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The issues surrounding Race, Class and Gender in the United States have long been fraught with conflict. Rothenberg (2007) explores the themes surrounding the issues of race, class, and gender through a variety of secondary sources. The three themes that this paper will explore are (a) the formation and definition of differences, (b) historical accounts of race, class and gender, (c) and suggestions for moving beyond racism, sexism, and classism.

Formation and Definition of Differences

A primary theme in Rothenberg’s (2007) book is the formation and definition of differences. Sections I-IV constructs the basis on how society in the United States construct differences in the areas of race, class, and gender and helps the reader to think about the meaning of racism, classism and sexism (p. 3). Section I contains readings that investigates how White privilege was developed by the construction of racial differences among the European settlers, slaves and natives to create a division of labor. Also discussed was how there developed a greater distinction among Jewish immigrants and how they were grafted into the White majority and other immigrants after World War II. Section I-IV of Rothenberg’s (2007) book also discusses the construction of gender and how differences in gender have created differences in the division of labor, pay, and gender roles and stereotypes. A great part in the development of gender identity development is the heterosexual and homosexual question. Throughout these sections I was challenged on what it means to be a White female in American society. The way that society has formed the definition of differences among race, class and sex caused me to feel somewhat ashamed and saddened by the way differences plays a role in everyday life even when we don’t think that they do. The construction of these differences have so infiltrated American society that it permeates life in the workplace, in families, in how we interact with strangers on the street, and how we base opinions of what we think of others through what we watch, read, and even the music we listen to. Prior to reading these sections, I honestly thought that being a White female really didn’t matter in today’s society. However, after reading these sections I began to question if being white afforded me opportunities and privilege others are not afforded. Moving from a primarily “White” town in the North, to an extremely racially mixed Southern society opened my eyes to racial, class, and gender stereotypes that had been ingrained into my thinking. For the last ten years, I have attempted to diligently weed out these stereotypes and view each person as an individual regardless of race, class or sex. However, through reading these sections I realized that I as an individual and we as a nation have a long way to go. I attend a church whose main goal other than preaching the gospel is that of racial reconciliation for a city that has been fragmented since the formation of it. Honest and open dialogue among members of the church occurs weekly and as a result stereotypes are shattered and new relationships are allowed to develop. My goal in life is to be like the apostle Paul who stated, “I have become all things to all men so that by all possible means I might save some” (New International Version).

Historical Accounts of Race, Class and Gender

Another theme discussed in Rothenberg’s (2007) book is the historical accounts of race, class and gender. Section VII presents texts that “traces the legal status of people of color and women since the first Europeans came to this land” (p. 520). Through reading the various historical documents in this section, the reader is able to chronologically view the historical opinions and rights afforded minority groups through hundreds of years. Presented in section VII of Rothenberg’s (2007) book are the rights afforded to American Indians, negroes and slaves, women’s suffrage, Chinese American’s, the Dred Scott case, the emancipation of slaves, the Thirteenth through Fifteenth amendments to the United States constitution, equal rights for men and women, Brown vs. the Board of Education, Roe vs. Wade, and Lesbian and Gay rights. After reading through the various legal and historical documents I realized how slow progress has been in the United States dealing with issues of race, class and sex. Issues with race, class, and sex have continuously been a central theme in the historical and legal context of the United States. In recent years women’s rights and homosexual rights have been central themes that have caused much heated debate, especially as it relates to the rights of the family and of unborn children. Minority and immigration rights also continue to be in the forefront of Government policy as we deal with issues of Mexican immigration, the war on terror, and the religious diversity of this nation. Public schools also are on the forefront of the American psyche as many inner city schools that serve a predominantly African American population remain inferior to their suburban “white” counterparts. Another issue that will continuously be drawing political attention in the future is the rights of the elderly and infirm as Medical costs continue to increase. As I read through the historical documents presented in section VII of Rothenberg’s (2007) book I was struck by how these documents continue to affect us today. In Memphis for example, although through the Supreme Court decision made in the case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, the segregation of white and colored children was deemed unequal in the public schools system, today schools remain segregated to an extent. City schools remain predominately “black”. While those who can afford to move to the suburbs with their children do, or send them to private schools. There are optional school programs in the inner city that allow for a more advanced curriculum, however, these “optional” programs further segregate even the inner city schools. The optional programs are difficult to get into, receive information about, and require families to spend a large amount of time standing in line to “sign” their children up. For those children whose parents do not receive the information, do not have the means or ability to stand in line for long periods of time, or whose children have received an inferior education to begin with and therefore do not meet the academic requirements it is difficult if not impossible to get in. It is quiet policies like these that are a continuous reminder of what Government needs to do to combat racial prejudice and unequal treatment. Although Government can change amendments and employ government policy it is up to us to keep our eyes open and bring to light ways in which people try to skirt around policies to further perpetuate prejudice and unequal treatment.

Suggestions for Moving beyond Racism, Sexism, and Classism

The final section of Rothenberg’s (2007) book discusses ways for society to change in reference to issues dealing with race, class, and sex. I found this section to be very integral to the culmination of this book. After reading so many selections that made the reader feel as if racial reconciliation, class and sexual equality seem impossible, the selections discussed in the final section of Rothenberg’s (2007) book offered hope. As Rothenberg (2007) states, “Eliminating these forms of oppression will involve changes at the personal, social, political, and economic levels. It will require us to think differently about ourselves and others and see the world through new lenses and using new categories. We will have to learn to pay close attention to our attitudes and behavior and ask what values and what kinds of relationships are being created and maintained, both consciously and unconsciously, by them” (p. 699). The reading in this section that I found to be most beneficial in how to overcome racial, sexual, and classist oppression was the selection entitled “Interrupting the cycle of oppression: The role of allies as agents of change” (p. 724-729). In this selection Andrea Ayvazian discusses ways in which individuals in society can work to “dismantle any form of oppression from which she or he receives the benefit” (p. 724). As individuals continuously dismantle the systems of oppression from which they benefit as a dominant person within a category, they pave the way for others to do the same. This takes courage, insight, and planning and an extreme amount of tenacity. I realized through reading this selection that I am in a position to be a change agent and positive role model. As a white middle class female, I can combat issues in the areas of race, sex and class. I can be a social change agent. I am in a unique position to advocate for change being in an interracial marriage and have the ability to be a role model for my children and the next generation. I am uniquely positioned to understand and love my African American brothers and sisters as well as combat prejudicial attitudes of my White brothers and sisters. This selection gave me great courage to see the unique position that God has placed me in to be ally for many.

In conclusion, Rothenberg’s (2007) book, Race, Class, and Gender in the United States, presents the reader with systemic view regarding the issues of race, class and gender. Through the readings in this book, the author presents the reader with the materials to judge for themselves and formulate their own opinion on the issues race, class, and gender and how it affects them in contemporary society. These readings have opened my eyes to the systems of oppression that still remain and how I can be an agent of change to dismantle unfair and unequal treatment.

Quantitative data analysis has been an inevitable part of social science research. Like any other discipline, the theories are taught to students to give them an idea and generalisation of social facts and books, journals and other sources are used for the same. However, at times these sources are not adequate and research needs to be done in order to gain a deeper knowledge. That is when quantitative data analysis comes into picture.

There have been questions raised on the need to study quantitative data analysis with the emergence of importance of qualititative data (Bryman 1988a), but the former’s importance has waned little. It helps that a larger proportion of empirical research that is conducted draws upon quantitative data.

The research design for any research study undertaken includes the method that needs to be applied for the purpose of collecting and analysing data.

Data collection can be done two ways- primary collection and secondary analysis of data. When the researcher collects data on their own for the sole purpose of the research that they are conducting, they are making use of primary data collection. The procedures used in these collection best suits the research problem at hand. The secondary analysis of data involves collecting data for a different research purpose but that is reused for the present research question.

Primary and Secondary Data

As explained before, data collected for the specific problem, primary data involves addition of new data to the existing store of knowledge surrounding the research area. When this material is used by other researchers, then this becomes secondary. Hox and Boeije (2005) maintain that the primary data can be used for:

Description of contemporary and historical attribute,
Comparative research or replication of original research,
Reanalysis for the purpose of asking new questions which were not addressed originally,
Research design and methodological advancement and lastly for 5. Teaching and learning

Secondary analysis utilises the existing data, collected for the purposes of a prior study, in order to pursue a research interest which is distinct from that of the original work (Heaton 2002).

Secondary data analysis is usually made of quantitative data where the information is made of researched objects whose characteristics have been coded in variables that can have a range of values. In fact, secondary analysis of quantitative data is common but the practice is not the same when it comes to qualitative data (Hinds, Vogel and Clarke-Steffen 1997).

Strengths and Weaknesses

Social science researchers undertaking research have a choice of opting to go for primary data- information that they need to collect by themselves or for secondary- searching for data that relates to the research problem in hand. There are distinct pros and cons of going for both. In this section, we will discuss what advantages or disadvantages the researcher faces when using any of these data collection methods.

One of the important advantages of going the way of primary data collection is that making use of the theoretical constructs, research design and the data collection strategy can be built with the research question in mind. This will ensure that the research study is coherent and the data collected is distinctly relevant to the problem at hand.

A disadvantage lies in the fact that primary data collection can be quite time consuming and expensive affair and considering the limitations of certain research study in terms of time and budget, primary data collection might not be a viable option for many researchers.

Another aspect of primary data collection is in its error inducing nature. Sampling errors made by inefficient field workers can skew up the research.

Some of the prominent data collection methods in primary data are: experiments, surveys like interviews, mail and web surveys. In the case of the experiment, the researcher is able to have a control on who participates in the research and the research situation being under the researcher’s control means that there is strong control of design and procedure permitting causal interpretation of the results. Thus the ability to have some control may be a distinct advantage for primary data, however this can turn into a disadvantage too as one might say that the researcher’s control has made the research ‘artificial’. In an experimental laboratory, variables are easily manageable and there is no place for the ‘circumstantial issues’ that dominate in everyday life. While conducting surveys, the researcher is able to gather both subjective as well as objective characteristics of the population. If interview questions are carefully designed, evaluated and tested, surveys are a very method to obtain first-hand valid responses from respondents.

Effectively, this leads us to understanding of the advantage of secondary data analysis. Secondary data is far easier to collect and is less expensive and the access to relevant information is faster. The disadvantage lies in the fact that secondary data was collected originally for a different purpose and therefore might not be optimal for the research problem that is being considered.

Heaton points out another argument favouring the use of secondary data analysis stating that it can be used to generate new knowledge, new hypotheses supporting an existing theory and it also reduces the burden that is placed on respondents (for primary data collection) by removing the need to further recruit subjects thus allowing a wider use of data from rare and inaccessible respondents.

Not all social research problems can allow the usage of secondary analysis. It has been determined that it is more convenient for certain researchers, namely students and in some cases by researchers re-using their own data rather than by independent analysts. (Szabo and Strang 1997).

In their own right secondary data analysis is an effective tool in teaching as it helps in introducing students to a discipline and provides a supplement to the process of teaching (Sobal 1982).

But the cons behind using the same are numerous. The researcher will need to locate the source of data that is more relevant to the study and this can be time consuming as pointed out earlier. The researcher should also be able to retrieve the data, which at times can be difficult. Also, the data should be able to meet the quality requirements of the present research. Besides, the reliability of the secondary data is also a major function of the organisation that gathers, organises and publishes the data.

Another crippling factor that arises in the use of secondary analysis is that it differs from systematic reviews and the meta-analyses of qualitative studies that aim towards compiling and assessing the evidence relating to a common research concern or area of practice (Popay, Rogers and Williams 1998).

An issue that doesn’t come in forefront when discussing secondary analysis is the principle of ethics behind using it. In using sensitive data, the researcher cannot assume informed consent. A professional judgement needs to be made about the usage of the secondary data and whether that violates any contract between the researchers and the original researcher (Hinds, Vogel and Clarke-Steffen 1997).

