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In 1942 William Beveridge published his report on Social Insurance and Allied Services. The report instantly became a best seller of all time. The report was based on eliminating poverty and it has subsequently come to be considered as the blueprint of the welfare state. The Beveridge Report was identified as the core of wartime social transformation. It became very significant at a time when unemployment was at an ultimate high, the report “was seen by many people the light at the end of the tunnel of war, and as a promise of “social justice” for the post war world”. (Gladstone, 1999. p39) Beveridge was asked to write a detailed report on how to improve the existing national schemes of social insurance and allied services. The report was built on defeating “Want”. But Want was only one of the five giants on the road to reconstruction. The others were Disease, Ignorance, Squalor and Idleness. His recommendations of the system on social insurance were to rectify the poor conditions of post-war Britain and it was an attack solely upon Want which would remove poverty. This essay will look at what are the main features of The Beveridge Report and why they were significant. It will also examine whether the report realistically attempted to tackle all the so-called “five giants” which is mentioned in the report.

The main feature of the report was based on a scheme of social insurance- “that is, a system of insurance in which risks are pooled within the community, so that individuals are able to pay flat-rate contributions sand receive flat-rate benefits regardless of the extent to which they are liable to be in need of those benefits”. (Hill, 1990, p28) The plan for social security was to eradicate “want” but in order for this to be achieved there must be co-operation between the state and the individual. Bevereidge said that the state should offer security for service and contribution; by this the state should consider the need for a national minimum, which should provide individuals with the minimum for himself and his family to live on. However, he stated that this minimum should be given as of right and not means tested, so that individuals can build upon it freely. (Timmins, 2001, p23) Taking social insurance as the base of the report, Beveridge boldly made three assumptions which were to make it work; a universal scheme of family allowances, a comprehensive national health service, which was financed by taxation and the maintenance of employment. The first two assumptions were part of the insurance scheme of social security, and was the most expensive prerequisites. The third assumption worked two ways; it maximized the number of contributors and minimized the number of people claiming benefits.

Beveridge’s main investigation into social security was to reform all social services and provide a minimum of subsistence and care for the whole population. He believed that to eradicate poverty a reform of national insurance was vital and this can be achieved by provision of benefits and services. His proposal for social insurance and minimum subsistence was supplemented by private and voluntary means. (Thane, 1996, p232) The universal scheme was split into six groups and it was designed to cover people in actual or potential need. He defined these groups as: employees, self-employed, housewife’s, those below and above working age, the sick and disable and others of working age fit to work. (Lowe, 2005, p141) Housewives were particularly a difficult group to cover, and this will be discussed further later. The people who fall into these groups should receive the following benefits: unemployment and sickness benefits, disability benefit which also covered injuries at work, maternity grants and widow benefits, funeral benefits, family allowances and retirement pensions. However, even though this system of social insurance (which was later changed to national insurance) was there to provide subsistence-levels of adequate benefits, Beveridge knew there might be other circumstances where it would not be enough, and he therefore recommended another system of social assistance.(which was also later changed to national assistance) This scheme would work through means test to provide for people whose needs were not met by national insurance. People who qualify for national assistance, for example are disabled people, deserted or separated wives and men who refused to take on work when it is offered to them. The need for assistance could arise for reasons of sickness which meant they were not able to work and get into the labour market. This could be because a person has abnormal needs of diet or care.

Along with Beveridge’s proposal for national insurance and national assistance, he also proposed family allowances. This proposal came from a post-war issue of child poverty and low wages being paid to people who have large families. He said that family allowances were an essential part of an adequate social security system. The idea of family allowances had already been proposed by other economists such as Keynes. Beveridge insisted on family allowances to be non-contributory and financed through general taxation, for it would be too much for people who have large families and low wages to make contributions. This would cause a great burden on employment. He proposed that 8s should be paid to every dependent child except the first. However, the government was reluctant to pay 8s because it exceeded the limit given by the Treasury, so in 1945 the Family Allowances was introduced at a rate of 5s.

Beveridge’s second major assumption was comprehensive health and rehabilitation service which was to cure disease and help workers get back to work when they are sick, and make them available for work when it is offered. This would also prevent the reasons for unemployment and poverty. This service is to be available for all members of the community and free at the point of consumption. This service was not based on national insurance contributions but funded by taxation. There had already been deliberation before the Beveridge Report was published on making a comprehensive, free medical service, but the Beveridge Report got the government engaged into this more and in 1946 the National Health Service (NHS) was introduced. Before the NHS was introduced, medical services in Britain were not fulfilling the needs of people and the service was very poor. One of Beveridge’s five giants was Disease and the road to reconstruction was to tackle this post-war crisis, and by making the proposal of introducing the NHS which is free for everyone was an attempt to tackle Disease.

His third assumption was maintenance of full employment. Beveridge said that unemployment is a crucial problem which needs to be solved and without change, social improvement was impossible. (Thane, 1996, p239) In his Report he defined the need to avoid mass unemployment by keeping the rate of unemployment at an average of no more than 8 and a half per cent. However, by the end of the Second World War and the mid 1970’s the unemployment rate was accomplished and what in fact happened was that the unemployment rate fell below 8 and a half per cent that Beveridge had suggested. (Hill, 1990, p30) In the report he based his assumption that full time employment will be achieved, which in theory would tackle idleness.

As mentioned before the report on Social Insurance and Allied Services was particularly aimed at proposing a set of recommendations for setting up a system of social insurance, which will be mainly an attack on the giant Want. However, the other giants were also briefly mentioned in the report, but not to a great extent. After World War Two people had no houses to come back to, and the education system was failing terribly, there was an increase in poverty, unemployment and no adequate health care was available. To fight the five giants he gave a vital kick to start the programmes that he thought could give freedom not only from want, but the others too. The report in practice does not mention education to a great deal or detail apart from his trumpet call for the attack on Ignorance. Nor does he talk about Squalor in detail, which involves providing houses. This is due to the fact that Beveridge struggled over how to handle rents within the social security. (Timmins, 2001, p24) He proposed a comprehensive national health service which was to tackle Disease, but that is debatable as a free medical care would not only prevent disease but it would reduce poverty which will attack Want, so this linked into his main idea of his report. However, the creation of the NHS would cause problems on economic grounds as it was very expensive to run a free medical service at the point of use. Beveridge’s attack on Idleness was to provide high levels of full time employment. This attack on the five giants is linked with Want, as not having a job creates poverty, which then means people have to depend upon benefits, and to make the social security system work there needs to be more people in employment and less people claiming benefits. This is why Beveridge described the course of arguing a full employment was a prerequisite of an adequate system of social security. (Brown, 1995, p84) Looking at the five giants that Beveridge said must be attacked in order to change post-war Britain; he did not mention the other five giants in too much detail as he did with defeating Want. He therefore did not realistically attempt to tackle all the five giants, and let’s be honest even Beveridge could not stretch his terms of reference that far. It was hard enough trying to implement his main proposals of social insurance, so if he aimed his report on defeating all the giants then nothing probably would have come of it and it would not have been as successful as it was.

We have established that the main features of the Beveridge Report which are a set of recommendations for the setting up of a system of social insurance. The crucial elements of Beveridge’s proposals were that everyone was included; they were covered “from the cradle to grave” and benefits would be at a level which enabled a family to live without recourse to other means. The six fundamental principles of the report were: flat rate of subsistence benefits; flat rate of contribution; unification of administrative responsibility; adequacy of benefit; comprehensive; and classification. Based on them, and the proposal of national assistance which operated through means test, the aim the report was to eliminate Want under any circumstances. The Beveridge Report was a successful seller and the main features of the report became significant, as it gave hope to the people of Britain who were suffering from poverty and unemployment at extreme highs. Beveridge’s proposal of national insurance and national assistance, was adopted almost at its entirety. In 1945 Family Allowance Act was legislated, subsequently in 1946 the National Insurance Act was introduced, shortly following the National Assistant Act in 1948. These legislations were significant in what Beveridge had recommended as the main features of his report. He understood that if his recommendations had been enacted then Britain would have an ideal social security system which will provide adequate relief to the people in need and improve unemployment. However, there are many criticisms of The Beveridge Report and why many of his proposals were later abandoned and changed from what he initially proposed.

One of the problems of Beveridge’s proposals was with women, in particularly married women. Beveridge recommended that all married women should be eligible for a wide range of benefits “by the virtue of their husbands’ contributions”. (Lowe, 2005, p141) Most married women were not in paid work at that time, but women who worked could opt to pay lower contributions and in return they will qualify for the full range of benefits, though below the standard rate. The feminists were his major critics, as Beveridge’s explicit assumption of married women should enter into partnership with their husband and remain economically dependent upon them goes against what the feminists stand for. It also does not fit the present day situation, in which nearly half of all married women are in paid work. (Hill, 1990, p33) However, the main underprivileged groups are the non-working single women and even after efforts being made to meet their needs, nothing came of it. He also did not find a satisfactory solution for separated, divorced and widowed women within an insurance scheme. Women were generally not equally represented or rewarded in the labour market and they did not choose to not participate, but they were excluded from any competition with men. So when Beveridge recommended a “housewives charter” which would allow provide grants upon marriage, free domestic help when ill and a separation allowance, it gave hope to the women. However, this was overlooked by critics, as his proposal was dismissed by the government and became a weakness of his Report. This flaw in the implementation of the report has questioned Beveridge’s aim to change social provision for housewives as it regarded women as dependants of their husbands and not treated equally to men.

Beveridge’s proposals were very significant in what he had promised would happen if they were implemented by the government, which is relieving poverty. But there were many compromises which had to be made in order to adopt his proposals. Many of Beveridge’s proposals had been rejected by the Treasury on the grounds that it was excessively expensive; this was a flaw both politically and in practical terms. Due to this there was a very lengthy perusal for his recommendations. Beveridge was not liked by Churchhill very much as he also believed that Beveridges recommendations was far too expensive; it would create doubtful prospects for the post-war economy and form hopes for the people of the country which the post-war government could not satisfy. (Thane, 1996, p235) His susten lacked sufficient resourses to respond to inflation or changes in social need or social demand. (Lowe, 2005, p135) Even though the report gained popularity, it also received widespread criticisms like the pension rates are too low and stronger fear that the government will ignore the report. (Thane 1996, p235)Beveridge’s proposal that retirement pension should gradually be phased in over a period of 20 years was not implemented. This was because it would make arrangements for people who had not contributed to the retirement scheme previously to qualify for very much more quickly than that.

Benefits were generally at lower levels than Beveridge suggested. This can be seen with the family allowances, which he said should start at 8s but the government changed it to 5s. Another weakness of his report which critics argue contradicts his main proposals is the principle of universalism and adequacy. If Beveridge’s main objective was to eliminate Want then why were those in need not targeted for relief? The universalism scheme essentially means that vast contributions will be collected from and benefits will be distributed to those who do not need help from the state. This would then fail effectively to help those who are genuinely in need because benefits will be too widely distributed. The principle of adequacy and universalism was to eliminate means test and not rely on national assistance benefits, but quite the opposite occurred and it was then inevitable that the cost-conscious government would reject the principle of adequacy. Many of Beveridge’s proposals were contradicted when they were implemented, and it destroyed the logic of the report. As did the agreement the government came to when they said that “the rate of benefit should only be one which provided a reasonable insurance against want”. (Lowe, 2005, p144) This automatically meant that insurance contributions was no longer a guarantee that people will be freed from poverty and that would have to result in applying for means-tested national assistance. Rather than diminishing the use of national assistance as predicted by the report, it became increasingly significant.

Beveridge’s proposals became significant, as the main acts of social insurance were accepted by the government, although after some alteration, they were legislated and brcame the foundation of his report. However, a report which was said to be a blueprint of post-war reform was far from revolutionary or logical. Even though some of his proposals were enacted, they were changed vastly from what Beveridge had proposed to begin with. All this did not come without recourse to other measures, which was seeking national assistance. This subsidiary benefit was supposed to wither away, but in fact the number of claimants increased. Furthermore, many of his proposals were abandoned and did not make Along with the fact that it was impractical, the high cost of social insurance emphasises the failure of Beveridge’s principle of the unification of administrative responsibility. Beveridge hoped that through the establishment of one responsible ministry, which were the Ministry of Social Security, both government and claimants would become the beneficiaries of a greater “co-ordination, simplicity and economy”, (Lowe, 2005, p141) but this was far from the case as they did not achieve this and Want was relieved by a wide range of means-tested benefits which were administered by other local governments and the NHS. (Lowe, 2005, p159) Several proposals which Beveridge made were either changed when they were implemented or they were completely abandoned. The reason for this was mainly because as mentioned previously, they were illogical, impractical and very expensive. And his proposals were contradicted when people had to rely on means-tested benefits, which was what he was against and wanted to change.

