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Ethics in Sport- The Case of Cycling

Introduction

The Higher Moral and Ethical Ground

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

As one of the world’s more demanding sports, cycling extracts as well as expects a maximum performance from its professional participants. It pits them directly against the world’s best in the sport on almost every outing, thus creating a field of competition whereby they are judged, and rated in almost every outing against the leading stars. Unlike other team sports whereby one’s performance is measured, and or gauged against those of a like skill or position, cycling does not provide this cushion or hedge. One’s performance comes under direct scrutiny each, and every outing with time sheet comparisons to indicate one’s standing, be it the mountain climbing segment, sprints, or overall balanced performance through a stage or Tour. The demands of strength, endurance, intestinal fortitude, and mental stamina that is spread in most cases over days, and in the case of the Tour de France, weeks, creates an atmosphere of pressure to perform that is unknown in any other type of professional sport.

Dr. Alejandro Lucia (Cheung, 2003), a world recognized authority in the physiology of professional cycling, has stated that the training as well as discipline required to participate exact a high mental toll that is also a factor of the high stress of physical conditioning as well as genetics. As would be expected, each country with major participants in professional cycling has its own cycling federation, however, the Union Europeenne de Cyclisme, European Cycling Union, is the confederation that oversees the Union Cycliste Internationale, International Cycling Union, which is the professional organization that oversees professional cycling events globally (UEC, 2007). This organization has the responsibility for the issuance of licenses to professional cyclists, along with the enforcement of rules and regulations, which in this instance includes doping (UCI, 2007a). The professional cycling devisions that the the UCI oversees are road cycling events, track, mountain bike, cyclo-cross, BMX, Trials, indoor cycling, and para-cycling (UCI, 2007a).

The International Cycling Union is a non-profit-making organization that was founded on 14 April 1900, and is headquartered in Aigle, Switzerland (UCI, 2007b). The organization’s aims represent:

The regulation of professional cycling on the international level,
The promotion of cycling internationally, in every country as well as at all levels,
The organization of professional cycling World Championships for all cycling divisions,
The encouragement as well as maintenance of friendly and professional relationships between all cycling divisions,
The promotion of sporting ethics as well as fair play,
The representation of professional cycling along with the defence of its interests internationally,
And the collaboration with the International Olympic Committee concerning cycling events held in the Olympics (UCI, 2007b).

It is item 5. the promotion of sporting ethics as well as fair play, along with morals that represents the focus of this examination. And in keeping with such, the International Cycling Union has adopted a ‘Code of Ethics’ that defines and specifies the conduct of action, and rules governing all professional cycling events (UCI, 2007c). It specifies that all executive, management, administrative, cyclists, and other individuals and associations in any way affiliated as well as coming under the aegis of the International Cycling Union must adhere to said ‘Code of Ethics (UCI, 2007c). It sets forth that on a daily basis, all participants must comply with the rules of the ‘Code of Ethics’ with respect to (UCI, 2007c):

human dignity,
principles of nondiscrimmination concerning race, gender, ethic origin, gender, philosophical as well as political opinions, religion, marital staus, or any other forms of discrimination for whatever reason,
the principle of nonviolence in any form as well as the exerting of any type of pressure, and or harassment by any means, specify physical, professional, mental, and sexual,
the maintenance of integrity,
to hold the priority of the best interests of the sport on a daily basis,
to hold the priority of the interests of the sport as well as its athletes regarding financial interests,
to protect the environment,
to maintain neurality in political issues, and
Olympism.

Within this ‘Code’ it is required that all parties uphold the principles as well as interests of professional cycling as well as refraining from any behaviour that might jeopardize the sport, and or the reputation of the UCI (UCI, 2007c). Within this framework is the important concept of ‘integrity’, which means “the firm adherance to a code of … moral or artistic values … (Interactive Playground, 2007). The preceding is specially inportant in the context of this examination as it focuses on the ‘ethical and moral questions’ of drug use in the sport. Integrity represents a skill that is learned over time (Interactive Playground, 2007). As a part of the UCI ‘Code of Ethics’, integrity, under Article 4, is stated as the fact that all parties associated with the UCI shall therefore refrain from the asking for, acceptance of, and or proposal, either directly or indirectly, that any payment as well as commission, along with any advantages and or services of any type that has not been agreed to or authorized by the UCI shall not be undertaken (UCI, 2007c). Furthermore, under inetgrity it also states that when any type of offers of the aforementioned variety are made, that the UCI be so informed (UCI, 2007c). Said conditions under integrity, Article 5, go on to add that parties as covered under their association with the UCI can only accept symbolic gifts that are bestowed in the spirit of freindship as a matter of local custom, and that any other types of gifts are to be forwarded to the UCI (UCI, 2007c). The ‘Code’ goes on to cover such fields as ‘Conflict of Interests’, and Confidentiality’ in laying out specific terms of conduct (UCI, 2007c).

In keeping with the foregoing, the UCI has established an ‘Ethics Commission’, that has been granted authority in the following areas (UCI, 2007c):

to oversee and ensure that all facets of the ‘Code’ are respected,
to field and receive complaints with regard to any infringement to the ‘Code’,
to provide advice as well as assistance concerning ethical matters in all phases of the ‘Code’,
to provide advice on the avoidance as well as resolution of conflicts of interests,
to recommend sanctions as a result of offences against the ‘Code’,
to set forth measures for the application and adherence to the ‘Code’, and
to put forth proposals recommending programmes to teach and advise on ethics.

The foregoing represents an extremely important facet in this discussion in that the UCI has taken an active stance in the areas of ethics, and morals, as defined by integrity. The foregoing represents a critical aspect in the examination of breaches, and scandals that have befallen the sport of cycling that have made the news recently, particularly in the instance of the most recent winner of the Tour de France.

The Consequences of Individual Actions

As indicated in the UCI’s ‘Code of Ethics’ as well as by the actions taken by this organization as far back as the 1960s when an article representing doping was introduced into the organization’s rules, drugs have been a key consideration in ensuring that a level as well as trustworthy representation of the sport was, and is a part of its operation (UCI, 2007d). The preceding focus was further enhanced by the following subsequent rules, and regulations (UCI, 2007d:

in 1966 a similar article, on doping as referred to in 1960, was added to the UCI Technical Guide,
in 1967, the UCI published its first list representing substances that were prohibited,
in 1967 the UCI put into motion the first sanctions taken against riders that refused to undergo testing,
1967 represented the publishing of the first Medical Control Rules, which were the forerunner to the Anti-doping Rules

The above historical understanding of the stance, and active programmes of the UCI is important in the context of recent events on doping in the sport of cycling. This examination shall cover the most noteworthy of these types of events, noting that doping issues have been a part of individual athlete rule broaching since the 1960’s (UCI, 2007d).

The Tour de France represents professional cycling’s most premier, and prestigious event. It’s “…scale and social and cultural significance demands the academic attention that it has not always received …” (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 1). Covering in excess of 4,000 kilometres throughout France, and a few neighbouring countries, millions of on-hand spectators as well as hundreds of millions across the globe via television, and other forms of media follow the event. First conducted in 1903, the Tour has been held as a pinnacle of sporting fairness that shows athletes at their best over three weeks of grueling competition through mountains, and flat stages that average around 150 plus kilometres per day (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 228). Waddington (1998, p. 161) advises “…that a good Tour takes one year off your life, and when you finish in a bad state, they reckon three years… You can’t describe to a normal person how tired you feel…”. They add that “…fatigue starts to kick in on the Tour after ten days if you’re in good shape, and after five days if you’re not in your best condition physically” (Waddington, 1998, p. 161). Waddington (1998, p. 161) adds that “Then, it all just gets worse and worse, you don’t sleep so much, so you don’t recover as well from the day’s racing, so you go into your reserves, you get more knackered, so you sleep less… It’s simply a vicious circle”. Robert Millar, a Scottish cycling professional who rode in the Tour, goes on to state that “It takes two weeks to recover from a good Tour, three months to recover from a bad one” (Waddington, 1998, p. 161).

This event is being utilized in the context of this examination as a result of the intense competition between riders to look good on the world stage in cycling’s biggest event. The preceding translates into the fact that the “…Tour de France cannot avoid seeing an increase in the demands on competitors with the ever-growing importance of television, whose systematic coverage of every stage has also brought in, on top of the necessary battle for the stage win, the necessary battle for permanent presence in front of the TV cameras, therefore making races ever faster” (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 229). They add that there is a “… long-standing presence of doping in the Tour brings us back to the excessive nature of the race” (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 229). The first instance of doping in the Tour de France occurred in 1924 as a result of the confessions of the Pelissier brothers who admitted using “…cocaine for the eyes, that’s chloroform for the gums” ” (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 230). The next significant doping issue occurred in 1955 when Tour riders Jean Mallejac, Ferdi Kubler and Charly Gaul” admitted to taking substances (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 229-230). Doping issues were subsequently repeated in ” (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 230):

1966 representing the first year in which “…-doping tests were carried out in the Tour de France …” (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 230).
In 1975 the first rider tested positive for doping,
In 1977 another incident was uncovered,
In 1980, there was another issue of a rider testing positive for drugs.

But, the most noted example came in 1998 when the winner of the Tour, Marco Pantini tested positive in a subsequent race called the Tour of Italy in 1999 (Appleyard, 2006). In 2000, Frenchman Richard Virengue, a celebrated rider in the Tour, admitted to using drugs during a Festina trial (Dauncey and Hare, 2003, p. 232), with the biggest scandal taking place in 2006 when major Tour riders Jan Ullrich, a winner of the Tour in 1997, and Ivan Basso where forced to withdraw from the event (Leicester, 2006). But, for the first time in the history of the Tour de France in 2006, the winner was later declared ineligible and stripped of his title after testing positively for drugs (Bagratuni, 2006). Subsequent testing after the Tour was completed found that Landis tested positive for the 17^th stage to Morzine that he won in what has been termed “… spectacular fashion after a long ride over 130 kilometres …” that included “… three major alpine peaks” (Bagratuni, 2006). The discovery wound up causing the cancellation of a later racing event in the Netherlands as well as Denmark, and set off an international furor over doping that had been building for years (cbc.ca, 2006a). The scandals brought back to the forefront past cycling scandals, as a result of the magnitude of the 2006 Tour winner being stripped of his crown. A lot of journalists stated that the 1998 scandals nearly killed the Tour’s integrity as well as value when an employee of the Festina team was arrested with a carload of “… performance enhancing drugs …” that included one called erythropoietin (EOP), which is “… a hormone that helps the blood carry more oxygen …” which thus lets riders carry on longer as well as faster (cbc.ca, 2006a).

That incident lead to the arrest of six members of the Festina cycling team, out of nine utilized in the Tour, who admitted to the use of drugs that aided in their performance, along with the leader of the Credit Agricole team Christophe Moreau, who later in that same year “… tested positive for anabolic steroids” (cbc.ca, 2006a). The litany continues with the following incidents as well as allegations (cbc.ca, 2006a):

2002 saw Stefano Garzelli, the “… leader of the Vini Caldirola team …” (cbc.ca, 2006) tested positive for probenecid. The preceding is a diuretic that is often used to mask the presence of other drugs.
2003 saw Igor Gonzalez, a Spanish cyclist, being banned from the Tour de France after he tested positive for an anti-asthma.
2004 saw the police in France seize EPO, amphetamines as well as male hormones, and the arrest to Cofidis team cyclists.
Lance Armstrong, the most celebrated Tour winner was accused of doping allegations, and later cleared.

The preceding has damaged the reputation, and sporting fairness of cycling, and represents a long list of doping scandals that have also rocked other sports. The spectacular performances of the 1970s, and 80s East German swimming teams saw a large number of stellar performers later come down with negative health and side effects “…such as liver cancer, organ damage, psychological defects, hormonal changes and infertility …” that called into question that they might have taken performance enhancing drugs (cbc.ca, 2006b). Kornelia Ender, the winner of four gold and the silver gold medals during the 1972, and 76 Olympics revealed she had been taking drug injections since she was 13 (cbc.ca, 2006b). Her situation mirrors that of other East German swimmers Barbara Krause, four gold and silver medals, Carola Nitschke, and others (cbc.ca, 2006b). Incidents of doping scandals hit the 1983 Pam Am Games that was held in Caracas, Venezula, U.S. Track and Field, professional baseball and football in the United States, and a host of other sports (cbc.ca, 2007a). The pressures to perform in all manner of sports is clear, and in the case of professional cycling has been particularly damaging owing to the international nature of the sport.

The Higher Moral and Ethical Ground

The preceding examples as well as histories of cycling, and other scandals have left the sport in a serious state of affairs. These events, and created a situation that has put “,,, cycling at a fork in the road” (Case and Sachs, 2006). The failure of Floyd Landis to pass drug tests after winning the Tour de France resulted in the disbanding of the entire team as sponsors canceled their contracts (Abt, 2006). Gibbs (2000, p. 4) opens up a broad range of considerations in the case of ethics that takes into account that it, ethics, brings with it the responsibility for others. He states that ethics also takes into account that “We also are responsible for each other in a mutual way when justice requires us to become present, one-to-another” (Gibbs, 2000. p. 4). A situation that is made even more the case in cycling as a team is built to promote one rider, and when that rider or members of the team fails, the entire team suffers. The case of the collapse of Floyd Landis’ team after the 2006 Tour scandal is evidence of this point. Gibbs (2000, p. 4) stated the foregoing above, which in a team sport such as cycling makes such a bind more important. He adds that “…we are bound asymmetrically to each other, and ethical mutuality is possible only because of that excess of responsibility” (Gibbs, 2000. p. 4). And add that such represents a community whereby the actions of one affect the standings of others. As a community, cycling represents a prime example of the foregoing.

Mottram (2003, p. 52) brings forth an interesting proposition that “The motivating factors for drug misuse do not necessarily lie in the hands of the athlete”. He (Mottram, 2003, p. 52) points to a number of studies whereby “…the majority of athletes, coaches, medical practitioners and others involved in sport do not favour the use of performance-enhancing drugs”. There is an ‘however’ he states, which represents that “…these results may reflect the respondent’s ethical and moral attitudes to the problem, but in practice the pressures of competition may compel them to take a more pragmatic approach to drug taking” (Mottram, 2003, p. 52). Gibbs (2000, p. 4) adds to the foregoing in stating that “…ethics are the will, conscious intentions, deliberate choices, or the perfection of an individual rational life”. Sports, and in this instance cycling, embody rules of fair play, ethics, and other value systems that the public idealizes, and seeks to believe in a world of uncertainty, corporate, and political corruption. Fans, and more importantly children, tend to view winning athletes as role models, thus when that trust is shattered it damages not just the individual, but the sport as a whole. Dauncey and Hare (2003, p. 182) describe this as “The spectators’ ‘ethical’ analysis of the conduct of their favorite riders is arguably more complex than that of the Tour organizers (limited to the rules of the race) or that of the French state (limited to French law and Republican values towards sport) or that of cycle sport’s international ruling bodies such as the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI)”.

Conclusion

Ethics is a concept, ideal, and principle that is rooted in moral philosophy. Plato’s dialogues delves into the question “…of the subjectivity or objectivity of morality provides the focus for the earliest complete works of philosophy …” (Graham, 2004, p. 1). Our belief, and use of moral values represents an evolution of the human spirit that is traced back to Plato, and his teacher Socrates. They held that “… there is a radical difference between the world of facts, and the world of values, between physis and nomos to use the Greek words, the difference being that when it comes to matters of value, the concepts of true and false have no meaningful application” (Graham, 2004. p. 1). Thus, Graham (2004, p. 1) holds that “By implication, then, in ethics there is no scope for proof and demonstration as there is in science and mathematics; ethical ‘argument’ is a matter of rhetoric, which is to say, of persuading people to believe what you believe rather than proving to them that the beliefs you hold are true”. Rist (2001. p. 1) states that there is a core concern in ethics that is “…widely admitted to be a crisis in contemporary Western debate about ethical foundations”. He tells us that we are members of a larger community and that what binds us together in a livable society is the belief, and practice of ethics as a matter of trust (Rist, 2001. p. 205).

He (Rist, 2001. p. 119) brings up the foundational principle of “…the problem of the relation between fairness and justice (in what circumstances and by what criteria should people be treated equally”, and that rules are seemingly needed if fairness as well as rights “… are to be enforced”. He continues that ethics refers to the good life for humans as a whole, and that morality “…is limited to what we are told we ought, or more probably what we ought not to do” (Rist, 2001, p. 120). Hare (1997, p. 1) tells us that ethics can also be termed as a moral philosophy whereby it represents the point that “…philosophers come closest to practical issues in morals and politics”. Outka and Reeder (1993, p. 29) advise that the idea representing moral philosophy is and has been central to the history of philosophy and figures prominently with regard to “…recent moral, legal, and political thought and action”. They bring forth the interesting proposition that “…there is agreement on very general principles … (of morality) … such as the Golden Rule, and disagreement over more specific precepts, or that there is agreement over general moral ends and disagreement over particular means or purely factual considerations”. Morality represents the concept of does and don’ts, and that the “…mark of a civilized society is that its members share this concept, for only because they have it do civilized people acknowledge that human conduct everywhere is properly judged by standards accessible to members of societies other than their own, whose opinions they are not entitled to ignore” (Outka and Reeder, 1993, p. 29). The preceding is central to this discussion of the ethical, and moral questions of drug use in cycling.

The ‘Code of Ethics’ as defined by the International Cycling Union has nine key points, representing (UCI, 2007c):

human dignity,
principles of nondiscrimmination concerning race, gender, ethic origin, gender, philosophical as well as political opinions, religion, marital staus or any other forms of discrimination for whatever reason,
the principle of nonviolence in any form, as well as the exerting of any type of pressure and or harassment by any meas, specify phyical, professional, mental and sexual,
the maintenance of integrity,
to hold the priority of the best interests of the sport on a daily basis,
to hold the priority of the interests of the sport as well as its athletes regarding financial interests,
to protec the environment,
to maintain neurality in political issues, and
Olympism.

