1997). This has the effect of “enhancing the market benefits to the cities” (Gratton, Henry 2001 P 37) in terms of business investment and tourism and it also enables millions to be inspired by the efforts of others to participate in sport themselves.

Overall the evidence that is available covering recent major sporting events would indicate that there will be a positive legacy for both London and the UK as a whole in hosting this event, as “…the real value of the games comes from being associated with the Olympic image” (Burbank; Andranovich; Heyling; Rienner 2001 P1). The plans that have been drawn up for the urban redevelopment, the creation of employment opportunities, increased tourism as well as the benefits of increased participation in sport, alongside better facilities for the training of elite athletes should bring the legacy for which the organisers are hoping. They reflect the idea that there must be an investment in the future if there are to be long term benefits across a variety of areas for the benefit of the largest amount of people possible.

The implications of hosting an event like the Olympics for elite athletes and the general public are enormous. The elite athletes need world class facilities in which to train and prepare for major events and “more recently the government has sought to narrow the focus of sport policy, giving priority to a more limited range of sports and concentrating on youth/school sport and elite development” (Houlihan 1997 P 46). This will have the dual effect of producing the elite athletes of the future, while providing for the people who are at the top of their chosen field now. This follows the idea that sport is for all and that all should be provided with the opportunity to fulfil their full potential. A glowing example of this effect is the success of the British Cycling team in the Beijing Olympics. Having been able to utilise the velodrome in Manchester (specifically constructed for the Commonwealth Games in 2002) as a training base and centre of excellence, their results in both the Olympics and the recent World Championships have been staggering. They not only reflect well on the government in terms of their investment but also in terms of the kudos that such results bring to the country as a whole. This in turn has brought a ‘feel good’ factor to the cycling community, to the city of Manchester where the team is based and has had an effect on the amount of people who are enquiring about participating in cycling. The investment in elite athletes who achieve success can have a direct effect on the numbers of those who are wishing to become involved with any given sport. Another spin off from this is the training and subsequent employment of coaches within sport to nurture the talent that is emerging as a result of increased participation.

Increased funding to train coaches also has the effect of helping sport at the ‘grassroots’ level. The more coaches that are available, the more people can be involved in the enjoyment of their chosen activity as a part of the community – “community sporting capacity will be improved in a number of ways, such as training and development of volunteers, leaders and coaches…” (London 2012 Community Sports Legacy, www.sportengland,org.uk ). There is a chance to “provide excluded groups with opportunities for participation and inclusion” (Bradford MDC 1997). There is also the opportunity to increase the emphasis that is being laid on sport in schools and for the youth of Britain, in order to foster the idea of a healthy lifestyle in terms of both physical activity and the way that people regard their health.

Media coverage of the event will also have the effect of keeping sport in the public eye in a positive way, highlighting the benefits of a healthy lifestyle and encouraging people to become involved in sport. They have a responsibility to continually highlight the facilities that are available, how to be able to contact the national organising bodies for each sport in Britain and the benefits of becoming involved in sporting activity.“The success of the Games will, in part, be measured by the increase in ordinary people taking exercise at new sports facilities…” (Evening Standard 2007). Only long term study will reveal the full extent of the effect of the Games on sport as there needs to be a sustained long term effect rather than ‘a flash in the pan.’

Clearly the UK government and the organisers of the London Games hope that “the legacy of the Games will be twofold. Physically they will bequeath a redeveloped area in and around the Olympics site… the Games are meant to deliver a more sporting nation…” (Evening Standard 2008). The former will be much easier to assess in the short term – the latter will need to be looked at over the months and years following the Games.

Bibliography

Burbank, M; Andranovich, G. D; Heyling, C.H; Rienner, L. 2001 Olympic Dreams:The Impact of Mega Events on Local Politics Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner

Glyptis 1989 Leisure and Unemployment Milton Keynes: OUP

Gratton, C; Henry, I. 2001 Sport in The City; The Role of Sport in Economic and Social Regeneration London: Routledge

Houlihan, B 1997 Sport, Policy and Politics: A Comparative Analysis London: Routledge

Roche, M 2000 Mega-events and Modernity: Olympics and Expos in The Growth of Global Culture New York: Routledge

Bradford Metropolitan District Council Recreation Division 1997 A Strategy For Sport and Recreation; A Framework and Guiding Principles

National Heritage Committee 1995 Bids to Stage International Sporting Events Fifth Report House of Commons London: HMSO

Daily Telegraph December 29, 2003 from www.telegraph.co.uk

Evening Standard November 22, 2006 Monster Truck Races, Dilapidated stands and a Billion Dollar Debt that after 30 Years Will Finally Be Paid This Month – The Warning We in London Must All Heed From The Montreal Olympics

Evening Standard March 1, 2007 MPs and Peers Poised For Revolt over 2012 Raid on Lottery Funds

Evening Standard May 15, 2007 The Councils Who Are Failing to Make London Fit for 2012 Games; Boroughs Not Investing in Facilities

Evening Standard May 15, 2008 The Real Legacy of The Olympics

The Mirror July 7, 2005 London Olympics 2012: Our Golden Generation; Lord Coe Winning The Games For London Can Bring Kids Back To Sport

Western Mail July 7, 2005 Editorial Comment on Olympic Games Which Can Be A Winner For Us All

www.gameslegacy.co.uk

www.london2012.com

www.olympics.org.uk

www.sportengland.org

Preface

Frankly speaking, this research went on as I am mad at soccer, especially in English Premier League. At first, when I were given a chance to choose what to research about, I really did not think of anything but something I wanted to know or just something that was floating on my mind. Without hesitation, I chose to research on the marketing strategy using Derby Matches in English Premier League, in abbreviate, EPL. Although I do not think it was a cool decision, as I promised to research on this, let me start on how I would delve into this topic and what other things I would refer to for more understanding on advertisement or marking in the field of soccer.

As I was developing how I should write on this, I came to think of referring to various things apart from marketing strategy through Derby Matches in English Premier League, such as general marketing strategy, Derby Matches Worldwide, history of English Primier League, and so on, for the better understanding of EPL. Because although my research paper concerns more on the business part of EPL, I believe it is a sort of important to know the background of something whatever that might be. Likewise, as I believe knowing the background of EPL is of importance, I will, first of all, elaborate on the history of EPL, just as same as the history written on the internet.

Then, as I am delving into the part of “marketing strategy,” I will elaborate on the marketing strategies concerning soccer either worldwide or in EPL, marketing strategies through Derby Matches Worldwide then I will delve into my main part which concerns the marketing strategy through Derby Matches within English Premier League.

Oh, also before that I should explain what is Derby Match and which matches are included within that category.

Anyways, my passion on soccer led me to write on this field which made me learn more about English Premier League itself and marketing strategy, which I am going to learn at university in the future, for I am planning to major in Business.

I hope you learn much through my research paper, and at the same time, be more interested in soccer itself.

History of English Premier League

Originally, English Premier League stems from The Football League First Division, which was founded in 1888. Until the end of 1980s, English Football marked a low point, although there was a significant success during the 1970s and 1980s for Europeans. However, with the success of 1990 FIFA World Cup for England, as it made to reach semi-finals, UEFA lifted the five-year ban on English clubs playing in European competition, which was primarily cause by hooliganism in England.

With the influx of money, at the end of 1991 season, a proposal for a new league was made, and with the name of English Premier League, the new league went on.

(The original logo of English Premier League)

So the league started in 1992, originally with 17 football clubs.

What is Derby Match?

In terms of soccer, derby match means a sporting fixture between two local rivals. It is often called “crosstown rivalry” in North America. Anyway, as the original country of soccer refers to it as “derby match, most people in the world use the term “derby match” instead of “crosstown rivalry.”

General Marketing Strategy

Many companies invest on football clubs in order to make profits. Like many profit making companies does, in order to make profits, football clubs advertise in various ways. But in most cases, just like this, through their own websites they advertise their matches, commodities and other additional profit making items.

(webside of Manchester United Football Club)

Derby Matches Worldwide

In this part, let me just list few of them, for listing all of them would be space wasting or worthless to know of.

Korea

– Seoul National Capital Area Derby – FC Seoul v Suwon Samsung Bluewings – Football

– Honam Derby – Chunnam Dragons v Jeonbuk FC – Football

– Ulsan Derby – Ulsan v Ulsan Hyundai Mipo Dockyard – Football (FA Cup)

– Industrial Derby – Ulsan v Pohang Steelers – Football

– Gyeongin Derby – FC Seoul V Incheon United – Football

Spain

– El Clasico – Real Madrid v Barcelona – football

– Andalusian Derby – Sevilla FC v Real Betis

– Catalunya Derby – Barcelona v Espanol

Although there are much more derby matches, again, I believe listing all of them would be wasting of my space limit. So I only mentioned those in South Korea, as it is my mother nation, and Spain, for its league is one of world’s 4 largest leagues.

Derby Matches in England

Likewise, let me name just few of derby matches within England, because listing all of them would be too much, for football clubs there call their matches derby matches themselves even in the 4th division of the English League!(although they are as good as amateurs.)