In conclusion,

Class is an issue that have some important relevance to sociologists, anthropologists, political economists and social historians. A simple definition could be said to be: the powerful and the powerless. To some, social class is a result of the fundamental economic structure of work and poverty within the society. Class in a different point of view can be seen as a key part of life and the cause and effects of an individual person life. Since 1997, the government in Britain has worked hardly to reduce or even finish the so called ‘social exclusion’. It is noticeable that the use of the word exclusion gives the impression of moving backwards in time, almost like an older form of class politics. Some politicians argue that the nature of classes divisions comes from the existence of different interests within the people in society and that is the cause of how others see society in a division of bodies. In this paper, I will define and take a deep look in how the term ‘underclass’ is seen in British culture and also taking a slightly look into popular culture.

In a society with classes division an individual’s status is what decides how high or how low the person fits into the classes definition or in which tier of society the person fits. Many elements have that influence, elements such as: education, family, legal status, among others. One point that normally is use to fix the idea is an individual’s lifestyle, alongside with markers like manners and language also helps to define class. By the 1980’s the term ‘underclass’ was a very popular and very much used term in discussions regarding poverty and social classes in Britain.

“For all its drawback, the word underclass captures the essence of the class predicament for many at the bottom; a complete absence of ladders, whether basic skills, role models, education or a culture of work” (Andrew Adonis/Stephen Pollard)

To some observes the word ‘underclass’ means a failure in the moral and social order, economic and social changes. The first person to use the term in Great Britain was the Scottish communist John Maclean back in 1918 and even nowadays the term has a negative connotation. But the term only entered the mainstream discussions spheres in the 1980’s because it was the most appropriate term to describe those who were suffering with the long-term unemployment process that was a big issue at the time. In the early 1980’s the issue of ‘underclass’ and its meanings were pretty much exaggerated with the German-British political scientist Ralf Dahrendorf stating that “underclass was a cancer which eats away the textures of societies and metastasises in ways which can increasingly be felt in all parts”. Apart from very radical opinions such as the one just cited, the lack of work and low payment made the people situated into the definition of ‘underclass’ suffer with the perpetuation of some aspects or characteristics like poor education, single parenting and poor housing. And what was before related to the working class population like football was then and still is nowadays connected to the ‘underclass’ population plus a lifestyle based on and surrounded by hostility, distinctive hair-style and large use of drugs and alcohol. Those are some of the reasons that perhaps made some observers say that the phrase ‘class’ wasn’t appropriate. Another interesting fact is that specialists pointed out in more or less recent years is that mostly of the middle class in Great Britain did not influence social mobility and that Britain have less social mobility than the Nordic countries.

By the late 1990’s the United Kingdom was a country with several different sub-cultures gaining popularity, but the one I am going to focus is the one that could be define as the lower level in the tier of classes, what for some politicians and specialists is the modern ‘underclass’ , within popular culture they are known as ‘chavs’. Firstly , what is a ‘chav’? There are many answers for that but the most common one is that ‘chav’ is a young person, with lower ore even none level of education, who follows a particular fashion and are also known as Townies, Steeks and Bazza. They are typically unemployed or white working who repeatedly engages in anti-social behaviour, drug abuse or other forms of delinquency and also most of the time live in council houses. In the beginning of the new millennium an increase interest over the so called ‘chavs’ that for some specialists like Keith Hayward are “a popular reconfiguration of the underclass”. With media references spreading all around the country in all sorts of media vehicles like for instance Vicky Pollard from the BBC television series “Little Britain” played by the actor Matt Lucas. For some she is the perfect representation of a chav even though the character was created before the term became popular and for some others the popularity of such a character and culture is seen as becoming a serious problem in the country.

“Underclass damages behavioural terms in the long term and make use of crime and unemployment” (Charles Murray)

The underclass ‘chavs’ is a sub-culture that tries differentiates itself from the rest of society in a much similar way to the skinheads. The term is often seen as a point of pleasure and sometimes it doesn’t mean that to be considered a ‘chav’ a person doesn’t need to be relatively poor. Verity Jennings in her thesis affirm that “people with money can choose how to live and how to dress” meaning that a very rich person, allocated in perhaps the highest tier of classes can perfectly fit into the ‘chav’ description. But this particular kind of stereotyping has been defined as “a new form of classicism or social racism”. Their conditions of reality are seen as self imposed and unjustified even though some argue that be a underclass ‘chav’ is more than a culture, it is a lifestyle. The underclass ‘chavs’ are seen as an inferior class that dare to skip cultural lines.

“Chavs are often mentioned with regards to asbos and anti-social behaviour” (Verity Jennings- 2008)

They are mocked for their lack of cultural understanding and manners. Undertones of snobbery and stereotypes are still dominant in every discussion regarding the new underclass ‘chavs’. The stereotype that follows is almost considered standard being easily spotted anywhere in the country as they made excessive use of branded sportswear, jewellery and also a unique hair cut known as “the council house facelift” or “Croydon facelift” that consist of the hair scrapped back into an ultra tight bum. Once again Vicky Pollard comes as the best media representation of that stereotype because every time the character is on screen she is normally wearing a pink Kappa tracksuit, the excessive jewellery and the infamous hair cut. The emergence of the underclass ‘chav’ culture brought to the spotlight the question of how modern society deals with the classes division even though in the UK politicians and the population are not comfortable discussing that specific subject. Some find that the underclass ‘chavs’ are not a simple sub-culture like it was affirmed before, because unlike other sub-cultures such as the punk movement the underclass ‘chavs’ has no link to any music gender whatsoever. In the United Kingdom they are present all over the country but cities like Manchester and Glasgow are well known for its high number of the so new underclass called ‘chavs’.

People like, Dr. Neil Washbourne says that “the label ‘chav’ was in part a product of media concerns about anti-social behaviour in big cities.” Besides all the discussions around that not person from the underclass ‘chav’ sub-culture has stepped out to represent the group what may indirectly prove that all the pride the some people show of being an underclass ‘chav’ is still part of a minority. Some may affirm that Britain has created a new generation of underclass who is unteachable and unemployable, seen sometimes as “idle thieving bastards”. That is due to an increase on the amount of young people who grew up during the 80’s by single parents that now don’t have any perspective in their lives, have no work ethics, little social skills and are the reason for the increase of crime rates, the rise in divorce , the decline in marriage and the rise in cohabitation.

“They are not doing anything productive and are costing taxpayers a fortune. It is very difficult to take these people now and provide basic social and work ethic skills” (Ralph Surman)

Never in the United Kingdom’s recent history the unemployment rate among the young population has increased almost in 50% and that has caused debates among politicians that interpret those number and those facts as an evidence of the problem that the education system in this country is facing. And as usual some blame the underclass for that. Over the internet there are hundreds of web pages dedicated to either people who identify or disapprove the underclass ‘chav’ sub-culture and that also might bring the question that ‘to what extend is the underclass in the UK socially stigmatised?’ Observers hold some opinions where they see the underclass ‘chavs’ as a threatening to moral and social order, taking a look on media vehicles such as newspapers, television and also on the streets in the big capitals around the country, it is easy to notice that the underclass ‘chav’ carry with them a pretty much bad stigma. Most of the population that fits in the higher tiers of society have the notion that all the underclass population live a lazy leeching life style.

“Underclass posed interesting problems for social citizenship” (Ralf Dahrendorf) Therefore, it is pretty obvious how bad is the stigma that the underclass have in the United Kingdom. With some politicians saying that the term ‘chav’ demonises young people and is damaging to the culture. There are many reasons to confirm that the new underclass ‘chavs’ are seen as a problem because the mainstream population in the United Kingdom wishes for a civilised, tolerant and peaceful society. The underclass ‘chavs’ can be very intolerant towards other sub-cultures , they tend to be bullies and violent for no apparent reason. During research, it was possible to have a deeper look into the underclass ‘chav’ culture, the 8 hours spent it was more than helpful because it was easy to spot every single aspect of the culture cited above. The fashion, the jewellery, the slang language, the tasteless life style and all around them are all individual choices, and it is their choice to be associated with violence and all the bad stigmas. They give a hostile look to others member of the community that perhaps are considered the ‘normal’, so therefore it was possible to confirm that they see themselves as ‘normal’ as well even when it is more than obvious that most people around the country shows the disapproval towards the underclass ‘chav’ bringing up again Vicky Pollard the character from Little Britain that is popular for mocking the sub-culture, exaggerating all the bad aspects. It is almost possible to define the underclass ‘chav’ a sort of religion, because all the life style and choices are passed from the parents to the children, like in religion when all the beliefs are passed from generations to generations. The underclass ‘chavs’ are used as an example when an individual lack of education and lack a desire for a better life.

The main point of that paper has been to discuss how and why the underclass ‘chav’ culture/identity has got so much attention at a particular historical moment in the United Kingdom by looking the impact and reactions over elements of popular culture and how these impacts and reactions have allowed the culture/identity develop within the society making other anxieties to be heard. The purpose of the research was to show how the proliferation of information in a media saturated British culture has allowed the new underclass definition become a type of identity and culture to be defined as ‘chav’. To give this paper the kind of complexity that requires to give an easy understanding of the cultural process it is necessary to let the term speak for ‘itself’ and to take a conclusion about this identity’s future in a country where tier of classes seems to be important but most people don’t talk about it.

The mainstream population or better said, the people in the higher tiers of classes consider that the white trainers, the excessive jewellery and the branded sportswear of the underclass ‘chavs’ may be quite ostentatious and perhaps a way to make fun of themselves and their own culture. To think that you are better than somebody else based purely on your economic and social status is perhaps a little bit old fashion for a globalising world in which cultural borders are changing on a daily basis and becoming ever more spongy in a way and values are much less persuasive than used to be. It is obvious that the English economic resources are shrinking into a small part of society. In a capitalist world it is the ‘survival of the fittest’ and climbing the ladder to the top becomes more transparent for some.

“As this dream is clearly unattainable yet pervasively pursued through the media, the next best thing is to mock it and those that still hold faith in it”. (Callinicos, 1994)

For instance, let’s take a look at the Beckham’s. They have been crowned the ultimate celebrity underclass ‘chavs’ because of their shameless life style and acquisition of copious amounts of money. The large number of sponsorship deals, the staged photographs and occasions, the constant hair style changing and media hype around the whole Beckham clan seem almost unbelievable in a world ever more aware of poverty and wars. If that life style is seen as acceptable by the elite why should be seen as a reason to make fun of it or even wrong for those ones at the bottom of the tier of classes in Britain whether it is imitation or real. So, perhaps for that reason we are starting to see more often ‘positive’ representations of the underclass ‘chavs’ on main media vehicles such as the Manchester family in the television production Shameless showed on the channel C4 who may have no money, steal to survive, despise conventional authority but are united as a family what some see as one of the few or even only positive side of the underclass culture. They might life a live the most people disagree but they are very much faithful to their families roots. In a perhaps not common way there is something honest about their dishonesty, more realistic rather than dramatized and staged, truthful rather than false if compared to the Beckham’s and inc. Some might suggest that the underclass ‘chav’ culture/identity has emerged in recent years as both a celebration and reaction of the superficial and shallow aspects of the media frenzy that has expanded so rapidly in Britain. Celebrities such as ‘Posh Spice’ aka Victoria Beckham and Jordan aka Katie Price are an almost entities that were pretty much created by the media to be used and explored in its maximum.

“They may be photographic for certain media outlets but for others the ‘celebrity’ chav, as with Jordan, is constructed as anti-woman. Just as it is virtually impossible to achieve the American dream so to it is impossible to achieve this types of body. The fake plastic breasts and collagen stuffed lips are a residual throwback to the Hollywood glamour and American dream that money can buy success in anything”. (Rojak, 2001)

To conclude, a few extravagant pieces of jewellery made of gold, it doesn’t matter if it is real or not on the fingers of a teenager in a shopping centre do not make them the kind of person you avoid or even a bad person but when taken out of context by some member of the media e mostly by member of the political class of Britain and placed in strange categories by others in an attempt to make them feel bad about themselves and create new categories of information to consume they can. Nowadays they are called underclass ‘chavs’ also known as scallies, Ned’s, Townies, smicks, spides, moakes among many other definitions. As the time goes by more definitions are created to define the underclass. There is even a definition for the underclass person who live in a rural area, the ‘SHAV’. Britain seems to be entering a new stage where information consumed by the mass are recycled and reinvented at every opportunity. If a new social mobility phenomenon will happen in Britain only time will tell and then will be possible to see how the government and the mainstream population will define the new tier of classes and break into more categories but until then the underclass in the United Kingdom is perhaps the one with more bad stigmas around Europe being compared to the gypsies in East Europe.