The foregoing harkens back to Gibbs’ (2004, p. 4) statement that we are “…responsible for each other in a mutual way when justice requires us to become present, one-to-another”. He adds that “…we are bound asymmetrically to each other, and ethical mutuality is possible only because of that excess of responsibility”. That sense of community represents what the International Cycling Union is, and thus the highly damaging effects of individual actions to the whole. As the overall governing body of cycling, the International Cycling Union seeks to make these principles a reality, however, it has failed to manifest these into the consciousness of some of its members, which represents a real source for concern. It, the taking of drugs, has been stated by the International Olympic Committee in the following manner (Mottram, 2003, p. 52-53):

“… the use of doping agents in sport is both unhealthy and contrary to the ethics of sport, …it is necessary to protect the physical and spiritual health of athletes, the values of fair play and of competition, the integrity and unity of sport, and the rights of those who take part in it at whatever level”.

It, drug use, represents a condition that “…is contrary to the very principles upon which sport is based” (Mottram, 2003, p. 53). Dubin (1990) states that “Sport is considered as character building, teaching ‘the virtues of dedication, perseverance, endurance and self-discipline”. He adds the important observations that “’sport helps us to learn from defeat as much as from victory, and team sports foster a spirit of co-operation and interdependence…import(ing) something of moral and social values and…integrating us as individuals, to bring about a healthy, integrated society’ drug abuse would have no place in sport” (Dubin, 1990). Thus, the question, in light of the preceding examples of drug use, is why so many athletes have resorted to cheating”, and “Why are the rules that govern sport often regarded as obstacles to be overcome or circumvented rather than as regulations designed to create equality of competitive opportunity and to define the parameters of the sport?” (Dubin, 1990). The unfair advantage of the use of drugs in sport lessens the outcome, and masks the potential of those who have superior abilities that are hidden by cheaters. It reduces the concept of sport itself, which is defined as “an activity, pastime, and competition … “ (Allwords.com, 2007). The U.S. Anti-Doping Agency (USADA, 2007) states “The spirit of sport means competing fairly and performing to the best of your ability…the pursuit of excellence with honor”.

The international implications of doping in sport has drawn the attention of the General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 2005) which drafted doping in sports, whereby it stated that “… sport should play an important role in the protection of health, in moral, cultural and physical education and in promoting international understanding and peace”. The preceding is a broader application of the meaning and purpose of sport than addressed in this examination, but nevertheless is an important facet in the understanding of the attention and implications of sport in our lives, as stated by the U.S. Anti-Doping Agency (USADA, 2007). Such higher ideals were and are behind the International Cycling Union’s ‘Code of Ethics’, and the personal as well as individual responsibility of each and every person as well as organization affiliated or associated with it. Loland (2002, p. 143) advises that “…fair play is commonly understood as a set of norms for rule conformity and justice…”. He continues that (Loland, 2002, p. 144):

Fairness, represents when “Parties voluntarily engaged in sport competitions ought to act in accordance with the shared ethos of the competitions if this ethos is just”.
And that fair play provides for an equal platform of rules, regulations, methodologies and systems whereby “…competitors are given equal opportunity to perform by eliminating or compensating for significant inequalities that the competitors cannot influence in any significant way and for which they cannot be held responsible”.

Loland (2002, p. 144) states that unless there is fair play, then the performance of athletes is not based upon talent, but some hidden advantages that corrupt the outcome and prompts inequality. The use of substances to enhance sport’s performance represents an issue that is as old as sport itself (Mottram, 2003. p. 307). Fair play is the operative concept behind the rules and regulations of the International Cycling Union, and is the ethical and moral foundation. The efforts of the ICU, as put forth by McNamee and Parry (1998) is that “… the moral structure of sport in terms of an implicit ‘social contract’ (and thus to offer a rationale for why we should condemn cheating and so forth) needs further careful exploration through studies of both the history of sport and the contract tradition”. Midgley (1974. p. 143) continues that “the social contract is just one sort of analogy for underlying moral structures that seem to bind societies together, as a ‘conceptual tool used by the prophets of the Enlightenment to derive political obligation from below rather than from above’”. Fairness and justice go to the root of modern civilization as the basis for order, and cooperation. Hare (1970. p. 179) argues that it is “…our duty to obey the rule ‘always keep your promises’ is simply part of a game (the institution of promising, in this case), and that we could just as easily decide not to play, in which case the duty would disappear”. He concludes that “For unless one accepts this principle, one is not a subscribing member of the institution which it constitutes, and therefore cannot be compelled logically to accept the institutional facts which it generates.” (Hare, 1970. p. 179).

The preceding are the principles and reasons for the existence of the International Cycling Union and its binding ‘Code of Ethics’ on its members. It is the duty of these members to uphold and adhere to the principles of this ‘Code’ as it represents the foundation for public trust and belief in the fact that the outcome of competitions reflects honest and accurate performances. The ‘Play the Game Conference’ held on 10 November 2005 issued a declaration that best sums up that reasons for fairness, honest, integrity, morals and ethics in sport (Pro Cycling News, 2005). It calls for the organizing bodies within sports to:

Ensure that corruption, is eliminated from sports,
And that the integrity of sports management is upheld by maintaining ethical behaviour,
Through a demonstration of commitments to counter corruption.

Corruption in sport represents any activity that changes the outcome from what it would have been if everyone adhered to the rules. It thus then provides the public with a true recording of performances in an arena they can trust and believe in. The pressures to perform mean little if such is aided by unfair advantages that skew results, thus it is the duty of the monitoring organization to enforce the rules as strictly as possible to minimize cheating, as well as to administer strong drug testing. The community of cycling is larger than the athletes and members of the International Cycling Union. It includes every spectator that has and will ever watch the sport. In light of the recent and numerous scandals, much needs to be done to re-establish a platform of trust that the public can look ate and believe that the ills of the past, are in fact in the past. Such will restore cycling to its former prominence, and help to further bound the community of athletes and fans to fair play, ethics and morality.

Bibliography

Abt, S. (2006) Cycling: Shunned by sponsors, Landis’ team dies. 15 August 2006. Retrieved on 17 April 2007 from http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/08/15/sports/bike.php

Allwords.com (2007) sport. Retrieved on 18 April 2007 from http://www.allwords.com/query.php?SearchType=3&Keyword=sport&goquery=Find+it!&Language=ENG

Appleyard, B. (2006) Drugs and Debauchery. 3 July 2006. Vol. 135. New Statesman

Bagratuni, J. (2006) Tour winner Floyd Landis tests positive in latest cycling shock. 27 July 2006. Retrieved on 17 April 2006 from

An antioxidant has been defined as a substance that reduces oxidative damage such as that caused by free radicals (Halliwell 1984). Oxygen-centred free radicals known as Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) may contribute to exercise induced muscle damage (Mc Ginley 2009). Due to this, it has been widely accepted over the past 20 years that increasing antioxidants in the body will provide greater protection against ROS (Sastre 1992; Hathcock 2005). However, the significance of exercise-induced oxidative stress is open for discussion (Cabrera 2008) with unclear conclusions in literature. This has led to the recent investigation on the possibility of increased production of free radicals during exercise and the effects of antioxidant supplementation in athletes (Finaud 2006; Gomez-Cabrera 2008;Ristow 2009). Free radical proliferation is a widely suggested mechanism in the damage response to exercise by process of phacocytosis and activation of the respiratory burst by neutrophils during the inflammatory response (Pyne 1994). The most commonly used antioxidants in the sporting world are vitamin C (ascorbic acid) and vitamin E (tocopherol) with an astonishing 84% of athletes using antioxidants during the 2008 Beijing Olympics (International Olympic Committee 2008).

It has been well documented that high intensity exercise results in damage to active muscle fibres resulting in soreness, stiffness and a reduction in the muscles force producing capabilities (Allen 2001; Armstrong 1990; Clarkson 2002). Peroxidation of muscle fibre lipids causes disturbance in cellular homeostasis which may result in muscle fatigue or injury, possibly implicating free radical formation as a major cause of delayed-onset muscle soreness (Byrd 1992). Preventing muscle tissue damage during exercise training may help optimize the training effect and eventual competitive sports performance (Sen 2001). In order to minimise tissue & cell damage, there must be an equilibrium maintained between oxidants (ROS) and antioxidants (reductants). ROS increases with intense physical exercise (Fig 1) which can exceed the capacity of the body’s natural antioxidant defence (Reid 2001). This was illustrated by Davis (1982) and Ebbeling (1990), whereby strenuous activity led to increased levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), a 3-carbon-chain aldehyde. Measurement of MDA has become the most commonly used indicator of lipid peroxidation (Mc Bride 1999).Thus, the ingestion of exogenous antioxidants has been proposed to attenuate this increase in ROS. Evans (1990) noted that several antioxidants, including vitamin C and especially vitamin E, have been shown to decrease the exercise-induced increase in the rate of lipid peroxidation, which could help prevent muscle tissue damage.

The effects of Vitamin E have been more extensively researched than Vitamin C due to some promising results in the literature. Vitamin E is the main lipidsoluble, chain-breaking antioxidant (Ji 1996) which accumulates in the phospholipid bilayer of cell membranes and helps attenuate lipid peroxidation (Sjodin 1990) within the cell membrane acting as an important scavenger of superoxide and lipid radicals (Powers 2000). Vitamin E supplementation has been shown to significantly decrease the amount of lipid peroxidation (Kanter 1993) and membrane damage associated with single bouts of low and high intensity submaximal exercise aswell as resistance exercise (Mc Bride 1998; Ashton 1999). Sumida (1989) stated that 300 mg of vitamin E given for 4 weeks reduced exercise-induced lipid peroxidation . Mc Bride (1998) reported the effectiveness of vitamin E supplementation in reducing MDA and creatine kinase (CK) levels. Cannon (1990) reported a decrease in CK and a faster recovery after supplementation of vitamin E. Furthermore, Kanter (1997) recently reported a 35 % increase in T-lag time (indicative of a diminished LDL oxidation rate) in subjects who consumed 1000 mg d-a-tocopherol acetate daily for 1 week before exercise.

Various studies have also demonstrated beneficial physiological effects of vitamin C supplementation in physically-active people. Jakeman and Maxwell (1993) found that supplementing vitamin C showed less strength loss (Fig 2) in the triceps surae post-exercise, and a faster recovery (Fig 3) compared to placebo. The force response to tetanic stimulation was less in the vitamin C group also, indicating a reduction in contractile function. Kaminski and Boal (1992) pre-supplemented subjects for 3 days with 1 g of vitamin C 3 times a day and then induced damage in the posterior calf muscles. Supplementation continued for 7 days post-exercise with vitamin C group reporting reduced soreness ratings ranging from 25-44% less than the control group. Peters (1993) noted fewer cases of upper respiratory tract infection in runners who consumed 600 mg vitamin C/d for 3 weeks before a 42 km road race. Bryer (2006) reported lower DOMS in a high-dose Vitamin C supplementation group 2 weeks prior and 4 days post eccentric exercise Studies which have used combinations of antioxidants (consumed 300-800 mg d-cr-tocopherol plus 200 mg vitamin C/d for 4-8 weeks) reported post-exercise declines in serum enzymes indicative of muscle tissue damage in subjects (Sumida 1989; Rokitzi 1994). Kanter (1993) reported that a mixture of vitamin E (592 mg), vitamin C (1,000 mg), and 30 mg of beta carotene resulted in a decreased level of a lipid peroxidation marker after exercise. All the previously mentioned studies suggest tangible benefits of antioxidant supplementation in combating detrimental physiological processes that may be initiated by physical activity thus appearing beneficial to sports and exercise participants.

Exercise exhibits numerous positive effects on general health (Wartburton 2006), most notably improving glucose metabolism. It is well documented that exercise increases ROS production (Powers 2008), however it is unknown whether this may influence the health promoting effects of exercise. The effects of antioxidant supplementation on the health-promoting effects of exercise have recently been investigated (Gomez-Cabrera 2008; Ristow 2009). Exercise helps initiate mitochondrial metabolism, with a reduction of this metabolism linked with type 2 diabetes (Simoneau 1997). Since mitochondria are the main source of ROS, it’s been proclaimed that ROS may be a factor in some health promoting effects (Schulz 2007; Birringer 2007). Ristow (2009) investigated this theory and hypothesized that antioxidant supplementation may repeal certain health promoting benefits of exercise and oxidative stress. Thus, if increases in oxidative stress exhibit a counteracting effect on insulin-resistance, then the prevention of ROS activation by antioxidants may increase the risk of disease such as type 2 diabetes.

Ristow (2009) proposed an essential role for ROS formation in increasing insulin sensitivity in exercising humans. The study found that vitamin C and vitamin E blocked many of the beneficial effects of exercise such as insulin sensitivity (glucose infusion rates-GIR) and the promotion of muscle antioxidant defence post-exercise. James (1984) found non-supplemented subjects showed significant increase in GIR after 4 weeks training whereas antioxidant group found no significant change (Fig 4). In addition, the non supplemented group also increased adiponectin levels compared to the supplemented group (Fig 5). Adiponectin (secretory protein) has been shown to have a positive correlation with insulin sensitivity and is inversely correlated with risk of type 2 diabetes (Spranger 2003). A recent meta-analysis of 232,550 participants suggests use of antioxidants may increase all-cause mortality (Bjelakovic 2007). Of the 136,023 receiving antioxidants, 13.1% died (17,880) whereas of the 96,527 controls, 10.5% died (10,136).

Studies in healthy subjects show that low aerobic capacity is a strong predictor of mortality (Myers 2002; Yusuf 2004). Impaired regulation of mitochondrial function is an important mechanism for low aerobic capacity (Wisloff 2005). Gomez-Cabrera (2008) found that mitochondrial content is a key determinant of endurance capacity and that vitamin C decreases exercise-induced mitochondrial biogenesis in muscle. Free radicals serve as signals to adapt muscle cells to exercise through gene expression (Khassaf 2003). Vitamin C was found to prevent beneficial training effects to occur due to their prevention of activation of two major antioxidants (Mn-SOD and GPx) (Gomez-Cabrera 2008). The aforementioned study also concluded that endurance capacity is directly related to mitochondrial content, which is negatively affected by antioxidants.

Antioxidant supplementation is extremely popular among athletes, but data indicating beneficial effects on functional capacity of muscle are elusive. There is no strong evidence from literature for the use of antioxidant supplementation in athletic populations as there are many poor controlled studies involving unusually high doses, involving low muscle damaging activity and more recent research has alleviated to minimal if any benefits. Antioxidants do not seem beneficial in preventing DOMS, increasing recovery time or protect against muscle damage but in fact long term supplementation (with vitamin E in particular) may increase mortality (Bjelakovic 2007). Most notably for athletes, not only does supplementation appear ineffective in preventing against exercise induced muscle damage, but interferes with the ROS signalling which are needed for adaptation to occur (Gomez-Cabrera 2008).

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Austina Burton
Abstract

For this single-system research design, the main goal was to analyze the effect a 35 day intervention of doing yoga had on weight loss in a college student. A young, single Caucasian female student participated in yoga every day, for 35 days, for 60 minutes each time. A baseline was documented over 15 days, and the intervention was documented over 35 days. Her weight was recorded every five days between seven o’clock and nine o’clock in the morning. At the end of the 35^th day, the participant showed an increased weight loss of 7 pounds. The results suggest that doing yoga can have positive effects on weight loss. These results are consistent with prior studies; however those studies included other factors that could influence weight change into their research, whereas this study focused solely on yoga as the main intervention.

Effects of Yoga on Weight Loss

Research suggests that obesity rates in the United States have more than doubled in the past fifty years, with 32.2% of adults considered obese in 2004 (Ogden et al., 2006; Flegal et al., 2002). The Center for Disease Control and Prevention, or most commonly referred to as the CDC, has found that obesity is becoming more common, serious, and costly. Currently, more than one-third of U.S. adults are obese (Adult, 2014). That is 34.9% or 78.6 million people. Rates of overweight and obesity appear to be increasing most dramatically among young adults, the 18-to-29-year-old age group. To be more detailed, the rates went from 7.1% in 1991, to 12.1% in 1998. With those having some college education, they demonstrated even greater increases in overweight and obesity (Mokdad et al., 1999).

A young Caucasian woman, currently in her sophomore year of college, would like to lose weight by doing yoga; however, she has had trouble losing weight in the past. Studies show that college students are affected greatly by obesity. This critical period, involving the young adult, contains the term “Freshman 15”, which refers to the notion that the first year of college is associated with a fifteen pound weight gain. Yoga has been positively correlated with helping people “shed pounds, or at least keep them from gaining weight” (Fred, 2005). In addition, Bruckheim (1990) found that reducing fat intake can increase weight loss; however, the participant would not like to change her eating habits at this time.

Statement of the Problem

In this study, the case that will be presented is a 19 year old woman, who is going to do yoga; and not change what she eats. She is 5’7” tall and weighed 150 pounds at the beginning of the study. In an interview during the baseline period of the study, the participant stated she was unhappy with her weight, which causes her to feel bad about the way she looks. The participant talked about prior attempts at losing weight, which included dieting and exercising. She also stated that, with being a full time college student, she is unable to stick to a regular schedule of exercising, and has been unable to stay on a diet. Her weight has been over 150 pounds since her 9^th grade year of high school, and she has had trouble losing weight ever since. The goal of this study is to increase the participant’s weight loss by doing yoga for 60 minutes per day, for 35 days. The participant’s reason for wanting to lose weight is because she wants to look thinner, and fit better in her clothes.