Conclusion

In conclusion, one may say that there are several advantages and disadvantages of secondary data analysis to collection of one’s own primary data, and its usage is best suited to some research issues. But secondary data analysis is a valuable asset as they can act as a model for the collection of primary data. Suffice it to say that there might not be a need to choose between primary data and secondary data analysis at all, as the researcher can easily incorporate both in their research to gain a degree of balance between their strengths and weaknesses. What is most important is that both primary as well as secondary data should be accurate, reliable, appropriate, valid, precise and timely.

References:
Bryman, A. 1988), Quantity and Quality in Social Research, London: Routledge
Heaton, L; Secondary analysis of qualitative data, 2003, in R. Miller and J. Brewer (eds.) The A-Z of Social Research, Sage, pp 285-288
Hinds, P.S., Vogel, R.J., Clarke-Steffen, L. (1997) ‘The possibilities and pitfalls of doing a secondary analysis of a qualitative data set’, Qualitative Health Research, vol. 7(3): 408-24.
Hox, J.J. and Boeije, H.R. (2005). Data collection, primary versus secondary. in K. Kempf-Leonard (Ed.). Encyclopedia of Social Measurement, pp. 593-599
Popay, J., Rogers, A., Williams, G. (1998) ‘Rationale and standards for the systematic review of qualitative literature in health services research’, Qualitative Health Research, vol. 8 (3): pp. 329-40
Sobal, J. 1982, The Role of Secondary Data Analysis in Teaching the Social Sciences, Library Trends, vol. 30, n3, p479-88.
Szabo, V. and Strang, V.R. (1997) ‘Secondary analysis of qualitative data’, Advances in Nursing Science, vol. 20(2): 66-74.

Although sociologists have debated the purpose and function of educational institutions, most agree that access to educational opportunities has a profound effect on individual life chances and attainment. We’ll consider how specific education policies and practices -like school choice, curriculum differentiation, school finance, and school assignment – shape the range of educational opportunities afforded students. Because issues of equity have moved to the forefront of education policies during the past fifty years, we’ll discuss the consequences of these policies and practices for students from different social backgrounds – primary among these differences are differences by social class, race/ethnicity, and gender.

During the next three weeks we’ll consider different explanations for the existence of schools and mass education in modern societies. A central question is whether or not schools function to promote social mobility and economic well-being or whether or not schools function to reproduce social inequalities and secure valued resources for individuals from privileged social backgrounds.

An alternative, though not necessarily conflicting proposition, is that educational institutions promote social mobility, achievement, and economic growth in modern societies. The relationship between education and status attainment (e.g., earnings or occupational prestige) has often been provided as evidence that a country has an open and fluid society, one which provides individual opportunities for social advancement through the acquisition of technical skills and knowledge. This week we’ll examine the status attainment paradigm and some research that seeks to test it

many sociologists point to the fact that educational attainment is also related to an individual’s family background (i.e., one’s socioeconomic status). These sociologists see educational institutions not as promoting social equality but as promoting social inequalities.

Conflict theory sees the purpose of education as maintaining social inequality and preserving the power of those who dominate society. Conflict theorists examine the same functions of education as functionalists. Functionalists see education as a beneficial contribution to an ordered society; however, conflict theorists see the educational system as perpetuating the status quo by dulling the lower classes into being obedient workers.

Both functionalists and conflict theorists agree that the educational system practices sorting, but they disagree about how it enacts that sorting. Functionalists claim that schools sort based upon merit; conflict theorists argue that schools sort along distinct class and ethnic lines. According to conflict theorists, schools train those in the working classes to accept their position as a lower-class member of society. Conflict theorists call this role of education the “hidden curriculum.”

Marx

The political system, the legal system, the family, the press, the education system were all rooted, in the final analysis, to the class nature of society, which in turn was a reflection of the economic base. Marx maintained that the economic base or infrastructure generated or had built upon it a superstructure that kept it functioning. The education system, as part of the superstructure, therefore, was a reflection of the economic base and served to reproduce it. This did not mean that education and teaching was a sinister plot by the ruling class to ensure that it kept its privileges and its domination over the rest of the population. There were no conspirators hatching devious schemes. It simply meant that the institutions of society, like education, were reflections of the world created by human activity and that ideas arose from and reflected the material conditions and circumstances in which they were generated.

Durkheim

Durkheim on Education:

Believed that education served many functions:

1) To reinforce social solidarity

Pledging allegiance: makes individuals feel part of a group and therefore less likely to break rules.

2) To maintain social roles

School is a society in miniature: it has a similar hierarchy, rules, expectations to the “outside world,” and trains people to fulfill roles.

3) To maintain division of labor

School sorts students into skill groups, encouraging students to take up employment in fields best suited to their abilities.

Durkheim said that one of the ways to maintain the division of labor, schools should sort students into skill groups, encouraging students to take up employment in fields best suited to their abilities.

Emile Durkheim provided one of the initial explanations for the emergence of mass education in modern societies – nation building and social control. Durkheim believed that the role of educational institutions in modern societies was to replace, or at least supplement, the role that religious institutions and families played in traditional societies – namely, socializing young people into a common culture and the moral foundations of collective life. Subsequent sociologists expanded these ideas to examine the role of educational institutions in the development of nation-states and the transmission of cultural values and social roles.

dynamics of education revolve and are implicated in the unequal

distribution of resources in society, Marxian and Weberian theories)

Weber

Consequences of class position

Different consumption of social goods is the most visible consequence of class. In modern societies, it manifests as income inequality, though in subsistence societies it manifested as malnutrition and periodic starvation. Although class status is not a causal factor for income, there is consistent data that show those in higher classes have higher incomes than those in lower classes. This inequality still persists when controlling for occupation. The conditions at work vary greatly depending on class. Those in the upper-middle class and middle class enjoy greater freedoms in their occupations. They generally are more respected, enjoy more diversity, and are able to exhibit some authority. Those in lower classes tend to feel more alienated and have lower work satisfaction overall. The physical conditions of the workplace differ greatly between classes. While middle-class workers may “suffer alienating conditions” or “lack of job satisfaction”, blue-collar workers suffer alienating, often routine, work with obvious physical health hazards, injury, and even death.

In the more social sphere, class has direct consequences on lifestyle. Lifestyle includes tastes, preferences, and a general style of living. These lifestyles could quite possibly affect educational attainment, and therefore status attainment. Class lifestyle also affects how children are raised. For example, a working-class person is more likely to raise their child to be working class and middle-class children are more likely to be raised to be middle-class. This perpetuates the idea of class for future generations.

Max Weber agrees with the fundamental ideas of Marx about the economy causing class conflict, but claims that class conflict can also stem from prestige and power [6]. Weber argues that classes come from the different property locations. Different locations can largely affect one’s class by their education and the people they associate with [6]. He also states that prestige results in different status groupings. This prestige is based upon the social status of one’s parents. Prestige is an attributed value and many times cannot be changed. Weber states that power differences led to the formation of political parties [6]. Weber disagrees with Marx about the formation of classes. While Marx believes that groups are similar due to their economic status, Weber argues that classes are largely formed by social status [6]. Weber does not believe that communities are formed by economic standing, but by similar social prestige [6]. Weber does recognize that there is a relationship between social status, social prestige and classes [6].

The functionalist perspective suggests that everyone benefits from the functions carried out by the education system. Conflict theories such as the Marxist approach argue that this is not the case, rather education, is seen as the apparatus that legitimizes and reproduces society’s inequalities and divisions. The Marxist approach is relevant because it is interpreted as helping to legitimize class divisions because they promote the idea that the middle class receive education while the lower-classes/working receive training.

Emile Durkheim is known as functionalist, states that everything serves a function in society and his main concern to discover what that function was. On the other hand Karl Marx, a conflict theorist stresses that society is a complex system characterized by inequality and conflict that generate social change. Both Durkheim and Marx were concerned with the characteristics of groups and structures rather than with individuals.

The functionalist perspective in society is a view of society that focuses on the way various parts of society have functions, or possible effects that maintain the stability of the whole. Durkheim developed the idea of society as an integrated system of interrelated parts. He wanted to establish how the various parts of society contribute to the maintenance of the whole. He also focused on how various elements of social structure function to maintain social order and equilibrium. Durkheim stressed that culture is the product of a community and not of single individuals. He argued that the ultimate reality of human life is sociological and not psychological. The sociological reality, which Durkheim called the collective conscience, exists beyond the…

Conflict theories draw attention to power differentials, such as class conflict, and generally contrast historically dominant ideologies.

According to Conflict Theory, society is:

A struggle for dominance among competing social groups (classes, genders, races, religions, etc.). When conflict theorists look at society, they see the social domination of subordinate groups through the power, authority, and coercion of dominant groups. In the conflict view, the most powerful members of dominant groups create the rules for success and opportunity in society, often denying subordinate groups such success and opportunities; this ensures that the powerful continue to monopolize power, privilege, and authority. You should note that most conflict theorists oppose this sort of coercion and favor a more equal social order. Some support a complete socioeconomic revolution to socialism (Marx), while others are more reformist, or perhaps do not see all social inequalities stemming from the capitalist system (they believe we could solve racial, gender, and class inequality without turning to socialism). However, many conflict theorists focus on capitalism as the source of social inequalities.

The primary cause of social problems, according to the conflict perspective, is the exploitation and oppression of subordinate groups by dominants. Conflict theorists generally view oppression and inequality as wrong, whereas Structural-Functionalists may see it as necessary for the smooth running and integration of society. Structural-Functionalism and Conflict Theory therefore have different VALUE-ORIENTATIONS but can lead to similar insights about inequality (e.g., they both believe that stereotypes and discrimination benefit dominant groups, but conflict theorists say this should end and most structural-functionalists believe it makes perfect sense that subordinates should be discriminated against, since it serves positive social ends). Conflict theory sees social change as rapid, continuous, and inevitable as groups seek to replace each other in the social hierarchy.

– In contrast to Structural-Functionalists, who argue that the most talented individuals occupy the highest positions, conflict theorists argue that dominant groups monopolize positions of power, maintaining power from generation to generation and keeping subordinate groups out. Also in contrast to Structural-Functionalists, who argue that the most important positions in society are the best rewarded, conflict theorists argue that dominant groups get inordinate power to define which positions are socially rewarded. Highly-paid positions are not necessarily most important for society, they argue, but keep power in the hands of the privileged and powerful.

Education

McLeod’s “Ain’t No Makin’ It” is a good example of conflict theory as applied to education. He argues that teachers treat lower-class kids like less competent students, placing them in lower “tracks” because they have generally had fewer opportunities to develop language, critical thinking, and social skills prior to entering school than middle and upper class kids. When placed in lower tracks, lower-class kids are trained for blue-collar jobs by an emphasis on obedience and following rules rather than autonomy, higher-order thinking, and self-expression. They point out that while private schools are expensive and generally reserved for the upper classes, public schools, especially those that serve the poor, are underfunded, understaffed, and growing worse. Schools are also powerful agents of socialization that can be used as tools for one group to exert power over others – for example, by demanding that all students learn English, schools are ensuring that English-speakers dominate students from non-English speaking backgrounds. Many conflict theorists argue, however, that schools can do little to reduce inequality without broader changes in society (e.g. creating a broader base of high-paying jobs or equalizing disparities in the tax base of communities).

Every society has specialized individuals who fulfill certain positions that require extended education.