– London Derby – Arsenal FC, Chelsea FC, Tottenham Hotspur, Fulham FC West Ham United, Charlton Athletic, Crystal Palace FC

– Birmingham Derby – Aston Villa v Birmingham City FC

– Manchester Derby – Manchester United v Manchester City

– Liverpool Derby – Liverpool FC v Everton FC

Marketing Strategy through Derby Matches Worldwide

Like I said before, I am in short of space to write on. So let me just show one example of how football clubs make marketing strategies through derby matches. Here is an example of El Clasico.

This is from the official website of Barcelona FC. Here, I was able to find out an independent web page to elaborate on El Clasico. It makes people to feel the enthusiasm and get interested in the match itself. Thus making people involved in the match and buy the ticket for it. As you can see from the picture, it updates the latest match of El Clasico, or it makes the most remembered match remained so that people can enjoy its enthusiasm.

Marketing Strategy through Derby Matches in EPL

Due to a shortage of paper as I am only allowed to write all things in 10 pages, in this part, let me introduce two pictures that can radically show how derby matches in England is like and how football clubs market in the market in order to hook people’s attention.

There is a football player Tevez, who originally played for Manchester United. As you can see in the second picture, he is playing for Manchester United with his number 32. Ironically, this picture is used in the first picture, which is from the advertisement of Manchester City. How? Here is an amazing fact; Tevez moved to Manchester City. Usually, transfer between derby teams is unforgivable, especially between the teams like Manchesters. Anyway, the first picture that Manchester City advertised on is just enough to drag and hook people’s attention on the match and makes people to buy tickets for it.

Concluding Remarks

I do believe that this is not enough for you (readers) to know about the EPL itself and marketing strategies. However I really hope that this was helpful for you learning what EPL is, and how do football clubs in EPL markets on, as well as other football clubs worldwide.

Again, thanks for providing this kind of opportunity that I can delve into one subject and write 10-page-long research paper.

Abstract

Football disorder has ruled football fields for decades. Therefore, hooligans constitute the main problem in modern football. Recently, many clashes linked with nationalism, racism, and discrimination, have risen in all parts of the world. While it was known identity was a cause of hooliganism, this paper analyzes how the desire to represent a particular club or nation causes violence among football fans (hooliganism), more precisly why does it lead to discriminatory acts. Six scholarly and non-scholarly articles have been described and compared to find out the possible causes of such behaviours. Impule in emotions and the social phenomenon of following the group, lead by identity, accentuate the causes of discrimination. It results in large discriminatory acts commited by particular racist hooligan groups.

Hooliganism across Cultures and Nations
Introduction

This paper will focus on how identify influences violence in football games. Over the course of the last half-century, violence among football fans has risen to a point of no control, and it has lead many researchers (Canon 2008) and (Gow and Rookwood 2008) to question the causes of disruptions on football stands. The definition of a hooligan is not widely accepted. Some give it a positive connotation while others describe it in a negative way. Some of the proposed definitions of a hooligan are: one who actively participates in the “living experience” of football by engaging emotionally and positively in the success of their football club (Canon 2008), one who is strongly engaged in nationalism (Mota 2009), or the violent behaviour of a football spectator (Gow and Rookwood 2008). Yet, this topic is vastly debated. Experts argue whether or not hooligans still have their place in modern football. While statistics show the number of arrests due to rioting have risen on football stadiums in England (Chula 2009) and in the Netherlands (Spaaij 2007), ordinary fans are getting increasingly afraid of attending games of their beloved club (Spaaij 2007), security being the social nature of this problem. Furthermore, the threat must be massive since football is consiered as a religion for 60% of european fans (Canon 2008). In other cases, lead by strong emotions based on their identity, hooligans have engaged in atrocities that lead to many casualties in Italy, England, and other parts of the world (Gow and Rookwood 2008). While it is known that there are many causes for hooliganism, such as the media, the police, personal reasons, the desire to represent, social causes and revenge, identity, and dissatisfaction (Gow and Rookwood 2008), the identity to a club or nation has caused many clashes based on nationalism, racism, and discrimination, (Football Against Racism in Europe n.d.) and (Spaaij & Vinas, 2005).

Thus, this essay will analyze how the desire to represent a particular club or nation causes violence among football fans (hooliganism), more precisly why does it lead to discriminatory acts. Therefore, seven scholarly and non-scholarly articles will be compared based on their explanations of why is football so important to average europeans and how does it lead to an impulse of emotions which causes riots and social unrests at football games.

Body Text
What is hooliganism?: The paragraph will focus on the description of hooliganism, it will suggest definitions, explain the causes of this phenomenon, and it will list examples of violence that has occurred in modern era football.
Multiple definitions: There are many definitions for hooliganism and it has not been widely agreed on which represents it the most.
Hooligan point of view:
One who actively participates in the “living experience” of football by engaging emotionally and positively in the success of their football club. (Canon, 2007, p. 4)
External point of view:
A specific form of spectator violence at football matches. (Spaiij, 2007, p. 330)
One who is strongely engaged in nationalism. (Mota, 2009, p.4)
The violent behaviour of a football spectator. (Gow and Rookwood, 2008, p. 71)
Causes: According to Gow and Rookwood (2008), “hooliganism is a diverse phenomenon that is not mono-casual” (p. 71).
Media, police, personal reasons, desire to represent (nationalism and identity), superiority and revenge, and dissatisfaction. “Involvment in football hooliganism has bee explained in relation to a number of factors, relating to interaction, identity, legitimacy, and power.” (Gow and Rookwood, 2008, pp. 75-79)
Hooligan experience: “buzz of excitement” (Spaiij, 2007, p. 330)
Examples of violence
Large public brawls outside of stadiums. (Chula, 2009)
Clashes between rival hooligan groups at football games. (Gow and Rookwood, 2008, p. 78)
Inter-group alliances and wars (Spaiij, 2007, p. 324)
Identity: This paragraph will focus on one of the causes of hooliganis: identity. It will explain why it is occuring, how it affects football fans, and how it leads to a popular phenomenon of following the group, and how it leads to discrimination. The involvement in hooliganism leads a normal person to commit acts that he would have never done under normal circumstances.
Need of belonging: Identity is characterized by the need to belong to a club or national team. (Gow and Rookwood, 2008, p. 76) It is a way for those who feel unimportant and marginalised to express their identity. (Gow and Rookwood, 2008, p. 78)
Strong emotions: “Accounts of hooligans reveal how they experience an overpowering ‘buzz’ or adrenalin rush when confronting their opponents”. (Spaiij, 2007, p. 330)
Phenomenon of following the group: “Their desire to […] conform to group norms of behaviour may lead them to use serious violence against groups or individuals. (Spaiij and Vinas, 2005, p. 160)
Discrimination in football: The paragraph will discuss the types of discrimination and its causes. Also, it will analyze the ways organizations are trying to fight it.
Types of discrimination
Homophobia, Racism, Exclusion of minorities. (Football Against Racism in Europe n.d.)
Causes
Cultural racism: “This cultural racism revolves around the construction and defense of an image of national culture in the face of the emergence and expansion of immigrant communities”. (Spaiij and Vinas, 2005, p. 160) Some cultures define some things as right or wrong. Homosexuality is defined as wrong in many countries across Easter and Southern Europe. (Football Against Racism in Europe n.d.)
Nationalism: “When Croatia played Bosnia & Herzegovina in Sarajevo, Croatian fans formed a human U symbol representing the fascist Ustase movement responsible for mass killings of Serbs, Jews and the Roma during World War II.” (Football Against Racism in Europe n.d.) Such events happen in countries where national identity is largely present.
What is done to stop discrimination
Non-governmantal organizations such as NGO (Spaiij and Vinas, 2005, p. 160) and FARE (Football Against Racism in Europe n.d.), trying to reduce xenophobia.

Hooliganism is a social phenomenon, largely portayed as being negative, that is not mon-casual. (Gow and Rookwood, 2008, p. 71) Multiple causes affect hooliganism (Gow and Rookwood, 2008, p. 78), but identity and the need to represent lead to serious manifestations as discrimination and violence. As one engages in a large group of fans, he experiences strong emotions and adrenaline boosts (Spaiij, 2007, p. 330) leading to the phenomenon of following the group (Spaiij and Vinas, 2005, p. 160). A person may, under those circumstances, do somethings that he would not do in real life setting. Homophobia, racism, and exclusion of minorities are some of the types of discrimination. (Football Against Racism in Europe n.d.) Cultural racism (Spaiij and Vinas, 2005, p. 160) and nationalism (Football Against Racism in Europe n.d.) are labeled as the main causes of discrimination, accentuated by the phenomenon of followers. This essay responded to the problem statement, and explained how the desire to represent causes violence, particularly discrimination. The internal validity of most of my srouces is not easily verifiable because they are descriptive researchs based on data and results of other researchers. Only two researchs include some quantitative and qualitative data. Gow and Rookwood use a small sample of twenty supporters, while Canon uses a larger sample of 2,000 survey respondants and a smaller sample of interviewed supporters. Sampling methods were not random in both cases. The external validity is good for most of the sources because we can generalize results to certain countries or to the entire European continent. The internal validity of my essay is good because I used a good methodology of literature review of my articles. But, since I analyzed only 7 sources, the external validity is not very high; I cannot generalize my results. But, my sources were good and were written by experts or organizations specialized in my domain of analysis. Thus, I can say the data and information used in my sources is appropriate. I believe my study to be a good analysis of the situation of hooliganism in Europe. Still, my study lacks numbers and data to prove what I say, since I analyzed other works. I cannot affirmate a certain cause & effect pattern.