Literature Review

There have been numerous research studies conducted to find out more about obesity rates in America, as well as how general exercise and dieting can affect weight loss; however, there are few studies addressing the effects yoga can have on weight loss among Caucasian women who are full time students. One study completed by Wharton, Adama and Hampl (2008) found that university students are prone to using inappropriate weight loss practices , and Lloyd-Richardson et al. (2009), found that both males and females gain weight, with similar patterns observed over the freshman year and the greatest weight changes for both sexes occurred during the first semester.

When it comes to physical activity and exercise, Rocette et al. (2005) found that exercise participation was approximately 50% at the beginning and end of freshman year. Although they observed no changes in aerobic or strengthening exercises, more students reported engaging in stretching exercises at the end of freshman year; however, more than half of the students in Rocette’s (2005) sample reported eating high-fat fried or fast foods at least 3 times during the week.

It’s widely known that regular yoga can help reduce stress, which in turn slows the production of cortisol, the hormone responsible for belly fat. A study done by Caffrey (2013) found that yoga practitioners lost fat over an initial 6 month study period, and “kept losing it during a maintenance period with less direct supervision.” Another study, funded by the National Cancer Institute, “involved 15,500 healthy, middle-aged men and women who were asked to complete a written survey recalling their physical activity, and weight history between the ages 45 and 55” (Fred, 2005). The study measured the impact of yoga with weight change, independent of other factors such as diet or other types of physical activity. The result was that those practicing yoga, who were overweight to start with, “lost about 5 pounds during the same time period those not practicing yoga gained 14 pounds” (Fred, 2005).

Methodology

A single system, research design was conducted over 50 days to assess the effectiveness of yoga on weight loss for an overweight 19 year old Caucasian woman. The weight loss intervention was introduced after a 15 day baseline period. The primary objective was to determine whether yoga could decrease weight, while keeping the same eating habits over a 35 day intervention period.

During the 15 day baseline period (February 1^st-15^th), the participant was asked to document her weight in pounds every five days by nine o’clock in the morning, using a standard weight scale. The baseline period was reported to the researcher through text messages. Following the 15 day time period, an interview was conducted over the phone, where the participant established her goal to participate in yoga for 60 minutes each day for 35 days. After the baseline period and interview were over, the researcher made phone contacts with the participant every five days to monitor the progress (February 16^th-March 22^nd). The researcher recorded the participant’s weight in pounds on a graph over a 50 day time period (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. The intervention was implemented following the 15 day baseline period, which is marked by the dotted line.

Results

The goal of this research study was to analyze the effect of a 35 day weight loss intervention based on yoga. A young female college student participated in yoga seven days per week for 60 minutes each day. A baseline was documented over a 15 day time period and the intervention was documented over 35 days. The participant’s weight was recorded every five days. At the end of the 50^th day, the participant showed a weight loss of seven pounds. As shown in Figure 1, the goal of decreasing the participant’s weight was met. The participant showed decreased body weight, from 150 pounds to 143 pounds. Those findings are consistent with previous studies.

Discussion

Single-system research designs are a research methodology that lets a practitioner track their progress with a client (Bloom, 1993). Yoga has been positively associated with weight loss in experimental and quasi-experimental designs, “which look at the effect of an intervention within, or between, groups of people” (Fred, 2005). The use of yoga as an intervention in a single system design worked due to being able to establish a realistic goal and an intervention plan.

Limitations occur within most research studies. In this single system research design, there were such limitations. Weight loss is affected by numerous things, such as your environment, genetics, metabolic rate, activity level, and what you eat. This study focused solely on activity levels and did not take into account the environment, genetics, metabolic rate or what the participant was eating. An uncontrolled diet was the main limitation to this study. The participant stated that she ate out at least once a week, and mostly ate at the dining hall on her college campus, where the food did not usually meet nutritious guide lines. The effect of this can be seen in Figure 1, when a pound or less was lost between day 25 and 35. The participant’s influx of weight during the baseline period was due to her ending menstrual cycle. The participant stated it was normal for her to gain weight towards the end of it. Before this study, the participant was not getting any exercise on a regular basis, so when she started doing yoga 60 minutes per day, it had a profound effect on her weight. Although a form of exercise alone helped this participant lose weight, research has found that, when coupled with high activity levels, eating healthy can have an even more profound effect on weight loss (Sareen et al, 2012). For that reason, when research is done further on the effects of yoga on weight loss, I recommend having a diet plan incorporated into the design if weight loss is the main goal of the study.

References

Adult Obesity Facts. (2014, September 9). Retrieved March 15, 2015, from http://www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/adult.html

Bloom, M. (1993). Single-system designs in the social services: Issues and options for the 1990s. New York: Haworth Press.

Bruckheim, A. (June 26, 1990). Reduce fat intake to reduce weight. Chicago Tribune (pre-1997 Fulltext), 2.

Caffrey, M. (2013). Restorative Yoga Better Than Stretching for Trimming Subcutaneous Fat in Overweight Women. American Journal of Managed Care. Retrieved March 22, 2015, from http://www.ajmc.com/publications/evidence-based-diabetes-management/2013/2013-1-Vol19-sp7/Restorative-Yoga-Better-Than-Stretching-for-Trimming-Subcutaneous-Fat-in-Overweight-Women

Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center. (2005, July 21). Regular Yoga Practice May Help Prevent Middle-age Spread. ScienceDaily. Retrieved March 22, 2015 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/07/050720064358.htm

Lloyd-Richardson, E.E., Bailey, S., Fava, J.L., and Wing, R.; Tobacco Etiology Research Network (TERN). (2009). A prospective study of weight gain during the college freshman and sophomore years. Prev. Med. 48 (3): 256–261. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2008.12.009. PMID:19146870.

Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Curtin LR, McDowell MA, Tabak CJ, Flegal KM. (2006). Prevalence of overweight and obesity in the United States, 1999–2004. Jama; 295(13):1549–1555.

Racette, S. B., Deusinger, S. S., Strube, M. J., Highstein, G. R., & Deusinger, R. H. (2005). Weight Changes, Exercise, and Dietary Patterns during Freshman and Sophomore Years of College. Journal Of American College Health, 53(6), 245-251.

Sareen S. Gropper, Karla P. Simmons, Lenda Jo Connell, and Pamela V. Ulrich. (2012). Changes in body weight, composition, and shape: a 4-year study of college students. Applied Physiology, Nutrition & Metabolism, 37(6), 1118-1123.

Wharton, C. M., Adams, T., & Hampl, J. S. (2008, January 01). Weight loss practices and body weight perceptions among US college students. Journal of American College Health : J of Ach, 56, 5.)

Executive Summary

Consumption of supplements and energy drinks has become a norm among athletes now. However, there are different studies in support as well as against the energy drink consumption for athletes, on whether it has a positive effect on the performance or not.

The aim of this research was to investigate the acute effects of an energy drink (Red Bull) on the performance difference levels in male athletes. Thirty male athletes were selected from different backgrounds to participate in this study.. The subjects were randomly divided into two groups; Group A (experimental) & Group B (non-experimental). Measurements of their running times were taken and the average was calculated. In the second session, group A was given an intake of 250 ml of Red Bull energy drink, while all the members of group B were not given any energy drink. The experiment was carried out again. The differences between the teams as well as between the two sessions were taken into account.

Introduction

Although in recent years, athletes have improved their performance levels, they share the same quest with their historical counterparts: success and victory at the Olympic Games. So every time, very different methods were tried by athletes to achieve this aim.

In this way, consumption of energy drinks by athletes has become increasingly popular.

Athletes believe that energy drinks can be used to enhance their performance during training and competition due to their potentially ergogenic ingredients such as carbohydrates, caffeine, sodium and taurine, among others.

Background

Energy drinks have become more and more popular since the late nineties. The manufactures claim that these drinks improve physical endurance, reaction speed and concentration. The main ingredients of energy drinks are caffeine, sugar, taurine and glucuronolactone. According to the manufacturers, the stimulating effects of these drinks are due to interaction between the various ingredients.

Sport drink consumption is recommended for most sports and not all of the sport

beverages are the same. They differ in type and concentration of carbohydrates, electrolytes, flavors and other constituents. Some simply replace carbohydrates and electrolytes; others provide added protein, specific amino acids, and even fat, while still others provide herbs, vitamins, and caffeine.

Literature Review

Energy or ‘power’ drinks (e.g., Battery, B52, Dark Dog, Jess, Red Bat, Red Bull, Rhino’s) are beverages designed and consumed for purposes other than for improving athletic performance: for instance, to reduce the depressant effects of alcohol on the central nervous system. On the other hand, sports and fluid-electrolyte replacement beverages (e.g., Gatorade, Powerade) are designed and consumed to enhance athletic performance or to reduce the deleterious effects of dehydration during athletic competitions (Carvajal- Sancho, Moncada- Jimenez, 2005).

It should be noted that, although energy drinks have been sold worldwide for more than a decade, unfortunately only a few studies have apparently been published to test the effectiveness of these beverages on the physical or cognitive performance in athletes (Alford, Cox, & Wescott, 2001; Baum & Weib, 2001; Carvajal- Sancho & Moncada-Jimenez, 2005). So far, no data is available in regard to the effectiveness these beverages on anaerobic power and the delay of blood lactate accumulation.

Some scientific studies with similar topics will cited later on. Nevertheless, in most cases, their topics were not directly related to anaerobic power or delaying blood lactate accumulation.

Alford et al. (2001) investigating the effects of an energy drink (Red Bull) on psychomotor, anaerobic and aerobic performance (anaerobic performance was measured by a 20s cycle ergometer test), reported that the Red Bull group improved aerobic and anaerobic performance by 9% and 24%, respectively. Similarly, Carvajal- Sancho & Moncada- Jimenez (2005) studied the acute effect of an energy drink on physical performance (100 m sprint, hand dynamometer and standing long jump) and indicated no significant changes in physical and cognitive variables. In another research, the influence of a multivitamin/mineral supplement on anaerobic exercise performance (a 30-second cycle sprint test and one set of squat exercise) was studied by Fry et al. (2006) and a decreased rate of fatigue was noted for both exercise tests.

In addition, Olson and Seifert (2004) carried out a study to determine if consumption of a carbohydrate-protein drink could improve skating performance. The results showed that, in the experimental group, speed performance improved by 8% and reaction time improved by 12%. Kipp et al.(2003) also investigated the influence of a carbohydrate/protein sports drink on soccer sprint performance (four speed trials with 5 min of rest in between). In the carb-protein group, speed was improved between the first and last sprints by 1.1 seconds, while the other group slowed down by 2.2 seconds.

There are many types of energy drinks which can be purchased over the counter by everyone and their producers have claimed a variety of benefits in their advertisements.

In the case of an intensively working skeletal muscle, this means a delay in the fall in intramuscular pH to the critical level at which glycolysis is inhibited (OoA?pik et al., 2003;

MacDougall et al., 1991). On the other hand, with regard to controversial reports about the effects of alkalinizing agents in the case of acute administration (Stout & Antonio, 2002; Aschenbach et al., 2000; Bishop et al., 2004; Marx et al., 2002; McNaughton et al., 1999; Ball and Maughan, 1997; Wilkes et al., 1983), it is unclear whether the consumption of energy drinks can have such effects.

PROBLEM STATEMENT
Does the intake of Red Bull (energy drink) effect athletic performance of male athletes or not?

Energy drinks are believed and marketed in a way to show that they enhance mental and athletic performance. Therefore, the concern of our research has been to find out whether the ingredients of one of the most used energy drink (Red Bull) effect the metabolism of human body in such a way that there in an increase in the physical athletic performance or not.

Theoretical Frame Work
Dependant Variable:

Athletic Performance

Independent Variable

Red Bull

Intervening Variable

Uneven tracks, diseases to the athletes.

Uneven tracks can be a big factor which can be controlled by carefully selecting an even and smooth running track. While the intervening variable of diseases to the athletes can be taken care of in the athlete selection process. In the initial questionnaire results, the athletes with some serious health disorders can be filtered out.

Hypothesis

The researcher intends to test the following hypothesis using their research:

Alternative Hypothesis (HA)

There is a relation between the intake of Red Bull with the athletic performance of male athletes.

Null Hypothesis (Ho)

There is no relation between the intake of Red Bull with the athletic performance of male athletes.

The Theoretical Framework

Performance of Athletes/Players

Intake of Red Bull

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Uneven track

Diseases

Intervening Variables
Methodology

The name of the research methodology is non-manipulative as in our research we have control on our independent variables and it is a field experiment.

Participants: In order to be eligible to participate in the study, subjects had to

meet the following inclusion criteria which were obtained by means of a questionnaire:

a) to train/play for at least four days per week (approximately 30 min in each session);

b) not to be on medication or nutritional supplementation; and

c) not to consume energy drinks regularly.

Potential participants were excluded from the study if they:

a) presented psychiatric or neurological diseases;

b) were sensitive to any ingredient contained in the energy drink;

c) were under any nutritional supplementation regimen that included either caffeine, sugar, taurine and glucuronolactone;

e) had evident cardiac problems.

Thirty regular male football players (age: 24.34A±1.74years, height: 183.26A±7.66 cm, weight: 81.37A±6.85 kg) volunteered to participate in this study. The volunteers read and signed an informed consent form with a medical history questionnaire before beginning the study.

Then, the nature of the study was explained to the subjects, and they were given an opportunity to ask questions about anything that was unclear.

APPARATUS

We used questionnaire as our research tool for the initial screening of athletes. While stethoscope and blood pressure sphingo-meter apparatus were used to measure the heartbeat and blood pressure respectively. A stop watch was used to note down the sprint timings.

PROCEDURE

Procedure: The aim of this research was to investigate the acute effects of an energy drink (Red Bull) on the performance difference levels in male athletes. Thirty regular male athletes (soccer players) (age: 25.34A±1.74years, height: 182.26A±7.66 cm, weight: 78.37A±6.85 kg and BF%: 13.2A±2.7%) were selected from different backgrounds to participate in this study. This research was conducted on two separate sessions with four days of rest in between.

Two experimental conditions were tested: a) control (no drink); b) energy drink. The subjects were randomly divided into two groups; Group A (experimental) & Group B (non-experimental). In the first session, both the groups were assigned to run on a 100m track without any liquid intake. Measurements of their running times were taken and the average was calculated. In the second session, group A was given an intake of 250 ml of Red Bull energy drink, while all the members of group B were not given any energy drink. The experiment was carried out again. The differences between the teams as well as between the two sessions were taken into account.

One week before the data collection took place. The participants were instructed on how to perform the whole experiment and underwent a familiarization session. The subjects were instructed to avoid alcohol, nicotine and other stimulants and also avoid strenuous activities and sudden changes in food consumption (including any nutritional supplementation products) the day before the experiment. In addition, they were asked to maintain regular physical activities during the days prior to the experiment, as recommended by Carvajal-Sancho and Moncada-Jimenez (2005). Moreover, they were asked to wear comfortable, loose-fitting clothing and get an adequate amount of sleep (6 to 8 hours) the night before the test (Byars et al., 2006). The clothing, shoes, as well as all equipment used, were consistent for each subject and were recorded to establish controlled experimental conditions.

APPARATUS VALIDITY

Apparatuses used in our study were stethoscope, blood pressure apparatus (sphino-meter), stop-watch, pen and paper. The heartbeat rate (bpm) was measured with the help of stethoscope, blood pressure with the help of blood pressure apparatus and the running time were measured by the stop watch.

The apparatus was duly checked by the hospital authorities and confirmed to be in valid functional conditions.

RESULTS

The results show that the group A, after the intake of Red Bull energy drink did show an almost negligible good performance, thus not supporting the hypothesis.

The experiments, apart from giving out the main results also gave some very interesting facts. For example; Group A (experimental) showed increase in the time to exhaustion, which is ultimately related to the ingredients of Red Bull.

Hence, we will select,

HA(alternative): There is a relation between the intake of Red Bull with the athletic performance of male athletes.

As it is clear to see the difference through the results. This proves that after the intake of Red Bull, the athletic performance increases.

Discussion

The aim of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of Red Bull energy drink on the performance of male athletes. Results of this study indicated that ingestion of Red Bull prior to exercise testing is effective on the athletes’ performance.

In the present study it was observed that Red Bull energy drink caused an 11.78% decrease in the blood pressure and a 15.86% increase in the heartbeat rate (bpm).

The 100m sprint performance time in the group A(experimental group) showed improvement, even after repetitive attempts.

Potentially, caffeine could have a number of actions that affect skeletal and heart

muscle. It can increase sympathetic activity, and has direct intracellular action. The increase in heartbeat rate (bpm) may be attributed to ingredients such as caffeine,taurine, glucuronolacton. Caffeine has been shown to have desirable effects for performing

athletes fighting fatigue and increasing energy. The stimulant effect of caffeine could make it effective for increasing alertness while performing in a fatigued state. Taurine is also famous to aid in the contractile function of skeletal muscle and for providing increased ability of the muscle to contract, amplifying muscle force generation. In this study it was found that Red Bull energy drink caused up to 10.5% increase in time to exhaustion. However the previous researches and the current results, both support the fact that the ingestion of Red Bull energy drink does not have a significant enough impact on the performance of athletes, that it be strongly recommended to athletes for increased and better performance. No reports were identified of negative effects associated with the amount of taurine found in most energy drinks. Commonly reported adverse effects seen with caffeine in the quantities present in most energy drinks are insomnia, nervousness, headache, and tachycardia. Four documented case reports of caffeine-associated deaths were found, as well as four separate cases of seizures associated with the consumption of energy drinks.

Acknowledgements

First of all thanks to Allah Almighty who blessed me the strength and devotion to complete this research. I would thank my college fellow Adil Khan, who has helped me in the selection of the male athlete subjects. I would also like to thank Haider Behzad who helped me immensely with the research work. Moreover, I am also very thankful to all the people, who were part of the research and gave me their precious time. Without their help, it wouldn’t have been possible to complete this research project.