Functionalists take the view that society must be divided into separate groups, each of which performs a task that is necessary to the survival of society as a whole – the organic whole. Societies function well when people accept internally, either consciously or unconsciously, the need to contribute to the organic functioning of the whole of society. People agree voluntarily to submerge part of their individual identity in favour of the survival of all. They do this because they recognise that there is no simple alternative to society. They would accuse Marxists of “utopianism” – that is, dreaming up a “perfect”, but wholly unrealistic and unrealisable society based on a dream world. When people accept their role in society they develop a form of social conscience, which Durkheim labels the “conscience collective”. Functionalists tend to look to the sociologist Emile Durkheim as the founder of their point of view. This is not entirely true. Modern functionalists, like Talcott Parsons, seek to defend capitalism, but Durkheim’s vision of the organic society of the future was one in which there would be no inheritance of capital, so people would be assigned their functional role on the basis of merit alone. Modern capitalist societies are not meritocracies in this sense. Different individuals find different roles in society, but the opportunities of individuals are considerably affected by their class situation. Although Durkheim is not exactly a defender of capitalism, his functionalism, which tells us that every social grouping is a functional part of the whole of society, tends to favour a defence of capitalism. Capitalists see the educational system as fair, and as preparing individuals for their roles in adult society according to their abilities. Talcott Parsons sees the school classroom as a microcosm of society. It is a bridge between the family and wider society. In wider society status is achieved. Education socialises young people for adult roles. According to Talcott Parson’s Functionalism individuals interact with each other through the medium of social structures. They accept common standards of evaluation, which are moral standards or ‘norms’. Sociological processes maintain these structures, and ensure stability through adherence to the norms. This is called a ‘structuralist-functionalist’ approach to social systems analysis. Parsons analyses the functions of society into: 1. Adaptation – the provision of physical necessities – the economic system; 2. Goal attainment – the establishment of the goals of society as a whole – the political system; 3. Pattern maintenance and tension management – serves to motivate individuals and resolve conflicts – kinship, family & marriage; 4. Integration – socialisation of individuals to accept the norms and control them if they don’t – schools, churches, media, police and judicial system. Therefore, Parsons sees education as serving a part in the function of integration. Through education individuals are socialised to conform. Education also supports the economic “imperative” of society by: 1. Inculcating certain technical skills and requirements; 2. Separating out potential workers for different points of entry to the labour market. Regarding the integration “imperative” schooling specifically causes children to internalise social values and norms at a level which the family alone cannot achieve. In America elementary school education teaches American youth the value of fair competition. “It includes, above all, recognition that it is fair to give differential rewards for different levels of achievement, so long as there has been fair access to opportunity..” Functionalists maintain that there is a high degree of equality of opportunity within the education system Functionalism stresses the link between education and the economy. A malfunctioning educational system would be one in which individuals are not assigned the most appropriate role, and will hence lead to inefficiency. This could be taken as an argument against elitism in education and in favour of a comprehensive system. Davies and Moore follow Parsons claiming that “Education is the proving ground for ability and hence the selective agency for placing people in different statuses according to their capacities.” Thus modern functionalists tend to assume that the education system is a meritocracy. Functionalists believe that the demands of industrial society for a skilled workforce are met by the educational system. In criticism of functionalism: 1.Functionalism does not appear to offer a satisfactory account of conflict within educational systems. The goals and purposes of education are not generally agreed by professionals and employees within it. 2. It fails to deal adequately with the content of the curriculum and teacher-pupil interaction in the classroom. 3. It treats individuals as if they were the “puppets” of society. “Nothing more than the product of the societal norms and values which they internalise through their experiences of socialisation in the home, school, workplace etc.” 4. Functionalists, especially of the Talcott Parsons type, tend to idealise existing society and ignore facts that a critical of their own views. Seeking to argue that society is a meritocracy based on equality of opportunity, functionalists tend to be wilfully blind to the very real differences of educational experience between members of different classes. They seek to paint a rosy picture in which the functions of individuals in society are all assigned to them by the educational system, rather than by class.

Education is an important aspect of the work of society and it will raise the countryside issues and promote knowledge and understanding of rural communities. One of the education essential tasks is to enable people to understand themselves. Students must be equipped with knowledge and skills which are needed to participate effectively as member of society and contribute towards the development of shared values and common identity. Education has a vital role to play in assisting students to understand their cultural identity. Education acts as the distribution mechanism of the cultural values such as it more layered the society and participate in society that carries the culture.

Education and society provides a forum where teachers and scholars all over the world are able to evaluate problems in education and society from a balanced and comparative social and economic perspective. Education is an important aspect of the work of society and it will raise the countryside issues and promote knowledge and understanding of rural communities. One of the education essential tasks is to enable people to understand themselves. Students must be equipped with knowledge and skills which are needed to participate effectively as member of society and contribute towards the development of shared values and common identity.

Education has a vital role to play in assisting students to understand their cultural identity. Education acts as the distribution mechanism of the cultural values such as it more layered the society and participate in society that carries the culture. In our culture today, there is a great emphasis on higher education. In a society, more educated you are, better off you are. Every society has specialized individuals that require extended education to fulfill certain main positions. These persons are normally known as professors, priests, doctors, mechanics or artists. Education has been a higher part of every culture on earth and education is a systemic project. Whole society should care for and support the education patriotism, cause and socialism among the young people.

Everyone must do work hard to cultivate moral conduct. Education mainly begins at home; one does not acquire knowledge from a teacher, one can learn and get knowledge from a parent or a family member. In almost all societies, receiving education and attending school is very necessary is one wants to achieve success. Education is the key to move in the world, seek better jobs and ultimately succeed in life. Schools play a vital role in preparing our children and young people for effective participation and responsible citizenship in society. The development of education and educational opportunities is built on creativity tempered by knowledge and wisdom gain through the experience of learning.

Investment in human capital, life long learning and quality education help in the development of society. Teachers are the most important factors for an innovative society because teachers’ knowledge and skills not only enhance the quality and efficiency of education, but also improve the prerequisites of research and innovation. Many members of our society are not provided with a safe and secure environment in which children can develop, child abuse, violence against women and interpersonal violence cause a cancer on our society. Society play a key role in the realization of life long learning. The improvement of social education facilities such as libraries and the learning opportunities are implemented by the local governments. Students today are exposed to loads of technology and information at everywhere.

London is the capital of England and is one of the largest cities of the world as well of the United Kingdom. The city has a huge population of 8,174,100, making it the most populous municipality in the European Union. All these people have to move in order to lead their life and a huge number of the population take the private transport for travelling. Although there are many people who travel on their private vehicles, an appreciable number of people take the public transport. London being one of the most modern cities of the world also offers many options to its citizens for travelling. There are underground train services, London Buses, Tram link, the Docklands Light Railway, over ground, air transports and other options. A report suggests that annually in London, there are a staggering 2 billion of bus journeys, 1 billion of underground journeys and 800 million journeys on National Rail networks.

Body

All the people of London travel in the public transports throughout the day. People travel, go to their work, students go to schools by these public transports. A survey was made on the public transport in London by taking opinions from the people of London. The survey was done with people of different ages. The people were asked different questions and their answers were studied. The question asked comprised of two types. One category had one word answers and the other had elaborate options. However, all the questions were multiple choice questions. We gathered a clear idea about the public transport in London from the survey.

The first ten questions were one word answers. The survey takers just ticked on any one of the option between yes and no. We found different opinions from different people. People’s responses also differed with their ages and economic capacities. The first ten questions are given in the table below, along with their answers. The answers are given in percentage after making a calculation from the responses and opinions of the people.

Serial

Question

Answer in Percentage

01

Do you travel in Public transport?

60%

02

Do you have a private transport?

50%

03

Are you a regular traveller?

50%

04

Do you have any income?

70%

05

Do you go to work by public transport?

90%

06

Is Public Transports of London comfortable?

60%

07

Is it cheaper than private transports?

100%

08

Do you find the Public Transports crowd?

80%

09

Do other members of your family travel in public transports?

60%

10

Are you happy with the Public Transports of London?

70%

Table No. 01

The outcome of the survey helps to draw a picture of the Public transport of London. The study shows that more than half of the people of London avail public transport. Here we see the figure stands 60%. In addition to that it is seen that a good number of people do not have a private vehicle. Now, the next question asked to the survey takers was if they were regular travellers. 50% of them agreed that they were regular passengers. It meant that they were regular customers and that they depended of public transport.

People travel and make journeys for various purposes. The study shows that most of the people went to work in public transport. So, public transport is a very essential medium for going to the work place. It is at the same time a very prominent option for the employees. However, one thing cannot be denied at all. During rush hours and even at some other time of the day, there are huge crowd in these transports. This problem does not happen at all time but mostly during rush hours. The problem is not because there is less number of vehicles but that there are more people at the same time. The scenery is common while people start for office and then again when they return. For this reason 80% of the people said that public transports were filled with crowd.

The survey went to details about the topic and about the feeling of the people. The questions were done for the other family members of the people. The individuals were asked if other members of their families used public transports as a mean of travelling. A good number of 60% of the people informed that other members of their family also travelled on these transports. This means that the families that use public transport use the maximum use of it. The last question that was asked to the survey takers was their feeling about the transport systems. It was asked if they were happy with the public transport of London. A total of 70 percent of the people said they were happy with the situation. This conveys a very positive feeling about the Public Transport of London. It also depicts that the communication system of the city is very good, developed and advanced. At the same time it is also very public friendly.

The second phase of the survey was the open questions. After getting a picture of the public transport of London the purpose was to go deeper. A total of 5 open questions were asked to get a more elaborate picture. The questions were asked to know about the different types of public transports that the people used.

The first of the open question was about the age of the people. The people were asked to disclose their age so that it could be calculated that which age of people took he public transport more.

The chart below shows the age wise transporters.

Chart No. 01

The chart clearly shows that the most of the people taking public transports are from the age of 15-30. The next group of people who take this transport are the people of aging between 30 and 45 years. Almost no people aging below 15 take the public transport and there are a few people aging 45 to 60 years old take the transports. People aging above 60 do use public transport but they are very few. It means the children are not independent, they depend on their parents. So, they normally do not travel on public transports. The do not usually travel much. If they even do, they are accompanied by their parents. The old people do less travelling, so their percent is also low. The people, who are young aging between 15 to 45 years, are the ones who take the public transport most. It is because they go to work, attain classes, and do all other travelling by the public transports.

The next question that was asked to the people was their occupation. It was really needed to know which class or group of people used the public transport most. The chart below reflects the travelling of different people.

Chart No. 02

The chart clearly shows which category of the people takes the public transport most. It shows that the working people use the maximum utilization. Next are the students and then are the people looking for work. People go to their work places with the public transports. The students also take this for going to their educational institutions. People who are looking for work are also taking the help of the public transport. The later questions elaborate why these people use this means.

The third question that was asked to the people was that which public transports they found more comfortable.

London is a city of many dwellers and there are also many options of public transports. The city firstly like all others have public buses. The city has a long and connected underground rail line. It is one of the oldest in the world but much advanced. The railway changed and advanced to the highest extends with the introduction of all the modern technologies. Normal trains are also available added with trumps. The chart below shows the percentage of the different public transports taken by the people.

Chart No. 03

The chart clearly shows that most of the people of London take the underground. That means the underground rail transport holds the maximum passengers. It alone carries about 50 percent of the public. The next are the buses and then the trump. The airways is least taken by the people. Air is not so popular because it is expensive.

The next question was asked which public transport was lower in cost. The options were the same. The chart below shows the result.

Chart No. 04

The data shows that the underground train is the cheapest. That is one of the reasons why people take this transport. The percentage is 70 percent. The figure next to it is the bus which is about 25 percent.

The last question that was asked to the people was that which transport saved more time. The chart shows the situation below.

Chart No. 05

The answer to the question that which transport saves time is different from all the others. Although very few of the people took the air lines, most of them agreed that airn transport saved the time most. The percent was 70%. The reason again why it was not 100% is because of the distance. Shorter distance could easily be travelled by train and then by buses.

Conclusion

All the data and the discussions above show a clear picture of the transport system of London. It shows that most of the people of London do take the Public Transport. The study finds that the underground railway dominates among the public transports. London has a very well organized public transport and it is also very advanced in technology. The people living in London are also comfortable with their Public Transport.