The Three Perspective Approach of Symbolic-Interaction Approach, Conflict-Approach, Structural-Functionalist Approach

ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION

Alcohol Consumption in the society has always been an attractive part in festivities. Nevertheless, in some culture this is consider to be a symbol that profess happiness. Symbolic interaction explain that an individual’s create the symbols that make life meaningful. Symbolic interactionism explains alcohol consumption today is a huge problem society. According to (Harrison, 2010) it can be usually applied to deviant behavior, and violence. All throughout society symbols are used for all aspects of everyday life, and in the Catholic Church it is use to signify the blood of Christ. Whether this tradition culture is wrong, individuals accept practices in their own perception. However, this symbolic ideas to everyone can be viewed as more positive than opposed, it occur more often. Unfortunately this is something shown in today’s society as a spontaneous thing that leads to different interpretation and influence by other group of culture.

However, in the Conflict theory alcohol consumption build up conflict as it become a dependence, and motivated to have no limit drinking. In addition, affect the cognitive processes, and drinking behavior. Other conflict are reflected in relationship, and family member; that leads to separation, domestic violence, rape, and others. In the structural- functionalist can be interpreted in different way such as Manifest Function, and latent function, and dysfunction. In Manifest function it is a part of social gathering, that families come together to unite. These event are custom that have been practice, and exist in the society for Christmas, thanks giving, Easter, and reflect a culture in the church.

MONOGAMOUS RELATIONSHIPS

Monogamy is referred to two individuals are sexually active only with each other, usually in a committed relationship that may or may not be marital. However, in some culture this is consider to not acceptable such as Islamic cultures, polygamy, or the taking of more than one spouse, is acceptable. In addition the Jehovah, and other protestant church or religion group consider that marriage is between a man and a woman within the bounds of marriage, and those sexual infidelity are described as sin, and corrupts a union. Nevertheless, the symbolic interaction to Monogamous relationship is that one shows affection to the other. Through gift, love, caring, giving flowers and spending time together. All this endorsement are symbolic interaction in finding ways to communicate affection.

However, will so much good intention some conflict approach arrives to disperse such happiness. The most common conflict is lacking trust, and having jealousy. In addition it may lead to a divorce of the couple, and a delicate fight between both parents for the children custody. The women are victim of domestic violence, and men are mostly in to infidelity. In addition the function approach suggest that relationship meaning of commitment. According to (Kohol, 1983) the function is to prevent vicious sexual relationship, bearing children, establishing relationship of intimacy and devotion and sharing mutual goals.

However, in the Manifest it is consider to be in a relationship with a long term lover, or partner that sharing similarity. Nevertheless, latent is rather the husband being involve in vague relationship outside the house hold, and can be entitle to be infection by sexual disease. This not only harm the husband but the whole relationship and the wife. Therefore casing a dysfunction in the relationship such as broken trust, dishonesty, and no confidence.

TEENAGE DATING

Teenage Dating is the most popular culture that exist in the world of teen. Some culture insist that this practice help in finding or determining the partner or love one would share mutual happiness for eternity. This can be consider another way of other to be to know the person before physically involve or married to. This a symbolic action has determined people to find the right person to establish a relationship. In addition, the lets person know all the strength and weakness of the other.

In some cases conflict approach most time being when the teenager become pregnant at an early age, and struggle the rest of her life with the loss of education. Some teenager also part take in abortion to avoid being young parent. Parent that are not supportive enough, and young parent that have no idea what it implies to be a mother. However, in the function approach it seem that teenage dating happen at a certain age. This vary in some culture like at age sixteen, or older.

However, the manifest seem to view the society as individual cooping to survive with a partner, because human are commonly bond to another individual. However in the latent view a good relationship should be establish with one individual to have good parenting skill, and guide the children growing up to not make the same mistake.

Mayan Rights and communal land ownership

Everyone has the right to own land and other goods, and Maya been a dominant culture should as well imply the Mayan rights and communal land ownership. The individual are known for their Maya Ruin, and farm lands; culture and population. Nevertheless, their individual with all the mutual right as the other cultures existing today. There the one who had inhabit the land and that Mayan should have possession on their lands and communal land ownership for their community and all right to claim any injustice done to them. In addition the symbolic approach to this is that of most significant part of them is their temple that symbolizes power and history. Their land mean a home, and agriculture.

The most conflict approach implies that the government something don’t recognize that this is a vivid culture that need to be protected. The diversity culture create new mixture whereby a new culture is born. However in the manifest function the tradition is not carried on and some custom are not practice. Latent Function the government don’t provide funds to excavate the remaining ruin, and other Maya right terminated. In addition in the dysfunction someplace show neglect in Maya right and ownership. Even show racism toward the people in their tradition, and clothing, and integration in the society.

Women in politics in Belize

Belize has never been the strongest, but since the integration of women in to politics allows equality between man power. However, in the symbolic Interaction the women are seen as mothers, and house holder workers. In entering into politics it provide an opportunity for women to voice their opinions. In the end both man and woman have always had equal rights.

Nevertheless, the conflict approach in society woman are not seen as leaders, but as followers. Woman are seen as inferior in some culture such as in India, Islamic, and other cultural group. However the lack of speaking out and be out spoken has been taught sometimes by parent that are raised in that manner. In structural- functionalist approach manifest function- the woman are more entitle to work and be productive member in the society.

The woman are the guide for the future to create a strong potential child that seek right and justice. However in the latent function the mother are educated caring and business person. The women are independent, hardworking, and successful. The women reflect a positive and secure home environment for the kids to live at home.

Personal: involves various kinds of non verbal behavior unique to one person. The meaning is also unique to the person sending the message, for example a person may laugh due to nervousness or fear ,while another may cry these responses non verbally communicate discomfort. A person might bite his nails in anticipation or walk to n fro in state of confusion.

Cultural: Characteristic of a group of people, it is learned unconsciously by observing others in the society or a group. In different cultures individuals tend to behave in a unique way according to their upbringing and culture .For example nowadays in few parts of India if a boy and girl are dating each other and they walk hand in hand, it would be a big taboo in the society whereas in the western culture its quite normal. In our culture body language plays a vital role , traditionally to welcome someone into our homes we hold our hands together and bow down our heads ,to show they are welcomed into our house and they would be treated equal to their gods . Another bright example would be , when Indians nod their head sideways as a “yes” it would seem as a “no” and use the same signal as “no” which in fact gets people all over the world confused.

Universal :Behavior that is common to human kind. It shows happiness, sadness or deep-seated feelings .Universally speaking its accepted in all the cultures where when a person speaks in a low tone generally shows respect towards the other person and when a person speaks in a high tone of voice it usually means commanding or disrespectful in other occasions.

2.Classification of Non-verbal communications

Kinesics: is the study of non-verbal communication achieved by movement of the body. Example facial expressions (mouth and eyes are the two indicators of emotion) and Posture and Gesture (movement of arms, hands head, feet and legs), winking your eye at someone would be sending out a signal of mischief or raising both your eyebrows would show that you have not understood a message or a state of confusion or it could be with the mouth, your happiness could be brought forward with a smile or a frown can clearly show your sadness.

Proxemics: is the study of communication with aspects of physical distances (space) between individuals. In simple words proximity means nearness. There are lot of factors where space would play as an important factor for communication some of them are status , roles , culture, gender and age. It would be smart if an individual knows as to how much space he/she has to maintain while communicating with the other person for example it would be quite awkward to stand right in front of your boss while he/she is addressing.

Haptics: Communication based on sense of touch. For example stroking, hitting ,holding , handshake or patting. By sense of touch you could send variety of messages , a nice and firm hand shake would mean that the other person is really expected and welcomed, where as a strong hand shake would definitely mean dominance .A pat on the shoulder to a male colleague would mean encouragement and the same to a female colleague would definitely mean sexual harassment these days.

Oculesics: communication regarding usage of eye , its a very common thing as we as human beings judge a person at his/her first appearance and how physical appearance really matters for example when a man is meeting a woman he instantly judge her completely based on her appearance and the women too would see how the man is dressed or his shoes , this type of communication is completely based on outward appearance.

Environment: it can influence the outcomes of communication and it eases up people and match their expectations be it at an office or a regular bar. For example organizations give full consideration to the office space its layout, sales area , ergonomics and many more things to create an environment where one would feel its solace and blend in.

3. A communication effectively used for decoding a message through a sender and a receiver without any use of words is known as non verbal communication, this form of communication tends to be unconscious and often reveals the sender’s feeling and preferences more spontaneously and honestly than the verbal form of communication, few examples of non verbal communication are ,

Facial expressions

Body language

Tone of voice

Gestures

Behaviors

Every culture has its own uniqueness of non verbal communication involved in it , As for me hailing from India few of the communication methods could be effectively seen such as,

Facial expressions: part of kinesics which involves communication involving expressions through mouth and eyes which indicate various emotions.In India facial expressions play an important role, one could notice it in everyday life ,for example in south of India Kerala there is a famous form of ballet / opera / dance known as kathakali which is based completely on facial expressions , in a traditional Indian family is a wife has to call her husband from a rendezvous amongst his friends , she would not call him by his name or send somebody to call him , she would partially hide behind the curtain wait till she catches his eyes and signal him to come inside.

Body language: This form of non verbal communication usually involves gestures by physical ability as simple as waving your hand to bid good bye to someone which is universally known or waving both the hands to say “no” .As per my experience goes , every move of yours is thoroughly judged at a point of interview when u lean forward it shows you are genuinely interested and when your posture is more relaxed it clearly shows you are not paying enough attention or not interested.

Tone of voice : This form of non verbal communication purely depends on an individual’s intrapersonal skills, how well he/she is able to communicate , tone of voice sends out clear message if the person on the other end is clearly appreciated or not.

India has been a male dominated country right from history, so the head of the house is always the male person , An Indian wife would always speak in a low tone of voice to show respect for her spouse and her submission towards him .A son/ daughter too would behave in the same manner , speaking in high tone of voice would show utter disrespect to the head of the house. When a teacher speaks in the class no student would speak up even outside the class of school premises the student always shows respect to their teachers my maintaining a low tone of voice.

Gestures : This form of non verbal communication clearly deals with gestures – gestures according to the dictionary simply means – “A motion of the limbs or body made to express or help express thought or to emphasize speech.”

As India is a multi ethnic , multi cultural and a country with many religions has a varied effect on the people and their behavior. Simply to greet a relative or a close friends Muslims in our country simply hug the other person three times from right to left shoulder and then left to right shoulder where as another dominant religion Hinduism the younger person touches the feet of the elder person to seek his good will or blessings.

Behaviors: According to the dictionary the very meaning explains us that it is the actions or reactions of a person or animal in response to external or internal conditions and according to one’s behaviors we could clearly understand the message he/she is trying to communicate.

In our culture one’s character is always judged by his/her behavior, for example we personalize with everyone very easily, imagine if a cab driver is little elderly we would straight away call him uncle ,if he is comparatively younger we would call him brother .In another example just to show respect for elders whenever they walk into the room , everybody stands up and welcomes them.

4. As a HRM manager recruiting for finance manager position I would prepare myself with these following questions,

Open

What qualities according to you should a good finance manager posses ?

Close

If you are selected for this position, would you be able to join immediately ?

Probing

Could you narrate an incident where you have handled a crisis effectively as a finance manager ?

5.Active listening :communication at its best to help others understand the problem or a situation from an individuals point of view. An active listener has empathy with the speaker. Active listening often involves the use of confirmation ,rejection or disconfirmation.

Active listening in a business environment is quite essential right for example, right from the basics of an interview the interviewer would notice how much of an active listener you are , a sign of active listening would definitely be of what we spoke of earlier , body language ,gesture and behavior. In a business setting every one has to coordinate with each other , a simple message of urgency could be passed through number of employees and if anyone of them is not paying enough of attention the would message and its meaning would change till it reaches at the other end.