AND LAST BUT MOST IMPORTANTLY, I would like to thank my instructor, my mentor for the course, Mr. Humair Hashmi for pushing me forward, motivating me with his masterly tactics and enabling me to carry out the research in a professional manner.

Appendix
The sample of the questionnaire is below;

INSTRUCTIONS

KINDLY ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS

MARK ONLY ONE OPTION IN THE SEGMENT OF ANSWERS

NAME:______________ AGE:_____________

Q1> How many days do you exercise in a week?

4days

5days

6days

Q2> Do you use any kind of drugs?

Yes

No

Q3> Your preference towards exercise/workout?

Gym

Swimming

Soccer

Running

Q4> Do you carry any breathing disease or any major disease?

Yes

No

Q5> Do you use any kind of supplements?

Yes

No

Sports Coaching

CONTENTS (JUMP TO)

Principles and best practice in coaching

The effectiveness of different styles of coaching in different contexts

How models of coaching can help practitioners

References

Principles and best practice in coaching

The ideal of sport has changed markedly in the past fifteen to twenty years (Polley, 1998)^[1]. What was once seen as leisure and/or a recreational activity is now viewed primarily as a vehicle through which one can instigate deep-seated cultural and societal change. This is especially true in the UK which has a particularly insipid connection to sport with a variety of games considered endemic in British society; indeed, many of the most popular sports in the world were played first in Britain and their governing bodies still reside within British state borders. As a result, as Dawn Penney (2000:59) declares, sport, society and equity are interlinked to a degree that has only very recently been acknowledged by academic, specifically sociological, study.

“Physical education and sport are part of our social and cultural worlds. The relationship is dynamic, with the policies and practices of physical education reflecting, but also clearly shaping (reproducing and/or challenging), the values and interests of broader society.”^[2]

It is for this reason that the concept of ‘best practice’ has attained a new level of significance in recent years relating specifically to the adoption of the finest possible academic, psychological and ethical procedures especially with regards to children and young people so as to prepare them mentally and physically for the multiple demands of adult life whether this be in a sporting or non?sporting context. ‘Best practice’ utilises research conducted primarily between the years 1950 to 1980 with the implementation of these strategies taking place over the past thirty years. It is a wholly recent phenomenon and, as such, is lacking in some areas of research compared to other fields of sociological study. However, in the twenty first century the amount of attention devoted to the subject is likely to increase with the dual spectre of globalisation and commercialisation making sports a highly lucrative hub of activity.

The principles governing the concept of ‘best practice’ are centred upon the twin aims of forging a common sense of unity and teamwork within a group of players and at the same time to nurture individual skill and flair on a one-to-one basis so that the more gifted players’ skills are honed without neglecting the primacy of the team as the over-riding ethos of ‘best practice’. This essential dualism which resides at the epicentre of ‘best practice’ coaching concepts is inherently affected by the evolution of sports players as they grow up. For instance, young players (aged six to ten years old) are much more inclined to gravitate towards the individual element of sports and competition with the group dynamic coming at a later age (developing primarily between the ages of twelve and sixteen). For this reason, there is no ‘best way’ to ‘best practice’; no right or wrong. Rather, there is a great exchange of fluidity between concepts, principles and practices that should be implemented on an individual basis. This is as true of coaching adults (clients) as it is of coaching youngsters where Jennifer Rogers (2007:7-10)^[3] has outlined six core principles that ‘define’ the role of the coach in the modern era. These are:

The client is resourceful (the coach’s sole aim is to work with the client to achieve all of their potential – as defined by the client).
The coach’s role is to spring loose the client’s resourcefulness.
Coaching addressing the whole person: past, present and future.
The client sets the agenda.
The coach and the client are equals.
Coaching is about change and action.

The common denominator outlined by Rogers is that coaching is always triggered by change – be it a change in age, in circumstance, in style or technique. Furthermore, because change is the currency in which the coach does business, there is bound to be wildly fluctuating styles of coaching that fit wildly different social and cultural contexts and it is towards these different styles and contexts that attention must now be turned.

The effectiveness of different styles of coaching in different contexts

It has been shown that the evolution of young people greatly affects the implementation of coaching methods pertaining to the precarious balance between coaching the individual and the group dynamic. This is necessarily dependent on the kind of sport being coached: team sports such as football require a dedication to the team ethic while sports such as tennis and golf stress the individual element of competition. Sports such as cricket combine the team ethic with a heavy emphasis upon individual ability, certainly with regards to batting, which is a very solitary skill that requires intensive levels of concentration and individualism (Palmer, 1999)^[4]. Thus, in the first instance, effective coaching requires the practitioner to tailor his or her coaching style to the sport in question and then to further tailor these coaching techniques to the age group of the team or individual being coached.

This inherent diversity in coaching styles is also true of the economic context of coaching adults. Certain sports require greater levels of economic participation than others. Golf, for example, is an expensive sport that demands that the participant is well funded so as to purchase the necessary equipment such as clubs, bags, clothing and, most importantly, membership to a golf club. The same can be said of tennis and cricket where the equipment is a vital part of the ultimate success or failure of the technique of the client in question. Economic context is also important with regards to the psychological element of coaching with the social, cultural and political problems of urban poverty playing an important part in the types of coaching techniques which are likely to yield the best results from any given demographic. There can be no doubt that a coaching style employed for a group of middle class practitioners with free access to capital, time and resources is going to be markedly different from the kind of coaching style deployed for children and adults who do not have access to the same luxuries and who therefore are going to respond to different coaching techniques.

Economic context, demographic context and age context are further compounded by the increasingly common problem of multiculturalism and, specifically, globalisation, which has obvious consequences for teachers, mentors and coaches operating at all levels of society throughout the UK. When one thinks, for instance, of the impact of language upon coaching (relaying tactics, pointing out areas of strength and weakness, and, most significantly, attempting to instil a team ethic) one can see the extent to which the role of the coach is inexorably intertwined with the fate of mass movement of peoples across the planet in the twenty first century. As Jones (1997:27) declares, “there is no more important task within the wider coaching process than that of communication.”^[5] Bains and Patel (1994) have long pointed out the blatant under?representation of Asians playing professional football in England despite some areas in the Midlands and the North-West of England having urban areas with a higher than 50% ratio of ethnic communities.

“Recent Sport England national statistics confirmed that people of South Asian origin have markedly lower participation rates than other minorities or the indigenous population.” (Collins, 2003:75)^[6]

This anomaly with regards to the high numbers of Asians living in modern Britain and the disproportionately small number of Asians playing football, it has been argued, is due to coaches indulging in outmoded stereotyping when it comes to coaching players from the Asian community. Asians are still seen as primarily academic achievers over sports players and where they are perceived as sports players they are still pigeon?holed in typical Asian images of cricket players; rarely are they ever seen as potential professional footballers. Likewise black players are still seen as primarily quick, powerful players; rarely, the tactical brains or the spiritual heartbeat of the side.

This cultural element to sports coaching is exacerbated by the historical gender divide between males and females in a sporting context. Here, just as with ethnic people, stereotypes remain the dominant coaching paradigm. Girls and women are expected to play traditionally female sports such as netball, hockey, lacrosse, swimming and tennis. This, however, is in direct opposition to the growing numbers of women playing traditionally male?dominated sports such as rugby, cricket and football with the latter in particular experiencing a veritable boom in female interest since the beginning of the 1990s.

“A generation ago, sport was a core, patriarchal institution in a larger, contested gender order. Now, with the dramatic growth of girls’ and women’s athletics participation, sport no longer simply or unambiguously plays this reactionary role in gender relations. Sport is now more internally contested.” (2002 introduction xxii)^[7]

It is, in the final analysis, up to the sports coach to take each of these mitigating factors and contexts into account so that the practitioner is able to coach skills and techniques that are relevant to the contemporary era as opposed to perpetuating anachronistic stereotypes that do little to advance civilised society in both a sporting and non?sporting context.

How models of coaching can help practitioners

Studying different models of coaching represents the scientific element of sports mentoring whereby the student and practitioner can attempt to explain the essence and purpose of coaching via the development of models (Fairs, 1987:17-19)^[8]. It can be separated into two distinct camps: the ‘of’ coaching camp and the ‘for’ coaching camp. Models ‘of’ coaching are based upon empirical research investigating best practice while the ‘for’ coaching models are idealistic representations that arise from attempts to identify a concrete set of assumptions about the coaching process. The majority of practitioners tend to employ a symbiosis of the two models incorporating an ‘of’ and ‘for’ model of best practice. In this way, empirical data can be used in a realistic setting that takes into account the age, skills and other contexts that affect the coaching process. However, these two models of coaching underline the extent to which academia and intellectual analysis has come to dominate the empirical study of sports performance when in fact the first hand experience of established practitioners ought to form the basis of all models of coaching sports. The difference, essentially, comes down to one of theory and practice with the concept of ‘expertise’ necessarily clouded by the arguments of the academics and the professionals respectively. Once again, though, the individual element of the coaching process must be highlighted so as to reflect the inherent complexity that takes place within the field of sports with vastly differing levels of skill and ability being matched by the vastly different psychological reactions to slumps in form and technique.

It is, ultimately, up to the national governing sports bodies to ensure that the primacy of holistic coaching practice does not become relegated at the expense of literature, theory and academia (Lyle, 1999:1-24).^[9] For this reason, organisations such as Sport England have been established by the central government in a bid to impose a centralise model for sports development on regionalised sports bodies so as to directly influence and aid practitioners. The primary model deployed by Sport England is the “traditional sports development continuum” – a pyramid which locates foundation as the core, base value followed in hierarchical terms by participation, performance and, finally, excellence (Bramhan et al, 1999:3).

This generic model is dovetailed by more advanced models for practitioners to use with athletes at a professional or elite stage in their sports. As is so often the case it is the Australians who represent the pinnacle of academic research into the coaching process with the revolutionary ‘Old Way, New Way’ technique correction model offering an intensive ‘one session’ approach to the problem of proven performers suffering seemingly inexplicable dips in form and technique with the case of Australian fast bowler Jason Gillespie standing tall as the most prominent example of therapeutic success achieved via sports practitioners embracing new means of solving old problems. ‘Old Way, New Way’ is consequently a manifestation of the much sought after collaboration between academic researchers and sports practitioners which works on a psychological as well as a physical level in a bid to continue the sportsperson’s quest for skill development and continuous technical improvement.

References

Bramhan, P., Hylton, K., Jackson, D. and Nesti, M. (1999) Introduction, in, Bramhan, P., Hylton, K., Jackson, D. and Nesti, M (Eds.) Sport Development: Policy, Process and Practice London and New York: Routledge

Collins, M.F. (2003), Social Exclusion from Sport and Leisure, quoted in, Houlihan, B. (Ed.) Sport and Society: a Student Introduction London: SAGE

Fairs, J. (1987) The Coaching Process: The Essence of Coaching, in, Sports Coach Journal, Volume 11, Number 1

Jones, R.L. (1997) Effective Instructional Coaching Behaviour: A Review of Literature, in, International Journal of Physical Education, Volume, 24, Number 1

Lyle, J.W.B. (1999) The Coaching Process: Principles and Practice, in, Cross, N. and Lyle, J.W.B. (Eds.) The Coaching Process: Principles and Practice for Sport Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann

Messner, M.A. (2002), Taking the Field: Women, Men and Sports Minneapolis and

London: University of Minnesota Press

Palmer, G.V. (1999) Cricket Coachmaster: Batting Mechanics London: Gary Palmer

Penney, D. (2000) Physical Education: In what and who’s Interests? , in, Jones, R.L. and Armour, K.M. (Eds.) Sociology of Sport: Theory and Practice London and New York: Longman

Polley, M. (1998) Moving the Goalposts: A History of Sport and Society since 1945 London and New York: Routledge

Rogers, J. (2007) Coaching Skills Buckingham: Open University Press

1

The Olympic Games in 2012 can “leave a legacy of accessible transport and facilities not just for disabled sportsmen and women, but for people with a disability in general.”^[1]

Phil Lane, British Paralympic Association Chief Executive

Table of contents (Jump to)

1. Introduction

2. Methodology

3. Evaluation

3.1. Legislation

3.1.1. DDA 1995

3.1.1.1. Meaning of Disability

3.1.1.2. Meaning of Discrimination

3.1.1.3. Positive Duty under the DDA 2005

3.1.1.4. Taxis and Private Hire Vehicles

3.1.1.5. Rail Vehicles

3.1.1.6. Public Transport Vehicles

3.1.1.7. Aircraft and Ships

3.1.1.8. DDA 1995: Comparison to other Anti-Discrimination Legislation

3.1.1.9. Criticisms

3.2. Case Law

3.3. Stakeholder Commentary

3.4. Survey Results

4. Recommendations

5. Conclusion

5. Appendix “A”

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Introduction

The Labour government under Tony Blair has set out an ambitious agenda for tackling disability discrimination across society. Part of this agenda has involved amendments to the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (DDA 1995)^[2] in order to ensure that the lessons of the first ten years of the Act having been in force are taken into account. The DDA 1995 sets out, along with the regulations and orders made under the Act, the legislative framework the intention of which is to ensure that disabled people throughout the country have access to the same opportunities as the public at large. With London having been awarded the Olympic Games in 2012, the ability of this legislative framework to force through change, both on a functional level, and on a cultural one, will be put to the test. The purpose of this report is to examine and critically assess, within the context of transport in London and airline operators, whether or not this legislative framework is sufficient to meet the needs of disabled people coming up to the Olympic Games and beyond.

2. Methodology

In order to assess the readiness of London to meet the needs of disabled travellers during the Olympic Games and beyond within the confines of a research paper it is necessary to clearly define the scope of the intended research. In this case, the scope of the investigation is limited to transport in London, which includes taxis, trains, public authority vehicles, buses, the underground, aircraft and, to a lesser degree, accessibility to the buildings from which those transport vehicles leave from and arrive to.

In order for it to be concluded that London will be ready to meet the needs of disabled travellers by 2012, it will need to be shown, that the current legislative framework is sufficient; that where there are ambiguities within the legislation, the Courts have been willing to provide useful guidance to transport providers and disabled travellers generally; that the culture within the public transport industry has changed with managers and employees now aware of their obligations under the legislation; that there are adequate penalties in place to discourage those that fail to comply; and finally, that these previously mentioned factors will all work together to provide disabled travellers with a integrated means of getting around London by 2012.

In order to investigate these matters, it was necessary to look in detail at the provisions of the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (DDA 1995), how the Act has been amended over the past eleven years, and in particular by the Disability Discrimination Act 2005 (DDA 2005), the various regulations and orders made under the DDA 1995 pertaining to public transport, cases decided dealing with the DDA 1995 and various commentary available from both public transport service providers, disabled travellers and other stakeholders.

A survey of both rail and airline employees was also undertaken in order to gauge the level of understanding of the provisions of what is a complicated and often misinterpreted piece of legislation. The results of that survey are set out in Appendix A and discussed within the body of this report.

3. Evaluation
3.1 Legislation

One of the main aims of this report is to establish whether or not the amendments made to the DDA 1995 by the DDA 2005 have assisted in making the DDA 1995 more accessible or whether it remains, as noted by Lord Justice Mummery, “without doubt an unusually complex piece of legislation which poses novel questions of interpretation.”^[3]

3.1.1 DDA 1995

The primary piece of legislation dealing with discrimination against disabled people using public transport is the DDA 1995 which has been amended by the DDA 2005. The DDA 2005 received royal assent on the 7^th April 2005. Its main purpose was to give effect to the submissions made by various groups relating to the operation of the DDA 1995 over the preceding ten years by providing for certain important amendments in relation to that legislation.

The DDA 2005 makes several substantial amendments to the DDA 1995. Those that apply to public transport are set out in Sections 5 to 9. Section 5 inserts a new Section 21ZA into the DDA 1995 and replaces the existing exclusion of transport services from Sections 19 to 21 of the DDA 1995 with a more precise exclusion which relates to only those transport services which consist of vehicle provision and use. Section 21ZA(1)(b) excludes discrimination which relates to a service provided, or not provided, while a disabled person is travelling in a vehicle. Section 21ZA(2) excludes from the duty to provide adjustments, transport services involving providing or using a vehicle. Sections 21ZA(1) and (2) can be disapplied through regulations made by the Secretary of State under Section 21ZA(3).^[4]

Section 6 of the DDA 2005 clarifies the timeframe for the bringing into force regulations dealing with all rail vehicles and the duty requiring rail operators to have in place measures allowing for disabled people to get on and off regulated rail vehicles in safety and without unreasonable difficulty and to be carried in regulated rail vehicles in safety and reasonable comfort. The Secretary of State is now required, under the new Section 46(4A) to ensure that all rail vehicles are regulated under the rail vehicles accessibility regulations by 1^st January 2020. Section 6 also removes from the definition of “rail vehicle” the exemption relating to vehicles first brought into use after 31^st December 1998. This means that there is now no start date and the Secretary of State is able to make regulations which apply to all rail vehicles and for instance, make regulations which apply to rail vehicles first brought into service before 1998 and which are for example refurbished. This closes a potential loop-hole in the legislation and allows the Secretary of State to meet the deadline imposed by 46(6A).^[5]

Section 6(3) clarifies the Secretary of State’s powers to make exemption orders relating to regulated rail vehicles by specifically allowing the making of exemption orders which relate to the operational as well as the construction elements of the rail vehicle accessibility regulations. Section 6(4) clarifies the procedure to be followed by the Secretary of State when exercising their discretion under Section 67(5A) of the DDA 1995. This procedure applies to the making of exemption orders and requires the Secretary of State to consult the Disabled Persons Transport Advisory Committee, and any other bodies that may be appropriate, and furthermore, for such regulations to be subject to the draft affirmative procedure which allows for greater parliamentary scrutiny. In the same vein of providing closer scrutiny over the making of exemption orders, Section 6(5) of the DDA 2005 inserts a new section (67B) which requires an annual report to be produced by the Secretary of State detailing the exemption orders which have been made and containing details of the consultation process undertaken.^[6]

Section 7 of the DDA 2005 deals with the new concept of rail accessibility compliance certificates and allows for the Secretary of State to make regulations appointing independent assessors responsible for granting and enforcing the certificates, setting out the mechanisms for the charging of fees and dispute resolution. The intention of the certification scheme is to ultimately prohibit regulated rail vehicles operating without a valid compliance certificate. These certificates will also provide a degree of flexibility with Section 47A(4) allowing the certificates to be subject to conditions.^[7]

Section 8 of the DDA 2005 replaces the criminal sanctions set out in the DDA 1995 for a breach of the rail vehicle accessibility regulations with a civil regime allowing the levying of penalties should an improvement notice and final notice issued by the Secretary of State not be complied with. It also provides the Secretary of State with new powers of inspection in cases in which it is suspected that a regulated rail vehicle fails to conform to the provisions of the rail vehicle accessibility regulations (Sections 47E and 47F). New sections 47D to 47L deal with the imposition of penalties on train operators. Section 47D to 47H deal with the amount, due date and recovery of penalties imposed under the Act. Most importantly, any penalty imposed cannot exceed 10% of the operator’s “turnover”. Section 47K sets out the procedure to be followed and the operator’s right to object. If the operator is not satisfied with the penalty imposed by the Secretary of State, they have the right to appeal to a Court, whether or not they have lodged an appeal with the Secretary of State, but only on the grounds that either the penalty should not apply to them or that the level of the penalty is too high.^[8]

Section 9 allows for the recognition in England and Wales of disabled persons’ parking badges issued in foreign jurisdictions. This then allows for reciprocal recognition of UK badges in other EU countries.^[9]

3.1.1.1 Meaning of Disability

The DDA 1995 defines a “disabled person” as someone who has a disability.^[10] A person has a disability if they have,

“…a physical or mental impairment which has a substantial and long-term adverse effect on his ability to carry out normal day-to-day activities.”^[11]

This is further clarified in Schedule 1 of the DDA 1995. A mental impairment is not exhaustively defined but it originally only included mental illnesses in cases in which that illness is clinically well-recognised.^[12] This constraint has now been removed by Section 18(2) of the DDA 2005.