Poverty in the Caribbean has been an irritating issue for as long as I can remember. It is an issue that has caused many governments in the Caribbean and world-wide, grief and even resulted in their loss at the polls or demise. In truth it is a very hard issue to overcome or rectify due to its magnitude of causes both internal and external to the particular country. To obtain an understanding of the “psychology of poverty” and its cause and effect “in the Caribbean”; one has to examine the following.

Psychology, what is it? Simply put (according to the book “UNDERSTANDING Psychology”, 1992, pg.7, 9.) it “is the study of human behaviour and mental processes. It covers every thing that people think, feel and do, and further seeks to describe, explain, predict and control behaviour.”

Poverty; according to the “The Concise Oxford Dictionary’ means indigence, want, scarcity, inferiority and poorness. However, I prefer to agree with Professor Bourne’s opinion stated in his paper entitled “Poverty and its Alleviation in the Caribbean 2005”; in that poverty is not just defined as those individuals who live off less than one dollar per day ($1.00/day)(as described as the Millennium Development Goal for poverty reduction’s target 2000). But that it is a “pronounced deprivation in wellbeing” “that is to be in poverty or to be poor is to be hungry, lack shelter, clothing, to be sick and lack health care to be illiterate and not schooled and further relating to the work to Amartya Sen, that states that, the state of being poor extends beyond income levels, but is also affected by ‘unfreedoms’ which individuals are subjected to in terms of tyranny or bad treatment by the state and exclusion from participating in decisions and also being vulnerable to economic and natural hazards”

POVERTY IN THE CARIBBEAN

When one looks at the islands of the Caribbean, in terms of their governmental and economic structure, levels of education, health care and income levels; they are all different. With this in mind the term ‘poor’ might fit into different categories. Countries such as the Bahamas and the U S Virgin Island with their close affiliation to the U.S. and its ‘almighty dollar’ might have a higher standard of living and ‘poor’ in their country might mean middle class in another. To further emphasize their differences; I quote from Professor Bourne’s paper (according to the Surveys of Living Conditions conducted between 1996 and 2002), that “countries such as Haiti and Suriname whose poverty line was 65% and 63% were on the high end of the poverty spectrum, while Belize, Dominica and St Kitts were between 30-40% and Anguilla, St Lucia, Trinidad and Tobago and Turks and Caicos Island were between 20-29%, while Barbados had 14% and Jamaica had 20%;” concluding that at that point in time Barbados had the lowest poverty level in the Caribbean.

CAUSES OF POVERTY

In discussing this issue, due to my being Jamaican by birth and living here all my life; (with few exceptions of travel) and my familiarity with the intricacies of the country and the discovery that there are varied levels of poverty or being poor that exist in this little island . I have chosen to use Jamaica as my example and direct most of my discussion using this island; for I believe that Jamaica is indeed the melting pot of the Caribbean. If one looks widely one will be able to find a native of every Caribbean island living here; just look at our Psychology class! In this class of 21 students, we have Nigerians, (Africa) Guyanese, (South America) and Jamaicans. Quite a mixture indeed!

The causes of poverty in my opinion are varied and I would like to start with that of:

Slavery, (defined as the condition of a slave, which further means to be a helpless victim to or of some dominating influence; according to “The Oxford Concise Dictionary”) is still very operative in our Jamaican society and that of the Caribbean today. Although we boast of having one of the greatest Reggae singers of all time; we have still not fully understood the meaning of Bob Marley’s song which states “EMANCIPATE YOUR SELF FROM MENTAL SLAVERY” In my opinion we as a Caribbean people although we have been made free for a number of years and in Jamaica it has been from 1838; over one hundred and seventy one years ago. Although physically we have been freed, we still possess a type of mentality that causes us to want ‘hand-outs’, and the need to be ‘taken care of’ still exist.(just like when the slaves were on the plantation and looked to their slave masters for their total existence). The word independence or the need to be independent has still not been cemented in our minds; in order to create a change in behaviour that causes us to obtain a sense of determination that says that ‘I will obtain or achieve any thing I put my mind, heart and abilities to.( in respect to the elements of time and opportunities’)

Unemployment and low income levels. I must agree with professor Bourne in his paper mentioned above that the governments of the Caribbean including Jamaica; have not been able to create an adequate amount of jobs for its people; as he states that unemployment is “between 7 and 20%” which is relatively high . Incidentally in Jamaica this has given rise to the hustler mentality. One has but to go to Down-Town Kingston, especially on a market day, that is on a Saturday and sees the amount of individuals who hustle for a living day by day. Hustling ranges from the buying and selling of legitimate goods, to dealing in drugs such as ganja, to that of the gambling of the now famous ‘cash-pot’ which believe it or not puts food on many a table daily. As for low income levels, for example, one has but to look at the difference in pay of Registered Nurses in Barbados whose basic pay is approximately $77,0000 per month compared to the same category of nurses in Jamaica who earn $48,000 per month. This difference one might agree would affect the individual’s ability to save for ‘a rainy day’, or to make investments, to maintain an acceptable standard of living or to even further one’s self academically. Also the inequality of pay scales within a given country can affect its peoples’ poverty levels. Take for instance in Jamaica at this time of world wide financial depression when Nurses and other workers are negotiating for a better pay scale and who are just able to scoop out a meager existence from their meager salaries only to be informed of individuals earning $1.9 million per month for negotiating services. Look at the gross difference!

Volatility of our economy and susceptibility to Natural disasters. I must concur with professor Bourne, when he states that “the Caribbean economy is volatile and this volatility is a contributory factor to poverty”. He further sates that “economic volatility arises from several sources, all of which are not necessarily operative at the same time. The sources include economic dislocation caused by major adverse changes in international markets for Caribbean exports of goods and services”. One has only to look at the issue of the decline in the export our bananas where the European and U.S. markets have now started to import ‘Chiquita’ bananas instead of bananas from the Caribbean. This has impacted negatively on our economies (especially Dominica) in terms of job losses and loss of investments by the governing bodies of these countries involved. Professor Bourne also states that we are also affected by the “acute fiscal difficulties arising from changes in flows of foreign and international debt”. In Jamaica one has only to remember the harsh demands that the International Monetary Fund made on us in the past such as gross job cuts and can only pray that the new intended demands may not be as harsh. (One can only Hope!) As for Natural Disasters, we are quite susceptible in that we are at the mercy of hurricanes and floods. I remember Gilbert as if it was yesterday; when the roof of my house was lost. If it were not for the quick actions of the government of the day in issuing free zinc of which I was a grateful recipient. I would have remained ‘roof-less’ until December of that year when the Insurance representative got around to evaluating the damages and ended up issuing a third of the estimated cost of repairs because he thought that it wasn’t that great a damage! To think, I had Insurance! What about those who could not afford insurance because their low income levels? To further examine these hazards’ effects, just look at what hurricane ‘Ivan’ did to Grenada; Ivan practically flattened Grenada in a few hours and destroyed infrastructures that took years to develop. It literally changed Grenada’s means of existence for long time.

Lack of proper Health Care and Educational facilities. “Poor” people in the Caribbean may be working but might still remain poor. This causes them to be unable to access proper heath care which might result in a rise in chronic diseases such as diabetes and hypertension and even psychotic illnesses such as depression. In Jamaica there is now free health care, but just how effective it has been is another matter. Take for instance my aunt of 82 years, she has a cataract in her eye and needs for it to be repaired surgically. She went to the Kingston Public Hospital to in October 2009, of this year where she got an appointment to return in December, 2009; where another appointment will be given for her to return some time in 2010! I could not believe it when I was told. Can you imagine, by the time December comes, much less 2010 my aunt may be home with the Almighty God! (dead) As for the ability of poor to access education; it can be taxing, with the ever rising cost of school fees, books and uniforms the low income earners and even those of middle income can just barely get by. In Jamaica there is the PATH programme which is of some help to the poor in that it assists with school fees, uniforms etc.; thus taking off some of the financial strain from the parents.

EFFECTS OF PROVERTY

Based on the definition given above that states that being poor or living poverty does not only rely on low income or the lack there of , but also on the lack of proper health care ,proper infrastructure( such as roads, water), educational facilities, tyranny etc. In my opinion, when one looks at the lack or unavailability of these facets in the rural communities of the islands of the Caribbean, one realizes that people who think that the urban communities are a better place will want to migrate to these areas. This can be seen in my country Jamaica where the Government offices, best hospitals and schools are located in the two main urban cities that is Kingston and Montego Bay. This migration often result in over-crowding, further leading to a rise in ‘squatter settlements’ which leads to an increase of tin the spread of disease; thus putting a further strain on the health care system. This type of migration not only happens with in a country, but can also be seen when the Haitians defy dead at sea to come to Jamaica seeking ‘a better life’; thus putting further strain of the Jamaican economy. Although it’s not the only reason for the rise in crime and drug abuse this is still a contributing factor, as can be seen in the rise in the crime rate in these two cities. There is also a brain drain from the rural areas to the urban areas of a particular country and even between countries of the Caribbean and to countries such as the U.S. and Europe in order to obtain a better income, thus enhancing or providing for a perceived improved way of life. This results in the loss of valuable resources that in my opinion is not easily replaced, and if it is replaced costs these countries practically an ‘arm and a leg’ to do so.

One can also examine the effects of the lack of availability of proper health care; and in this case especially to the elderly, who either have very low income gained from their meager pensions or none at all. This makes them vulnerable and easier to succumb to diseases. For the remainder of the population, ill health (mental and physical) often results in low production levels and decreases the internal drive or motivation to succeed, thus increasing the levels of poverty.

The negative effects of international markets on the economies of the Caribbean can be devastating. As was mentioned above; as in Jamaica our dollar is linked strongly to that of the U.S. and if the U.S. dollar falls , our dollar falls; resulting in tremendous losses on the stock market among other investment entities, further resulting in loss of jobs and the demise of companies especially the small businesses. Also if these international countries ‘taste’ change as was also mentioned above, in terms of the bananas they consume; then there goes the banana industries in a down-ward spiral in these countries also.

The inability of our countries to protect ourselves from natural disasters results in a negative effect in that these disasters often destroy agriculture, (which is the main stay of most of these Caribbean islands) infrastructure,(roads, water mains, gullies, electricity) government buildings and private homes. They indeed destroy what it has taken years of hard work, sacrifice, and determination to build. This puts a strain on economies emotionally, physically, and financially to rebuild every time such an occurrence takes place.

ALLEVIATION OF PROVERTY

I believe that in the Caribbean, in the same way that each island is unique in nature, so do the individual people and governments of each island have to identify unique ways in solving this problem of poverty. As seen in the report on the “Cost of Poverty in the Caribbean” by The International Institute for Social Political and Economic Change(IISPEC) and co-sponsored by UNESCO. (March 17-19, 2008). Grenada whose poverty level was 32% in 1998 has implemented Safety Net Programme – allocation of funds, and established Food Basket programmes, and St. Lucia has implemented a Poverty Reduction Fund. I also agree with their list of initiative programmes that have been mentioned, such as. Focus on education & training

– Provide scholarships to encourage more research, Make CDB/CTCS more national in focus

De-politicization of poverty reduction/eradication programmes, Needs national consensus

However I will endeavor to add a few other suggestions to both Jamaica and other islands of the Caribbean, Focus on education & training, Provide scholarships to encourage more research

– Make Caribbean Development Banks a national focus, De-politicization of poverty reduction/eradication programmes, i.e. to take political agendas out of programmes designed to assist the poor and the need for a national census in order to find out the people’s opinion on the matters brought forward to solve the problem of poverty.

In Jamaica, at this time the governing bodies have implemented the Path Programme, which assists needy (poor) people in a financial way to be able to send their children to school to obtain an education, by way of cash payments.