Imagine customer service for an instance and grieved customer calling the support team to tell about his issues regarding the product and if the representative is not actively tuned to the conversation , the whole point of customer service is lost and it would definitely leave the customer more infuriated. In a sales scenario if a customer has ordered for 30 packages and the employee has understood it as 13 , it would lead into utter chaos these factors would majorly impact the business and finally it has a bright chance of getting shut. The main factor of active listening are

acknowledgment

empathize

clarity

acknowledgment : The act of admitting or owning to something .If a person is trying to communicate a message acknowledge the fact that you have understood or comprehended verbally or non verbally (face to face situation).

Empathize : accepting the emotional dimensions of a message. For ex: I understand how u feel about this ! aˆ¦.

Clarity : If a person is unclear in his attempt to send a message across , it is not wrong to politely ask that person to clarify his stand or repeat the sentence again .This would avoid any confusion or misunderstanding.

6.The six thinking hats concept has been designed to improve thinking effectiveness and how an individual can utilise them in negotiations are,

facts and information :An individual at this stage should be gaining knowledge about the company and its payment to the employees as in does it pay well or not , based on that the individual could expect.

feelings and emotions :Should be able to express his/her willingness to join the team or the company , so it should seem that the candidate is genuine for the pay he/she is expecting.

critical judgment :this is where the interviewers come up with the counter strategy , building up anxiety expressing things like , the market is pretty dull cant expect more etc but as a negotiation scenario one should stand up as per the expectations.

Positive: This is where an individual has to be promising , it is a situation completely opposite to critical judgment , its a reply to that hat .

New ideas: It is based around the idea of provocation and thinking for the sake of identifying new possibilities. This is often carried out on critical judgment statements in order to identify how to get past the barriers or failings identified, in other words as said earlier the individual has to be promising.

Big picture: This stage is where one has to rethink as to what have we done so far? and question what can we do next? In simple words just analyze the situation.

All these steps would definitely help in successful negotiation.

7.Feedback we get to hear this word quite often, it simply means response to an inquiry. In today’s entire business setting feedback is quite essential. It can be noticed from two different point of views from the company’s and the customer’s perspective. Feedback has two important factors, self assessment – making your own judgment about your performance and contribution to the teams work. Peer assessment – receive feedback from team members. Feedback can be of two kinds positive and negative. Positive feedback is something received when a task has been completed exceptionally well and negative feedback means something has been done which is not up to the expectations and needs to be improved.

A company launches a product which has never been produced by any another companies and it is quite new in the market, how would one know if the product is wanted and is in demand, the answer is feedback . When the product enters the market through a big advertising campaign customer’s would get attracted to it and finally buy it, if the customer wants more of it, he would order it again in this cycle we would know that the product is in demand and if it is not much in demand then the company would request the customer and enquire what lacks in that product and when the customer replies to the company about the product it would be a feedback.

An employee at the same firm who has been working hard and diligently known for his work receives an appreciation, this too can be a form of feedback. This in fact could encourage the employee to sustain his performance or even improve which in fact would help the productivity in the company (positive feedback) , on the other hand if the employee is little slow and not hard working if he/she gets a notice that improvement is needed or hard work needed then the employee would know what he needs to do (constructive feedback). Negative feedback is easy to understand it could be a termination letter.

Feedback then is very important for a company if it needs to change or prosper.

8.Assertiveness meaning positive it is a kind of constructive and helpful behavior when an issue arises ,this for of communication is a way if dealing with issues if unfair use of power and gaining respect and recognition. Standing up for your rights and expressing what you believe , feel and want in direct, honest and appropriate ways that respects the right of the other person.

The four steps which would help me become an effective manager are

Set limits – have a bottom line and be treated with respect

expect to be fairly rewarded for work

be comfortable with ourselves

have our health and safety considered

have our needs considered.

Refusals:

say no to requests that are unreasonable, unfair or beyond what is expected in our job without feeling guilty.

Be direct ,clear and honest.

Persistence or broken CD technique

You have clear views and can justify your viewpoint.

Making requests.

Ask for what you want .

Set the tone.

Be relevant : communicate about what is relevant.

References: Written notes and lecturer hand outs from the business communication class.

www.thinkexist.com and www.freedictionary.com.

Since Symonds groundbreaking presentation of The Psychology of Parent-Child Relationships in 1939, constructs have been developed assisting the understanding of family dynamics and for intervening therapeutically to help them.Despite the many structural differences involved, these have all been designed with the clinician in mind. Their unquestioned usefulness has been in helping the counselor to understand the family and to assist it in the process of regaining normalcy, its equilibrium. The one-, two-, and three-dimensional constructs presented in this article, however, are meant primarily for use by the parents and family members themselves. The visual constructs herein are meant to help parents visually reflect on their relationships with their children, not only in family counseling, but especially in an educational setting. The interactive nature of the construct is more in line with parenting literature that focuses on parent-counselor collaboration – whether in therapy or parent training.

The models listed in Table 1 hint at the variety of approaches clinicians can take in understanding parenting dynamics.

The Parents Prism relies on social dimensions for understanding fundamental family functioning. The focus is on demonstrating the usefulness of conceiving parent responsibility as an undertaking with three-dimensions. It is constructed within the course of reading – much like the Parents’ Prism would within a parent education session.

Using the vertical axis of authority, the parent can conceive a range of behaviors

extending from “permissive” as a low, to “demanding” as a high. The horizontal axis of nurture suggests a range of behaviors extending from “indifferent” as a low, to “indulgent” as a high.

Visually, this schema has the immediate advantage of demonstrating the appropriateness of both authority and nurture in parenting. After an interactive discussion of what nurture and authority entail, the discussion of the quadrants becomes somewhat self-explanatory and easily lends itself to discussion about where on the quadrant parents categorize themselves. They can also locate their own parents and the manner in which they were parented.

The Parents’ Matrix identifies the parenting styles addressed within Dreikurs’s continuum, but it can also account for a neglectful style and a controlling, indulgent style. The indulgent style is still not addressed widely in the literature.

Each quadrant could conceivably illustrate numerous parenting concerns. Those concerns frequently raised in the course of parent education are addressed in depth: the child’s perspective of the parents; parents’ perspective of the child; and the self-presentation of the parents in class. Starting from the lower-right quadrant, and proceeding clock-wise, each quadrant or parenting style will be described.

Laissez-Faire. This parenting style is characterized by low authority (permissiveness) and high nurturance (indulgence).

In this family, the child frequently shows little respect for the parent since the child knows the parent will disregard disruptive behavior and likely give the child whatever is demanded. Children don’t particularly appreciate the parent’s nurturing because it seemingly has no limit and can be tapped at will. The child often uses temper tantrums to control the parent whenever the parent’s actions frustrate or challenge the child’s desires.

The parent avoids the child’s temper tantrums at all costs and avoiding fights becomes a

guiding principle of interaction with the child. It is as though the parents need the approval of their children or seek to avoid their disapproval. Laissez-faire parents see limit setting and application of consequences as cruel and unusual punishment even in its most logical or natural forms.

Laissez-faire parents readily attend parenting classes, exasperated and at the same time fearful of their children. They present as baffled and outraged, like victims of a consumer fraud. They feel their unintentional trade-off, of more nurturing for less authority, ought to have earned them more respect and better behavior from the child. Exploration of discipline techniques often reveals an emphasis on incentives and rewards, bribes in fact, before the children have done what they are expected to.

The parents’ initial wish is for the counselor to help their child be nicer and not to be mad at the parent any more. These parents often ask what they have done wrong, imagining the counselor will supply them with ways to reward the child that will work, i.e., get the child to behave by doing what the parent wants. Frequently they would like to learn to have more control over their child without incurring the child’s disapproval.

Neglectful. This parenting style is characterized by low authority (permissiveness) and low nurturance (indifference).

The child often experiences the parent’s lack of authority as a lack of concern. Since there are virtually no boundaries to be broken, there is little point in behaving well and little love to be gained. The child raised with this parenting style tends to grow up very quickly, persistently denying dependency needs and having to get basic needs met by his or her own means. Since nothing matters much to the child, the conclusion is frequently drawn along an either/or continuum: nothing seems worth striving towards, or it’s all there for the taking. Such children have a hard time imagining their future or having any hopes for it improving.

The neglectful parent usually assumes no responsibility for the way the child behaves. This inability to see a relationship between cause (parental action) and effect (child’s behavior) results in neglectful parents having little faith that they could make a difference in the child’s life. Thus, any suggestion to provide more nurture or proper authority makes little sense to this parent.

Neglectful parents seldom seek help with their children voluntarily. More often they are compulsorily referred to parenting classes. Under these circumstances, initial hostility to the counselor masks strong feelings of helplessness. Less frequently, it gives way to a self-presentation of bewilderment about how they and their children ended up as they did.

Autocratic. This parenting style is characterized by high authority (demanding) and low nurturance (indifference).

To the child, the parent appears rigid and demanding. In turn, the child acts toward the parent from a position of fear and ultimately of revenge rather than respect. Children in this family frequently learn a utilitarian approach to behavior whereby they are outwardly compliant but inwardly rebellious. They therefore learn that the appearance of compliance is more important than compliance itself. Thus, internal controls are poorly developed and getting away with things becomes the typical mode of behavior. Adult rules and regulations outside of the family are viewed as a challenge, something to get around rather than as a reference point and guideline for behavior.

To the degree that autocratic parents are concerned with the concept, they tend to conceive nurturance either as the opposite of authority and therefore as indulgence (as if it gives permission to the child to disobey) or they identify authority with nurture. Their parenting style reflects the parents’ persistent fear of the child getting out of control. The worldview of the autocratic parent does not allow for the idea of nurture and authority as coexisting harmoniously. When confronted with a child who continually disobeys, the autocratic parent’s solution is to control more rather than to question the efficacy of the approach.

The autocratic parent sees in the parent educator a potential ally in methods of control. This can take different forms: the educator is to get the child back in line on behalf of the parent, or the educator is expected to assist the parent by expanding the parent’s repertoire of control maneuvers. In the latter case, the parent frames the problem and simply requests techniques from the counselor; finding the right method to regain control of the child is of paramount importance to this parent.

Benevolent Dictator. This parenting style is characterized by high authority (demanding) and high nurturance (indulgence).

Children frequently experience these parents as sporting an iron fist in a velvet glove. Thus, the parents might also be described as humanistic autocrats because their insistence on having things done their way is at odds with the children’s seemingly choosing this way. The parents wish to appear fair and egalitarian — especially to other parents — and as having the child’s best interest at heart. The child feels as if it would be an unforgivable offense to go against the wishes of such a kind person as the parent. Should the child forget this, the parent is quick to remind.

Children of a benevolent dictator are not well equipped for independent adult life. Their capacity for autonomous thought and decision-making is limited by their parent’s need for them to agree and conform. The children can appear assertive and to have good coping skills until they encounter a strange or novel situation. Since new circumstances have not been encountered without the interceding benevolence of the parent the situations appear baffling to the child. They have learned only specific examples of coping rather than ways of formulating the principles with which to face new situations in general. Thus, ill-equipped for adult life, the children of benevolent dictators become angry when they realize they have been taught compliance under the guise of responsibility.

To the benevolent dictator children are a precious commodity: something to be cherished and protected; something that will bear a big return in trade for the effort expended by the parent. These parents feel as though they are doing the child a favor in every interaction — either as sacrifice or as bestowing privilege. They do not attribute to the child the dignity that accrues simply from being a human being.

The price demanded of the child is agreement and conformity, even though the parent seemingly tolerates disagreement. This tolerance can even be a point of pride for the parent as long as the child’s public disagreement eventually comes around to private acquiescence. Should the child take a truly independent stand the benevolent dictator feels hurt and betrayed and may resort to using guilt to get the child back in line.

The benevolent dictator presents at parenting classes as an ally of the educator, sure that the counselor shares the same “correct” approach to child rearing. To the parents there appears to be little connection between their parenting style and the child’s misbehavior. Hence the parents’ self-presentation is bewilderment. Most of their energy goes into defending, and even boasting about their parenting style rather than into understanding the difficulty in front of them.

The child may appear as being unpopular with his or her peers, or having been victimized by them. The presenting problem of the child is often a deeply disguised, two-fold protest: against the parent’s refusal to acknowledge the child’s capacity for independence; and at the parents’ love with strings attached. It is as if the child is saying, “See what has become of me by meeting your expectations.”