In addition, the DDA 2005 by way of Section 18(3) deems those suffering from HIV, Cancer or MS to be disabled before the symptoms set out in Section 1, or paragraph 8 of Schedule 1, have been experienced by them.^[13]

An impairment is held to be long-term if a person has had it for at least twelve months, it is expected to last for at least twelve months or it is likely to affect the person for the rest of their life.^[14]

3.1.1.2 Meaning of Discrimination

Section 3A(1) of the DDA 1995 states that a disabled person is discriminated against if, for a reason relating to a disabled person’s disability, a person treats a disabled person less favourably than they would someone without a disability and the person alleged to be discriminating against the disabled person cannot show that it is justified to treat them in this way.

In order for the treatment referred to above to be justified, it must be both substantial and material to the particular cases’ circumstances.^[15] However, if the treatment amounts to direct discrimination, it cannot be justified.^[16] Similarly, if the person was required to make reasonable adjustments to cater for disabled people and has not done so, they will not be able to rely on a defence of the treatment being justified unless even if he had complied with the duty it would have been justified.^[17]

More relevantly to the issue of public transport, a person is also held to have discriminated against a disabled person if when a duty to make reasonable adjustments in relation to disabled people is imposed on them, they fail to comply with that duty.^[18]

3.1.1.3 Positive Duty under the DDA 2005

The DDA 2005 introduced the concept of a “positive duty” for public authorities which makes it unlawful for them to, in the course of carrying out its functions, to discriminate against disabled people.^[19] A similar “positive duty” has not been included with respect to private companies and employers.

3.1.1.4 Taxis and Private Hire Vehicles

The DDA 1995 allows the Secretary of State to make regulations to ensure that it is possible for disabled persons; “to get into and out of taxis in safety,” and “to be carried in taxis in safety and in reasonable comfort;” and for disabled persons in wheelchairs; “to be conveyed in safety into and out of taxis while remaining in their wheelchairs,” and “to be carried in taxis in safety and in reasonable comfort while remaining in their wheelchairs.” It is proposed that regulations are introduced in respect of all new Taxis by 2010 and all Taxis by 2020.^[20]

One notable exception is that private hire vehicles are not provided for under the DDA 1995 however, this is not an exception that is likely to remain for long with both the Disabled Persons Transport Advisory Group and the Disability Rights Commission looking into the matter.^[21]

3.1.1.5 Rail Vehicles

A “rail vehicle” as amended by the DDA 2005 is a vehicle, “constructed or adapted to carry passengers on any railway, tramway or prescribed system.”^[22]

The DDA 1995 provides the Secretary of State with the power to make “rail vehicle accessibility regulations.”^[23] These regulations, made in 1998 and amended in 2000, cover several important areas. They allow the Secretary of State to require, by way of these regulations, transport operators to provide means for disabled persons to be able to get on and off regulated rail vehicles in safety and without difficulty and to be able to travel in those vehicles in safety and comfort. They also cover such matters as, “wheelchair accessibility, the design of on-board accessible toilets, the size and location of handrails, handholds and control devices as well as the provision of audible warnings and other equipment.”^[24]

The DDA 1995 also allows the Secretary of State to make an exception in relation to a case in which a rail vehicle operator is unable to meet the requirements and makes an application for exemption. An example of such an exemption relating to London is the one granted to Gatwick Express (The Rail Vehicle Accessibility (Gatwick Express Class 458) Exemption Order 2006). This Order exempts Gatwick Express from some of the requirements of the regulations until April 2011.^[25]

However, without doubt, the main hurdle that the government needs to overcome to ensure that the Olympic Games in 2012 are an inclusive event is the issue of accessibility to the London Underground. Transport for London currently lists as accessible by means other than stairs or escalators, only 40 of its 275 underground stations.^[26] The pace of improvements taking place also fails to fill one with confidence. Over the next five years there will be an additional 27 step-free stations. The intention is then for 25% to be step-free by 2010 and 50% by 2015.^[27]

As the Disabled Persons Transport Advisory Committee (DPTAC) correctly point out, if these figures are to be accepted, less than half of London’s Underground stations will be accessible by way of stair-free means by the time of the Olympics in 2012 and this is a situation that they find unacceptable.^[28] While being the main means of transport for many spectators who will arrive in London at the time of the Olympic Games, the Tube is also perhaps the most culturally significant icon that London possesses and it will reflect poorly on the country as a whole if accessibility to London Underground stations has not been addressed in a productive manner before 2012.

3.1.1.6 Public Transport Vehicles

The regulations applying to public transport vehicles are set out in the Public Service Vehicles Accessibility Regulations 2000. These regulations provide standards which are to be met and apply to “all new public service vehicles (buses or coaches) introduced since 31^st December 2000 with a capacity exceeding 22 passengers used to provide a local of scheduled service.”^[29] They also set out deadlines for the meeting of the standards. For instance, wheel chair users must be able to access all small buses by the 1^st January 2015, large single deck buses by the 1^st January 2016 and double deck buses by the 1^st January 2017.^[30]

At present the accessibility by wheelchair users of buses nationwide stands at approximately 30%.^[31] However, the DPTAC note that with respect to London’s buses, accessibility for wheelchair users is close to 100%.^[32] The main concern with respect to buses in the capital is not in relation to compliance with the required modifications, but rather with the failure of some drivers to use the modifications available to assist their disabled passengers.^[33] It should be noted that the Public Service Vehicles Accessibility Regulations 2000 do provide for a driver refusing to assist a disabled person in cases in which doing so would “adversely affect his health or safety, your safety or that of other passengers or the safety of the vehicle.” ^[34] However, it should be stressed to all drivers that this exemption should only be relied upon in specific circumstances with clear examples being provided.

Finally, the DPTAC also suggest the greater availability of audible and visual information systems and this is an area that Transport for London is considering as an improvement for all their customers, not only those that are disabled.^[35]

3.1.1.7 Aircraft and Ships

One of the main criticisms of the DDA 1995 is that it fails to specifically address the duties of ship and airline operators. While ports and airports will still need to comply with the requirements of the legislation, the DDA 1995 fails to provide in respect of ships and aircraft the same regulatory making powers that it provides with respect to taxis, rail and public transport vehicles. Ships and aircraft come under European laws dealing with anti-discrimination legislation, however it is still argued that for disability discrimination legislation to be effective, it must apply to all public transport vehicles that operate within the UK. This gap in the legislation is seem as a major hurdle to ensuring that there is consistency across all types of public transport coming up to the Olympic Games and beyond.

The DPTAC endorses this view and notes that “aircraft and ships will be the first and last Olympic travel experience that most overseas participants and audiences will experience, and we believe that the Government should do all it can to ensure that that experience is a positive one.”^[36] They also emphasise that aviation and shipping are currently covered by voluntary codes but that the government has made it clear that should these codes fail, they would be prepared to remove the exemption from Part 3 of the DDA 1995 that currently applies to them.^[37] As Karen Buck, Parliamentary Under Secretary of State for Transport sets out in her response to Tony Manwaring, CEO of Scope, the government is carrying out benchmarking tests in association with DPTAC the results of which were hoped to be available in early 2006. These exercises would then help determine whether or not it was necessary to lift the DDA 1995 Part 3 exemption currently granted to airline and shipping transport providers.^[38]

3.1.1.9 DDA 1995: Comparison to other Anti-Discrimination Legislation

One of the most important differences between the DDA and other anti-discrimination legislation is that the DDA only applies to people who meet the criteria set out for being disabled. The Disability Rights Commission estimates that approximately ten million people have rights under the DDA 1995.^[39] In contrast, other anti-discrimination legislation is much more pervasive in its application and applies to all members of society as long as they can show that the type of discrimination they are alleged to have suffered occurred.

Another important difference is that the DDA takes into account the fact that the aim of assisting people with a disability is not to ensure that they receive equal treatment but rather, treatment which is appropriate to their circumstances. As such, the DDA does not aim to restrict the ability of those dealing with disabled people to positively discriminate in their favour, rather accepting that where appropriate, disabled people need to be treated differently.^[40] Under other anti-discrimination legislation, discrimination can never be justified.

3.1.1.9 Criticisms

Jan Nesbitt, chair of the Disability Law Service, notes that, “one of the weaknesses of the DDA has been that the service provision elements have been brought in over a lengthy period of time and some disabled people have had to wait for their needs to be met. There are some areas that are unsatisfactory, transport is still not covered, except for design features…”^[41]

The focus of the DDA 1995 is to put the duty to change on the public transport operators. This focus is sometimes referred to as being “solution-oriented”.^[42] A solution-oriented approach to disability discrimination is a positive and extremely powerful tool in combating discrimination. However, this approach can only genuinely apply to those with physical disabilities and this has lead some commentators to suggest that the DDA 1995 is in fact discriminatory in itself as it places much more emphasis on those with physical disabilities as opposed to those suffering from mental disabilities. This however could be said to simply reflect the relative ease of making adjustments for those with physical disabilities, compared to making adjustments for those suffering from mental illnesses.

People suffering from mental illnesses create a much more difficult problem for public transport providers to solve. There are no simple physical modifications that can be made to cater for people suffering from mental illnesses. This is further exacerbated by fact that it is often clear when someone is suffering from a physical impairment and staff can be trained to respond to their needs quickly and effectively. It is a lot more difficult to gauge whether or not someone is suffering from a mental illness, how best to assist them and whether or not they may pose a danger to staff and/or other members of the public.

A frightening prospect is that the legislation as it currently stands could allow public transport companies to segregate those with disabilities from the rest of the travelling public. While this is already done to some extent, eg spaces for people needing wheelchair access; it is only a short distance from an ID card which lists a person’s disability, to a separate carriage for those with disabilities. The unfortunate aspect of this is that it would no doubt be argued that this solution provides the best means of catering for the individual needs of disabled people.

3.2 Case Law

One of the leading cases decided under the DDA 1995 was Clark v TDG Ltd (t/a Novacold).^[43] This was an appeal from the Employment Appeal Tribunal and was the first appeal decided by the Court of Appeal (Civil Division) under the DDA 1995. While that case dealt with employment law, Lord Justice Mummery’s comments about the DDA 1995 and its relationship to other anti-discrimination legislation is still of importance to the area of public transport. Lord Justice Mummery stated,

“Contrary to what might be reasonably assumed, the exercise of interpretation is not facilitated by familiarity with the pre-existing legislation prohibiting discrimination in the field of employment (and elsewhere) on the grounds of sex (Sex Discrimination Act 1975) and race (Race Discrimination Act 1976). Indeed, it may be positively misleading to approach the 1995 Act with assumptions and concepts familiar from experience of the workings of the 1975 Act and the 1976 Act.

Unlike the earlier discrimination Acts the 1995 Act does not draw the crucial distinction between direct and indirect discrimination on specified grounds; it provides a defence of justification to less favourable treatment which would constitute direct discrimination and be without such a defence under the earlier Acts; and it does not replicate the express requirement of the 1975 Act (section 5(3)) and the 1976 Act (section 3(4)) that, when a comparison of the cases of persons of different sex or persons of different racial groups falls to be made, the comparison must be such that the relevant circumstances in the one case are the same, or not materially different, in the other.

One consequence of these differences is that the terms “discriminate” and “discrimination” are not used in Part II of the 1995 Act in the same sense as in the earlier Acts. Failure to discern and observe this difference in meaning in decision making (and in commentaries on both the 1995 Act and on decisions under it) can lead to serious conceptual confusion.”

The key question that Lord Justice Mummery concluded as being fundamental to whether or not a disabled person had been discriminated against was, “is the treatment related to a complainant’s disability?”^[44]

Andy Rickell, director of the British Council of Disable People has stated, in respect of the case law arising from the DDA 1995, “Barristers are, and have been, running a coach and horses through disabled people’s rights.”^[45] Jan Nesbitt, chair of the Disability Law Service, concurred with Rickell’s sentiments but added;

“It’s like any new piece of legislation, barristers will find loopholes because there’s no case law so there’s nothing to test against. I think what happened in the beginning was that a lot of disabled people, in employment tribunals particularily, conducted their own case, and fell at the first hurdle which was proving that they were a disabled person. Any good barrister will make their case. The definition of “disability” is one of the things that’s currently being reviewed so that tribunals and courts have a better understanding of it. In any case, it is important for disabled people to get access to legal representation when taking a case.”^[46]

A case more relevant to transport was Roads v Central Trains.^[47] This case involved a disabled resident of Norwich who relied on her electric wheelchair for mobility who brought a claim against Central Trains. The facts of the case revolved around the claimant not being able to access platform 1 at the station. The only means of accessing the platform from the side he was on was to either cross the footbridge or travel half a mile down the road where he could pass under the track and return on the other side. As both of these alternatives were not reasonable, the train company suggested the claimant, at no extra cost, take the train to a further station which was equipped with disabled access facilities, adding approximately one hour to the journey time. The claimant suggested that this was not reasonable and that the defendant company should have paid for a specially adapted taxi to drive him around to the other side. In the first instance, the Judge held that as the nearest specially adapted taxi was based in Norwich which was some way from Thetford where the station was located, it was unreas

Eating disorders can be common among athletes. This may be due to the pressure of the sporting background that commonly precipitates the beginning of these problems. In this day and age certain obsessive behaviour such as extreme exercise and also erratic eating habits have become a normal part of society. Williamson et al suggests that (“Concern about an athletes body size and shape has become greater than ever before due to the pressure for thinness from coaches and also from athletic performance, and negative self appraisal of athletic achievement”) It has been suggested that the majority of successful athletes are strong minded, and set almost impossible targets for themselves and work long hard hours to achieve these targets. However these factors can bring on eating disorders that can often be found in anorexia and bulimic patients.

Disordered eating is possibly found in most sporting activities. The athletes most at risk from developing or indeed having an eating disorder are those who engage in sports that require certain characteristics. For instance gymnasts and also figure skaters are under extreme and constant pressure to preserve a chid like body. Chaotic eating disorders are prevalent in girl athletes but not so much in boy athletes. In 1992 the NCCA conducted a survey of athletes. The NCCA stated (“93% of the programs reporting eating disorders were in women’s sports”) (“Dying to win” 1994 suggests that ” Some male athletes do use extreme methods for losing weight, but an important difference exists between these and the self-starvation strategies of anorexics)” For instance, a weight lifter’s view of his body is not warped. When the weight lifter is not in competition he can regain the weight easily. This suggests that it is possible for the body to return to normal when the athletes sporting career comes to an end. But unfortunately this is not the case in females.

Eating disorders often happen to young girls who become obsessed with avoiding the progression of becoming a woman. These girls will go to extreme measures to keep a child like physique. This is what gymnastics are told they must do in order to stay in gymnast’s competition. Because of this it is a gymnastics biggest fear of developing a womanly shape that might obstruct their performance. Sundgot-Borgen 1994 states that ” This could provoke a conflict in which an athlete struggles to prevent or counter the natural physical changes precipitated by growth and maturity” many gymnasts have been training since early childhood. In taking part in such specific training before the body reaches maturity these girls risk losing out in a which another sport that they could do in adult hood when their gymnastic career ends.

The leading UK charity for people with eating disorders is called B-eat. This stands for beating eating disorders.

Beat surveyed 600 young people who suffer from an eating disorder’s-eat results were:

Only 1 percent of children felt they could talk to their parents about their eating related concerns.
9 percent of children felt they might be able to talk to someone at school.
17 percent of children felt they might be able to talk to a doctor or nurse
92 percent of children felt they couldn’t tell anyone.

B-eat states that” currently the number of people receiving treatment for anorexia or bulimia to be near 90, 000, while many more people have eating disorders undiagnosed”. So of these 92%, the 17% who felt they might be able to talk to a doctor or nurse. So might benefit from the programme.