There is also the provision of ‘free’ health care. In my opinion it is a good thought but I do not think that it can be properly maintained especially in this time of financial depression. If one will take the time to examine the following scenario, one might agree with me on point. Take a healthy young man who doesn’t feel that he should work because he’s comfortable ‘hustling’ probably via ‘cash-pot’. He gets a girl pregnant and she gets totally free health care to have this child; the child goes home, grows , starts going to school and gets on the Path programme, where society sends this child to school free of cost. One could argue that this is a way of reducing the levels of both maternal and infant deaths by providing free health care; or that by assisting the child to go to school might reduce the probability that this child being uneducated might be a part of our crime problem in the future. Baring all this in mind I might agree; but I still contend that this might help to promote ‘a freeness mentality’ that is so prevalent in our society; which we need to stomp out of our society, in order for us to improve our way of thinking and thus lift ourselves from poverty. To think even in the large industrial countries health care is not totally free, some one must pay for it! I prefer that my hard earn tax dollars be used to pay for free health care to be available to the elderly, the very young (12 years and under), the destitute, and the mentally and physically challenged; the most vulnerable in our society.

I think safety nets can be put in place where a disaster fund is implemented to provide for hurricane and flood victims. Also in terms of providing employment I think the provisions of entities such as the HEART ACADEMY and ‘free primary education’ are a GOD sent to poor people. However I think that the provision of more scholarships should be made to assist with further tertiary education.

In terms of enhancing employment I think that the apprenticeship programme should be reimplementation where one can learn while they work and earn. We could also try to re-educate our people in terms of self reliance, to think that the soil is good in order to attract an increased interest in agriculture and along with this to allocate lands to these individuals in order for them to grow and produce more thus providing more jobs.

SUMMARY

I conclude that the Caribbean (including Jamaica) has a difficult task in ridding our region of poverty, but not insurmountable! I think that this matter has to be solved with each member state coming together as one. Take for instances at this time, if one looks at our super market shelves, one can see snacks originating from Trinidad and Tobago. But when Jamaica tried to export our ‘patties’ to them it was barred. Although the states of the Caribbean have decided to be apart of the Caribbean Common Market, some states have not held up to their end the agreement.

This results in discontent among member states and ultimately the loss of jobs and the increase in poverty due to their inability to allow free trade in the area.

The states in the Caribbean need to realize that individually, compared to the international arena are small and relatively insignificant. But joining together and being one in mind set, we could be a force to be reckoned with. As a people we need to assist each other in terms of the transference of education, science and technology in order to boost each other’s economies. Thus providing an improved way of thinking and reasoning which will result in a motivated, determined move by the people of this region to rid ourselves of poverty. If not, then to a level that permits an acceptable standard of living.

As the cliche states “together we stand, divided we fall” we as people of the Caribbean need to learn and understand this. To allow this statement to change their mind set from one of individuality and selfishness to one of togetherness and fruitfulness which will ultimately raise the standard of life for our people and in time reduce the levels of poverty in order to maintain an acceptable standard of living; free from hungry tyranny and illness. What do you think? This is just a wish or fantasy! I should hope not. As I choose to think that it can be a reality IF WE WORK HARD AND KEEP FOCUSED!

How does harassment have a psychological effect on homosexuals?

Homosexuality has been an issue for people around the world seemingly since the beginning of time. It is a lifestyle that has been debated, unaccepted and stereotyped.But in recent years, society has welcomed more and more homosexuals into its loving arms under the umbrella of civil liberties. It is become increasingly acceptable to be homosexual in society today.1 Investigation made by the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force Policy Institute including some surveys, found that there was a high percentage of discrimination against homosexual people. The investigation also stated that homosexual people have reported discrimination in public restaurants, medical facilities, insurance, and also education.2 Due to the investigation results the civil rights bills have introduced into the process that will give particular rights of nondiscrimination based on sexual orientation. Now a day as the adult homosexual community increases day by day, there is also an increasing number of homosexual youth in the present day. Results shown by the 1996 National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health found that in over 12,000 teenagers, ages between the 13 and 18, six percent reported same-sex attraction.3 So how does harassment influence a young homosexual psychologically? In order to answer the previous question, we must first deal with issues concerning homosexual discrimination while evaluating facts on the harassment and discrimination that homosexual teenagers have been exposed to and the psychological outcome that this has had on them. Also we must define what sexual orientation is, and study information of how many people in America are homosexual. We must then use the biological perspective to explain the origin of homosexuality. Over the past two decades data supports that there has been discrimination among the homosexual teenagers and that they are regularly being harassed by other people. The different types of harassment that the homosexual people undergo on a daily basis are presented later on in order to discuss the suffering and psychological problems. Along with the explanation of the different types of harassment, studies made present results that suggest that the victims of the harassment had some type of psychological problem. In this paper we are going to examine the impact of the harassment in homosexual people, the explanation on how psychologists view homosexual trauma, including suicide, and the best ways to get rid of discrimination against homosexual students in school are going to be examined.

2. Sexual Orientation:

Sexual orientation is the direction of ones sexual interest toward members of the same (homosexual orientation), opposite (heterosexual orientation), or both sexes (bisexual orientation).4 Homosexual people tend to remind themselves that they were the same as heterosexuals when they were younger, and that it wasnt until during or after they became adults that the majority of them become aware of their homosexual orientation. Most of them didnt announce themselves as homosexuals until they were in their twenties. At the beginning of the twenty-first century the press believed that ten percent of the American population was homosexual, but in 2002, the Gallup survey revealed that an estimated 21 percent of American men are gay and that 22 percent of American women are lesbians.5 Even though knowing the number of homosexuals will not change the civil rights issues, health experts consider that knowing sexual statistics would be very helpful.

3. The Psychology behind Homosexuality:

In general, a variety of biological and behavioral traits of homosexual people are different from those of heterosexual people. There are biological associations of sexual orientations found among brain differences, genetic influences, and prenatal hormonal influences. Now a day investigations propose that sexual orientation is, at least, somehow biological. The British-American neuroscientist, Simon LeVay, discovered while studying dead homosexual and heterosexual people, that some sections of the hypothalamus have a connection with homosexual identity. He established out that hypothalamus cell clusters are larger in straight men than in women and gay men. He also stated that the brain does change with sexual orientation, which is completely supported by the theory that establishes that everything that is psychological is also biological.5

LeVay doesnt see the brain as a sexual orientation organ, but, as an essential part of the neural trail connected in sexual behavior. Later on he confirmed his theory as he discovered a parallel difference between the six and ten percent of sheep that presented homosexual orientation, and the ninety or more percent that presented heterosexual orientation. A discovery made by Laura Allen and Roger Gorski, supported LeVays theory, as it established that the corpus callosum or tough body (located in the brain) is one-third larger in homosexual men than in heterosexuals or females. Through this discovery it has been stated, Homosexual men are more likely to have female-typical neuroanatomy than heterosexual men.5

Another factor that may influence sexual orientation is genetics. Investigations were made in sets of twin homosexual brothers, and the results stated that between identical twins, 52 percent shared the brothers orientation, and 22 percent among fraternal twin brothers. So as a result it was concluded that genetics wasnt the only factor that causes homosexual orientation, but that it is a factor that influences.5

An additional theory that has been stated on why twin brothers share similar sexual orientation is that they share the same prenatal environment. Usually in animals and in some human cases, irregular prenatal hormone conditions have been recognized to alter sexual orientation. Throughout the important period after the middle of the second month and up to the fifth month after formation, the structure of the brain’s neural-hormonal control system have led scientists to structure a hypothesis that states that homosexuals were exposed to unusual prenatal hormones. It has also been proved that contact to the hormone levels inclines the fetus to be attracted to men later in life. Analyses also reveal that homosexual men have spatial abilities more like those of typical heterosexual women. In the case of lesbians it has been shown that they tend to have a more male-typical anatomy. It has been revealed that the hearing system of lesbians build up in a transitional way between those of heterosexual people, due to the fact that there has been some influence from prenatal hormones.5

Dahir Mubarak wrote a magazine article in The Advocate (The U.S. based national gay and lesbian newsmagazine) entitled, Why Are We Gay? which explores whether being gay is influenced by genetics, environment, or biology. He states that, for years, the gay and lesbian political organization has been stating that homosexual orientation is inherited and permanent.6 This has in fact won some few followers to the gay and lesbian civil rights group. The article states, Americans who believe sexual orientation is either genetic or biological are much more likely to support gay and lesbian civil rights than those who believe it is determined primarily by environmental influences.6 Scientists consider that approximately 70 percent of them are influenced genetically to have a homosexual orientation, even though they also think that three percent can influence their sexual operation. Scientists today suppose that homosexual orientation is influenced by genetics, environment, and has biological tendency. Their researches and answers may permit the public to put an end to harassment and discrimination for sexual orientation, if they demonstrate that sexual orientation cannot be manipulated and that it is not only influenced by the environment.

4. The Harassment of Homosexuals:

On a daily basis lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people are victims of harassment and violence, for the most part at school. The controversial expressions hate crimes or bias-motivated crimes are frequently used to explain the psychological violence with lesbians, gays, bisexuals, and transgender teenagers must deal. These hate crimes were defined by the U.S congress in 1992, as, when a perpetrator targets a victim because of his or her perceived membership in a certainsocial group, usually defined byracial group, religion, sexual orientation, disability, class, ethnicity, nationality, age, gender, gender identity, social status, or political affiliation.7 In the last decade, the punishment for these hate crimes have develop into much harsher punishments, even though it is more probable to refuse a criminal with a death penalty for murder that is associated with hate.

A study was accomplished by Gregory M. Herek, Ph. D, and two of his colleagues, in order to assess the mental health of hate crimes between the years of 1993 and 1996. This investigation was performed on 2300 gays, lesbians and bisexuals. The experiment included more or less an equal number of men and women within an average age of 34 years. The participants were provided a questionnaire about their personal experiences with crime, their attitudes, and beliefs on a diversity of topics, their community participation, and their psychological well being. The researchers found out that hate crimes had more psychological effects than other type of crimes. They researchers also noticed higher levels of pain shown by the gays and lesbians that had survived hate crimes, depression, stress or anger, than those who had survived crimes that were not linked to sexual orientation.8 The researchers accept as true that delicate suffering was caused by the involvement of personal hazard and vulnerability with their identity. Along with causing more suffering, the duration of the suffering caused by hate crimes was discovered to last longer than the suffering caused by crimes that had nothing to do with sexual orientation. Among these discoveries there was the prevalence of hate crimes against homosexuals; the reports of these crimes to any kind of authority were rather fewer than other type of crimes, but the majority of all this type of harassment is not the only kind to which this population is exposed.8

Harassment refers to the broad spectrum of offensive behavior. Behaviors that harassment refers to are found to be menacing or alarming, and further than those that are sanctioned by society. The Journal of Adolescent Health has published a study in order to examine the connection between intolerance at school and mental health risks, by using representative information and comparing lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) teenagers with heterosexual teenagers. The data was taken from the 1995 Youth Risk Behavior Survey, given in Massachusetts and Vermont; it included 9188 students, which included 315 students who recognized themselves as either homosexual or bisexual. The studys conclusion stated, The findings supplied evidence that differences in health risks among LGB teenagers are mediated by intolerance in school. Such discrimination of LGB teenagers are associated with health risk behaviors.9 In societies that support free speech, only monotonous, constant and dishonest types of speech are sanctioned legally as harassment. To comprehend, we must make clear the different types of harassment that are important to todays teenagers. The different types of harassment include bullying, gang stalking, psychological harassment, racial harassment, religious harassment, sexual harassment, stalking, and street harassment.