Critique. An obvious benefit of the Parents’ Matrix is that parents can self-assess their parenting style by looking at the various descriptors within the quadrants. Once their own parenting style is determined, the parents and the educator can problem-solve to find solutions because the antidote to each dysfunctional aspect of the parenting style is self-evident: because each axis of the matrix polarizes the range of authority and the range of nurture, the antidote will involve building or decreasing the amount of authority or nurture — as Dreikurs’s continuum indicated. The theoretical antidote can therefore lead to solutions that arise from the parent’s own family circumstances and particular learning style and the parent educator’s knowledge and professional skills.

The principal limitation of the matrix is that it presents four ineffective parenting styles. And while it suggests solutions to the problems arising from them, it doesn’t suggest a positive model of effective parenting that may be striven towards as a goal. It is necessary to identify and correct ineffective parenting practices as well as to present a more constructive model.

Three-dimensions: Parents’ Prism

Along with the vertical axis of authority (the dimension of height) and the horizontal axis of nurture (the dimension of width), a third axis can be juxtaposed for providing depth to the schema (see illustration #3).

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NOTE: Kendall/Hunt – insert ILLUSTRATION #3 ABOUT HERE from diskette
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This axis would represent a third dimension that could be considered the encouragement factor. Encouragement is not a continuum with extremes on either end, but a single factor that affects the other two at any point of their intersection. The third dimension is one of belief in the child; a belief in the ability to benefit and mature from the authority and nurture provided by the parent. This dimension conveys the heart of democratic parenting: optimism rather than pessimism about the child. The visual representation of a prism emphasizes the new perspective placed on the essentials of parenting. When the democratic parenting style is schematized in a 3-D model it emerges with much more richness than if seen solely as the midpoint of a continuum of extremes.

Dreikurs, according to Bullard, suggested three “efficient methods” which “lead to a lifestyle dominated by social interest”. [17] Influenced by his lead, Dinkmeyer and McKay suggests that a sense of equality and mutual respect are the “key to effective parenting.” [18] Popkin describes it in terms of courage, responsibility, and cooperation — those qualities “important for surviving and thriving in a democratic society.” [19]

Current empirical research is very supportive of the constructs of Adler and Dreikurs. Studies in the area of effective parenting, (notably that of Baumrind [20] ) have proven especially helpful. What she identifies as “authoritative” parenting, can also be characterized by “the constellation of warmth, psychological autonomy and demandingness.” [21]

Warmth and demandingness would be understood in the current context as nurture and authority. Warmth corresponds to affective responsiveness such as being loving, supportive and committed. [22] Maccoby and Martin [23] associated this parenting aspect with adolescent development of social skills and self-concept.

Demandingness of parents, according to Steinberg indicates they “expect mature behavior from their adolescent, set and consistently enforce reasonable rules and standards for behavior, and when necessary discipline their youngster firmly yet fairly.” [24] Again, Maccoby and Martin [25] equated this aspect of parenting with fostering impulse control and social responsibility in adolescents.

Psychological autonomy, as described by Steinberg, has strong parallels with what Adlerians consider the encouragement process, including the ability of children to “express their opinions and assert their individuality.” [26] Maccoby and Martin [27] associate this aspect of parenting involves self-reliance and competence.

What follows is a consideration of the democratic parenting style in line with the concerns discussed within the two-dimensional matrix. This style of parenting is not presented as an insurance policy against parent-child conflict, as if such parents would never seek outside help; so, the presentation of the democratic parent at parenting classes is also included.

Democratic. This parenting style is characterized by flexible control and nurture and strong trust in the child’s ability to accomplish the tasks which life presents.

The child’s behavior toward the parent is motivated by love and respect. Fathers engaged in such a style are seen as sensitive to the views and needs of others and accepting of different viewpoints. Mothers are aware of clear boundaries between them and their children. This gives the child the freedom to get on with the job of being a child. Their emotions and behavior are not preoccupied with boundaries and boundary-crossing so they are more capable of having fun, exploring, and discovering. [28]

Adolescents raised within this parenting style tend to be those who flourish by examining their differences, within a context of connectedness. Such parents are clear about boundaries and the consequences but rarely have to use them. Such clarity means paradoxically that the parent does not have to be constantly aware of and worried about the child’s behavior. [29] When conflict does occur, it is in the context of support. There is trust that children will stay roughly within the boundaries that have been negotiated. [30]

While not necessarily eager to attend parenting classes, the democratic parent does not see it as a source of shame or embarrassment, nor as an opportunity to justify his or her style. The problems they bring tend to represent an imbalance between authority and nurture rather than an absence or polarity of one or the other. Democratic parents can usually form a good initial alliance with the parent eduator and can be clear about whether they need simply a sounding-board or advice.

Critique. Operationalizing the third dimension into standard language helps make this concept easier to grasp. Perhaps listing strategies for implementing the encouragement process could do this.

While it does lend itself to visual clarity and to breaking out of preconceived patterns, the third dimension must not be misunderstood as the final word in the discussion. The parent education movement is best served if this discussion contributes to an understanding of child rearing as a multi-dimensional endeavor. Democratic parenting is not the only way to raise a child successfully, according to Ansbacher. “Even the authoritarian approach can be all right if combined with enough encouragement (optimism) … and the democratic style may fail if combined with dire pessimism” (personal correspondence, 1993).

The primary benefit of the concept of a three dimensional parenting schema is that it graphically illustrates the benefits and limits of the authority and nurture aspects of parenting. While guidance and connection are primarily (or at least initially) functions of the parent, they must be directed by an orientation of trust in the child’s ability both to benefit from interaction with the parent and, in return, to contribute to the family’s healthy functioning.

Summary

Among the benefits of the one-dimensional continuum is it’s demonstration of alternatives to parents in rearing their children. Dreikurs’s contribution to this aspect includes a balance point or broad middle area in which democratic techniques are introduced. The democratic middle is at least a combination of freedom and order.

These, then, were understood to be features of parenting respectively abstracted as nurture and authority, and presented in a two dimensional matrix which more clearly illustrated various results of interactions between the features. Consistent with Adlerian theory, authority can be conceived as the parenting for that providing direction or guidance for the child. Along with establishing order, authority involves such aspects as control, influence, and legal jurisdiction as well. This is what is referred to as an authoritative style. [31] Nurture can be conceived as the facet for providing love and connection with the world. Along with valuing freedom, nurture involves aspects of support, tolerance, appreciation and caring.

Authority as a construct may correspond to the child’s developing level of activity. And nurture may correspond to the child’s developing level of social interest.

The democratic parenting style, however, is not just a balance between authority and nurture. It adds still another dimension: encouragement of the child. This includes belief in the child for the child’s sake, not for what the child represents for the parent.

This important and effective parenting style can be more effectively represented in a graphical three-dimensional fashion. The visual concept of the Parents’ Prism illustrates the importance of encouragement as the differentiating factor in effective parenting.

Experiential Application

Self-assessment

After viewing The Effective Parent Prism (TEPP), give your own self-assessment of your predominate characteristic parenting style on the three dimensions.

Dimension One: ——

Behavior examples of how I actually do this as a parent.

________________________________________________
________________________________________________

Dimension Two: ——

Behavior examples of how I actually do this as a parent.

________________________________________________
________________________________________________

Dimension Three: —–

Behavior examples of how I actually do this as a parent.

________________________________________________

Your Assessment of your co-parent (If applicable)

Dimension One: ——

Behavior examples of how I actually do this as a parent.

________________________________________________
________________________________________________

Dimension Two: —–

Behavior examples of how I actually do this as a parent.

________________________________________________
________________________________________________

Dimension Three: —–

Behavior examples of how I actually do this as a parent.

________________________________________________

If possible, have a child (or your children) and/or your partner give his or her opinion of your more characteristic parenting style

Dimension One: ——

Behavior examples of how I actually do this as a parent.

________________________________________________
________________________________________________

Dimension Two: —–

Behavior examples of how I actually do this as a parent.

________________________________________________
________________________________________________

Dimension Three: —–

Behavior examples of how I actually do this as a parent.

________________________________________________

New compare your own ratings with those of your co-parent and/or of your child(children).

What are the areas of agreement?

What are the ratings in which there was a disagreement?

Discuss #1 and #2 above as much as possible using actual behavioral descriptions/examples.

Next Steps

List below what you would like (if anything) to do the changes and the corresponding “action steps” that you feel are appropriate in refining/improving your parenting effectiveness. Desired change.

1._______________________________________________

2._______________________________________________

3._______________________________________________

4._______________________________________________

5._______________________________________________

Authors Biographies –

Erik Mansager, Ph.D., is the residential director of Casa de los Ninos, the nation’s first crisis shelter for infants. He was former director of psychological Services at St. John’s Seminary College in the Catholic Archdiocese of Los Angeles and clinical supervisor of the U.S. Army’s Adolescent Substance Abuse Counseling Services in Frankfurt, Germany. He and his wife were foster parents and residential house-parents for over five years. Erik is a clinical mental health counselor who has spent 20 years working with families who are facing severe challenges. He has worked in the areas of child physical and sexual abuse, divorce mediation, and substance abuse. On the brighter side, he is married and the father of two teens who are busily exploring their contributions to life.

Erik is a Diplomate in Adlerian Psychology and an international presenter on theory and techniques of Adler’s Individual Psychology. He is also the author of several training manuals and monographs as well as numerous articles on the critical collaboration between Adlerian psychology and spirituality. He did his undergraduate studies at St. Thomas Seminary College in Denver, his graduate studies in marriage and family counseling at the University of Arizona and his doctoral studies in psychology at the Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium.

Roger Volk, Ph.D., is the Operations Manager for the Adolescent Substance Abuse Counseling Service (ASACS), based in Heidelberg, Germany. ASACS is a contracted service to the U.S. Army and provides counseling and prevention services to dependents of the U.S. military stationed in Germany, Italy, Holland, and Belgium.

Dr. Volk grew up and educated in Australia. After living and working in the United Kingdom for eight years he moved to the United States in 1980 where he completed a Masters in Social Work and later a Ph.D. at Virginia Commonwealth University. He is licensed in Virginia as a clinical social worker.

The three branches of human sciences (Social sciences), Sociology, Anthropology and Psychology are interlinked in that they try to describe the different areas of human life and their relationships to each other. They offer an explanation on human behavior and in the society they live. Furthermore, these social sciences provide essential skills in analyzing the intentions and behavior of individuals and groups they encounter. Individual identity is forged by one’s culture, groups, and by institutional influences. Institutions such as families, schools and even churches greatly influence human beings yet these institutions are merely organizations whose aim is to develop the core social values of its constituents.

In discussing cultural diversity on the perspectives of the three social sciences there is a need to understand the difference between culture and society. This is because the all the three disciplines explore culture and society to understand human behavior in depth. The term ‘Culture’ has many different meanings, for some it is the appreciation of art, literature, music and food, while for others like biologists; they take it as a colony of microorganisms growing in a nutrient medium in a laboratory. However for social scientists, culture is the full range of learned human behavior patterns. Cultures are traditions and customs, transmitted through learning and adaptations. Children obtain such traditions by growing up in a certain society, through a process called ‘enculturation’. A culture results into a degree of uniformity in behavior and thought among the inhabitants of a particular society (Baugher et. al, 2000, p. 4). The terms ‘culture’ and ‘society’ are different as cultures are considered to be complexes of learned behavior patterns and perceptions while society is a group of interacting organisms. Therefore this paper will critically analyze cultural diversity based on the three social sciences, evaluating the social sciences similarities and differences.

Discussion
Anthropological perspective of culture diversity

When it comes to understanding diversity in cultures, the anthropological view can help humanity understand and appreciate the complexity of diverse cultures. This discipline involves the study of biological and cultural origins of the humans. The subject matter of anthropology is wide-ranging, including, fossil remains, non human primate anatomy and behavior, artifacts from past cultures, past and present languages, and all the prehistoric and contemporary cultures of the world.

The subfield of cultural anthropology is the most commonly studied and useful in analyzing and interpreting the diverse cultures of the world. In recent years, recognition of the need for multicultural awareness, understanding, and skills has grown in our society. The aim is to achieve multicultural diversity competence, which is a term that refers to the ability to demonstrate respect and understanding, to communicate effectively, and to work with different cultural backgrounds (George & Fischer, 1999, p. 71). These diversities in culture encompass differences in gender, race, ethnicity, religion, age, sexual orientation, social class and physical appearance. Misunderstandings and conflicts in the society are two major consequences of lack of awareness in the ever increasing cultural diversity. Cultural anthropology explains cultural diversity through aspects of social life such as material culture, social organizations, politics, economics, symbolism, change and development, ethnicity and modern nation-state formation.