Works Cited

Canon. “Football Passions.” The Social Issues Research Centre. 2008.

http://www.sirc.org/football/football_passions.pdf (accessed August 25, 2009).

The study was commissioned and realized by Canon, a well-known company, wanting to accomplish extensive sociological research on capturing the emotions of being a football fan. The names of the researchers are not indicated, thus, we cannot question the credentials of the authors; it will remain unknown and unestablished. But, the research was done by the Social Issues Research Center, which is a leading research group in the United Kingdom. The purpose of the study, as mentioned, was to capture the emotions of being a football fan and to compare the feelings, expressions, and behaviours of fans associated with support of their football teams. The major aspect of the study was that it should capture the experiences of every-day football fans and that it should provide their opinions on the problems of hooliganism. The sampling methods used for the study were interviews and online surveys. In the first case, fieldwork was conducted in eighteen countries. Online surveys (m=2,000) were took across all countries of Europe. There were no hypothesis, nor variables since the objective was to analyze various behaviours, and then to find a conclusion about the different aspects of hooliganism. The internal validity is good since the sampling was large, but it was not perfect since it was not done randomly. The study can be generalized to Europe and we can thus say the external validity is very good. As for the results and the conclusion, the research reveals a largely positive side to hooliganism. It also explains the rituals of football fans and the passion created by the fans. It is a largely descriptive research. I believe the study is biased because it only shows the hooligan’s point of view, which is unreal in the current atmosphere of modern football. Some results and statistics are good, but some should be analyzed carefully because they could be biased and unreliable.

Chula, Jesse. Hooliganism: Did It Ever Go Away? Who Foots The Bill? September 6, 2009. http://www.epltalk.com/hooliganism-did-it-ever-go-away-who-foots-the-bill/10832 (accessed September 6, 2009).

Football Against Racism in Europe. Racism in Football. http://www.farenet.org/default.asp?intPageID=40 (accessed September 7, 2009).

The URL gives me an appropriate idea that this is a specialized website in my domain because of the acronym F.A.R.E. (meaning Football against Racism in Europe) and of the ending “.org”, suggesting it is an organization. The page is written by a group of authors whose expertise is in racism, homophobia, and exclusion of minorities. The website is updated regularly (at least monthly, but most of the times weekly) announcing action plans against discrimination. Some of the information was written about a year ago, while there is a lot of fresh stuff. The topic area is discrimination. While there are little or no references, information seems reliable because the organization seems to have its own well-established database. Thus, it seems the website has overall great integrity and reliability. The website does not use a scientific method for referencing and citing. The target audience of the website are football fans, and its function is to demonstrate that racism is present in modern football, and how it should be stopped. The website is largely sponsored by the UEFA and FIFA football bodies, which want to stop discrimination on football fields. While there is only one point of view, there is no feeling of bias on the website; it can only be understood that they are showing the real facts. This page cannot be considered as ironic because it is a serious organization, well-known around the world. It is possible to contact the ten experts that have designed and created the website via telephone, fax, or e-mail.

Gow, Paul, and Joel Rookwood. “Doing it for the team-examining the causes of hooliganism in English football.” Journal of Qualitative Research in Sports Studies, 2008: 71-82.

The study is conducted by Paul Gow and Joel Rookwood. They are experts and have realized their research in the Sports Studies Department of Liverpool’s Hope University, where they are probably teachers. In the research, it is argued that hooliganism is a diverse phenomenon that is not mono-casual. Therefore, it is an argumentative essay. The main intention is to find causes for hooliganism in modern era football. The research was conducted by developing a fan-based perspective on the causes of hooliganism. Interviews and study-groups were conducted with twenty fans from five English clubs in the 2006-2007 season. The clubs selected were representative of geography, league position, success achieved, fan base, and exposure to European competition. Interviewed fans offered their perspectives on many personal factors explaining hooliganism. We don’t know if the study was conducted randomly. The internal validity is not good since the sample size is relatively small (m=20). But, since it is a case study, it would have been difficult to have a larger sample size. The results show that there are six causes for hooliganism: the influence of media, the influence of police, personal reasons, desire to represent or to have an identity, revenge and superiority, and dissatisfaction. Therefore, it is shown that hooliganism is a diverse phenomenon that is not mono-casual. The results cannot be generalized outside of England, because the socio-cultural environment is not the same in other areas of Europe where hooliganism is just as present. The research may be biased because it is done on fan-based opinion. Still, it is a source that analyzes in depth the causes of hooliganism and that offers the best theories about it.

Mota, Miguel. “Boys Will Be Hooligans: History and Masculine Communities in John King’s England Away.” Critique, Spring 2009: 261-273.

Spaaij, Ramon. “Football Hooliganism in the Netherlands: Patterns of Continuity and Change.” Soccer & Society, July 2007: 316-334.

Spaaij, Ramon, and Carles Vinas. “‘A por ellos!’: racism and anti-racism in Spanish football.” International Journal of Iberian Studies, 2005: p141-164.

The research was done by Ramon Spaaji and Carles Vinas, experts in hooliganism and racism. Ramon Spaaji had already written many scholarly articles on those topics. Spaaji is affiliated to the University of Amsterdam, where he is a trustable and respected source. Carles Vinas is affiliated to the University of Barcelona. The authors’ intention is to describe the neo-Nazi and racist phenomenons by fan groups across Spain. The two main questions posed by the authors are whether there is a hooligan/racist correlation, and whether there is a transformation in current sources of racism. The study is descriptive. The methodology used was to compare and analyze existing studies on the subject. The validity of the study cannot be verified because it is entirely based on independent studies, there is neither qualitative nor quantitative data measured by the authors. The conclusions found that racism is a widespread phenomenon in Spain of national identity, superiority, and prestige. The desire to conform to a group also leads to violence and discrimination. Still, a lot of hooligan groups try to dissociate themselves from racism and discrimination. The authors conclude three main points: the ultra movement is heterogeneous; racial abuse is not limited to hooligans; and racist discourses are variable and inconsistent. I believe the study to be extremely pertinent to my topic, because the study took place in Spain, believed to be one of the most discriminatory football environments in Europe.

A Brief History of Baseball and the Dominican Republic

Long before David Ortiz and Pedro Martinez were shattering batting and pitching records, or baseball greats like the Alou brothers and Manny Mota were becoming iconic baseball figures, the Dominican Republic was already introducing a distinctive brand of baseball to the world. The Dominican Republic has a long baseball history, which has only become richer in recent years.

For over 100 years, baseball has been at the center of cultural life in the Dominican Republic. Though the origins of baseball in the Dominican aren’t exactly known, historians suggest that baseball first came to the island around the 1880s. Though it is a historical misconception that American Marines brought the game to the island during the 1916 invasion, the United States did play an integral, though indirect, role in bringing baseball here. The United States brought the game of baseball to Cuba in the mid-1860s. It is said that it was Cuban immigrants, fleeing their country’s ten-year war, who spread the game throughout the Caribbean, including the Dominican Republic. The first baseball teams on the island were formed either in the year 1894 or 1895.

Eventually four teams were formed, becoming the oldest, and founding organizations of baseball in the country. Los Tigres del Licey (The Tigers) was founded in Santo Domingo (in order to compete with Club Ozama y Club Nuevo) in 1907. Over the next 15 years Licey became so dominant that an agreement was made among the three other competing teams (Los Muchachos, San Carlos, and Delco Light) to form a new team, comprised of their best players, in order to beat Licey. That team was Los Leones del Escogido. Las Estrellas Orientales (Eastern Stars) was founded in San Pedro in the year 1911. And later, as mentioned, in 1921, Los Leones del Escogido (Lions of the Chosen One) was founded in Santo Domingo. Sandino, who would become one of the more dominant teams in the league, was founded in 1921, (Sandino was later renamed Las Aguilas Cibaenas, (The Eagles, in 1936).

After its introduction in the late 1880s the sport’s popularity quickly spread, and by the 1920s and 30s teams from the Dominican Republic were playing other Caribbean nations, as well as teams from North America.