Verbal harassment is the most commonly reported type of harassment, because it contains no boundaries. It is just defined as something that makes a person believe as if he is in menace or that an announcement was taken abusively by the victim. The gay, lesbian, and straight education network (GLSEN) measured the anti-gay harassment found in schools and discovered that 61.1 percent of gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender students reported being verbally harassed.10 The Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology published an article that reviews the verbal and physical abuse of homosexual teenagers. The article states, This answer to gay, lesbian, and bisexual adolescents by significant others in their environment is frequently associated with quite a few challenging outcomes, including school-related problems, runaways, conflict with the law, substance abuse, prostitution, and suicide. Although the causal relationship between these stressors and outcomes has not been scientifically established, there is suggestive evidence that these outcomes are consequences of verbal and physical harassment.11

Bullying is one of the many types of harassment that usually takes place on the playground, in the classroom at school, or in the workplace. Typically physical and psychological harassing behavior is carried out against a certain person. Psychological harassment is degrading or offensive behavior that lowers a persons self-esteem or causes him or her a torture. This type of harassment is primarily seen in the form of verbal comments, actions, or gestures. Also psychological harassment can be expressed in the method of writing, such as on restroom walls in school. Sometimes another type of harassment appears which is the stalking, activity in which an unauthorized following and observing of an individual is done, to an extent that the persons privacy is inappropriately interrupted, and in most cases the victim fears for his own wellbeing.

In March of 2005, UCLA researchers reported the first study that examined everyday school harassment, which was conducted on the 192 sixth grade students. 47 percent of them reported being bullied at least once during the development of the study, while 46 percent said that they had been bullied at least once. This study is in some way helpful because it addresses the psychological problems that these students were left with after being harassed. Juvonen, Mark and Graham Schuster wrote, Students who reported getting picked on also reported increased embarrassment and fury, while students who saw a classmate picked on reported increased concern and disliked school more.12 Adrienne Nishina, Jana Juvonen, and UCLA developmental psychology graduate student Melissa Witwok recently published in the Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, Middle school students who are bullied in school are likely to feel depressed, lonely and miserable, which in turn makes them more susceptible to further bullying incidents”12 Because they are different from their school mates, the bullying that homosexual students are subjected to, is considered out of the normal. Homophobia is one of the main reasons the teenagers are often harassed, and homophobia starts early and is often influenced by the adult figures in the childs life. The Institute of Education conducted interviews in 1987, with teachers at schools, and it concluded that 82 percent of teachers are conscious of homophobic bullying, although the school still lacks the attempt to deal with these issues. Homophobic bullying and harassment has been estimated to be the reason of one in five homosexuals attempt to commit suicide or harm themselves. Bullying and harassment are types of disturbance and, therefore, may lead to cause damage to ones health. The warning signs that the victims usually present are the ones that are identified as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. Aggression and harassment frequently cause the PTSD to be more difficult. Complex PTSD is often untreated because the sufferers of PTSD tend to find it difficult to find any kind of treatment or knowledge of treatment, and, if untreated, PTSD symptoms can last for a lifetime. In homosexual teens today, this seems to be one of the most important issues, because harassment leading up to PTSD, which it commonly does, in most cases prevents people from achieving their goals.13

Sexual harassment is also common among teenagers in educational facilities. In the year 2001, the American Association of University Women conducted an investigation on students in grades 8 to 11, and discovered that 4 out of 5 boys and girls reported some sort of sexual harassment.14 The GLSEN found in a study conducted in 2001 that 46.5 percent reported being sexual harassed. Although the percentage is rather bit smaller, the homosexual community is especially small compared to the total population in the world, and some students may have feared to testify the incidents of being sexually harassed.

Over the past year, a national survey was conducted by the Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network (GLSEN) and administered to the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender (LGBT) teenagers; and found out that, more than four-fifths of the LGBT teenagers have experienced verbal harassment, and that 42 percent have experienced some kind of sexual harassment. In 1997, an Iowa study found that on an every day average, high school students will hear 25 anti-gay comments. These types of harassment can rise up to physical attacks and even rape. During a five year study finished by the Safe Schools Coalition of Washington State, the researchers documented and stated that there were 111 incidents of anti-gay violence in 73 different schools. This violence included eight gang rapes with students from sixth to eleventh grade. Sexual harassment in America is considered a form of criminal prejudice and it is a form of mental violence. Many victims of psychological harassment go through physical disorders, irritability, anxiety, nervousness, insomnia, stress, fatigue, depressive states, bum outs, and in some cases, suicide.

5. Suicide, a Result from Harassment:

Gay and lesbian teenagers have increased rates of assault, suicide, substance abuse, and homelessness; these events are a reflection of what homophobic attitudes express by others or may be internalized feelings of self-hatred. Adolescents who have by now decide that they are gay or lesbian can happen to be depressed or act out, and commonly become absent or even run away from home, or they may get to express negative feelings towards the family members. Now a day homosexual teens need assistance managing the effects of the persistent attacks by social institutions on their self-esteem and hopes for a successful career.15

Suicide, although not always the result of sexual harassment, is fatal. Suicide is the act of a human being intentionally causing his or her owndeath16 It seems for a lot of people that gay and lesbian teenagers are in danger of committing suicide because of the sexual harassment throughout their lives. Several state and national studies have revealed that, among homosexual teenagers, there are more thoughts and actual suicide attempts than among heterosexual teenagers. Most of the time psychologists consider suicide as a way to call the attention of people. They also believe that reasons for suicide are not only external but also internal, meaning there is a chemical imbalance. They have not found any relations of suicide of homosexuals due to internal problems. This is important because it strongly suggests that sexual harassment is the major cause of suicide of homosexuals with internal problems. Statistics for homosexual suicide have fluctuated between 30 percent to less than 1 percent. Peter LaBarbera, in an article titled The Gay Youth Suicide Myth, uses statistics provided by Dr. David Shaffer, one of Americas authorities on suicides throughout todays teens.

LaBarbera quotes Dr. Shaffer by saying,

“… by broadening the definition, we therefore ran the risk of overdetermining the number of gay suicides. In spite of this, out of 107 male teen suicides, only three were known to have talked to others about a homosexual experience (2.7%) and two of these three died together in a suicide pact. A further four showed some behavior that could have been indicative of homosexuality. None of the female suicides were thought to have been lesbian. If all of the teenagers who showed any evidence of homosexual behavior were indeed gay, then a total of 6% of the suicides in our study would have been gay. Once again, there is no evidence that a large proportion of suicides are gay, but [6% is] more or less [what] we would expect in the general population”17

In Oklahoma suicide, is the second most common cause of death in people among the ages of 13 and 25, including both sexes and all races. In the year 2003, according to the National Center of Injury Prevention and Control, 76 young adults in Oklahoma committed suicide. Out of that, five were homosexuals. Oklahomas statistics were considered because it is believed to be an enthusiastic and conservative state, considering it was one of the 11 states in November 2004 approving [the] constitutional amendments codifying marriage as an exclusively heterosexual institution.” Additionally, the state defined it as a misconduct crime to issue a marriage license to a same sex couple.18 Throughout the United States, there were 4620 suicides in the year 2003, and the homosexual community accounted for 277 for all those deaths. Taking into consideration the population of the United States, 277 does not seem like a lot of people, but considering that the homosexual community only makes up 1percent or 2 percent of the whole country, it is quite a few. Suicide rates are significant to examine at in this case, even though it is difficult to do so because sexual orientation is not listed on ones death certificate.

6. Conclusion:

In conclusion, harassment does have an effect on a homosexual individual by making him either feel stressed, afraid of being open with his sexual orientation, or even suicidal. There are all diverse types of harassment that face up to homosexuals, but all result in psychological violence against the individual, and it is essential to note that the reason that homosexuals have psychological difficulties is not because of their homosexuality, but rather than, from the harassment to which they are exposed. One of the psychological results from homosexual harassment is PTSD, which weakens the victim from the pressure of a traumatic occurrence; bullying and sexual harassment can cause this also. The most crucial result from homosexual harassment is suicide. The suicidal teenagers feel that the pressure of the attacks is too challenging and that they cant live with the weight of being homosexual.

Suicide is the result of all types of harassment, including verbal, physical, and sexual harassment, which is the reason that discussing homosexual harassment is so important.

The reason that homosexuals are treated differently is because people are not well-informed about homosexuality. The National Association of School Psychologists recognizes that children who question their sexual orientation are at a greater risk of harmful situations, such as suicide, physical and verbal harassment, and physical violence. These risks usually take place for the child at school, and in their study the NASP concluded that 28% of the students missed at least one day of school as a result of feeling unsafe because they questioned their sexuality. Their suggestions for creating a safe school for sexual minority teenagers include establishing and enforcing non-discrimination policies that apply to all students, educating students and staff, intervening when a student is harassing or being harassed, along with giving that student support. In order for the homosexual youth to feel secure at school, these students need to be incorporated in the non-discrimination policy that most schools have. The students and staff then need to be involved because of all the consequences that may follow the harassment of a homosexual student or peer. The education of students and staff about sexual minority teenagers should include a meticulous in service training on all diversities of human beings, as well as including pertinent research of the risks experienced by homosexual youth. Consequences should be applied to the perpetrators, but psychotherapy should be offered to both the victim and the perpetrator.

A social relationship is an interaction of two or people, also a social group. They are believed to shape the behavior of individuals in different ways, as the saying goes, ‘show me your friends and I tell you your character’. At some point most people especially the women and also research shows that social relationships reduce pain. When women are in a relationship they are happy because they have someone to lean on. Social support is seen as a very important factor for both physical and mental health. Stressful and painful experiences can be reduced through engaging in social relationships as one will get moral support and encouragement thus is able to face the problems easily. Building social relationships begins as early as at birth. That is the relation of the child with the mother and the other family members. The process does not stop there but goes to the society as one grows up and becomes able to decide where he or she wants to belong.

In the past building social relationships was much easier because most of the properties were communally owned that is to say that they shared a lot and thus interaction was easy and regular. Newman (2009) observes that the 21st century time is challenging and strange when it comes to deciding the kind of relationships one should have in creating a foundation of ones social life. People may want to be in social relationships due to different reason. For example may be one want to benefit from the other and after getting what he or she wanted it comes to a time to withdraw. All the same it is important to note that building social relationships is very necessary to every individual.

When building social relationships one must have the social interaction skills. These are behavior that help one be able to stick to the social relationship because they keep you out of trouble and avoid conflicts. According to Bellini (2006) social skills are behavior that are learned and are socially accepted that help a person to be able to interact with other people without negative responses. He also notes that these skills the building blocks of a successful social relationships. This skills are usually taught by the parent to there children at a tender age. All the same as one grows into an adult basically the very skills are still applicable in building social relationship.

Another thing that comes along in building social relationships is the art of being friendly to all. Every day we meet different people with different personalities. It is therefore up to us to be able to fit and interact freely. We should have friendly skills like greeting people when we meet, be able to offer a sit to someone, shake hands, say words like thank you, am sorry, excuse me, please and many other ways that is friendly. Be able to treat people the same way you would want them to treat you. As the saying goes: “put yourself in one’s shoes”. In this way one is able to interact freely without many difficulties thus building social relationships.

The factor of age or we can also say peer group also is important in building social relationships. This will help connectivity to be much easier because people of the same age tend to think more alike. Meersman and Tari (2003) observe that communication between people of the same peer group is easy and they refer this to architecture of communication. Here what they simply mean is that the construction of communication in such a social group is well defined. These categories of people include; the children, teenagers, young adults, adults and the old. Social relationships are based in this age set and you find they all act in the same manor.

In the various societies that exit today we have social institutions and community organizations that play a major role in building social relationships. The family is usually seen as the most important social institution in the society because this is where one builds the foundation of his or her social life. We have other institutions like; religious institution for example the church, temple, and mosque. The school, hospital, peer groups, community based organizations, and not forgetting the working places. These are places where people from different back grounds meet and get to know each other thus interact. It is therefore important for people to always belong to one or as many as possible of any this groups.

We build social relationships to understand the knowledge of the mind. This helps us to continually monitor or check our own behavior and also be able to predict the behavior of those that we interact with. Bellini (2006) notes that the theory of the mind was coined by Permack and Woodruff (1978).this refers to the ability of one to understand and explain the things that are not seen I a person directly. These include feelings, thoughts, beliefs, desire, and intentions. He continues to say that knowledge of the mind is a successful component of building social relationships.