In explaining and interpreting the diverse cultures, anthropology uses ethnography- describing particular cultures; and ethnology- comparing two or more cultures. In addition it incorporates the holistic approach in cultural studies by studying biological and cultural aspects of human behavior; encompassing the broadest possible time frame by looking at contemporary, historic and prehistoric societies; examining human culture in every part of the world; and studies many different aspects of human culture (George & Fischer, 1999, p.68).

Cultural diversity is relevant to a cultural approach in learning, in that learning and motivational styles and cross cultural pedagogical strategies assume attention to diversity in learner populations and pluralistic learning outcomes. The data, concepts and insights derived from the study of other cultures helps us meet our professional goals and lead more satisfying lives in a multicultural society (Herdman & Macmillan, 2010, p. 23). Moreover, the process of studying anthropology is also valuable because of the skills and competencies that it helps to develop. Activities such as taking courses about different cultures, participating in local internships and international organizations, living in the university’s international dormitory, and participating in study abroad programs all combine to provide students with valuable skills in understanding diverse cultures hence achieve multicultural diverse competence.

There is a need to come up with a strategy to accept cultural diversity, for example, in the United states of America the freedom to pursue ones individual dream and fortunes in the united states has produced a widening gap between the ‘haves’ and ‘have-nots’. According to Herdman and Mcmillian, 2010, managing directors in United States of America made forty times as much compared to the average worker in 1973 and three hundred as much in 2004. At the same time, earnings of middle class were growing slightly and those of lower class were actually shrinking. This situation to a European means that the state is working against well being of the population, particularly in light of tax cuts during this period. Another instance is when expressing feelings of affection which is typical for all human. The manner in which the affection is expressed is cultural, the kiss is not universally accepted as a symbol of affection; some societies consider it suggestive of cannibalism.

A basic anthropological strategy for understanding other cultures is to look at a cultural feature from within its original context rather than looking at it from the perspective of one’s own culture; being inquisitive, non-judgmental, and open to new ways of thinking is vital in understanding other cultures; Balancing contradictory needs instead of trying to eliminate them; emphasize global team work; develop a cognitive complex which is made up of twin abilities of differentiating and integrating; and developing a personal acuity (Naylor, 1997, p. 157). The strategy will not only help you personally in understanding other cultures but assist you in integrating to any culture globally.

Sociological perspective on Cultural Diversity

Sociology is critical analysis of the society in which humans live. People who make sense of the social world-past, present and future- are referred to as sociologists (Anderson & Taylor, 2005, p. 8). Sociologists research on social structures such as class, family, politics, social problems like drug abuse and crime all of which influence the society. Social interaction amongst humans is the basic sociological concept, because all humans and groups that make up a society socialize. Specialists who focus on particular details of specific interactions as they occur daily are called micro sociologists and those that focus on larger patterns of interactions amongst larger sections of the society such as state and economy are called macro sociologists.

A society is rarely culturally uniform hence the result of different cultures. As societies develop and become more complex, different cultural traditions appear. The more complex the society, the more likely the culture will be internally varied and diverse. The causes of cultural changes in a society are cultural diffusion, innovation, and imposition of cultural change by outside world (Anderson & Taylor, 2005, p. 72).

Two concepts from sociology help in understanding complexity of culture in a given society, dominant culture and subcultures. Dominant culture is the culture of the most powerful group in the society. Although it is not the only culture in society, it is commonly referred to be the culture of a society, despite other cultures present. Subcultures on the other hand are cultures of groups whose values and norms of behavior differ from those of the dominant culture. Members of subcultures tend to interact frequently and share a common world view.

Sociology stipulates that culture consists of both material objects and abstract thoughts and behavior. Several elements which sociologists consider in understanding culture diversity are language, norms, beliefs and values (Kaufman, 2004, p. 7).

Language: Learning the language of a culture is essential to becoming part of a society. Language shapes culture as it provides the categories through which social reality is understood. This was proved by Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Worf in the 1950’s through their theory called the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. The hypothesis states, “it is not that you perceive something first and then think of how to express it, but that language itself determines what you think and perceive” (Anderson & Taylor, 2005, p. 83). In understanding cultural diversity language is seen to reflect the assumptions of a culture. This is seen and exemplified by: language affecting people’s perception of reality; Language reflecting the social and political status of different groups in society; Groups advocating changing language referring to them as a way of asserting positive group identity; The implications of language emerging from specific historical and cultural contexts; language distorting actual group experience; language shaping people’s perceptions of groups and events in society.

Norms: They are specific cultural expectations for how to behave in a given situation. Lack of norms in any society results in turmoil however, with established norms people would be able to act, behave and interact in a society properly. In the early years of sociology, William Graham Summer in 1906 identified two types of norms; folkways and mores. Folkways are general standards of behavior adhered to by a group, example wearing pants and not skirts for men. Mores are stricter mores which are seen to control moral and ethical behaviors such as injunctions, legal and religious.

Beliefs: They are shared ideas people hold collectively within a given culture, and these beliefs are also the basis of many cultural norms and values, example in USA there is a widespread belief in God. Sociology study belief in a variety of ways, and each theoretical mentation provides different insights into the significance of beliefs for human society.

Values: They are abstract standards in a society or group that defines the ideal principles of what is desirable and morally correct, for example in USA equality and freedom are important values which provide a general outline for behavior. Values provide values for behavior, but can also be sources of conflict like the political conflict over abortion.

Understanding the four elements of sociology enables proper integration in any society. Integration into the society is achieved by respecting the diverse cultures that are found in a society. Sociology studies culture in a variety of ways, asking numerous questions about the relationship of culture to other social institutions and the role of culture in modern life. The new cultural perspective on culture according to Naylor, 1997, is that it is ephemeral, unpredictable and constantly changing; is a material manifestation of consumer-oriented society; and is best understood by analyzing its artifacts- books, films, television images.

Psychological Perspective on Culture Diversity

Social psychology a subfield of psychology has its origins in the early years of the twentieth century. Its findings do not necessarily concern human thinking throughout history but rather meet the requirements of our modern society. Social psychology research aims to capture the interplay between social thinking and socio-historical dynamics in order to understand how societies function and how culture is produced (Xenia, 2004, p. 13). Psychology is distinguished from neighboring social sciences through its emphasis on studying samples of organisms within controlled settings rather than focusing upon larger groups, organizations or nations. Psychologists test the specific results of changes in a controlled environment on the individual in that environment, but there are strongly set procedures through which organisms are tested psychometrically.

There is a big debate in psychology and more generally in social sciences how to define culture. In some definitions the concept of culture includes behavior, in the sense that our behaviors are expressions of our culture. Other definitions emphasize that participating in a culture means having understanding of our world. However with trying to find a consensual definition of this concept, the main argument of researchers in psychology is to highlight how important it is to take into account the cultural context in which psychological studies were conducted (Kerr & Tindale, 2011). They were right to point out that humans are linked to the social context in which they live, proving that psychological functioning and human behavior are universal and culture specific.

Sharing a culture means that people have a common way of viewing their relationship with the social and physical environment; of communicating their thoughts and emotions; of prioritizing their activities; of dividing tasks and resources; of attributing values, honors, and power (Xenia, 2004, pp.17-18). When they do not share the above listed elements then culture diversity occurs from a psychological point of view. The people of diverse cultures are not like minded hence the question is, whether individuals from diverse cultures can coexist harmoniously in time space and under the same political and social organizations? The answer to this question provides the idea of how to cope with culture diversity.

Various cultures flourish from the recognition that they represent a set of beliefs, modes of thinking and practices that are peculiar to them and different from others. Some cultures are more inclusive example western cultures, others refer to a small group of people for instance the Basque culture, but each one of them is important for its members because they represent the way they construct their social reality, and provides them with action alternatives.

Conclusion

Culture Diversity has been discussed using the three social science disciplines of Anthropology, Sociology and Psychology. Even though all of them have a similarity of trying to understand culture diversity in humans, they are different in terms of how they approach the study. Anthropology looks at culture diversity at the perspective of humanity, his origin and through aspects of social life such as ethnicity, symbolism, politics, race and so on. Anthropology explains that the origin of culture diversity is through mankind hence the concentration a human perspective.

Sociology looks at the society which humans live so as to explain culture diversity. It states that elements such as language, beliefs, norms, and values are what bring about culture diversities. Psychology on the other hand analyses culture diversity with focus entirely on internal factors that influence individuals. Therefore the three social sciences provide an understanding of culture diversity and a basis of respecting other cultures.

In western culture, gender and sex have been described under two distinct realms-male and female. These identities to some are determined solely biologically, and many are oblivious to the fact that in many cultures, different genders are present. One of the most prominent third genders is based in South Asia, specifically India. Known as the hijra, they have grown to become a prominent and well-known member of Indian society, but have suffered from discrimination and have struggled for their basic fundamental rights.

Based in India, the hijra are physiological males who identify themselves as females at an early age, wearing women’s clothing and performing stereotypical female gender roles. Indian society refers to the hijra as a third gender. They are not female nor male, but a separate entity who carries their own culture, values and traditions. In relation to the western world, the closest form to the hijra would be known as a transgender.

The hijras trace their origins back to the religious era of the deity Ram. As told in the Ramayana epic, “just before his sojourn into the wilderness, Ram instructed all men and women who had come to see him off to return to their village. The hijras, being neither men nor women stayed at Ram’s point of departure until his return years later. Upon seeing their devotion, Ram blessed them and promised them the right to rule during the final age of mankind” (Amisha_2010:835). As religion is a major aspect of Indian culture, much of the hijra’s history is based off the Indian polytheistic religious era. As religion is of great importance to the hijra, this event historically marked their first interaction with the Indian gods.

Many hijra undergo a painful castration process known as nirvan to officially identify as a hijra. This process of the upmost importance as it ends with the new hijra embracing the femininity he has identified himself with his entire life. The process has been documented:

His transformation is nearly complete as he prostrates his naked body before the murti of Bahuchara Mata, praying for her blessings. When he stands, his chela (guru) will complete the ceremony with two swift slices of the long blade, permanently severing his manhood. The remaining blood that gushes from the cut is considered the last of the “male part.” Hot sesame seed oil will be poured over the open wound, which will later be prodded repeatedly to ensure that the urethra remains open. No anesthesia or surgical tools are available, for it is believed that medically performed castration would diminish the spiritual experience of the ritual. (Patel_2010:835)”

Once the castration process is completed, the hijras both physically and spiritually feel as though they have transformed themselves.

As the hijra undergo a physical transformation, they also follow a strict household structure. Members of the gharana, the communal hijra household, ardently support the hijra code. The hijras maintain the basic family hierarchy. The GWU report states, “An elder naik oversees the basic running of the household, and chelas initiate hijras and turn over a portion of their earnings for household expenses. In addition, all hijras pay a fee to the jamat, or congregation of hijra house leaders recognized within the larger community. (Patel_2010:836)” Many houses are situated relatively close together. As much of Indian society and culture rejects the hijra, the hijra feel it is necessary to isolate themselves from the mainstream culture. Not only does this give the hijra a sense of community, but it also preserves their security and safety. Despite these protective measures, hijras remain a marginalized group in a country that continues to ostracize them.

India is two-sided in its social perception of the hijra lifestyle. As a community, Indian society treats hijras with a combination of “fascination, revulsion, and fear” (Patel_2010:836). As a means of survival, hijras predominantly participate in begging and prostitution. For a small fee, they also perform “badhai-local families sometimes welcome them into their homes to bless auspicious births or weddings (Patel_2010:836).” For the most part, however, sex work is the most profitable option for the hijra. As a result, India’s hijras struggle as an ostracized social class, subject to gender violence and various other human rights violations. There are very few domestic policies protecting hijras. Although there have been recent pushes for their rights, few have been successful.

The hijra have struggled to enjoy the basic human rights many Indians enjoy. Most importantly, Indian law does not recognize them as a third gender. This denies them the right to vote, the right to own property, the right to marry and the right to claim formal identity through any official documents such as a passport or driving license. Accessing healthcare, employment or education becomes almost impossible. In the face of such odds they are forced to earn money any way they can (Harvey_2008:html1). Hijras are regularly robbed and sexually assaulted on the street at the hands of gangs and other local thugs. A hijra who served as chairperson of a human rights organization said, “We have no constitutional rights. That is the problem. We don’t have voting rights; often we cannot get housing. This is not allowing us to have an identity of our own” (Harvey_2008:html1). Reports show however, that attitudes are gradually beginning to change.