As with everything on the island, Dictator Rafael Leonidas Trujillo, who became president of the Republic in 1930, through military action, ultimately controlled all of Dominican baseball. Trujillo oversaw the modernization of the Dominican Republic, and undertook the modernization of baseball as one of these tasks. He built the first major baseball stadium, and provided an avenue for the sport to become the country’s national pastime. With the help of the dictator, and his support of the game, this era became crucial in providing the economic and political foundation for the sport. The inception of the official baseball league, and the eventual completion of “El Estadio Trujillo” (later renamed Estadio Quisqueya), were landmark events, as they cemented the place of baseball in the Dominican cultural lexicon. During the first phase in the evolution of the country’s baseball history, games were played only during the day. The game’s second stage began when Estadio Quisqueya was built in 1955. The stadium was a brilliantly designed and well-built stadium for its time. With the stadium came lights, and what is considered Dominican baseball’s Golden Era.

To a further extent, players from the United States, especially the Negro Leagues, ventured down to the Caribbean, especially to the Dominican Republic, to play against some of the Caribbean’s finest, adding to the level of competition already present.

One of the most famous players to participate in the Dominican baseball circuit was Negro League great Satchel Paige. In 1937 Paige was approached by Dr. Jose Enrique Aybar, Dean of the University of Santo Domingo, deputy of the Dominican Republic’s national congress, and director of Los Dragones. (Los Dragones were the two rival teams from Santo Domingo, Licey and Escogido, who were merged to play in that year’s 1937 Dominican Baseball league). Los Dragones were a baseball team operated by Rafael Leonidas Trujillo, and Aybar hired Paige to recruit talented Negro League players to play for Trujillo. With $30,000 in hand, the Negro League legend convinced eight other Negro League players to join him for the eight-week long season, including future Negro League legends Josh Gibson, Cool Papa Bell, Leroy Matlock, Sam Bankhead, Harry Williams and Herman Andrews. Paige had a solid season, recording a league best 8-10 record, and Los Dragones finished the season in first place, with an overall record of 18-13. After Los Dragones beat San Pedro de Macoris in the championship game, (coming from a 3 games to 0 deficit), all the players, except for Paige returned to the United States, though Paige would eventually return to the States.

Having little baseball options after being banned from the Negro National League, the returning players formed Trujillo’s All-Stars, and barnstormed around the Midwest, playing in exhibition and All-Star games. Eventually Paige would continue to barnstorm around the United States, though he would never return to the island.

The 1940s and 50s continued to bring acclaim to the nation, and its baseball league. The biggest baseball moment for the Dominicans, up until that point, came in 1956. This historic event paved the way for the future migration of Dominican talent to the United States. This year saw the debut of infielder Ozzie Virgil with the New York Giants. Virgil, who played nine seasons in the Major Leagues, brought Dominican baseball into the international spotlight. He was the first Dominican baseball player to play in the Majors, and it was the eventual success of Virgil, and fellow countrymen Juan Marichal, the Alou brothers, Manny Mota and others, that consolidated the Dominican Republic as a baseball powerhouse in the hemisphere.

With the prospect of a solid talent base so relatively close, teams from the Major Leagues quickly began to send money, players, and scouts to capitalize on the growing demand. This was another great boost for the Dominican baseball league and the country’s aspiring players, as they got to sharpen their skills with some of the world’s best talent. Players like Delmar Crandall, Grady Little, Bob Gibson, Willie Mays, Tommy Lasorda, Mike Piazza, Alex Rodriguez, and many others have taken advantage of the level of competition available here, and helped make the league even stronger. Since the 1960s and 70s baseball schools have set up shop in the Dominican Republic, and these days every team in Major League Baseball has a school or an active representation here.

There are currently six teams in the Dominican league. Those previously mentioned, with the addition of Los Toros and Los Azucareros. The teams begin play in October, and the season runs through February, with each team playing 60 games, and the two finalists playing for the championship title. Both finalists also go on to represent the Dominican Republic in the Caribbean Baseball Series against Mexico, Venezuela and Puerto Rico.

Of the six teams in the league there have been two great rivalries that have emerged, though this has been to the detriment of the league’s popularity in recent years. In the earlier days of baseball on the island Los Tigres and Los Leones battled continuously for the top, but in more recent years it has been Los Tigres battling with Las Aguilas. Los Tigres have won 19 Dominican titles and 9 Caribbean World Series, while Las Aguilas have won 19 championships.

To date, 420 players from the Dominican Republic have played in the Majors (1956-2005), and according to Major League Baseball there are 119 players representing Latin America, which is 24% of major leaguers. Of these 119 players, 90 players come from the Dominican Republic. There are more Dominicans playing in the Majors than from any other country in Latin America, and the Dominican Republic has more players in the Majors than all other countries in Latin America combined. Dominicans have even made strides in other aspects of the game. In 2003 Tony Pena, formerly of the Kansas City Royals, coached against Felipe Alou, of the San Francisco Giants, making it the first time that two Dominicans coached against each other in the Majors. And in 2004 Omar Minaya became the first Dominican General Manager, working the front office for the New York Mets.

Though the strength of Dominican baseball is now found in each of the Major Leagues 30 teams, baseball still remains an important part of this country’s history, and an important cultural outlet on the island. Each time the topic of baseball comes up, the names of the legends of yesteryear who helped immortalize the game are remembered and discussed as if those players were still playing today. It is an improbable suggestion that each player, or baseball event will always be remembered, but it is possible to say that this country’s baseball past will always provide the foundation for its rich baseball future.

http://dr1.com/articles/baseball.shtml

http://www.baseball-reference.com/bpv/index.php?title=History_of_baseball_in_the_Dominican_Republic&printable=yes

Puerto Rico

The official story of baseball indicates that this game was invented by Abner Doubleday and introduce it in Copperstown, New York, where now is site of the baseball hall of fame, in 1839. The rules of this game was published by Alexander Cartwright in 1845. Mr. Cartwright also organized an amateur team called New York Knickerbockers that lost to to the New York Nine 23-1 in four innings in the first game that scores were taken and celebrated June 19, 1846. And this sport became known as the national pastime and was spreaded all around the world. This sport was brought to Puerto Rico by the sons and nephews of a Spanish official that had been transferred from Cuba. Here in Puerto Rico the sport was played before the Hispanic-American war. And the first official game played in the island was between Almendares y Boriquen.But the game really developed after the war, in that moment everything was in calm and people in mass started to play it. It used to be played only Sundays and on holidays. This spreaded around the island and almost all the towns had a baseball team.This sport became to be taught in school. People would write songs for their team.One of the most important team was Escuela Superior de Ponce. To play baseball from one town to another they would go in train and lot of fan would go with their team. One of the most important player was Amos Iglesia born in Brooklyn in that time. In the time of the real boom of the sport in the island the most important teams were All American, Cuban Stars, Royals Giants and Lincoln Giants. The first puertorican that receive a test for a team in major league was William Guzman but his parents would not let him go so he could finish being a lawyer. Jose “Pepe” Santana was one of the most important puertorican to play in black league in the United States due to his power hitting.

Hiram Gabriel Bithorn was the first puertorican to play in the major league. His debut was April 15, 1942 with the Chicago Cubs. In 1943 he won 18 games and a era of 2.60. After that year he went to the war and when he came back the speed that took him to the major league was gone. In total, his career in major league in 4 season he had pitched in 105 games won 34 games and lost 31 with an era of 3.16. After Bithorm the next puertorican was Luis Rodriguez Olmo who played with the Brooklyn Dodgers when he started playing in June 22, 1945. He was the first to play in a World Series.His numbers after 6 years in the major league was .281 batting average with 29 homeruns and 458 hits in 462 games. After these two the following were Luis “Canena” Marquez, Carlos Bernier, Jose “Pantalones” Santiago, Jose Enrique Montalvo, Ruben Gomez. After those a great number of puertoricans started to play in the major league. In most recent history some of the puertoricans has been worthy to be considered in a small group of great players in the history of the game. The most important player to come out of Puerto Rico was Roberto Clemente Walker from Carolina. He started playing in April 17, 1955 with the Pittsburgh Pirates but was first signed by the Brooklyn Dodgers. He was selected in 1973, in a special voting due to his death in December 31 of 1972 why delivering help to the victim of an earthquake in Nicaragua, to become the first Latin player to be in the baseball hall of fame. What he did for the game is without end. Some of his awards were National League MVP in 1966, 1971 World Series MVP, won 4 N.L. batting titles, 12 time all-star, won 12 Gold Gloves, lead League in outfield assists 5 times, had a hit in every game of the 1960 & 1971 World Series, hit 3,000 hit on September 30, 1972, all-time pirate leader in games, at bats, hits, singles, and total bases, second baseball player to appear on a U.S. Postage Stamp (Jackie Robinson was the first). His total for 18 years in major league is 2433 games, 3000 hits, 240 homeruns, .317 batting average.

Another of great player to come from Puerto Rico is Orlando ” Peruchin” Cepeda. He enter the major league in April 15, 1958 with San Francisco Giants. A lifetime .297 hitter with 379 home runs and 1,364 RBIs during his 17-year playing career with the Giants, Cardinals, Braves, A’s, Red Sox and Royals, Cepeda hit the first Major League home run ever on the West Coast when he clubbed a homer against the Dodgers in his very first Major League game April 15, 1958. He went on to win 1958 Rookie of the Year honors, the 1966 Comeback Player of the Year award, the 1967 NL Most Valuable Player trophy and 1973 Designated Hitter of the Year laurels. He appeared in three World Series, was an 11-time All-Star and hit over .300 nine times in his career.