If 92 percent of children feel that they could not tell anyone that they had an eating disorder then it is obvious that there is a need for young people to be educated about the dangers of eating disorders. There is also a need for counsellors or something similar to the Samaritans. So that children have the opportunity to talk about eating disorders to people who will not judge them. The will just listen and give advice if it is asked for.

Gymnasts are only too aware about how their slender body shape can mean winning or losing a competition. This one of the main reasons why gymnasts are more at risk from developing an eating disorder. The qualities that make a good gymnast such as high expectations, being compulsive and also striving to be the best are all key characteristics connected to eating disorders.

These statistics suggest that there is a need for a well being programme targeting female gymnasts of secondary school age. In beat’s survey 92% of children felt that they could not tell anyone that they have an eating disorder.17% said they might be able to talk to a doctor or nurse about it. In order to combat this discussion groups could take place on a monthly basis, as part of the gymnastic curriculum in local clubs such as the YMCA (The YMCA is part of the voluntary sector that rely mainly on good will donations and also club membership. It is a non-profit organisation). However conducting a programme surrounding eating disorders should be done with caution and awareness that the people most vulnerable will take any comment or criticism to heart. For example taking a persons weight and vital statistics is not a good way to try and combat eating disorders. This will only make the person mare aware abut body issues even more so if others in the group are thinner or have a smaller body mass index.

For this reason, YMCA volunteers should receive training on how to approach and discuss the subject.

In 1992 Claire Vickery founded the Butterfly Foundation. In Australia. The Foundation offers support to those people who suffer from an eating disorder and also poor or negative self body image. Claire was said to have discovered “gaps” in the” public health system” for the people who are and continue to suffer from eating disorders.

The Butterfly Foundation suggests that” there is more pressure than ever before on young people who are exposed to highly stylized & unrealistic images in the media at an alarming rate every day” This in turn can lead to thoughts of failure & unsafe expectations, resulting in little confidence & negative thoughts about body image.

The Butterfly Foundation can offer support to educational establishments and also local community groups in the structure of workshops & presentations to aid youngsters to develop their body image, self-esteem & media understanding.

The Eating Difficulties Education Network is another organisation that deals with eating disorders. EDEN is community service, which is based in Auckland New Zealand. The organisation is run by a group of women who can provide information and also assistance for those individuals who suffer from eating disorders, and also support their family and close ones. Eden can provide counselling and also workshops for Health professional, the community and also educational establishments. Eden’s main focus is for the promotion of “body satisfaction” and takes the approach that you can be happy whatever your size may be. It may be that girls will respond better to women speakers and counsellors.

EDEN works in two main areas. These being, working with the people who have eating problems and also working towards the prevention of eating disorders among young people. . EDEN states that” dieting is ineffective and potentially leads to weight and body image difficulties in all their forms. Aiming to work with individuals to develop body satisfaction and seek to create environments that are accepting of size diversity and which support body trust”.

At present in the United Kingdom there is little support for vulnerable children including athletes in relation to eating disorders. Only B-eat tries to help combat eating disorders-eat is relatively unheard of and is not well publicized. If the Butterfly Foundation in Australia has been in operation since 1992 then this would suggest that the foundation is working well in helping combat eating disorders. The United Kingdom would profit to follow a similar programme. The programme could include areas such as:

Workshops, which are interactive, group discussions & activities on Self Esteem & Body Image: group discussions are a good way to get people to open up and discuss their ideas/feeling on the relevant subject. Open-ended questions tend to get the best response from people. Open-ended questions ask specific questions which cannot be answered with a simple “yes/no” or a specific piece of information. In extreme cases, referal to a mental health practitioner.

Using a series of cards with different statements is a good way to help children open up and discuss their feeling. It is also a good way of getting children involved in self-esteem group activities.

Media literacy uses an “inquiry based instruction model” This model helps motivate people into asking questions in relation to what they see in the media whether they watch it or read it. Media literacy provides different means of assessment tools to help people look at the media and to help people become aware of one sided views in the media. Media Literacy can help provide people with greater perceptive of understanding the role of mass media and bias media in blocking views of reality.

Presentations are a good way of getting important information across to the audience 15mins or 20mins presentations could be used, as the audience will be young teenagers and/or children and may not have a long attention span that an adult would have. These presentations would include questions to/from the audience, but do not involve activities. For this reason they can be delivered to large numbers of students for example up to 50 at a time.

The following topics could be used in presentations: Self Esteem & Body perception and Image: Body image and perception is how a person feels and views their physical appearance. A lot of young people, mainly in their early teens, suffer from low self -esteem this is because as children develop into adolescents, they become aware about how others see and perceive them.

Media Influences: recently, in the past few years it has become” politically correct” for the media to make some attempt to fight eating disorders. Magazines and TV shows and adverts featuring the misfortune of anorexia and bulimia, but this hard work is proving to be unsuccessful when they are presented in the usual perspective. For instance, how can one think that a teenage magazine is actually motivated to beat eating disorders when the stories relating to that area are covered by advertisements featuring childlike looking role models.

People often feel that the do not “measure up” this is attributable to the anxiety of trying to live up to unhealthy” cultural expectations” of physical body perfection.

BUPA suggests “Children and young people need to do 60 minutes of moderate intensity physical activity every day. This needs to include at least two weekly activities that produce high physical stress on bones, such as dancing, jumping or aerobics to aid development”.

(Muscat, 2002). Suggests” Another method that coaches, parents (family) and athletes may use to help prevent disordered eating in sport is to avoid making derogatory comments about the female body.” Research shows that female athletes who report critical comments, compared with those who do not, also report greater disordered eating. Such athletes clearly suffer from body-image anxiety.

Findings indicate that critical comments related to disordered eating behaviours are from multiple sources (Rieves & Cash, 1996) rather than limited to coaches and peers (Beals, & Manore, 1994; Berry & Howe, 2000; Sundgot-Boren, 1994; Williamson et al., 1995).

In addition to comments from coaches and peers, female athletes reported critical comments from parents, grandparents, medical professionals, siblings, and teachers (Muscat, 2002) Therefore this makes the task of altering their self-image extremely complex.

Evaluation of the programme could be in the form of anonymous post cards that would be posted in a box. The cards would allow for comments and feedback both positive and negative, which will be essential to the success of the programme and will allow for changes to be made if needed. So the foregoing is the proposed programme.

The media is partly to blame for placing a huge importance on what a person looks like and also what size they are. The television and also glossy magazines continually flood our brains with images of body perfection and images of attractive perfect looking people.

These messages, which are specifically targeted at females, motivate people into believing that in order to be successful you have to be good looking and slim. This media stereotyping is thought to be the causes why of only ten percent of men have eating disorders, while 90 percent are women.

Eating disorders are said to stem from addictive and compulsive behaviours.Other people who have the same or similar traits may turn to alchol,be drug users,self abuse or gamble.People who suffer from eating disorders also suffer from low self esteem,and also a lack of direction in life.This may be a reason why gymnasts are prone to eating disorders.They realise their careers will be over when they reach their mid 20s and do not know what their life will hold from them beyond then.

McPherson et al. (1989) states, “Deviant Behaviour is a product of numerous interacting social and cultural forces. These include an inadequate socialisation process; lack of, or failure of social controls; perceived inequities in a situation; the individual’s definition of the situation; and the labelling of individuals who engage in deviance. More specifically, one learns deviant behaviour by directly and indirectly acquiring opportunities”.

Over conformity is a behavioral characteristic commonly found in sport. Overcomformity goes way beyond normally accepted rules or regulations that it interferes with the person’s health and well-being. Over conformity is behavior grounded in a naive acceptance of rules and regulations.

According to Coakley p.166” deviance grounded in overconformilty is often identified as an indication of commitment and dedication, even though it may be dangerous and have serious consequences for the health and well being of self and others”.

According to “Dying to win” 1994 “ a large percentage of gymnastic coaches are constantly instructing the girls on “how to count calories, how to act, what to wear, and what to say in public” Because of this these girls feel that the only part of their lives that they are able to control is the food and drink that they consume. Because these coaches are authority figures to these gymnasts any remark made will have deep impact and be taken to heart.

One of the main reasons that these girls embark on such drastic diets is because their coach suggests that they need to lose some weight in order from them to look their best. These girls are young and vulnerable to such comments and remarks that they be seen as a basis for enhanced routines. Athletes can be under the illusion that to be a real athlete they must make sacrifices whether it is to your own body or to others and pay the price to increase skills in order to stay in the industry as long as they can.

Judging gymnasts ability is not objective. Each of the Judges makes a score according to what they believe makes a good routine. The look of the gymnast may control their perceptions and in doing so affect their final verdict. This reinforces the idea that in order to be at the top of their game a gymnast has to maintain a childlike body. This encourages deviant behaviour, as these girls will do anything to be a winner including going way beyond the norms of society.

A terrible example of when a judges’ decision helped destroy a girl’s life is an event with gymnast Christy Henrich who was a top contestant in gymnastics in the latter part of the 1980’s. She died of a multiple organ failure due to her fight with anorexia and associated eating disorders. At a meeting in Budapest, an American. Judge stated that” Henrich would have to lose weight if she wanted to make the Olympic team.” When Henrich returned to America her mum remembers the first words out of her daughter’s mouth:” she was fat and she would have to lose weight–that was the only way she would reach her dreams”. Because of these judges tough rules coakley p174 suggests that the roots of deviance go deeper than the individual desire to win or make money. These roots are grounded in the very values promoted through the sport ethic itself. Therefore, much of the deviance in sports is most accurately identified as a social issue rather than just a personal problem of individual athletes.

Eitzen, 1988, States that” Within sport, deviance involves violating the rules of a game or organisation, going beyond commonly accepted definitions of fair- play and sportsmanship, and intentionally using illegal means to intimidate or injure an opponent” This means athletes are willing to do anything to get to the top of their game e.g. drug use for weight control and/or stimulants for endurance. No matter how bad the end consequence is. Christy Enrich died as a result of her deviant behaviour spiralling out- with her control.

The increase of commercialism in sports has lead to more rules and more pressure to win and be at the top of the game. This in turn has lead to deviance becoming widespread due to the fact that the top judges are reluctant or powerless to punish all acts of deviance.

Due to government intervention and equal rights in athlete’s participation in sports female participation has increased. The first law in America to disallow sex discrimination in any shape or form among people of educational establishment was named” title X”This law was enforced to allow greater gender equality. This means that no one can be discriminated against in relation to gender. Under the “Title X law both men and women must be treated the same and fairly without judgment.

”Title X” covers all areas of government policy including recruitment, housing, insurance and athletics.

In the United Kingdom similar law to “Title X” this law is called “The Brighton Decleration.”The main aim of the declaration is to “develop a sporting culture which enables and values the full involvement of women in every aspect of life”. When sport is practiced equally and also fairly it can help make society a better place and also encourage equality. A good example of this is the Olympic games.

Sport is a cultural activity, which, practiced fairly and equitably, enriches society and encourages friendship between nations. “Sport is an activity which offers the individual the opportunity of self-knowledge, self-expression and fulfillment; personal achievement, skill acquisition and demonstration of ability; social interaction, enjoyment, good health and well-being”. (The Brighton declaration)

In society, sport plays a part in the culture of every nation. Sport participation in women varies vastly between nations. Females make up more than half of the worlds population. However in sport participation is still predominately male.

In recent years despite growing participation of women in sporting activities and also improved opportunities due to laws being past on equal opportunities such as “Title X” and “The Brighton Declaration” women in high positions within sport has not followed. Females continue to be undermined and miss- represented in relation to management roles within sport especially at the top ranks. Equal opportunities will continue not to exist and be achieved within sport because of the lack of these role models. For example, women aducation and their ensuring comments might persuade young female athletes away from deviant behavior in relation to body weight and image.

In conclusion, eating disorders can happen to anybody. It seems to be most prevalent in young teenage girls. Gymnasts, more than any other athletes are more at risk from eating disorders like anorexia and bulimia. This may be due to the fact that gymnasts, especially the females, are put under regular stress to keep to a very low body weight for visual presentation to the judges. Many judges award points for small body size alone. Because of this there is a need to educate young teenage girls to the dangers of having an eating disorder. As Coakley states “deviance grounded in overconformilty is often identified as an indication of commitment and dedication, even though it may be dangerous and have serious consequences for the health and well being of self and others”.

These gymnasts believe that the have to be the thinnest to be at the top of their game. Their coaches reinforce this idea. According to (“Dying to win” 1994) a large percentage of gymnastic coaches are constantly instructing the girls on “how to count calories, how to act, what to wear. Because of this these girls feel that the only part of their lives that they are able to control is the food and drink that they consume. Because these coaches are role models to these gymnasts any remark made will have deep impact and be taken to heart. One of the main reasons that these girls embark on such drastic diets is because their coach suggests that they need to lose some weight in order from them to look their best. These girls are young and vulnerable to such comments and remarks that may be seen as a basis for enhanced routines. And so if there were more females in positions of authority, e.g. judges, they could counteract this perspective.

According to Health magazine, April 2002,”32% of female TV network characters are underweight, while only 5% of females in the U.S. audience are underweight”. In contrast, actors who are older, frumpier, scruffy, perhaps physically challenged, represent evil and also stupid people. The majority seem to be heavy. Once more according to Health magazine,” only 3% of female TV network characters are obese, while 25% of U.S. women fall into that category” This shows that the media is partly to blame for eating disorders in young people. No one wants to be known as heavy, overweight or scruffy. We need more realism for example the normal size for a woman is more like Opra Winfery.

According to B—eat’s survey of 600 young people with eating disorders 92% of children felt that they could not tell anybody that the had an eating disorder. This suggests that there are a large number of children that need help and also someone to talk to and discuss their feelings in relation to eating disorders. However, of these 92%, 17% would seem amenable to help.

The Butterfly Foundation in Australia and also EDEN in Auckland, New Zealand are both for non-profit which help young girls combat eating disorders. Both organisations offer support and counselling. Though different means of evaluation such as presentations to schools on the dangers of eating disorders. By following a programme similar to both the Butterfly Foundation and also Eden Britain can begin to tackle the growing problem of eating disorders. In which takes a multidisciplinary approach in schools, the voluntary sector, sports establishments and also G.P, mental health referrals. Government funding could be ring-fenced money for programme funding.

More women of authority and also approachable councillors and training may require women instead of men.

References

About eating disorders/what is an eating disorder. Beat [internet]. Available from:

[Accessed on 07 April 2008].

Berger, John. (1972) Ways of Seeing. London: BBC/Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Body image. Hms Harvard. [Internet]. Available from:www.hms.harvard.edu [Accessed 18April 2008]

Coakley, J (2007) Sports in Society: Issues & Controversies. International edition. 9th edition. McGraw Hill, New York.

Coakley, J. and Dunning, E. (2002) Handbook of Sports Studies, London, Sage.

Eating disorder statistics. [Internet]. Available from: < http://www.disordered-eating.co.uk/eating-disorders-statistics/eating-disorders-statistics-us.html> [Accessed 03 May 2008].

Eitzen, D.S. (1988). Ethical problems in American sportJournal of Sport and Social Issues.

Garner DM, Garfinkel PE. (1980) Socio-cultural factors in the development of anorexia nervosa. Psychol Med.

Hargreaves, J. (1994) Sporting Females, London: Routledge.

Hargreaves, J. (1986) Sport, Power & Culture, Cambridge: Polity.

Holt, R. (1989) Sport & the British: A Modern History, Oxford, University Press.

Horne, J, et al., (1999) Understanding Sport: An Introduction to the Sociological and Cultural Analysis of Sport, London, E&FN Spon.

McPherson, B.D.; Curtis, J.E.; and Loy, J.W.; (1989), The Social Significance Of Sport, Human Kinetics Books Illinois.

The Butterfly Foundation. [Internet]. Available from,http://www.thebutterflyfoundation.org/ [Accessed 12 May 2008]

Ideal weight varies across cultures, but body image dissatisfaction pervades [Internet] Available from, http://www.physorg.com/news [Accessed 12 May 2008]

Introduction:History of drug abuse

Drug abuse in sport is not a recent issue. In Ancient Greece, the Olympic athletes used special diets (herbs,mushrooms and sesame seeds) to improve their physical performance. The gladiators in the Roman times, consumed stimulants to reduce fatigue.(1,2) South American Indians used coca leaves to enhance stamina.(2)

During the nineteenth century, drug abuse became a great problem. Caffeine, strychnine, alcohol, cocaine, opium, and oxygen were used by swimmers, runners and cyclists to increase performance.(1,2) In 1896, the cyclist Arthur Linton was the first reported fatality case in sport from strychnine intake which was administered by his coach.(1) Later on, in 1904, the runner Thomas Hicks, was near to death in Olympic Marathon in St Louis USA, from use of strychnine and brandy.(1)

During the Second World War, amphetamine consumption started by the troops to reduce their fatigue. In 1940s and 1950s, amphetamines substitute other drugs in its use in sport.( became the choice over other drugs). (1)

Reported deaths from amphetamine abuse was in 1964, the Danish cyclist knut Jensen at Rome Olympics died on the opening day of the games. In 1967, the British cyclist Tommy Simpson, at Tour de France, died from amphetamine abuse. After Simpson’s death, the International Olympic Committee took an action and the first list of banned substances was published in 1968.(1,3) In 1950s, a new class was misused by athletes and weightlifters to increase muscle size and strength and this class named anabolic steroids;(1) in 1964, there was suspect for use of anabolic steroid in Summer Olympics in Tokyo due to the increase in muscle mass of the athletes.(3)

Top scandals in drug abuse
1. East German athletes(4,5,6)

From 1972 to 1988, the East German which was a country of 17 million populations, won 20 to 40 gold medals in 4 years and became a country competing the United States and Soviet Union. Manfred Ewald who was the head of Olympic sport committee in East Germany, and Dr. Manfred Hoeppner who was the sports doctor at that time, were responsible about giving the athletes banned substances intentionally without their knowledge. This results in severe complications in the athlete’s health such as liver dysfunction, cancer, hormonal changes and infertility.