An initial difficulty in addressing the rights of sexual minorities is in recognizing the differences between the concepts of “sex” and “gender.” Sex, by definition, “operates within the classic binary biological model, in which the human species is clearly divided into neat categories of either male or female” (Patel_2010:836). Gender, however, is a more inclusive term, which includes “social constructs of personal belief and sexuality that have deeper meaning than the traditional biological sex distinction” (Patel_2010:836). In addition, the classic Western binary models of sex-male and female-and sexuality-homosexual and heterosexual-do not fit neatly into India’s traditional concepts of gender and identity. As a result, hijras are the unknown-the “intersex” gender between male and female in India.

Although the hijra have been ostracized for many years, conditions are slowly starting to improve. As technology and media communication have vastly improved in India, more people are beginning to not only notice the presence of the Hijra, but also appreciate it. The Hijra have formed unions to organize protests for their human rights and will continue to fight for legislation until they are satisfied. India has taken many steps toward recognizing transgender rights.

In recent years, hijras have become increasingly visible in the political arena. After gaining the right to vote in 1994, a few have held political office in various states in India, and often have the support of religiously affiliated majority parties as “safe” candidates. In 2000, Kamla Jaan, a hijra in the state of Madhya Pradesh, was elected mayor of Katni after running as an indepen- dent. Indian society perceives hijras as un-entrenched political candidates-secular, casteless, and asexual-simultaneously able to understand the plight of the downtrodden and able to gather the support of outsiders. Furthermore, mainstream society has recast these candidates as “embodiments of respect and morality,” above traditional corruption that permeates Indian politics. As a result of their improved prominence, India has taken some effective measures in acknowledging the legal status of hijras. For example, “there are three distinct gender classification choices available on the Indian Passport-male, female, and ‘others’” (Patel_2010:836).

In addition, the prominence of hijras in the media has fostered increased social acceptance of transgendered individuals. Thus far, the state of Tamil Nadu seems the most accepting. There, a transsexual hosts a local talk show called “Ippadikku Rose.” The state also hosts an annual transgender festival to facilitate accept- ance of hijras into mainstream society. In addition, hijras are making appearances in the fashion industry, and recent Bollywood films portray them in a positive light. In 1994, the South Indian film Tamanna portrayed the life of a hijra who saves a young girl from life on the streets and later adopts her. In 2008, a hijra was cast as the first transgender in the country with a lead role in a mainstream Tamil movie.

Despite receiving some recognition and social acceptance, hijras remain an ostracized and differentiated social class. Hijras struggle to reconcile their physical visibility with the invisibility of their community as a whole. In the end, however, community invisibility makes hijras susceptible to gender violence and other human rights abuses. By creating and recognizing transgender rights, India has the capacity to battle its current HIV/AIDS epidemic in a meaningful way, give real effect to the human rights of sexual minorities, and serve as a model for other nations to recognize gender-based rights. In order to accomplish these goals, however, India must repeal current discriminatory laws and enact equal opportunity legislation on the basis of gender and sexuality. In order for there to be meaningful change, formal legislation must be passed, and with the help of the human rights activists and unions, the legislation could very well happen.

Works Consulted

Amisha, R. P. (2010). INDIA’S HIJRAS: THE CASE FOR TRANSGENDER RIGHTS[dagger]. The George Washington International Law Review, 42(4), 835-863.

Nick Harvey

http://www.newstatesman.com/world-affairs/2008/05/hijras-indian-changing-rights (Hijras Indian Changing Rights)

The Hijras of India

http://lisa.cs.duke.edu/~john/finalproject/

Khan, S. I., Hussain, M. I., Parveen, S., Bhuiyan, M. I., Gourab, G., Sarker, G. F., . . . Sikder, J. (2009). Living on the extreme margin: Social exclusion of the transgender population (hijra) in bangladesh. Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition, 27(4), 441-51. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.proxy.library.vanderbilt.edu/docview/202996682?accountid=14816

Howard Parker and colleagues (1995) have had a dominant role in the development of the “normalisation thesis”. They argue that illicit drug use is no longer a sign of deviant behaviour in relation to crime, but a central part of youth culture due to freedom of choice and consumption, it has become recreational rather than problematic. They predicted that within a few years time, the young people that had not tried drugs would be the minority and therefore be the ‘deviants’. They also argue that post-modern Britain has an increasing issue of globalisation and consumption that has affected the increase of drug use as globalisation means that trade and accessibility of drugs is more common and easier, and having “spare” money due to the labour market and a longer childhood allows young people to consume freely. In this essay I will further discuss the theory of normalisation by Parker et al.

Parker, Williams and Aldridge (2002) use the normalisation theory to measure ‘sensible’ recreational drug use. These drugs include cannabis, amphetamines, LSD and ecstasy, sensible drug use does not include using a combination of these drugs at one time or using them on a daily basis due to addiction (Parker et al., 1998). Parker, Measham and Aldridge (1995) argue that drug use moved from deviant subcultures, such as the Mods and Hippies from the 1960s-1970s, to mainstream youth culture in the 1980s when the “rave scene” occurred. This dance culture became normalised as it was a recreational leisure pursuit of young people that introduced an appealing new drug, ecstasy.

British surveys have shown that the late teens and early twenties are the main users of illicit drugs (ISDD 1994). The normalisation theory was introduced so to rule out the stigma about young people that take recreational drugs as the majority are not deviant or involved in crime. The trends in drug use have altered from the addiction of hard drugs, such as cocaine and heroin, to drugs that are used by the modern youth culture in leisure activities, including alcohol, cannabis and ecstasy (Muncie 1999). Although this may provoke crime that is out of character due to being under the influence, it does not create a lifestyle of crime which heroin may. For example, in order for class A drug addicts to fuel their habbit they turn to criminal acts such as burglary and mugging. Yet when a young person uses ecstasy or cannabis it is for leisure and does not necessarily cause the individual to partake in a criminal offence. However, Professor David Nutt was recently asked to resign as the chair of the ACMD (Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs) due to declaring that alcohol and tobacco are more dangerous for the human health than illegal drugs such as ecstasy, LSD and cannabis. He wrote in a paper at King’s College, London, that the legal drug alcohol ranks 5th as the most harmful drug. We could therefore argue that the consumption of alcohol is “normal” in society despite the harm it can cause. Also, although

David nutt – smoking,,, public bans… it is now marginalised

Alcohol is social activity,,, but some become dependant…. abuse of any substance can cause issues to health or impact on family members.

Although Parker et al. (1998) does not fully undertake postmodernism as structural inquality still exists, they believe that young people’s behaviour and choices have changed towards drugs due to a post-modern society that allows them to consume freely. For example, Mott and Mirrlees-Black (1993) found that the number of 16-19 year olds using cannabis more than doubled from 1983 to 1991. Normalisation has become an indicator of “changes in social behaviour and cultural perspectives”, meaning that the opinion about some illicit drugs has changed within the youth culture which in return affects their social behaviour as they do not think that using the drug is wrong or immoral. However, it could be argued that it is overgeneralizing to assume that all young people see drug use as ‘normal’, Dowds and Redfern (1994) found that approximately two-thirds of 12-15 year olds saw taking cannabis as a serious offense.

Hunt and Stevens (2004) suggest that the government and media use drug normalisation as the proof for an increased disciplinary regulation and endorse policies as it is viewed to be a drug outbreak that needs to be broken or finished. For example, drug testing has been introduced in some schools to help prevent usage by young people (Craver, 2004).

Illicit drug use is frequently associated with the youth culture, Robson (1994) points out that the most common time for using or trying drugs is between the ages of eighteen and twenty-four. It is suggested that this is due to adolescents being the time of experimentation in many aspects of life which can lead to rebellion. Coleman (1992:13) suggests a psychoanalytical-theory of three main reasons why young people and drugs are linked together: adolescence is a time of vulnerabilty as well as being impressionable, of rebellion and non-conformity and the need to be independant by disengaging from family relationships.

These changes through adolescence support Coleman’s sociological theory that youth culture experiment in different social aspects of life, such as subcultures and trends or sexualities and in this case drugs. In relation to the normalisation theory, young people are able to experiment with drugs due to the wide availabilty of them as well as the access young people have to them due to people they know (Barton 2003).

EVALUATION

It is argued that the claims about the normality and extreme use of illicit drugs is over exaggerated and in fact illicit drugs have always been an underlying issue and therefore society has not suffered an instant or radical change due to industrial or post-modern reasons. For example, in 1932 Aldous Huxley discusses a hallucinogen called soma, showing the existence of drugs in previous decades.

“if ever by some unlucky chance such a crevice of time should yawn in the solid substance of their distractions, there is always soma, delicious soma, half a gramme for a half holiday, a gramme for a weekend, two grammes for a trip to the gorgeous East, three for a dark eternity on the moon.” (Huxley, 1932: 49)

Illicit drugs have always been present within society but throughout time the drugs have changed to match different subcultures and trends, such as hippies in the 1970s were associated with using LSD, Mods in the 1960s were associated with amphetamines and today’s youth culture is associated with “dance drugs” such as ecstasy (South, 1997).

LOOK AT S+N.. difference between frequency and normallcy

Shiner and Newburn (1997) argue that the normalisation theory focuses on the measure of lifetime illicit drug use. They point out that if evidence of drug use is measured in shorter time frames such as within the last month or week, there is a dramatic decline in the results of illicit drug use. This is also relevant to the media panic over ‘dance drugs’ such as ecstasy, amphetamines and LSD in which the media has exaggerated a high rate of use within youth culture. Yet ecstasy is one of the least addictive drugs and tends to be taken less regularly, for example when someone takes an ecstasy pill in a clubbing atmosphere they are less likely consume alcohol which can be an equally as dangerous drug if drank in access (Coleman, 1992).

Shiner and Newburn also point out that when time frames such as whether or not the respondent has used any ‘dance drugs’ in the last year are used, it was found that one in twenty young people said they had. Also, only one in four 16 to 25 year olds said they had used cannabis, the most commonly used illicit drug, in the last year.

Overall, Shiner and Newburn criticise the normalisation theory as although there is an increase in the numbers of young people using illicit drugs, it overgeneralizes young people as it does not necessarily mean that they all see it as normal due to conservative norms and values about drug use still existing to many people and they view illicit drug use as wrong or bad. This challenges the argument by Parker et al. (1995) that soon the young people that were not using drugs would be in the minority and therefore be the “deviant” subculture. However, it is important to remember that Shiner and Newburn are evaluating the work of Parker et al. in 1995. Their work about normalisation in 1998 does acknowledge that young people view each drug differently and their decision to take illicit drugs is “complex” and “sophisticated” (Barton, 2003:121-122).

It could also be argued that illicit drug use only appears to have become normalised due to a moral panic, a term that is commonly used to describe media stimulated over-reaction to subcultures, such as youth groups and issues within society. Stanley Cohen (1973) coined the term ‘moral panic’ in the 1960s as a result of over exaggerated reports about the feud between the Mods and Rockers, he noted that moral panics tend to focus on topics concerning the actions of young people. Other sociologist such as Goode and Ben-Yehuda (1994) suggest that moral panics occur when a proportion of society feel that the folk devils (as suggested by the media) have become a threat to society and social order. For example, when the rave scene occurred there was a new folk devil associated with the acid house dance culture and ecstasy that became normalised among the youth culture.

Ecstasy has had huge media coverage, especially since the death of Leah Betts in 1995 after she took one ecstasy pill on her 18th birthday. Leah collapsed in to a coma four hours after taking the tablet and died three days later. The police claimed the death was due to the tablet being contaminated, this resulted in the media using the tragedy to create a panic about the effects of the drug within society. However, it was later revealed that Leah did not die directly from the ecstasy pill but from drinking an excessive amount of water in reaction to dehydration from the drug.

Outline and Critically Discuss Marx’s concept of Alienation

Perhaps one of the pinnacle arguments in Karl Marx’s critique of the capitalist regime is the theory of alienation. Marx built this definition upon the philosophical concept of the German philosopher Friedrich Hegel; and Marx’s was taken further again and reaffirmed in the work of Feuerbach. In this piece, I aim to discuss Marx’s understanding and application of the term alienation in his work.

According to Giddens, 2006, the term alienation refers to ‘the sense that our own abilities, as human beings, are taken over by other entities. The term was originally used by Marx to refer to the projection of human powers onto Gods. Subsequently he employed the term to refer to the loss of control on the part of workers over the nature of the labour task.’