In building social relationship the element of trust is necessary. Once an individual decides to get involved with a particular social group it automatically means that he or she trusts the people they are interacting with and they too trust them. This is so because when one gets a problem for example, it will need someone trust worthy to talk to. One who will keep your talk confidential. These kinds of people are the people we interact with daily and we have had enough time together so we are so familiar with them.

Language is an aspect that is of value in that people look at in building social relationships. People can only interact well when a common language is used. This enhances good communication and understanding in the group. Gee (2005) also sees language as an important aspect in social relationships. He further notes that in the interaction process people need to use the same social language. Different social groups have different social language. For example, children, adolescents, adults and the old all have different social languages that they use.

In building social relationships people also base in there social values. These social values include things like sex, beliefs, roles, and even structures. Depending on these values different social groups are formed. One would want to fit in a group that he or she will feel comfortable and proud to be there. It will help them to be constructive and optimistic. These values also help shape there daily life to there own interest thus happy people.

Social relationships are also built basing on the family origin, unconscious motives, one’s habits, personality, and relationships and life experiences. For the sake of a social relation lasting there is need to match this concepts to each person. This will ensure stability of the group by avoiding constant movement of members in search of a group where they best fit or that they find suitable to them.

Change is inevitable in life and we as human beings should be able to adapt to the daily changes of life. When building social relationships people are expected to witness a lot of change in the social group. It can either be the members or that group itself changes. When this happens it is up to the social group to accept and adjust to the change rather than moving to another new social group. It does not have to be the same through out and that is why the members of a particular social group have to be always flexible.

According to Young (1990) the social life of morality is not found in an individual person because it is comprised of a small structure of the self. He instead say that social morality is found in the relationship between individuals and the society. Here is where things like belief, trust and faith are found. It is also believe to shape human behavior so as to know good and evil. One will stay away from evil so as to belong to the society.

Transparency is an important element in building social relationships. Because there is the element of trust people should be open in with they are doing in life. The issue of ‘you cannot judge a book by its cover’ should not arise. Openness should be evident. Let the people know you as you are both in the inner self and outside and this should be the same. Activities of the group should also be carried out in a transparent manner as well, without having anything to hide.

The need for human relation is also the reason for building social relationships. Every human being was created in such a way that they always have a sense of wanting to relate in any way. They a want to belong in a particular group or with other people apart from the self. These relations are a basic to every individual in life.

The importance / advantages

The study of Newnan (2009) shows that building social relationships plays an important role in group ties in people’s daily life. He gives an example of Japan and India where people consider duty and sacrifice more than individual achievement or personal success. they believe that group connections is the best foundation for any individual wellbeing because it come along with things like loyalty, connection with people , responsibility of one self and other people as well and it also creates a sense of belonging.

Building social relationships bring come with a lot of changes in the society. These changes include both individual development and the community at large. Rosenberg and Rehr (1983) say that the involvement of one in institutions like self help groups, social work, church, school and being close to your family helps reduce conflicts and they bring about development. This is through coming together to do social work or fund raising contributions and even come together to advocate for changes in health care policies. Through this development the people are assured of a better living.

Building social relationships also promote peace love harmony and unity in the society. This is true because people living together and there social life is well build up will not have conflicts. They appreciate each other and offer moral support to one another. Such a society will always it together as one and solve issues that may arise in a more organize way.

Building social relationships is important in everyone’s life. This is because in times of depression and stress one always needs someone to talk to and relieve the burden. This now where the people you have been interacting with come in to offer that moral support. Just as we know that this an important factor both in physical and mental health of a person. Frumkin, Frank, & Jackson (2004) note that social bond known to be a very important component of good health. They further state that isolation and loneliness are toxic while on the other hand social relationships are healthy.

The 21st centaury has come along with diseases that are complicated. Some of these diseases include, stomach ulcers depression and many others. These diseases are not diseases that one can say that you go to the hospital and get treatment then you are cured. Doctors recommend that these diseases are controlled by the individual. The way one interacts with other people really matters. To avoid these kinds of diseases researchers indicate that one should build up as many social relationships as possible. This helps one to be able to avoid these diseases by sharing out there problems. As we know that a problem shared is a problem half solved.

Building social relationships also help people get to know each other well and lead to marriages. People get to find there perfect pairs and choose to spend the rest of there life with them. This leads to the creation of happy marriages and also happy families. Getting a life time partner is not an easy task as we all know but as one builds his or her social relationship in a good way, there potentials are noticed and they attract someone thus they propose and marry. Making them live happily ever after.

Building social relationships help a person to have good problem solving abilities. It also helps one to think in a more flexible manor. This is basically important in the early stages of life and the parents have the task of ensuring that there children’s social life is good. The kind of games that a child plays and with who becomes the main issue that a parent should look at with keenness. This kind of interaction is what the child will live to adopt even as he grows older.

People with stronger social network live longer. Research show that the mortality rate is determined by the social network of people in a place. This is true as social net work improves the health status of an individual. That togetherness gives an individual a reason for living. Research also indicate that in looking at two different sets of people, That is one in a marriage life and one who is single, they found that people in marriage live longer than people who are single. This is because in a marriage there is sharing of problems and also constant moral support.

All human beings emotions are believed to be able to change another person’s motives and feelings. In the process of building social relationships important factors such as this arises. Emotions are inter-personal and con not therefore be separated from the process of relating. These relationships change the feelings of a person in a positive direction. Bad people change and become good people with moral. The society is always there to encourage people to do good for the benefit of both the society and most importantly to the individual as a person.

Building social relationships also come with some form of organization. The relationship it self shows that there was cooperation that triggered it. When we look at it in terms of a society we find that things are done in a systematic way. There is order of the way issues are handled and a systematic way of doing thing. These in the long run avoid conflicts and the wastage of resources in the social group.

Employment is created by building a social relation ships. This is mostly through net working or it can as well be through the formation of self help groups or social work. Employment means that one has a source of earning a living thus assured of daily bread. This promotes the living standards of an individual as well as the society at large. It reduces the problem of unemployment in the society.

Building social relationships also reduce the aspects of immorality, theft, murder and all other devices that one can think of. This is true because social relationships in a society are meant to shape the morals of every individual. People become responsible for their own actions in life

In conclusion therefore we can say that building social relationships is an inevitable process in the life of every person. This is so because it begins from birth. When a child is born that is when it begins to build its social relationship. At this point it is limited to the family level mostly influenced by the mother. This is the foundation and parents are careful. As one grow he or she now able to look at which social relation group he best fits. This as we have seen shape the personality of the individual into a better being. Going to social institutions such as the school, church and others also ply a major role in the individual. Social relationships cannot be avoided in whatever way and people should always be ready to be involved in them with a positive attitude.

The researcher has used both types of methods qualitative and quantitative research. Quantitative approach will be used to gather and investigate numeric data to represent the various facts available. In this research qualitative approach seems more flexible and realistic. Hence the belief is that qualitative approach can satisfy the aforementioned objectives.

SOURCE OF DATA: The researcher has primarily referred to secondary sources. The secondary literature will constitute newspapers, books, journals and internet materials to discuss the above mentioned issues

INTRODUCTION
Untouchability Today: A Background

Untouchability today outlines the context in which untouchability is practiced in the current scenario. India emerges as the world’s largest democracy and fastest growing economy yet the practice of untouchability remains in stark contrast to the image of progress that the Indian government seeks to promote to the international community. The issue of untouchability is one of the most divisive issues in the country’s history and a lived experience of all people in India, including the Dalits who number over 164 million, and non-Dalit perpetrators and witnesses. Despite growing domestic and international concern, Constitutional prohibition, and a legal enforcement regime as well as international human rights protections, the daily life of many Dalits stills remain unchanged till date.

Untouchability is an ancient form of discrimination based upon caste which is a complex and pervasive problem in India, although its practice is not limited to India alone. For millennia, the practice of untouchability has marginalized, terrorized, and relegated a sector of Indian society to a life marked by violence, humiliation, and indignity. The discrimination is so pervasive that many Dalits come to believe that they are responsible for their own suffering and exclusion. Thus believing it to be there faith and in turn perpetuate the practice of untouchability. Like a shameful secret, a “hidden apartheid,” untouchability remains an extremely sensitive issue in India. Its practice is never fully defined, never fully explored and, thus, never fully understood. Thus this research paper is an attempt to understand the problems and issues underlining the practice of untouchability in the Indian context

What is untouchability?

Untouchability is a direct product of the caste system. It is not merely the inability to touch a human being of a certain caste or sub-caste. It is an attitude on the part of a whole group of people that relates to a deeper psychological process of thought and belief, invisible to the naked eye, translated into various physical acts and behaviours, norms and practices. [1]

Untouchability is the product of casteism and the belief in purity of so called upper castes. It is generally taken for granted that Dalits are considered polluted people at the lowest end of the caste order. All the menial tasks were to done by the low caste, like removing human waste (known as “manual scavenging”), dragging away and skinning animal carcasses, tanning leather, making and fixing shoes. They are supposed to reside outside the village so that their physical presence does not pollute the “real” village. They are restricted in terms of space and their houses were to be of inferior quality and devoid of any facilities like water and electricity.

Identifying Conditions and Practices Associated with Untouchability

1) Water for drinking,

2) Food and beverage,

3) Religion,

4) Touch,

5) Access to public facilities and institutions,

6) Caste-based occupations,

7) Prohibitions and social sanctions

8) Private sector discrimination.

Untouchability is present in nearly every sphere of life and practiced in an infinite number of forms. At the village level Dalits are barred from using wells used by non-Dalits, forbidden from going to the barber shop and entering temples, while at the level of job recruitment and employment Dalits are systematically paid less, ordered to do the most menial work, and rarely promoted. Even at school, Dalit children may be asked to clean toilets and to eat separately. [2]

As an instrument of casteism, Untouchability also serves to instill caste status to Dalit children from the moment they are born. For e.g. some of the names given to Dalit boys in Gujarat are Kachro (filth), Melo (dirty), Dhudiyo (dusty), Gandy (mad), Ghelo (stupid), Punjo (waste).This is deliberately done so that a child becomes conscious of his caste or sub-caste identity. The person treated as untouchable submits himself or herself to untouchability practices because of a generational belief that it is right, justified, religious and natural. Untouchability in this sense is directly related to the caste system, and the only way to get rid of it is to get rid of the caste system itself.

Who are Dalits?

The word “Dalit” comes from the Sanskrit root dal- and means “broken, ground-down, downtrodden, or oppressed.” Those previously known as Untouchables, Depressed Classes, and Harijans are today increasingly adopting the term “Dalit” as a name for themselves. “Dalit” refers to one’s caste rather than class; it applies to members of those menial castes which have born the stigma of “untouchability” because of the extreme impurity and pollution connected with their traditional occupations. Dalits are ‘outcastes’ falling outside the traditional four-fold caste system consisting of the hereditary Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra classes; they are considered impure and polluting and are therefore physically and socially excluded and isolated from the rest of society.

Dalits represent a community of 170 million in India, constituting 17% of the population. One out of every six Indians is Dalit, yet due to their caste identity Dalits regularly face discrimination and violence which prevent them from enjoying the basic human rights and dignity promised to all citizens of India. Caste-based social organization extends beyond India, finding corollaries in Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh, as well as other countries outside of South Asia. More than 260 million people worldwide suffer from this “hidden apartheid” of segregation, exclusion, and discrimination.

Provisions for the safeguard of Dalits:

Article 17of the Indian constitution declares untouchability is abolished and its practice in any form is forbidden. The enforcement of any disability arising out of untouchability shall be an offence punishable in accordance with law.

The Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 punishes the preaching and practice of Untouchability.

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989 criminalizes certain acts against members of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes such as traffic in human beings, ‘begar (free labor)’ and forced labor in any form.