From 1966 and on, many doctors and coaches in East German follow a plan which was sponsored by the government known as “systematic and overall doping in competitive sports”. After the collapse of East German and Berlin Wall fall in 1989, many athletes confessed about the pills and injections that were given to them. Kornelia Ender, Barbara Krause and Carola Nitschke were three of the thousands of East German athletes who had provided with steroids. Heidi Kreiger was also one of the athletes that was provided with steroids heavily and this was the main reason that force her to make sex-alteration operation.

2. Pan American Games in 1983

IOC included testosterone in the banned list in 1983 and it was the first endogenous substance to be tested at that time. The test was based on measuring the testosterone to epitestosterone (T/E) ratio. (1)

The first drug testing for steroids was at the Pan America Games in Caracas and Venezuela in 1983. Around 15 athletes were caught at these games. Jeff Michaels, the American weightlifter, and Guy Greavette, the Canadian weightlifter, were tested positive for steroids. They returned their medals and being suspended for 2 years. (5,7)

Many athletes of the U.S track-and-field team withdrew from the game rather than being captured. (7)

3. Ben Johnson’s scandal

In 1988, the Canadian Ben Johnson was stripped of his gold medal at 100 meters after he has been tested positive for the anabolic steroid stanozolol at Seoul Olympics. Johnson has been banned from competition for 2 years.(7)

4. Michelle Smith: the Irish swimmer(5,7)

In 1998, the Olympic champion swimmer Michelle Smith was tested positive for banned substance at her home through out-of-competition testing. The test was positive for alcohol in an amount that would be fatal if taken by an athlete. So FINA, the international governing body for swimming, concluded that the urine sample was treated with alcohol as a masking agent and Smith has been suspended for four years.

5. Chinese swim team(5,7)

The Chinese national swim team has been used anabolic steroids, erythropoietin and human growth hormone in the last 15 years. In 1992 Barcelona Olympics and 1994 world championships, china won a high number of gold medals. In world swimming championships, a world records was set by women swimmers, and this causes suspect that they were using drugs. In 1994 at Asian Games, eleven athletes were caught as drug abusers for dihydrotestosterone. Since 1990,over 40 Chinese swimmers were tested positive for abused drugs and at that time china reached the peak for drug abuse over the swimming countries.

6. Tour de France(5)

Doping by cyclists arises since 1967 after Simpson death at Tour de France due to amphetamine misuse. Drug abuse by cyclists continues and in summer 1998, the Festina cycling team was pushed out from the competition at Tour de France after the French Officials found EPO in their masseur’s car. After investigations, six of Festina’s nine riders confessed that they had taken abused drugs. Later on, the leader also has failed drug tests for anabolic steroids. Also in 2002, Stefano Garzelli, the leader of the Vini Caldirola team, has failed drug test for probenecid, a diuretic which is used as a masking agent. Also in the same year at Tour de France, the Spanish cyclist Igor Gonzalez de Galdeano, was tested positive for anti-asthmatic drug. In January 2004, two cyclists in the Cofidis team, which is one of the top teams in france, were caught as drug abusers for EPO and amphetamines.

7. Steroids in baseball (5)

In 2002, a report was published by the Sports Illustrated and the National League MVP Ken Caminiti stated that “at least half the guys are using steroids.”

In 2003, the Major League Baseball revealed that around 7% of 1438 tests on all players were positive for steroids.

8. Doping in skiing(5)

Drug abuse in cross-country skiing has been spread for years especially with EPO. In 2001 world championships in Finland, six finish skiers have failed drug test for HES which is a plasma volume expander. Three skiers at the Salt Lake Games were tested positive for the drug Darbepoetin which is a synthetic compound of the natural hormone EPO. Two of these athletes Olga Danilova and Larissa Lazutina were Russian medalists but later on, they were stripped of their medals and the gold medal was awarded to the Canadian Beckie Scott who ended third.

9. BALCO scandal

BALCO is Bay Area Laboratory Cooperative which is a company that provides nutritional supplements. Victor Conte built BALCO in 1984 and he followed a system for analyzing urine and blood in order to prescribe supplements that replace vitamin and mineral deficiencies. Tetrahydrogestrinone is one of banned substances that was used by BALCO and was undetected by drug testing. THG or “The Clear” is an anabolic steroid that can reduce fatigue during training and can increase the muscle mass. In 2003, the USADA, United States Anti-Doping Agency, developed a test for THG after receiving a syringe from anonymous (US track coach Trever Graham) containing THG and claiming that most athletes are using this drug. Don Catlin, succeeded in developing the test and he tested the urine samples that were taken from athletes at the US championships and numerous tests came back positive for THG(8,9). Athletes that were involved in BALCO scandal were Kelli White, Marion Jones, C.J.Hunter, Tim Montgomery, baseball star Barry bonds, and NFL’s Bill Romanowski, and Dwain Chambers. In 2004, Dwain Chambers who was the European 100m championship at that time was banned from competition for 2 years. 100m and 200m Champion kelli white was banned for 2 years as well. USADA convicted BALCO, for the distribution of THG. In 2005, Victor Conte was jailed for four months. Greg Anderson (Barry Bond’s trainer) was jailed for three months.(9,10,11,12)

10. Ma’s runners

Ma Junren was the coach for the world female championships runners(13). In 1993, Ma’s Chinese female runners won three gold medals at the World Track and Field championships in Stuttgart and also in 1997 they set world records. From that time there was suspicion that the runners were using banned substances(13,15). A doping scandal for Ma’s runners arose before the 2000 summer Sydney Olympic(14,15). Top runners like Liquing Song and Lili Yin had failed drug test for testosterone during an out-of competition testing in 2000 and the Ma’s Chinese runners were evicted from the Olympic team(13,15).

History of drug testing:

Doping was also done for race horses not and only for humans. The first drug test was done for alkaloids on the saliva of horses in 1910 by a Russian Chemist in Vienna.(1,2)

Drug testing on human urine started in 1950s after the wide spread abuse of amphetamines. (7)

After British Tommy Simpson death from amphetamine abuse at Tour de France in 1967, IOC established the Medical Commission and a list of banned substances was established by the IOC. Professor Beckett was a member in the Medical Commission at that time and he developed methods for detection of stimulants ,i.e. drugs that were used” in competition”. (3,7)

Methods of Beckett for drug testing were first used in 1968 at Mexico City Olympic competition and these tests were for non-steroidal drugs (narcotic analgesics and stimulants) and there was no tests for anabolic steroids.(7)(3). The first formal drug testing programmes for narcotics and stimulants was in 1972 at Munich Olympics. These tests were done at the competition periods.

The abuse of Anabolic steroids became prevalent in 1970s and its use was banned in 1974 by the IOC and added to the list in 1975(1) p313. The first formal steroid testing program occurred in 1976 at Montreal Olympics using radioimmunoassay screening for detection its presence and GCMS for confirmation. (7,19)

In and out of competition testing:

At first testing programmes were based on tests during the competition periods. But later on it was recognized that these tests were of limited value to catch up the cheats. Athletes learn how to defeat the testing programmes by calculating the clearance time of the drug in the body so they could avoid its use before the competition periods. Form here came the “out -of -competition” testing programmes to catch the cheats for drug abuse. “Out of competition testing” started in late 1970s. The first out of competition testing was conducted in 1977 by Norway and in UK, it started in early 1980s. However, the “out- of -competition” testing did not expand globally until the establishment of WADA in 2000. WADA established out-of-competition testing programmes and it was followed globally from that time.(1) p314-315

Classification of Abused Drugs

Doping classes and methods

examples

Anabolic steroids

Testosterone, nandrolone (discussed later

Blood Doping

blood transfusion(discussed later)

Stimulants

Amphetamine, ephedrine, cocaine, caffeine

Narcotics

Morphine, Methadone, Codeine

Peptide and glycoprotein hormones

Human growth hormone, corticotrophin, human chorionic gonadotrophin, erythro poietin

Diuretics and masking agents

Acetazolamide, Furesamide, Probencid

Beta- blockers

Atenolol, Propanolol, Metoprolol

Atenolol, Propanolol, Metoprolol

Anabolic steroids (discussed later)

Blood Dopping (Blood Transfusions) ( discussed later)

Central Nervous System Stimulants

Athletes often use stimulants to enhance alertness and reduce fatigue i.e. increase physical and mental performance.1p41. These are more used on the day of competition to reduce the sensitivity to pain of athletes if they got injured; however, nowadays they are used during training to increase training time.

Amphetamines

Amphetamine is a synthetic compound (1920), it was developed as an appetite suppressant and for treatment of narcolepsy, to fight fatigue and to enhance alertness, but later it was withdrawn from clinical use due to the development of tolerance. P42

Methamphetamine is very addictive stimulant, related to amphetamine with more longer lasting and toxic effects on the CNS.

Mechanism of action:

These are indirectly acting sympathomimetic amine. They enter neurons and act presynaptically to release stores of noradrenaline, and dopamine from nerve endings; they also block noradrenaline and dopamine transporter reuptake and inhibit MAO.

They include Dexamphetamine, Methamphetamine, Phenmetrazine, and methylphenidate.

Routes of administration:

Amphetamine can be administered orally, nasally, and intravenously. Amphetamine itself is not very effective if smoked. Methamphetamine is smokable form and it is becoming increasingly popular as a drug of abuse.

Effects of Amphetamines in Sport:

Athletes often use amphetamine to reduce fatigue, increase alertness and concentration, increase euphoria and to tolerate painful injuries.p42. p72

Side Effects:

The most important side effect is heart stroke.p72. Amphetamines cause peripheral vasoconstriction and thus increase blood pressure. The body overheats and cannot regain its temperature resulting in dehydration.1.p42

The second side effect is that the euphoric action may affect the awareness of athletes and thus they fall in misjudgements.

Cases of amphetamine abuse:

Amphetamine use was spread around the time of the Second World War, to decrease fatigue of the troops. Later, its use was spread among athletes in 1940s and 1950s. 1.p30. its use atarted to be controlled under the UK Misuse of Drugs Act 1971.

In 1960, the cyclist, Knud Jenson, died due to amphetamine abuse in the intense summer heat of Rome Olympics.1p72-30

In 1967 Tour de France, the British cyclist, Tommy Simpson, died as a result of amphetamine abuse while climbing the infamous Mont Ventoux. His death was due to cardiac arrest.1p72

In 1997,American Footballers, (Clarkson and Thompson), withdrew from play due to amphetamine abuse which was taken to tolerate injuries.1p72

Effect on behaviour Mandell (1979), Golding(1981)

In 2002, the British skier Alain Baxter, had lost his Olympic bronze medal and he was banned from skiing from March until June, due to positive test of Methamphetamine( l-form which is found in OTC vicks inhaler. IOC test do not distinguish between l- and d- form. D-form is used as performance –enhancing drug. Later on, Baxter’s name was cleared as being a drug cheater and it was approved that the drug was l- form.(16,17,18)

Ecstasy

It is a synthetic amphetamine derivative. It was synthesized in 1914 as an appetite suppressant. It has stimulant amphetamine like properties, now commonly used in dance clubs but it may be misused by athletes.

In UK, it was classified as an illegal substance since 1977, and in USA its use was under control since 1985.

Since 1990, there were no reports for ecstasy misuse by athletes.p73

Ephedrine and related compounds

Ephedrine is a natural product occurring in the plant genus Ephedra. Phyenylpropanolamine and pseudoephedrine are synthetics. These are used to treat cold symptoms as bronchodilators.1.p73.p42.

Mechanism of action

It has sympathomimetic action. These deplete noradrenalin from neuronal storage sites resulting in indirect effect on sympathetic neurons and CNS.1.p73

Routes of administration

Ephedrine and phenylpropanolamine are found in cold medications (in UK and USA) which are taken orally. Phenylpropanolamine is now prohibited by US authorities. 1.p74

Effect of Ephedrine in Sport

Ephedrine is misused by athletes for its euphoric action.1p42. Athletes try to misuse ephedrine because its use could be negotiated due to its presence in the over-the-counter medication.1p42

Side effects

The main side effect is the cardiac arrthythmias.

Cases of Ephedrine abuse

Pseudoephedrine, phenylpropanolamine, and phenylephrine were removed from WADA list for banned substances in 2004, but they are still controlled by WADA for athlete’s misuse. Ephedrine is still on the banned list.1p76

In 1972 Olympics, the US swimmer, De Mont, was banned due to urinary ephedrine positive test in which he declared that its presence due to a medicine.1p76

In 1988, Linford Christie, at Seoul, was tested positive for cold cure substance, and he was nearly to lose his silver medal.

Cocaine

Cocaine was a component of Coca-Cola until it was classified as an illegal drug and it was removed in 1903.(1)The main therapeutic effect is its use as a local anaesthetic.

Mechanism of action

Cocaine exerts its sympathomimetic central effects by inhibiting the reuptake of noradrenaline, dopamine, and 5-HT into presynaptic terminals of the mesolimbic reward/pleasure pathway.

Routes of administration

“Snorting” is the most common route of administration of cocaine. The powder is drawn up to the noise, and is absorbed through the nasal epithelium into the blood. It reaches the brain within about three minutes.

It can also administered by intravenous injection, reaching the brain in 15 seconds and the effects last for 15 minutes.

Crack cocaine is smoked in a pipe, absorbed rapidly in the lungs and reaching the brain in about 5 seconds.

Effects of cocaine is sport

It was misused in sport due to its euphoric effect and due to reduction of fatigue.

Side effects

Its side effects are: tachycardia, hypertension and at high dosage, tremors and seizures may occur. Cardiotoxic metabolite may result due to concomitant use of cocaine with alcohol and anabolic steroids.

Reported cases of cocaine misuse

Len Bias, the US basketball player, and Don Rogers, the American footballer died from cocaine abuse.(1)

Caffeine

Caffeine is the most popular used drug which is found in many beverages like coffee, tea and soft drinks. Caffeine was banned by IOC but then it was withdrawn from the list by WADA in January 2004. However, its use is still monitored by WADA. Quantitative measurement for caffeine in the urine was established in 1984 at the Olympic Games in Sarajevo and Los Angeles. IOC set the level in the urine at 15 micrograms per millilitre and then in 1988, it was decreased to 12micrograms per millilitre. Studies showed that 1000mg doses of caffeine are required to excrete caffeine in the urine at levels more than 12 micrograms per millilitre.

Routes of administration

It is taken as tablets or injections(1)

Effects of caffeine in sport

High doses are required in sport to decrease fatigue and increase concentration.(1)

Side effects

tremors

Narcotic analgesics

These are called opiates. Raw opium contains morphine and codeine which have strong analgesic properties. Drugs that are usually misused are: Morphine, heroin, and methadone. All opiates were banned by IOC except dextromethorphan, pholcodeine, and diphenoxylate. Codeine was first banned but because many sports federation had refused that so it was then removed from the list due to its presence in many over-the-counter medications.

Mechanism of action:

Opiates bind to specific opiate receptors in the brain and spinal cord, and also interact with endogenous opiate peptides, enkephalins and endorphins, in mediating emotional highs and in the process of addiction.p(1)-23

Routes of administration

Opiates are taken orally, by injection or by inhalation.

Effects of narcotic analgesics in sport

These are used for their euphoric and analgesic actions. They are used to mimic the injury during training or competition.

Side effects

These include vomiting, diarrhea, dry mouth, skin itching, loss of concentration, drowsiness, comas, and addiction. At high doses it may cause respiratory depression.(1) p24,,BBC

Diuretics and other masking agents

Diuretics are drugs that are used by people to remove fluid in order to decrease blood pressure. Examples are: furesamide, acetazolamide and chlorthalidone.

Effects of diuretics in sport

Diuretics are misused in sport to overcome the side effect fluid retention that is cause by athletes misusing anabolic steroids. They are also used to lower the athlete’s weight in sports that competition occurs in weight groups. P46red and BBC. Also diuretics are used to increase the flow of urine and hence increase the rate of excretion of abused drug or its metabolite in the urine so the abused drug could not be detected.

Side effects

These include: muscle cramps, dehydration, headache, nausea and kidney damage.

Probenecid is used as making agent to disguise the presence of banned drugs and their metabolites by inhibiting the excretion of these through the kidney.p47 red.

Probenecid is no more used because the use of gas chromatography and mass spectrometry can detect its presence and catch up the cheats.

Beta blockers

These were added to the list of doping classes in 1985. But because of its therapeutic use, the IOC in 1993 added them in the “classes of drugs subject to certain restrictions “part .

They were used by athletes to increase their performance by increasing the cardiac output increasing blood flow to muscles.p-48-49 red

Peptide and glycoprotein hormones

These are natural substance that are produced by the body.BBC –doping I sport

Effects in sport
Corticotrophin: it induces the release of the adrenal corticosteroids thus mimic the pain after injury. (1)p47
Human Growth hormone(HGH) and chorionic gonadotrophin( HCG) : it has anabolic effect, so it increases size and strength of muscles. BBc
Erythropoietin: it is a peptide hormonep48(1). It increases red blood cell production thus increasing the oxygen transfer by blood ,ie. Increase in the performance .BBC.
Side effects

HGH has main side effect that is, it may cause acromegaly.BBC

EPO has main side effect that is, it may thicken the blood, resulting in heart attacks.BBC

Chemical and physical manipulation

It is the changing of urine sample by using substances or procedures in order to conceal the detection of a banned substance. Examples of manipulation are: the use of other’s urine, use of vinegar to affect the urine, epitestosterone to alter the ratio. BBC news,doping

Anabolic Steroids
What are Anabolic steroids?