If we continue to talk about puertorican that had played in the major league we will not finish due that there has been hundreds of players. Some of themare the followings. In 1984 another puertorican was the top story for the major league and that was Willie Hernandez for the Detroit Tigers. In that season he had was the American League MVP and also the Cy Young winner. Another puertorican that been in front line has been Benito Santiago that in 1987 made a record of 34 consecutive games batting a least a hit for a rookie and that same year won the rookie of the year award. Now has a handful of golden glove awards. Some of the records that current players have will be told in their respective page. As you can see we have come a great way to the status we have earned as some of the top players of today baseball. Some of them you hear day to day as the following: Ivan “Pudge” Rodriguez, Bernie Williams, Carlos Delgado, Edgar Martinez, Roberto and Santos Alomar, Juan “Igor” Gonzalez, Wilfredo Cordero, Jaime Navarro, Carlos Baerga, Bobby Bonilla, Javier Lopez, Roberto Hernandez and others.

Cuba

History of Baseball in Cuba

Baseball came to Cuba in the 1860’s. Brought by Cubans who studied in the United States and American sailors in Cuban ports. It quickly spread through the island and took heart with the Cuban people who were fighting for their independence from Spain. We will follow Cuban Baseball from its social club beginnings and through its Golden age. Follow the rise of the Amateur Leagues and the resurgence of the Professional Leagues in the 1940’s. The influence of American organized ball in the 50’s and the end of professionalism in 1961. Also a look at how Baseball survives in Cuba today, with hope of a return to its splendid glory in the future.

A Tribute to Cuban Baseball

A great number of Cubans played on baseball Teams in the Professional, Semi-pro, Amateur and Sugar Mill Leagues in Cuba. Cubans have played abroad in just about all the baseball playing nations. In the United States, Cubans played proudly and with distinction in the Major Leagues, Minor Leagues, and Negro Leagues. Ballplayers like Esteban Bellan, Jose Mendez, Martin Dihigo, Adolfo Luque, Miguel Gonzalez, Minnie Minoso, Camilo Pascual, Tony Perez, and Jose Contreras have had stellar careers in baseball. Several Cubans are listed among the greatest players in baseball History . Also, many of the greatest American ballplayers have played in Cuba. Americans like Ty Cobb, Babe Ruth, Josh Gibson, and Satchel Paige have graced the ballfields of the island nation. Many have appeared on Cuban Baseball Card sets and Collectibles. This Web Site is dedicated to all the ballplayers of Cuban Heritage, either born in Cuba or children of Cubans, and all ballplayers from other nations who have played in Cuba.

http://www.cubanball.com/

A great number of Cubans have played in the major leagues. The first was Esteban Bellan , who played in the 1870s. Then in 1911 the Cincinnati Reds brought in Rafael Almeida and Armando Marsans, who were followed by a steady stream of players from the Island. Adolfo Luque became the first Latin star when he led all pitchers with an outstanding 27-8 record and a 1.93 ERA in 1923. In the 1950s Minnie Minoso and other black Cubans helped integrate the Major Leagues. The 60s and 70s brought many players who left the now Communist country like Camilo Pascual, Luis Tiant, Tony Perezand Tony Oliva. More recently Jose Contreras and Rafael Palmeiro have reached stardom. Lately defections from Cuba by their star ballplayers has highlighted the Cuban baseball news. Cuban greats like Livan and Orlando Hernandez have risked their lives to play the highest level of baseball, which is found here in the United States.

Cubans and the Negro Leagues

A great number of Cubans played in the Negro Leagues. Men like Jose Mendez, Cristobal Torriente, Martin Dihigo and Minnie Minoso played with distinction in Negro League squads. Cubans played in the Negro League World Series. Cubans also played in the East – West All-Star games and are listed on All Time Negro League All-Star lists. Several Cuban teams were also part of the established Negro Leagues or barnstormed as independants. Teams like the Cuban Stars and New York Cubans were made up of mostly Cuban ballplayers. Many of the greatest American Negro League ballplayers played in Cuba. Pop Lloyd, Oscar Charleston, Cool Papa Bell, Josh Gibson, Satchel Paige and Buck O’neil have graced the ballfields of Cuba. They made the rosters of some of best teams in Cuban baseball history. Many of the only examples of contemporary Baseball Cards of Negro League players are found in Cuban Baseball Card sets.

Mexico

Mexico’s baseball roots are believed to be traced back to approximately 1847. American soldiers in the Mexican War introduced Mexicans to the game of baseball in various regions. The laying of track for the railroad, specifically the Monterrey-Tampico railway, played a large part in the spreading of baseball throughout the country, specifically northern Mexico. Colonel Joseph Robertson, who was from Tennessee and once served under General Robert E. Lee, introduced the game in Nuevo Leon when he granted his railroad workers a holiday on the fourth of July in 1889. Robertson and his workers celebrated by playing baseball.

The first organized Mexican League was formed in 1925 by Jorge Pasquel. Pasquel had major league ambitions and stocked his teams with Negro League stars. Furthermore he raided MLB players following World War II when there became a player surplus and accompanying pay cuts. Most of these defector players (23) joined the Quebec Provincial League soon after and Pasquel had to fold the league due to financial ruin in 1953. In 1955 the league resurfaced as a Class-AA minor league, then reorganized yet again in 1967 as a Class-AAA league and continues to this day as a summer league.

(Mexico’s other baseball league is the “Liga Mexicana del Paci­fico” or Mexican Pacific League. It is a “high level” winter league where the winner of the league moves on to represent Mexico in the Caribbean League World Series. The winter league has a total of eight clubs that play a 68 game regular season schedule starting the second week of October and ending in December.)

The Mexican League is composed of 16 teams, divided equally among 2 divisions: the North Zone and the South Zone. The Mexican League is facing tough times as the popularity of baseball is waning in the country. Unlike other Caribbean countries such as the Dominican, Cuba, Venezuela et. al., it seems Mexicans have found a cure for the Beisbol fever that they once had and its name is Futbol.

Attendance at professional baseball games has been flat, with about 2.3 million tickets sold each year between 1998 and 2003, the latest year of data, according to Mexico’s National Institute of Statistics, Geography and Information Processing.

Meanwhile, soccer ticket sales rose 27 percent in the same period, to more than 4.9 million annually. As Mexicans become more affluent, they’re spending more on soccer than ever before.

Mexico City, a metropolis of 18 million people, has four pro soccer teams but only one baseball team, the Diablos Rojos (Red Devils). It plays in the Foro Sol, a stadium wedged into a corner of the Hermanos Rodriguez race car track.

A second team, the Tigers, moved to Puebla soon after the Social Security Stadium closed in 2001. Mexico’s second-biggest city, Guadalajara, doesn’t have a baseball team, but sports three top division soccer teams.

Mexican soccer jerseys can be bought on any street corner, but baseball paraphernalia is practically nonexistent. Much like Canada, Mexico’s media mostly ignore baseball.

When the Pittsburgh Steelers – a popular team among Mexicans – won the Super Bowl it dominated front pages across the country. The other big game on that Sunday, the Mazatlan Bucks’ 4-3 loss to a Venezuelan team at the Caribbean World Series, was relegated to the last pages of sports sections. (Sounds like what happens when a curling tournament is on or the Maple Leafs open training camp – doesn’t matter if the Jays are winning the World Series in Toronto)

While the Mexican Soccer Federation has cultivated its sport nationwide, baseball remains a regional game. Twenty-seven percent of the Mexican Baseball League’s 445 players come from one state, Sinaloa, with another 20 percent coming from neighbouringSonora. Another problem is that Mexicans never get to see homegrown MLB stars play except on TV.

Hopefully Mexico’s moderate success in the 2006 and 2009 World Baseball Classic will do wonders for the sport’s popularity, but one can only hope

http://mopupduty.com/index.php/mexican-baseball/

The Liga Mexicana de Beisbol was founded in 1925 with six teams playing all their games in Mexico City. In the 1930s and 1940s, African-Americans from the United States—who were still barred from Major League Baseball until Jackie Robinson broke the color barrier in 1947–played alongside Mexicans and Cubans in the Mexican League. This arrangement benefited the African-American players through higher salaries and better conditions than in the Negro Leagues in the United States, and helped the Mexican League gain status and revenue from increasing the caliber of their ballplayers. In 1937, legendary Negro Leagues’ stars Satchel Paige and James “Cool Papa Bell” left the Pittsburgh Crawfords to play in Latin America. After playing a year in Santa Domingo, Dominican Republic, Paige and Bell joined the Mexican League. In 1940, Bell won the Triple Crown, hitting .437, with 12 home runs, and 79 RBIs. The next year, fellow Negro Leaguer Josh Gibson hit .374, and set Mexican League records with 33 home runs and 124 RBIs in only 103 games. His home run mark almost tripled the existing Mexican record and stood until 1960 when the Mexican League had a longer season.