During the 19th Century industrial revolution, the economic world saw a huge shift in the workforce. Before this time, most of the work took place in the home, with all members taking responsibility for their designated tasks. However, with the introduction of advanced industrial technology, such as machinery operating on coal and electricity, this led to a separation between house and work. Factories became the focal points of development, machinery became localised and this led to mass production of goods which enveloped the market of hand made products. People on the work force working at factories would have been given specialised training in one area of work, and would receive a wage based on the level of their skills and the work they do. By doing this, Marx made his most pinnacle point; the division of labour. Instead of society living in harmony, or as close to as possible, individuals became alienated from each other. We vie for the same jobs, trying to gather more experience than our competitors to ensure we have the edge over them, ensuring our employment over others, thus alienating ourselves from them.

According to Marx, both capitalists and proletarians are alienated in equal measures by society but in completely opposite ends of the spectrum, as the following quotation shows;

‘The propertied class and the class of the proletariat present the same human self-estrangement. But the former class feels at ease and strengthened in this self-estrangement, it recognizes estrangement as its own power and has in it the semblance of a human existence. The class of the proletariat feels annihilated, this means that they cease to exist in estrangement; it sees in it its own powerlessness and the reality of an inhuman existence. It is, to use an expression of Hegel, in its abasement the indignation at that abasement, an indignation to which it is necessarily driven by the contradiction between its human nature and its condition of life, which is the outright, resolute and comprehensive negation of that nature. Within this antithesis the private property-owner is therefore the conservative side, the proletarian the destructive side. From the former arises the action of preserving the antithesis, from the latter the action of annihilating it’.

Marx then went on to explain that because we had to work for our money, it meant that we would have to give up our talents and pursue a menial job which we had no interest in, in order to survive and provide for and sustain the family. By doing this, we are alienating ourselves from our given talents, making sure that we do not follow the path that we are meant to in order to ensure our personal happiness, never allowing us as humans to fulfil our potential and making sure that we are locked into our designated roles within society for life.

Marx used this part of the argument to progress his reasoning behind the communist theory, arguing that in his world each would use their talents to create a utopian society, where each human could live their own life, free from designation, and contribute our own part to the harmony of society, uniting each of us instead of alienating humanity from each other. In that aspect Marx’s theory seems to make a lot of sense, with the stress of menial jobs with no satisfaction removed and people doing what they are good at, the world would function more normally and smoother. However, on the other hand how would this be possible, if the world was to function correctly we would need the order and stability provided by labour, governments and other governing bodies such as police etc…?

This is only one side of the alienation concept offered by Marx. The other half emphasised previous work on religion as an implement of alienation. Marx was born in the times of the influential philosopher Hegel. He became influenced by the teachings of Ludwig Feuerbach, a member of the sect known as Hegelians, a group who rejected the so called conservative implications of Hegel’s work. Feuerbach attempted to re-interpret the Hegel’s teachings of metaphysics, and by doing so managed to provide a critique of the religious and state doctrine. A large portion of the philosophical content of Marx’s works written in the early 1840s is a record of his struggle to define his own position in reaction to that of Hegel and Feuerbach and those of the other Young Hegelians.

However, Marx then began to make the distinction between himself and other radical thinkers within the sect, in particular Bruno Bauer. Bauer argued against the emancipation of the Jews, he believed that religion for both Jews and Christians was a barrier to emancipation. Marx counter argued with what is arguably one of his most enduring arguments of his early writings. He did this by providing a distinction between human emancipation, and political emancipation for example civil liberties. Marx also believed that political emancipation could be seen somewhat as a barrier, making it insufficient to bring about human emancipation. Civil liberties and justice are based that we each need protection from other humans. Therefore civil liberties are there to separate us, providing protection from those perceived threats; therefore freedom from this viewpoint is classed as freedom from interference. This missed one of the most important arguments of Marx however, that real human freedom is to be found in our positive relationships with others. Freedom will not be found in the isolation of ourselves, but in the formation of communities. So by therefore insisting on the formation of a regime of rights forces us to view each other in a way which prevents us from the possibility of true freedom which we might have the chance of receiving in human emancipation.

Marx never actually disputed political emancipation, as he believed that liberalism can help improve upon the system of discrimination and prejudice which existed in the days of his writings. Nevertheless, such politically emancipated liberalism must be transcended on the route to genuine human emancipation. Unfortunately, Marx never tells us what human emancipation is, although it is clear that it is closely related to the idea of non-alienated labour, discussed above.

It is with regards to a Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right that Marx made perhaps his most well known statement, namely religion is the ‘opiate of the people’; and Marx sets out his religious views in most detail than any other work of his. He also considered how revolution may be achieved in Germany, and set out the tasks of the proletariat in bringing about the whole societies emancipation. Marx fully accepted Feuerbach’s view which opposed the traditional theology, that human’s created Gods in their own images. Feuerbach believed that worshipping God’s distracted people from enjoying their own human powers. Here Marx criticizes Feuerbach on the grounds that he has failed to understand why people fall into religious alienation and so is unable to explain how it can be transcended. Marx here argued that religion was simply a response to alienation to materialistic life, and as such could not be removed until materialistic life had been also emancipated; at which point religious life would cease to exist, thus freeing us from the alienation which comes with it. A reason for this is suggested that human beings feel a need to assert their ‘communal essence’. Whether we recognise it or not, human beings exist within a community, and what makes human life possible is our mutual dependence on the considerable network of social and economic relations which take over us all, even though this is rarely acknowledged in our day-to-day life. Marx makes it clear that we must accept our communal existence within set institutions. At first, the existence is ‘deviously acknowledged’ by the notion of religion, which creates false communities in which we are all equal in God’s eyes. However, post- Reformation fragmenting of religion in which religion cannot even play the role of a fake community of equals, the state takes over and fills this need of community with a community of citizens, in which we are all equal in the eyes of the law. However, both the state and religion will be one day transcended, according to Marx, when a genuine community of economic and social equals is created, again bringing us back to the argument for Marx’s view of the communist society, freeing us from all forms of alienation.

It was the belief of Karl Marx that social class plays an integral role in society. It was his theory that social class is important to understanding capitalism and other social systems. He asserted that the history of all hitherto existing in society is the history of class struggles (Marx 1848).

Marx theorised social classes are defined by the relationship between capitalists and their workforce. For Marx economics is the driving force of modern society and social class. It is the view of Marx that in the past although society did have strata, such stratum was based on titles and occupation rather than purely economics.

The bourgeoisie and the proletariat are the main social classes that Marx purposes. The Bourgeoisie are the capitalists. They purchase and exploit the labour power. Marx notes that someone who merely owns capital cannot be sufficiently defined as a capitalist. It is the means of using capital as a means to exploit labour which characterises the capitalist.

The proletariat are the labour force. They work in order to earn income for themselves and their families in order to survive. Marx purposes that the existing relationship between bourgeoisie and the proletariat is an exploitive relationship which is based on inequality.

Weber’s definition of class is not unlike that given by Marx. Weber defines class as a category of people who, “have in common a specific causal component of their life chances in aˆ¦ this component is represented exclusively by economic interests in the possession of goods and opportunities for income, and it is represented under the conditions of the commodity or labor market.” Webber held a view close to Marx’s that class position does not necessarily lead to class-determined economic or political action. Weber argued that communal class action surface after “connections between the causes and the consequences of the ‘class situation’ ” become apparent. Marx however proposes it is when a class becomes conscious of its interests, that is, of its relation, as a class, to other classes.

In modern day Britain there is evidence that class inequality present in society. Wide disparities in health between the classes illustrate this fact. However it should be noted that inequalities in health based on class is not a new sociological occurrence. Chadwick took note of a disproportionate difference in life expectancy between the classes in 1842.

“Gentlemen and persons engaged in professions and their familiesaˆ¦45 years; tradesmen and their familiesaˆ¦26 years; Mechanics, servants and labourers, and their families aˆ¦ 16 years’

(Chadwick 1842).

Reports have been carried out that suggest an obvious link between social class and health. Such studies find that lower social class groups have a higher chance of illness and a sorter light expectancy.

“At the start of the 21st century, all European countries are faced with substantial inequalities in health within their populations. People with a lower level of education, a lower occupational class, or a lower level of income tend to die at a younger age, and tend to have a higher prevalence of most types of health problems.
(Mackenbach 2006)

The Acheson Report took a systematic review of research of health inequalities in the UK. The report found that overall the mortality rate for people aged 35 -64 years had fallen in the period studied; however there was an increased variation in mortality between the classes. The Acheson report also uncovered that within particular areas of the UK the inequalities in Health between the classes manifest its self greater. In Scotland for example, male life expectancy in the 10 percent most deprived areas is 13 years lower than in the 10 percent least deprived areas. Such difference between the classes is increasing; the life expectancy gap between the best and worst constituencies was 7.8 years in 1991. In 2001 this gap had risen to 13.7 year (Scottish Government 2007).

Mackenbach noted in mortality in patterns that:

Rates of mortality are consistently higher among those with a lower, than among those with a higher socio-economic position. Not only is the size of these inequalities often substantial, but inequalities in mortality have also increased in many European countries in the past decades.

(Mackenbach 2006)

It is proposed by Mackenbach that inequalities in mortality; start early in life and persist in to old age, affect both men and women but its influence is more prevalent in men and are found for most but not all specific causes of death.

The Acheson report presented that in terms of enduring illness has strong link to “socioeconomic differences”. It was reported that in 1996 the 45-64 years age group, 17 percent of professional men reported a limited long standing illness compared with 48 percent of unskilled men. The Acheson Reported that among women, 25 percent of professional women and 45 percent of unskilled women report long standing illnesses.

Mackenbach articulates that people with lower socio-economic positions not only live shorter lives nit also but spend a larger number of years in ill health.

Why does that pattern of health inequality exist in modern society? The influential Black Report 1980 examined five explanations of health inequalities. These five explanations are; the artefact explanation, the social explanation, social selection exploitation, the cultural explanation and the social deprivation explanation.

An artefact approach to understanding Health inequality suggests that such health disparities are statistical fiction. Critic’s debate what is the best way measuring such it is also argued by Bury (1997) suggests that comparing the bottom social class (V) is not longer effective as the number of people in this class has declined greatly.

The social selection theory argues that good or bad health determines class position rather than vice versa. For example, having a long term health issue may limit a person’s career opportunities. Critics counter this theory that although illness plays a role on life chances it not always the case that illness leads to downward social mobility. The explanation is also contrary to a Marxist thought. Marx would argue it is class that determines health.

A cultural explanation of health inequalities suggests that the social classes behave in different ways. The less well of social classes are more likely to have poorer health because of diet, smoking or alcohol consumption. Shilling (1993) proposes that different social classes view their bodies in different ways. Shilling asserts that the lower social classes tend to see the body in terms of what it enables them to do, for example for work and looking after children. According to Shilling health is not considered an issue until problems arise for the lower classes until the body cannot function normally. Higher social classes treat the body as an end in its self and have higher focus on preventing illness from occurring. Such an explanation for Health inequalities in contemporary Britain based on social class harmonises with the theories’ of Marx and Weber. The explanation the lower classes (the proletariat) regard their bodies as a machine used for means of work is compatible with the sociological assertions of Marx and Weber. Marx would say such a view of the body is a result of class struggle. The proletariat must view their body as machine for work. Marx submits that proletariat must work in order to survive. This is why for the lower class health only becomes an issue when they are unable to work because of illness.

Is also argues the material situation of a person and the conditions that they live and work in conditions which they work and live is an important factor in determining their health. Issues such as poverty, employments, housing and access to care are influential factors to be considered.

The Acheson report in order to address the issues involved adopted a socioeconomic model of health and inequalities, combining the above theories. The socioeconomic model however does go as far to address a connection between its different layers.

The Black Report reported a growth of health inequalities across Britain. These widening inequalities in health have been observed, in socio-economic terms. However findings demonstrated that overall health had improved since the creation of the welfare state.

Although the standard of health has increased in equilibrium with an improvement in standard in living it is conclusive that inequalities in health based on class still exist in Britain. Marx would note the improvement of living standards for proletariat but would note the of Bourgeoisie exploiting the work of the proletariat to create excess capital. It is conclusive from the findings of the Black Report and Acheson that need for Marx’s proletariat to work is what constructs their attitude towards health. In contemporary Britain there have been improvements made in health over all but class in equalities have not been reduced.