Testosterone was isolated in 1935.(2)p52. It is an endogenous steroidal hormone male hormone produced by testes in men. steroid 7. It is synthesized from cholesterol like all other steroidal hormones. Steroid 7. Epitestosterone is a testosterone isomer and found in a small ratio with respect to testosterone. Steroid7.

Testosterone is responsible for the androgenic and anabolic effects.steroid7. The androgenic functions of testosterone are responsible for the modifications in the primary sexual male features. Steroid7. , while the anabolic effects are responsible for enhancing muscle growth, protein synthesis and erythrocytes. steroid 7.

Anabolic steroids are group of synthetic modified derivatives of testosterone. steoid 10. When administered, they bind to the androgen receptors which are found in the prostate, skeletal muscle and central nervous system to give their mechanism of action. Their structure is developed and modified to improve the anabolic effects with decreased androgenic effects. steroid 10

Routes of administration

Anabolic steroids are administered orally or intramuscularly. Nowadays, athletes are using transdermal patches, sublingual tablets, nasal sprays, and dermatological gels of testosterone to escape positive tests(2). P 3

Why do athletes misuse anabolic steroids

Athletes use anabolic steroids due to their anabolic effects, so they are used due to its positive effect on the skeletal muscle tissues. They are used to increase strength and muscle size. They are also used to increase body weight, protein metabolism and collagen synthesis. Steoird 6 and 35 . Some athletes use anabolic steroids because they “want to be big”. steroid 7.

Side effects
Cardiovascular effects:

Anabolic steroids ingestion results in severe coronary heart disease. They reduce high density lipoprotein (HDL) and increase low density lipoprotein (LDL). Steroid 25- steroid 7. resulting in atherosclerosis.

Increase heart stroke

Anabolic steroids increase blood clotting and thus favouring thrombosis resulting in heart attacks. steroid 26

Liver problems

Oral anabolic steroids results in cholestatic hepatitis and jaundice. steorid 7,26 Also increase in the liver enzymes( aspartate amino transferase, alanine amino transferase and lactate dehydrogenase) is encountered with the use of steroids. steroid 37

Sexual side effects

High doses of anabolics in a study by Holma, shows that the sperm counts decreased by 73% and azoospermia occurred for 3 individuals i.e affecting fertility. Steroid 7

They affect secretion of the reproductive hormones like testosterone and thus reducing libido due to decrease level of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone(FSH).sterodi 37. Anabolic steroids abuse may result in prostate cancer. Steroid 37

Gynaecomastia

It is the enlargement of the mammary tissues in men due to transfer of androgens to estradiol and estrone. steroid 7,37

Psychological effects

A study in USA showed that anabolic steroids revealed changes in mood such as mania and depression. steorid7

Other side effects include: hyperinsulinemia, hypertension, tendon damage, steroid 26. edema, muscle spasm, acne hirsutism, and deepening of voice. Steroid 35

History of anabolic steroids misuse and drug testing

The use of banned substances such as caffeine, cocaine and strychnine started during the 19th century in most of the sport events like cycling, swimming, and distance running. steroid 26.

The abuse of steroids in sport started in 1950s by the soviet weightlifting teams.p54 green,steroid26. In 1960 Olympic Games, anabolic steroids use was restricted to Soviet weightlifting, but by 1964, their use is increased in all strength sports. p45 green. 7. Anabolics use became more common in most sports in 1972 Olympic Games. Steroid 26

Anabolic steroids use has been banned by medical commission of IOC in 1974 and has been added to the list of banned substances of IOC in 1975.steroid 10, 7

Although the first formal testing was introduced in 1972 Munich Olympics, there was no testing for anabolic steroids (7). P4. The first formal test for anabolic steroid was in 1976 Montreal Summer Olympics(7). First positive tests for steroids were in 1976 Montreal Olympics, in which 8 athletes, seven weightlifters and one female athlete in a field event were caught for steroid abuse(7).p75., while no positive tests were reported in 1980 Moscow Olympic Games.

Anabolic androgenic steroids are one of the most widely used drugs by athletes to enhance their performance and physical appearance. Steroid 6. Their use extends to be not among professional athletes but also among high school male and female students. Steroid 26

WADA accredited laboratories published statistics form 1993 till 2003 and this showed that anabolic steroids are the most widely used banned substances.p32.red.

1993

1994

2001

2002

2003

stimulants

22.8%

24%

15.4%

14.9%

19%

Anabolic steroids

59.9%

50.5%

40.1%

36.8%

32.1%

Unlike amphetamines and other stimulants which were taken on the day of competition ( which causes sudden death due to cardiac arrest), anabolic steroids are administered during the training exercise and not before the competition periods. P31 red. they are taken in cycles with duration of six- twelve weeks, and usually 2-3 cycles are taken in a year. Steroid7.

The introduction of the “out of competition” testing programmes limited the use of the anabolic steroids. P46 red

Systematic doping: biggest scandal

One of the biggest scandals for steroid abuse was in the German Democratic Republic, they were used from 1965 to 1989 and this allows the East German to win many medals. Coaches and doctors in East Germany follow a programme for systematic doping with steroids. In 1965, a pharmaceutical company had developed chlor-substituted derivative of methandrostenolone (Oral-Turbinabol R), and from 1968 GRD started to introduce it to female athletes in the Olympic Games. Steroid 40

Detection of anabolic steroids:
Detection of urinary anabolic steroid by radioimmunoassay

Drug testing was based on radioimmunoassay screening of urine samples from athletes for detection of banned substances and then gas chromatography/mass spectrometry for confirmation the positive tests (7). Testing at that time was insensitive and not selective due to the fact that testing was done during competition periods and anabolic steroids were usually taken for long periods, so athletes used to quit these drugs at competition periods so their level will decrease in the urine and could not be detected and the tests would give false negative (19).

Detection of urinary anabolic steroids by GC/MS, measuring testosterone to epitestosterone (T/E ratio)

Drug testing at that time could not differentiate between endogenous testosterone and synthetic anabolics.steroid7.

Testosterone was introduced in the banned list of IOC in 1983, it was the first endogenous substance to be banned, after the discovery of the detection method in 1982. p35red.

In 1984 Olympic Games, all urine samples from athletes were screened by GC/MS for detection and identification. The T/E ra

Abstract

Based on previous research, the purpose of this paper is to give an overview on doping behaviors in amateur sport, actual prevention actions, and to propose a new perspective in doping prevention. Doping is not limited to elite athletes and is increasingly important among amateur athletes. To reduce doping in sport, it seems important to influence young athletes in primary prevention. To date, traditional doping prevention campaigns are ineffective. In recent years, a new model of prevention campaigns based on fear, coming from the Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian countries, has been used notably in France (e.g., prevention campaigns for road safety, tobacco, alcohol, cancer). This “fear model” has scientific support and has shown a relatively small but still solid effect on attitudes, intentions and behaviors. The fight against doping would benefit from trying the “fear model” in prevention campaigns.

Keywords: doping behaviors, doping prevention, fear appeals

Based on previous research, the purpose of this paper is to give an overview of doping behaviors in amateur sport as well as actual prevention actions, and to propose a new perspective on doping prevention.

Widespread Doping Behaviors among Amateur Athletes

Doping is not limited to elite athletes but is widespread in society and is increasingly important among amateur athletes (Calfee & Fadale, 2006; Laure, 1997; Lentillon-Kaestner & Carstairs, 2010; Lentillon-Kaestner & Ohl, 2011; Sagoe, Molde, & Andreassen, 2014; Yesalis, Barsukiewicz, Kopstein, & Bahrke, 1997). It is difficult to assess the extent of doping in amateur sport, nevertheless it exists. In his review on 44 studies, Laure (1997) estimated the prevalence of doping in children and adolescents participating in sport at 3 to 5% and in adults participating in amateur sports at 5 to 15%. In France, 6.7% of 8-18 year-olds approved doping in sport (Laure, 2000). Lentillon-Kaestner and Carstairs (2010) showed that young amateur cyclists (Under-23 category) were tempted by doping. The meta-analysis of Sagoe, Molde and Andreassen (2014) on 187 studies showed a global lifetime prevalence rate of anabolic-androgenic steroid use of 3.3 %.

Doping varies according to various demographic parameters. It increases with age and can start before the age of 15 years (Laure, 1997; Sagoe et al., 2014). Doping is more widespread among boys than girls (Dunn & Thomas, 2012; Laure, 2000); however, the gender gap is decreasing from 10 years old (Yesalis et al., 1997). Doping is more widespread among competitors, and it increases with the level of competition (Laure, 2000).

Inefficiency of Current Doping Prevention Programs

For several years, the fight against doping has mainly focused on the improvement of detection measures (drug tests), leaving aside measures of doping prevention (Backhouse, 2012; Ntoumanis, Ng, Barkoukis, & Backhouse, 2014). To date, tested measures of doping prevention are rare, and doping prevention programs lack solid scientific background (Backhouse, 2012; Johnson, 2012; Ntoumanis et al., 2014). Traditional doping prevention campaigns are often ineffective. They describe substances’ side effects, try to persuade users of the ineffectiveness of performance enhancing substances or promote sports ethics (Barkoukis, 2014; Schaps, Bartolo, Moskowitz, & al., 1981). The recent meta-analysis of Ntoumakis, Ng, Barkoukis and Backhouse (2014) showed that implemented anti-doping interventions lead to small changes in individuals’ attitudes towards and intention to engage in doping and had no effect on actual doping behaviors. It seems important to build innovative prevention interventions that are based on solid scientific theory (Backhouse, 2012 ;Johnson, 2012).

The Fear Model in Prevention Campaigns

In recent years, a new model of prevention campaign based on fear and coming from the Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian countries has been used notably in France (e.g., prevention campaigns for road safety, smoking, alcohol, cancer). Fear is conceptualized as a negative emotional reaction to a perceived threat. The purpose of the fear model is to show the consequences of an undesirable event (illness, accident, etc.) or to give more or less directly a glimpse of the following unhappiness aiming to bring an attitude change. The fear motivates actions to reduce negative emotion (Gallopel, 2006). In contrast to current measures of doping prevention, prevention strategies based on fear have scientific support (Moscato et al., 2001; Tay & Watson, 2002; Witte & Allen, 2000). Psychologists and researchers in marketing have tried to understand why a prevention campaign based on phobic emotion resulted sometimes in success (action) and sometimes in failure (defensive reactions). Various theories have been developed. The latest and most advanced theory about fear from a theoretical and empirical point of view (Witte & Allen, 2000) is the Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM) of Witte (1992) (Witte, 1992). In this model, individuals first assess the threat contained in the message. Perceived threat is a cognitive construct with two dimensions: perceived severity of the threat and one’s perceived susceptibility to the threat (Popova, 2011). In accordance with other meta-analyses, the meta-analysis of Witte and Allen (2000) suggested that the higher the fear level, the higher the persuasive impact of the message. If the threat is perceived as irrelevant or insignificant, the person is no longer motivated to process the message and simply ignores the fear. In contrast, when a threat is described as significant and relevant, people are frightened. The more people believe themselves vulnerable to a serious threat, the more they are motivated to start the second evaluation of the recommendations’ effectiveness. The fear motivates the change in attitudes, intentions and behaviors, especially fear accompanied with highly effective messages. Perceived effectiveness comprises two dimensions: perceived response effectiveness (beliefs of how effective a response is in averting a threat) and perceived self-effectiveness (beliefs about one’s ability to carry out the recommended response) (Popova, 2011). Effective messages generating a strong fear encourage behavior change (i.e., danger control), while less effective messages generating a strong fear lead to defensive reactions (i.e., fear control) (Popova, 2011). According to Witte (1992), fear in health campaigns is far more useful to promote prevention behavior than to modify an existing behavior. Witte and Allen (2000) concluded, from their meta-analysis on 98 studies on prevention campaigns based on fear (e.g., sexuality, alcohol, road safety, tobacco), that fear would have a relatively small but constant effect on attitudes, intentions and behaviors. They also offered a series of recommendations for the implementation of prevention measures (Witte & Allen, 2000). In addition, psychology studies on persuasion showed that a simple message was more persuasive in video than in written or audio forms (Girandola, 2003).

The theory of self-affirmation (Steele, 1988) appears as a way to increase the effectiveness of prevention campaigns through a re-evaluation of the self-image, which reduces the defensive reactions and increases the acceptance of preventive message’s recommendations. The manipulation of self-affirmation may be achieved in different ways (e.g., values to rank in importance order, to write an essay on their most important value, to describe a very important thing in their lives) (Barkoukis, 2014). Research has shown that to secure the self through self-affirmation manipulation reduced defensive reactions to threatening health information (Sherman, Nelson, & Steele, 2000) and positively influenced healthier behaviors (Harris, 2011). Through the self-affirmation process, prevention campaigns do not threaten the self-image of the person, but only the behavior is threatened (Sherman et al., 2000; Steele, 1988).

New Perspectives in Doping Prevention

Adolescence is a high-risk period for the development of doping behaviors. Performance enhancing drugs have adverse effects on health (Calfee & Fadale, 2006; Maravelias, 2005), but young athletes are tempted by doping and are not afraid on the impact on their health (Lentillon-Kaestner, Hagger, & Hardcastle, 2012). Young athletes are priority target as their doping attitudes are in formation and primary prevention seems to be a good solution to avoid the appearance of doping behaviors.

To date, there do not exist any doping prevention videos based on fear induction. The fight against doping would benefit from trying fear in prevention campaigns for two main reasons. Firstly, although in recent years doping tests have progressed, preventive measures remain lacunar and should be improved. Secondly, doping prevention lacks standardized, effective and easy tools to use in the sport and academic domains. A doping prevention video could be used during sport events and competitions. Doping prevention is also a topic addressed in some school and university courses, particularly among young students following additional sport modules, or in sport universities. Teachers, often not specialists in doping, need help to address this difficult issue. The creation of a video based on fear could be a good preventive tool in the fight against doping in sport.

Deviance in Sport

“I would prefer even to fail with honor than to win by cheating.” Sophocles.

Could you find people who think like Sophocles nowadays? Ancient Greek said about global problem that have covered whole life branches now and even gained the sport. Unfortunately people ready to do everything to win and often this everything means deviance. Recent incidents well show that even sport stars make unfair actions to reach their aims. Whoever would have thought that Thierry Henry, popular footballer, will cheat to qualify into the summer’s World Cup or Formula-1 Renault team driver Nelson Piquet Jr will make crash to help his team-mate wins. Two very different kinds of sport but linked with one serious theme – deviance.

Cheating it isn’t simple rules violation, it is ethics failure, when sportsmen put themselves above other people, make unfair advantage. And it’s doesn’t matter how they made it, it’s more important why people do that, why they decide to take cheating way. Generally they want to be the best, to get rewards, money and popularity. Cheating is a big issue and actual nowadays. Firstly, because it’s an unfair game that is an infringement. Secondly, it makes competitions senseless, because it breaks the general sense of competition, wins not the strongest sportsman but cheater. Thirdly, it covers all world countries and even involves politicians, how it recently happened with football match between France and Ireland. About this incident people discus every day and Thierry Henry became public enemy.

“Henry could have been a hero. But he’s a cheat.” Richard Williams.

It was last match minutes and France was losing 0-1 when Thierry Henry had an excellent chance to make the perfect goal cross to his team-mate and he done it. Whole should be well, but Henry stopped the ball with his hand that is unacceptable in football. Referee didn’t see it and France has qualified into next year World Cup final. Of course, lot of people think that Henry is a hero because he has saved national team, but how? He cheated! However, some people believe that is wasn’t intention action, but simple reflex. Nevertheless he touched the ball twice. Why he did it and why FIFA on the France side in this problem? To answer this questions let’s make little research. France national team twelve times was participated in World Cup final and once won it in 1998, two times was UEFA EURO champion (1984,2000), lot of other rewards and now is taking 7th place in FIFA’s World Ranking. What about Ireland? Only three times participated in World Cup final without successful results and now is taking 36th place in FIFA ranking. Now it becomes clear that France has greater influence and authority than modest Ireland. Result above face – cheating, replaying decline, France into World Cup. However Thierry Henry apologised for his handball even said: “Of course the fairest solution would be to replay the game but it is not in my control. There is little more I can do apart from admit that the ball had contact with my hand leading up to our equalising goal and I feel very sorry for the Irish. I have said at the time and I will say again that, yes, I handled the ball.” But this apologises will not help him now and we will see fans abusing soon.

Let’s take another example. Absolutely different kind of sport, Formula-1, where some month ago was happened big scandal. Simon Barnes: “Nelson Piquet Jr, son of the eponymous three-times world champion, a young man desperate to make his mark on the sport and yet struggling to keep up with its demands, was told to have an “accident” at the Singapore Grand Prix last September. As a result of his crash, Piquet’s team-mate, Fernando Alonso, was able to win a race he would otherwise have not, taking advantage of the safety procedures that are laid down in Formula One…”.

From one hand it looks two different cheatings. Formula One driver has risked with his and other drivers life, because it is very dangerous to make crash in racing and history knows forty-five world drivers that have died in the accidents. In due course, Henry cheated without any risk for his health. Fact that Nelson Piquet Jr didn’t cheated willfully, because he carried out Renault team’s instructions, but Henry decided to win unfairly by his own mind. That means in Formula One we see simple manipulation by principal, that so often happens also in political life. Simon Barnes: “That is what happens when leading commercial concerns get mixed up in sport: their ultimate goal is profit, not sporting success.” Terrible but true. Nelson Piquet Jr was a victim and he didn’t obtain any profit from this hidden cheating. Hidden because all people knew about it only after 1 year, but situation with Henry was very visual. Thousands of spectators, TV watchers and internet surfers saw this cheating. However Henry didn’t show it, he celebrated team’s score like nothing unfair happened. Next day mass-media has been overflowed by articles and loud statements. Even politicians have started to interfere to the match result. The positive thing that Henry agreed that he has broke rules, but it’s impossible to change anything now and France became Ireland’s enemy number one.

REFERENCES

http://www.fifa.com