In the 1940s, multi-millionaire Jorge Pasquel attempted to turn the Mexican League into a first-rate rival to the Major Leagues in the United States. In 1946, Pasquel traveled north of the border to pursue the top players in the Negro and Major Leagues. Although he was reportedly turned down by Ted Williams and Joe DiMaggio, Pasquel signed up close to twenty white major leaguers, including such well known names as Mickey Owen and Sal Maglie, and a number of Negro League players. Ultimately, Pasquel’s dream faded, as financial realities led to decreased salaries and his high-priced foreign stars returned home.

Currently, 16 teams divided into North and South Divisions play in the Liga Mexicana in a summer season, which ends in a 7-game championship series between the winners of the two divisions. Since 1967, the league has been sanctioned as an “AAA” minor league. In the winter, eight teams play in the Liga Mexicana de Pacifico, whose winner advances to the Caribbean Series against other Latin American winners.

In 1957, baseball in Mexico got a big boost when a little league team in Mexico won the Little League World Series in Williamsport. 12-year old Angel Macias won the championship for the Mexicans by throwing a perfect game against a team from La Mesa, California.

The El Salon de la Fama, the Mexican Professional Baseball Hall of Fame, has enshrined 167 into its Hall of Immortals, consisting of 138 Mexicans, 16 Cubans, 12 from the United States, and one Puerto Rican. Distinguished players include Major League Baseball stars Roy Campanella and Monte Irvin, who played in the Mexican League in the 1940s. Nicknamed “El Bambino Mexicano,” or the Mexican Babe Ruth, Hector Espino was inducted in the Mexican Hall of Fame in 1988, after playing with San Luis Potosi, Monterrey, and Tampico from 1962 to 1984. His 453 home runs remained the record until Nelson Barrera surpassed him in 2001. Espino still holds the all-time records in many offensive categories.

In international competition, the Mexican national team failed to advance beyond the second round of the World Baseball Classic in 2006. But its second-round 2-1 victory over the United States before a heavy pro-USA crowd of 38,284 in Angel Stadium in Anaheim, California, proved to be a big highlight to Mexicans as the win prevented its bigger rival from moving on to the semi-finals. Mexican teams have won the Caribbean Series against other Latin countries six times, most recently in 2005 when Venados de Mazatlan won in its home town.

Venezuela:

Origins

There is not an exact and recognized version about how and when the game of Baseball was introduced to Venezuelans. What is accepted by most historians is that some Venezuelan students in American universities, began to practice the new sport when they went back home after finishing their studies and started to teach the game to their friends among the social high-class clubs in Caracas, around the early years of the 1890 decade.

By May 1895, Amenodoro Franklin and his brothers Emilio, Gustavo, and Augusto established the first organized Baseball Club, “Caracas BBC”. They had been gathering people for the last 3 months to practice the game every Sunday.

The youngsters were concerned in those days in spreading the fever of the new game in the city, they practiced in an open land in front of the train station in Quebrada Honda, further, the field was named “Caracas Baseball Club Exercise Field”.

Caracas BBC organized the first official game in Venezuela as a big event to gain publicity. On May 22, 1895, they sent an open invitation and placed an ad in “El Tiempo”, a local newspaper. The game was so new and unrecognized that the reporter invited the people thru the ad to a “new kind of Chess game, the Base Bale”.

The next day at 3:30 p.m., jumped out on the field the two teams of Caracas BBC, “The Red” and “The Blue”, the latter, managed by Amenodoro Franklin, won with a score of 28 to 19. Some of the players were the Franklin brothers, Emilio, Gustavo and Augusto, Adolfo Inchausti, Alfredo Mosquera, the Todd Brothers, Jaime and Roberto and Mariano Becerra. All of them, former students in the United States, are considered the pioneers of the game in Venezuela. Among the other players involved were the Gonzalez Brothers, Manuel and Joaquin and Emilio Gramer, they were Cubans living in Caracas.

“El Tiempo” did not know much about baseball after the first game; even many people believed that they were going to watch a chess game, because of the reporter’s mistake. A note appeared on the paper the next day describing more the environment than the game itself: “…it looked like a carnival Sunday, without disguises or flowers or candies or reddish things. The delight of the people was so high that it was not even one complain about the poverty on the Republic was heard during the afternoon. And as in other times, people had fun, at least the part of the population who has more elements to do it.”

Venezuela, filled with internal revolutions all over the country, was leaded by rural or military leaders, who tried to take control of the government. By 1895, General Joaquin Crespo was the president and the country was impoverished after many years of civil war.

“El Pregonero”, another newspaper also covered the game, and in their note about it, they mocked El Tiempo’s Chess Ad: “You see! El Tiempo? the match was a Ball Game, not Bale. El Tiempo is always wrong”. They also published: “But this game of Base Ball provides health and strength to the body and happiness to the spirit.”

Three months later, on August 15, “El Cojo Ilustrado” a kind of magazine, published the first pictures of Base Ball in the country sent by Mariano Becerra.

Days later, everybody was talking around the city about “the new sport”, and Alfredo Mosquera’s father, the owner of Caracas Beer Co., built the first official stadium in the country with stands and official measures according to the American rules. It was the “Stand del Este”, near the Petare train station, a Caracas suburb.

http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/Fall02/Landino/thepast.html

The history of Baseball in Panama:

In Panama, baseball’s heritage dates back to the late 19th Century with the arrival of North Americans working to construct the Panama Canal. This is the time when baseball became a popular sport in Panama. The growth of baseball in Panama brought about the development of Panamanian players in Major League Baseball. The most famous player being Rod Carew, who was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1991.

http://www.ebeisbol.com/category/panama/

Handball

The team sport handball is in Europe one of the most popular sports. It is played by men and women, kids and elder people. This game has plenty of rules, but who understands them will have lots of fun. Actually everyone can play, but who wants to be professional needs to be in a good shape. Handball is a fast game, you have to know how your teammates acting, and how to overrun the opponent. Normally each team scores between twenty-five and thirty-five goals a game.

The history of the world cups, which are hold by the International Handball Federation (IHF) every odd year, that everyone can win. It is very unmoral, that a team defeats the title. The leading teams are good because of their historical background to handball. Germany, where handball is mainly invented between the World Wars, brought this game to Poland, Hungary and France. The countries of Scandinavia (mainly Sweden, Denmark and Iceland) always loved handball more than soccer. During the Cold War handball was the sport for the communists, which showed team hood, ability to fight and that the best team wins. So this game was more established in Germany (East), Poland, Hungary, Croatia and Soviet Union/Russia. The Romania as well as Sweden won the most world cups, all in all four. Approximately twenty international competitions of this kind were hold after the Second World War. This shows that already many different countries won the most important cup. Spain/France brought handball to their colonies all over the world. Regularly participants of the world cup are Brazil, Argentina, Angola, Tunisia and Egypt. In Asia handball was many played in Korea and Japan. At the moment this sport is becoming a more important competition than soccer for the countries/kingdoms in middle-east. All underdogs can bring the big handball nations to struggle, which happens every time.

This January/February the European and the Asian Championships were hold. The actual world champion Germany came only to a fourth place. Denmark, which team could not win anything in the past years, but they came back and won sovereign the title. In the Asian Conference Korea could win the cup against Kuwait in the final. Saudi-Arabia got third and Iran fourth.

In the competition for the women, there is not as many different nations who champion the world cup. Russia is definitely number one with five titles. Germany won four times the cup, three times by the team of the German Democrat Republic. At the end of this year (2008), the next world cup for the ladies will be hold in France.

The Olympic Games in Beijing this year will show made the best homework after the Continental Tournaments in both sexes. For the men Denmark is the top favorite for the gold medal and for the women it will be Russia.

Handball History

Similar games to handball were already played in the Antique. The Greece played the “Urania Game” and the in the Roman Empire the Harpastron was a popular game. But these sports can not defined as the game from today. Neither the frescos in the castle Runkelstein in Alto Adige (South Tyrol, Italy) nor the playbook “Handballspiel” (handball game) published by Guts Muth 1797 as well as the mini field game “Handbold” by the Danish sport teacher Holger Nielsen are the ancestors of handball.

The 1891 founded Zenrtalausschuss fur Volks- und Jugendspiele (central committee for folk and youth games) in Germany didn’t have any handball in it pages.

Soccer took at the end of the 19th century leadership in Europe, so handball is a reaction on it. The sport teacher Hagelauer invented the Torballspiel (goal ball game) in 1891. This game was put into the category of gymnastic games.

The beginning of the sport handball is to find in Sweden in 1906. This game was very similar to soccer. In 1911 another sport teacher invented handball, which was almost the same as the Swedish one. Out of these different forms of the new sport, Mr. Heiser published the main base of the modern handball. This game was at the beginning only for girls and women. October 29, 1917 is the date when the modern handball become reality. The basic rules were adopted from the game “Hazena”, which was played in Czechoslovakia. Karl Schelenz overwrote the some of the rules to make this new game also available for men. These newer version made handball to one of the most popular sports in Europe.

After the First World War handball become a sport in schools. In the rivaled sport organizations in Germany were the first games hold. Each organization had his own rules. The end of the confusing ruling made the Nazi-Party in 1934 with the consolidation of the institutional powers of the different sport organizations.

Earlier, in 1928, the International Amateur Handball Federation was founded in Amsterdam. This Federation adopted official rules which were made during a meeting of the International Amateur Athletic Federation in Den Haag in 1926. They have set the international rules. In 1934 handball became an Olympic sport. The first tournament was then during the Olympic Games 1936 in Berlin. Only six nations attempted the new sport. Surprising was, that the United States of America were one of these, even when they got the last place. The undefeated winner was Germany. Second place took Austria and third Switzerland. The other participants were Hungary and Romania. Whereas handball became a popular sport for males, the females decided instead to play netball. The field handball was only in 1936 an Olympic sport. In 1972 the indoor handball was first played during the Olympic Games in Munich.

In 1938 the first IAHF World Cup was hold in Berlin. Only four teams played this tournament, Germany, Austria, Sweden and Denmark. But this was not the first international meeting of handball teams. Already in 1910 teams of ship companies from Sweden and Denmark fought against each other. These tournaments were hold in gyms. From middle of the 1930’s till 1941 Germany dominated handball against the teams from Scandinavia.

During the Second World War the new popular sport almost died. In August 1946 the International Handball Federation was founded in Copenhagen. After that first tournaments as field handball were hold in the English and American Zones in Germany. Together with the founding of the Deutscher Handball Bund (DHB – German Handball Association) in 1949 in the Feral Republic of Germany, teams fought for the first German Championship in field and indoor handball. The Handball Association for the German Democratic Republic was found in 1958. The national team from western Germany won all four world titles till 1966, but one as all together (1959) with the players from the Russian Zone.

Now worldwide handball became a popular sport. For instance there wOnly in northern Europe it took longer, even they were the ones who played handball before the World War. The reason was simple. The weather was to cold to play a season from Spring to Fall. They came to the idea to play handball in gymnasiums again. Unlucky there came another problem. The gyms were to small to play along the field handball rules. One of the main things were that they changed the numbers of players from eleven to seven. All in all the new indoor handball made the sport independent from the weather and increased the safety for the players. This had an effect on the scenes of the games. The teams played in new different formations, used different plays and tricks to overrun their opponent. More and more handball became a faster sport and today indoor handball is one of the fastest team sports in the world. Sweden and Denmark showed, that in handball was and is everything possible.

At the beginning indoor and outdoor handball were treated equal. During the 1960’s the cities and towns in Germany built gyms, which were sponsored by the federal government. More and more teams began to play the indoor version, which was way more spectacular and in1972 the Field Handball League was stopped. The final death hit for the field handball came, as indoor handball was recognized as an Olympic sport in 1972 and for women in 1976. In 1975 the last German field handball championship were hold. This was the end of the milestone for modern handball.

Handball Rules

An indoor handball field has to be forty meters long and twenty meters wide. For the safety of the players and public viewers, there should be a safety area around court, which is between one and two meters wide.

The mid-field line divides the court into two half’s, which are exactly similar. The goals are the end of the court and in the middle. This is similar to soccer, but the goals are smaller. The International Handball Federation says, that the goals has to be two meters high and three meters wide. From each post is a six meter quarter circle. These are from the ground line (the line on which the goal stands) towards the middle of the field. Between these to quarter of a circle is a three meter line. All in all its is almost a half circle. In this area is only the goalkeeper of the defending team allowed. The Free-throw line has the same form as the six-meter line, but it is nine meters from the posts. All fouls, which the defending team commits on the striking team commits, have to be continued from the free-throw line. Seven meters away from the goal is the penalty line. The substitution area is for each team three meters from the middle towards its defending site.

A handball game has two half times of each thirty minutes. The half time break has to be ten minutes long. If there is a draw after regular time and they need a winner (in tournaments) there is a overtime rule. The overtime is two times five minutes. If there is still a draw, there is the next overtime and after that it comes to a penalty shootout.

During the game the clock will be stopped for harder fouls, penalties and time-outs as well as for injured players. The referees categories if there is a need to pause the game for a certain foul. Each team gets one time-out per half. These time-outs are sixty seconds long.

The ball has to be round. The size for men handball has to be between fifty-eight and sixty centimeter and it should weight between 425 and 475 grams. The balls for women is smaller. It should be between fifty-four and fifty-six centimeter and 325 and 375 grams. In each game has to be at least two balls. One is in use, the other in reserve.

Each teams is allowed to have fourteen players. At the same time can play only seven players, one of them should be the goalkeeper. In tactic situations they can use the goalie as a field player. The other player are substitutes. To begin of the game there has to be at least five players of the team to start the competition. Delayed players has to be always accepted. The team can lose players because of penalties or injuries, but there is no limit to stop the game, the referee can decide if there is need to do it. Each team gets only four officials. One of them has to be the head one. He is the only person who is allowed to talk to the referees and he has to make sure, that there are only the four same officials and team players during the game. Every player can be substituted as often as the team wants. Every substitution has to be in the substitution zone. If the team makes a mistake, a penalty will follow. If one player got an injury or is bleeding, he has to leave the court immediately.

The player of the team have to wear the same shirts, which has a different color from the opponent. The goalkeeper needs to wear a different color than his teammates and the opponent. The number on the back of the shirt has to be at least twenty centimeter and on the chest at least ten centimeter big. The wearing of the earrings, necklaces etc. is forbidden.

The goalkeeper is allowed to block the shot with all parts of his body. He is the only one who is allowed in the goal area (six meter half circle). He can is also allowed to leave this area, but then he has to follow the rules, which are for every field player. All his actions have to be safe, he can not make any movements to mislead his opponent in a way could get injuries. For instance running out to stop the opponent player. He is not allowed to touch the ball outside of the goalie area, if he is still in it. He also can not bring the ball make from outside into the goalie area.

The player can play, hit, catch, or stop the ball with your hands, arms, head, back, thigh, or knees, but not with his foot or lower leg. He only can keep the ball for three seconds without doing anything, also can he move only three steps with the ball in your hands. To move over the court the player can dribble the ball. When he catches the ball after the dribbling he can not start dribble again. The player has to pass or shoot the ball. To pass the ball the person can also sit, knee down, or lie down. If the ball touches the referee, the game will be continued like normal. If the player runs out of bound with the ball, there has to be throw-in for the other team, the same is, when the ball rolls or flies out of bounds. The team gets the ball, which did not touch the ball as last.

In handball is no passive play allowed. If the referee recognize a passive playing, then he has to tell it. If the striking team is still playing passive, there will be a free-throw for the other team.

The striking team gets a goal, if the ball has moved completely of the goal line and if there were no fouls. The referee has to signal the goal with to short whistles. If the referee stopped the game before the ball moved over the goal line, than it does not count. In the handball game is it possible to make own goals. These goals are counted normal for the other team. If the ball was stopped by something else then the players or the goalie, for instance the audience, the referee has to decide if the there could have been a goal or not. After a goal the other team has to bring the ball back into the game with throw from the middle line. The team with the most goals is the winning team. Each goal is like one point. The teams can only earn these with shooting goals.

Every game has to be lead by two referees. They can start punish the player when they move onto the field (only if there is a discrimination or violent action against opponent players). The same rules after the game. The referees also have to check the court and the goals as well as they decide which ball is going to be used. They have to check the teams too, like the jerseys, participating players and officials. One of the referees leads the coin flip. The other one has to be present.

The whole game has to be lead by the same referees. The have to guide the game after rules, which are made by the International Handball Federation and the local association for the sport of handball. If the referees punish a person different for the same foul, than they have to take always the heavier punishment. If both referees decide for the opposite team, than both have to come together and decide, how they are going to rule. The referees have also to write down the goals, warnings, and disqualifications. They referees can decide when to interrupt, stop or end earlier the game.

The wearing of black clothes is mainly for referees. If they are going to wear another color, it has to be a bright one, which is totally different from any player of both teams.

Works Cited

Prof. Dr. Braun, Harald. “Zur Geschichte des Handballspiels.” Handball History. 1997/1998. University Bremen. 18 Feb 2008 http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~hospo/Geschichte-Sportarten.html.

Herden, Jan-Frederick. “DHB Handball Regeln.” handball rules. 01/08/2005. Deutscher Handball Bund. 18 Feb 2008 http://www.handballregeln.de/.

Fleischer, Nicole. “Geschichte des Handballs.” Die Anfaenge. 2006. HaSpo Bayreuth. 18 Feb 2008

http://hi.haspo-bayreuth.de/beginn.htm.

IHF – International Handball Federation

http://www.ihf.com

Summers, David. The Sports Book. 1. New York, NY: DK Publishing, 2007.

We invest in the national lottery and exchequer funding in organisations and projects that will grow and sustain participation in grassroots sport and create opportunities for people to excel at their chosen sport. Our structure reflects this focus.” (Sport England)

Sport England’s job is to improve sports participation on all levels, especially grassroots. They work in partnership with Youth Sport Trust which focuses on PE in schools and with UK Sport who focus on elite success.

“Sport England is a government agency responsible for building for foundations of sporting success, by creating a world-leading community sport system of clubs, coaches, facilities and volunteers.” (Sport England)

The mission of Sport England is to create a vibrant sporting culture working in partnership with various National Governing Bodies, Higher and further education sector and their national partners as well as local government and community organisations. The aims and targets are set around three areas, they are ‘grow, sustain and excel’. The aim of growing is to get ‘one million people taking part in more sport’ and ‘more children and young people taking part in 5 hours of PE and sport a week’. This counts as 15% of the investment and sustain counts as 60% of the investment. The aim of sustaining is to have ‘more people satisfied with their sporting experience’ and to have ‘25% fewer16-18 year olds dropping out of at least nine sports- badminton, basketball, football, hockey, gymnastics, netball, rugby league, rugby union and tennis.’ The final area is excel and this counts as 25% of the investment, and the aim is to ‘improve talent development in at least 25 sports’

The staffing structure includes the ‘main board’ which is responsible for setting direction, providing an extra level of governance and advice. There is also the ‘executive team’ which is responsible for the ‘day to day’ running of the business. Sport England work in 11 offices over England, one is the central office in London, nine other local offices and one shared service centre in Loughborough that deals with responses to funding applications and queries. There is a team executive director, they are responsible for the club and community part of the governments 5 hour sport offer for children and young people, including leading a number of programmes including leadership and volunteering. The next member of staff is the executive director for commercial, their role is to find and work with the commercial partners to generate ?50 million for community sport, and the team works innovatively to ensure that the partners derive real benefits from their investments. The next member of staff is the communications and public affairs executive director, they are responsible for helping the partners and the public understand what they do as an organisation. Another job role is the communities executive manager, their role is to help the national governing bodies deliver their plans at a local level; they do this by working with local partnerships. The next job role is the facilities and planning executive director, their role is to help create, support and maintain the buildings, facilities and spaces needed to play sport. The next job role is the finance and corporate services; the directorate is responsible for all the back office functions, including finance, ICT and legal services. There are also NGB and sport executive directors; their role is to help sport’s national governing bodies achieve their participation, satisfaction and talent development targets. The final job role is the research and strategy executive director, they provide evidence community sport needs to make the case for sport, monitor progress against the targets and learn about what works and why.

Sport England is the world leading community sport system. Their funding from the National Lottery and the Government is used in projects to help grass root participation. They work in partnership with UK Sport, which has responsibility for elite success, and the Youth Sport Trust, which is focused on PE and school sport. They also bring together a wide range of partners from local and national government, the commercial sector, higher and further education and the third sector to make the most of their investment in sport. Although their main role is to protect playing fields threatened by potential developments, they provide a wealth of expertise on planning, facilities, coaching, volunteering and sports development. Sport England has ploughed funding into 46 National governing bodies to increase participation numbers and create pathways for talented players. 34 of the NGB’s received targeted investment to get children and young people playing more sports. They will evaluate the progress and results in 2012 on the UK sports system. As an organisation they are working closely with a range of local, county and regional partners, such as local authorities, county sports partnerships and regional development agencies, to bring sport to people how, and where, they want it.

In order for Sport England to be successful they have to work closely with a wide range of organisations. A few examples of these are:

Their sporting landscape partners – Youth Sport Trust and UK Sport
National Governing Bodies of sports
National partners
Local authorities
County Sports Partnerships
Higher and Further Education
The third sector
The commercial sector
London Organising Committee of the Olympic Games and the Olympic Delivery Authority

Sport England is actively involved with many projects helping to ensure a better sporting experience for the community. They use lottery and government funding in a wide range of projects, big or small. ?120 million was put in to the Wembley National Stadium; this is an example of a major project. They are currently involved with the Manchester indoor BMX proposal, Portsmouth 50m pool including athletics and cycling, National centres project upgrades and many, many more.

Sport England’s main focus is to help develop community sports, therefore it aims to help invest in organisations and programmes that will help to increase participation and the opportunities people have in sport.

Sport England states “In addition to our investment in key partners to deliver specific objectives, we are launching funding programmes open to a wide range of organisations. These include sports clubs, voluntary or community organisations, local authorities, schools, colleges and universities”

One of the main partnerships Sport England works with to provide funding is the national lottery.

Lottery funding states “Decisions about funding are made locally by the nine regional sports boards. Eligible projects will be assessed against the priorities laid out in each region’s sports plan and the National Framework for Sport”.

Sport England provides funding to increase participation but also helps in providing sports equipment, providing coaches and also helping to build new sports facilities. Another funding partnership Sport England has is with the national governing bodies of sports.

Sports England states “We are investing ?480 million through 46 governing bodies over the next four years and have agreed grow, sustain and excel targets with each one. Each sport has developed a whole sport plan that explains how it will use this money to achieve these targets.”

The PE and Sports Strategy for Young People is a development that aims in giving young people the opportunity of participating in 5 hours of sport and physical activity a week.

The youth sports trust describes the strategy as “The Youth Sport Trust and Sport England are working with the DCSF and the DCMS on ways to help local delivery partners increase provision, demand and take-up amongst all young people (5-16 year olds) of their five hours a week of high-quality PE and sport (three hours for 16 -19 year olds)”.

The makeup of the five hours will involve offering at least 2 hours a week of high quality curriculum PE to 5-16 year olds. As well as that they are offering an extra 3 hours of sport through both school, community and club opportunities. This 3 hours of sport reaches out further and is offered to 5-19 year olds. The thought behind offering it to young people over the age of 16, is down to the fact that after that age PE no longer becomes compulsory in the curriculum. Therefore Sport England believes at that age they still need to be given the opportunity to participate in some form of sport.

As part of this strategy, Sport England has also developed programmes such as Club Links and Sports unlimited. As part of the Club Links programme, Sport England is not only trying to increase the amount of 5-19 year olds taking part in sport but also increase the amount of young people taking on leadership and volunteering jobs in sport.

Sport England states “We are investing ?4.1m into the 34 sports to deliver an extra half million junior club participants or volunteers by 2012-2013”

Sport England is funding these programmes in order to help achieve the 5 hour participation offer and help increase the links between clubs and school sport.

The Sports Unlimited programme aims at providing sport to those considered ‘semi sporty’, which are young people who have an interest in sport but are yet to participate in community or club sport. They aim to deliver alternative sports which are different to the usual sports that must community and clubs already offer. By doing this they aim to get more young people interested because of offering something innovative and fun.

Each change that has been decided such as the 5 hour offer, sport unlimited, club links and especially step into sport have all got similar reasons of why they have changed for the good of improving sport.

The main reason for these changes was to increase participation within community sport. This is done in three different ways through active communities which is to provide sport for everyone, so it was produced for anyone who wants to participate in sport. Active sports which is to support the sports participants especially the high quality and elite performers so they can gain more from their sports. And finally the last one is active schools and this is to ensure that school children get off to the right start in sport.

They have also made these choices to support talented sports participants from all different classed, cultural backgrounds to progress to the elite level and more medals can come through the higher standards of performance in sport for example there is now a programme that has been set up for the world class performers, for those who compete at the highest levels such as their country.

Some of these changes can also develop and maintain coaches. They help coaches to progress to a certain level of teaching and keep them constantly updated with new knowledge about each individual sport with new techniques and new tactical areas.

They create a network and link of sporting specific clubs and multi sport clubs for the younger generation. This ensures communication and helps sport to be more organised through more people helping and more events and competitive sport can occur. This can also lead to an increase in people wanting to volunteer for these competitions or events or more jobs for those who are struggling to find work.

It also helps increase fitness throughout the whole community by involving everyone as stated in the active communities were an increased number of participants is being adopted and worked upon, and there will be more facilities to participate in sport, as they aim to ensure the right facilities are provided in the correct places, and kept at a high standard which involves alto of planning, designing and development but new places entice people to use them therefore increasing participation.

The new change step into sport has three reasons alone for why it has been started. It sustains involvement in leadership and volunteering in port. For the “personal change” in the younger people by supporting the development of inter personal skills, self – confidence and a sense of responsibility. Finally it’s “structural change” through working with key agencies to offer broader opportunities for young people to make a formal and valued contribution to the delivery of sport. (lecture slides)

References

Sport England [online] last accessed 25th April 2010 at: http://www.sportengland.org/about_us.aspx

Club Links [Online] last accessed 28th April 2010 at: http://www.sportengland.org/support__advice/children_and_young_people/community_and_club_activities/club_links.aspx

Investing in National Governing Bodies [Online] Last accessed 30th April 2010 at: http://www.sportengland.org/funding/ngb_investment.aspx

Funding Guidelines [Online] last accessed 1st may 2010 at: http://www.sportengland.org/funding.aspx

Lottery Funding [Online] last accessed 30th April 2010 at: http://www.lotteryfunding.org.uk/uk/sport-england

The PE & Sport Strategy for Young People[Online] last accessed 28th April 2010 at: http://www.youthsporttrust.org/page/pessyp/index.html