Problem of Untouchability in India

When the constitution of India outlawed untouchability in 1950 many national leaders believed that a centuries old practice had been brought to an end. But now nearly 60 years later there is no total success of the statutory measure. Millions of Dalits across the country who account for roughly 1/5th of the population continue to suffer birth-based discrimination and humiliation. In states like Tamil Nadu which boasts a long history of reformist movements is no exception. In fact untouchability has not only survived the constitutional ban but taken new avatars in many parts of the state. Caste-based discrimination has often led to violence, leaving hundreds of the disadvantaged people in distress particularly in the 1990s.

The Segregation of Dalits is seen almost everywhere in Tamil Nadu’s villages. But nothing can perhaps beat the high wall 500 meters long that has been built at Uthapuram in Madurai district as a barrier between Dalits and caste Hindus.

While untouchability is still rampant and is taking new forms particularly in villages, the constitutional ban and compulsions of modernity and development have to some extent blunted its rigor. Rail transport has been unifying forces in society. Yet the Railways have been among the worst offenders in respect of the law against manual scavenging.Dalits constitute a significant portion of its workforce of manual scavengers along railway lines.

Although all state governments claim that they have abolished manual scavenging reports reveal that this practice is very much alive in many places. Postmen have also been found to practice untouchability.A study conducted in Tamil Nadu noted that in two villages in Madurai district postmen did not deliver postal articles to Dalit addressees.Dalits were required to collect the articles at the post office. There are also road transport related violations of the law against untouchability.Among them is the unwritten rule that gives caste Hindus priority over Dalits in boarding buses in many areas, buses not stopping in Dalit areas, transport employees picking quarrels with Dalit passengers without provocation and Dalits not being allowed to use bus shelters. State government still follows a traditional procedure of making announcements in villages by beating a drum and for that they deploy Dalits.

Worse still are the roles of schools and teachers in perpetuating untouchability and sowing the seeds of caste-related discrimination in young minds. The Dalit children are often discouraged by teachers and fellow students belonging to caste Hindu social groups. In many schools Dalit pupils were not allowed to share water with caste Hindus. To punish an erring or naughty Dalit boy teachers scold him by calling him by his caste name. If the teacher decides that the boy needed a beating as punishment the task was assigned to another Dalit boy. There is also systematic refusal of admission to Dalits in certain schools particularly at the plus two levels.

In some villages during the temple festivals Dalits are supposed to stay hidden from caste Hindus. The two-tumbler system under which Dalits and non-Dalits are served tea in different vessels is still prevalent in some teashops. In some eateries they are compelled to sit on the floor.

Caste and Untouchability

The caste system has been mainly criticized for its treatment of outcastes or untouchables. This group has been termed the panchama (the fifthvarna), collectively designating all who fall outside the regular four classes.

The notion of untouchability may have been present in the original varna system, though it is not clear precisely how it operated. Puranic texts mention untouchables, stating that they should be well-supported, but intimate connection with them avoided. They also state that those who fell from their status within the higher “twice-born” varnas were called dvija-bandhu (friends of the twice-born) and were accommodated within the shudraclass. In actual practice, some who abandoned key rituals or moral standards were altogether ostracised. Additionally, jobs deemed to be particularly contaminating were held only by outcastes. These include sweepers, leather workers ,and crematorium attendants. They were not allowed to live within the confines of regular village life, nor to share public facilities such as wells and temples.

Organised opposition to rigid caste practices began with the medieval bhakti movements. Some of them rejected both caste and its precursor, varnashrama-dharma. Others considered the original varnashrama-dharma to be the genuine system, though it usually took second place to a revitalised spiritual egalitarianism. Some contemporary bhakti traditions continue to initiate non-caste brahmanasfrom amongst communities normally considered untouchable. This liberal practice has met opposition, particularly from caste-consciousbrahmanas.

Gandhi called the outcastes Harijans – the children of God – and wanted to accommodate them within the fourth varna. Ranji Ambedkar, another important reformer, was a member of the untouchable caste who succeeded in attaining a scholarship to study law. He later disagreed with Gandhi over the future status of untouchables, and advocated instead a classless society. He was one of the main architects of the new Indian constitution of 1950, which outlawed untouchability and gave equal status to all citizens. In practice many rigid caste values continue, and former outcastes have organized themselves as Dalits (the oppressed), fighting for social and economic equality. The struggle continues today, and though “positive discrimination” is securing the outcastes equal opportunities, some claim that it is now displacing those who are actually more qualified.

Caste consciousness still continues, and is much debated amongst Hindu scholars and activists. Some advocate the mitigation of social injustice through the complete abolition of social divisions. Others attempt to redefine the ancient varnashrama-dharma in a way that is relevant to post-modern society.

Caste related violence in India

Phoolan Devi (1963 – 2001) was an Indian dacoit (bandit), who later turned politician. Born in a lower-caste Mallaah family, she was mistreated and abandoned by her husband. She was later kidnapped by a gang of dacoits. The upper-caste Thakur leader of the gang tried to rape her, but she was protected by the deputy leader Vikram, who belonged to her caste. Later, an upper-caste Thakur friend of Vikram killed him, abducted Phoolan, and locked her up in the Behmai village. Phoolan was raped in the village by Thakur men, until she managed to escape after three weeks.Phoolan Devi then formed a gang of Mallahs, which carried out a series of violent robberies in north and central India, mainly targeting upper-caste people. Some say that Phoolan Devi targeted only the upper-caste people and shared the loot with the lower-caste people, but the Indian authorities insist this is a myth[2]. Seventeen months after her escape from Behmai, Phoolan returned to the village, to take her revenge. On February 14, 1981, her gang massacred twenty-two Thakur men in the village, only two of which were involved in her kidnapping or rape. Phoolan Devi later surrendered and served eleven years in prison, after which she became a politician. During her election campaign, she was criticized by the women widowed in the Behmai massacre. Kshatriya Swabhimaan Andolan Samanvay Committee (KSASC), a Kshatriya organization, held a statewide campaign to protest against her. She was elected a Member of Parliament twice.

On July 25, 2001, Phoolan Devi was shot dead by unknown assassins. Later, a man called Sher Singh Rana confessed to the murder, saying he was avenging the deaths of 22 Kshatriyas at Behmai. Although the police were skeptical of his claims, he was arrested. Rana escaped from Tihar Jail in 2004. In 2006, KSASC decided to honor Rana for “upholding the dignity of the Thakur community” and “drying the tears of the widows of Behmai.”[3]

Andhra Pradesh

This state is considered to be one of the least caste-crime infested places of India which has not had many Dalit Massacres

Bihar

Ranvir Sena is an caste-supremacist fringe paramilitary group based in Bihar. The group is based amongst the forward-caste landlord, and carries out actions against the outlawed naxals in rural areas. It has committed violent acts against Dalits and other members of the scheduled caste community in an effort to scuttle reform movements aimed at their emancipation.

Tamil Nadu

The state of Tamil Nadu has witnessed several caste-based incidents both against Dalits and Brahmins .In 2000, three young men belonging to the Dalit under caste were killed in the Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu .This fuelled some localized violence in the caste-sensitive region, which has seen numerous caste-related incidents in which the majority of the victims have been Dalits. Six of the killings have been registered as murders under the Indian Penal Code and others as “Deaths under suspicious circumstances. No arrests have been made in these cases

However, several Dalits have been arrested as goondas (hoodlums). The Chief minister of Tamil-Nadu, M. Karunanidhi, has been accused of having an “anti-Dalit” bias by the radical organization “Dalit Panthers of India”. Theories concerning these crimes against Dalits range from “alcohol bootleggers opposing prohibition movements among Dalits” to “inter-caste relations between a Vanniya boy and a Dalit girl”. Political parties sympathetic to the Dalits have protested against these incidents[4] and have alleged systemic biases against Dalits in several parts of the country.

Bant Singh case of Punjab

On the evening of January 5, 2006 Bant Singh, a poor Sikh Dalit, was attacked by unknown assailants. His injuries necessitated medical amputation. He alleges that this was in retaliation for actively working to secure justice for his daughter, who was gang raped by upper caste members of his village in Punjab five years earlier.[5]

A 55-year-old Dalit Sikh woman, Sawinder Kaur has been tortured, stripped and tied to a tree in Ram Duali village of Punjab because her nephew eloped with a girl from the same community. The police arrested four persons for allegedly committing the crime on 9 September 2007.[7]

In January, 1999 four members of the village panchayat of Bhungar Khera village in Abohar paraded a handicapped Dalit woman naked through the village. No action was taken by the police, despite local Dalit protests. It was only on July 20 that the four pancha yat members were arrested, after the State Home Department was compelled to order an inquiry into the incident.[8]

A Dalit Sikh woman, Sukhwinder Kaur of Sumel Kheri village was molested and beaten up by an octroi contractor of Malaudh when she resisted his attempt to sexually exploit her.[9]

Kherlanji massacre

On September 29, 2006, four members of the Bhotmange family belonging to the Dalit underclass were slaughtered in Kherlanji, a small village in Bhandara district of Maharashtra. The women of the family, Surekha and Priyanka, were paraded naked in public, then allegedly gang-raped before being murdered [1]. Although initially ascribed by the media and by the Human Rights Watch to upper castes, the criminal act was actually carried out by Kunbi[10] caste (classified as Other Backward Classes[11] by Government of India) farmers for having opposed the requisition of the Dalit land to have a road built over it.

On November 23, 2006, several members of the Dalit community in the nearby district of Chandrapur staged a protest regarding this incident.The protesters allegedly turned violent and pelted stones. The police had to resort to baton charging to control the situation. Dalit leaders, however, denied that they had sparked the violence and that they were “protesting in peace”.

2006 Dalit protests in Maharashtra

In November-December 2006, the desecration of a Ambedkar statue in Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh) triggered off violent protests by Dalits in Maharashtra. Several people remarked that the protests were fueled by the Kherlanji Massacre[12]. During the violent protests, the Dalit protestors set three trains on fire, damaged over 100 buses and clashed with police[13]. At least four deaths and many more injuries were reported.

Later, the Kanpur Police arrested a Dalit youth Arun Kumar Balmiki for desecrating the Ambedkar statue. According to the police, the youth had “admitted to having damaged the statue in a drunken state along with two friends”[14]. Earlier in a similar case, a Dalit youth was held for desecrating an Ambedkar statue in Gulbarga, Karnataka[15].

In response to these protests, Raj Thackeray drew attention to another incident in Kherlanji, in which a Dalit allegedly raped a girl and killed her. Thackeray demanded action on those responsible for the rape and the subsequent death of the girl, and also remarked that nobody helped the girl’s family[16].

Rajasthan

In the Indian province of Rajasthan, between the years 1999 and 2002, crimes against Dalits average at about 5024 a year, with 46 killings and 138 cases of rape.[17]

Punjab

On 25 May 2009, violence and rioting broke out when thousands of protesters took to the streets in almost all major towns and cities in the Indian state of Punjab after a dalit preacher, Sant Ramanand, was attacked in a temple in Vienna, Austria. He was among 16 people injured, including another preacher Sant Nirajnan Dass, and later died in hospital. Both the preachers were from a low-caste Sikh sect which has a large following in parts of Punjab and had travelled to Vienna to conduct a special service. Several high-caste Sikh groups had apparently opposed his presence and threatened violence. This happened after the preacher had reportedly made remarks about the Sikh groups.

SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM

Gender inequality is not new in traditional African society. This is in fact, not very much than it is now asserted in different countries. At present, in Africa mostly violated and then comes the rest of the world where gender inequality is perceived to bloom. Injustice given to the women seems to be increasing. In Africa, the most commonly occurring of rape in each three to six seconds. Considering the U.S., women are physically abused every 9 second, whereas in India, five thousand women are murdered approximately each year through the ceremony of dowry murder. In any case, this tragic event is the top of iceberg. However, Customs such as female genital mutilation continues as to be devastating many communities of practice; the British medical authorities and doctors warned that the first few weeks, in a recent immigrant to look at it.

Gender Roles

The activities of gender responsibilities, roles, and rights in a society of normal men and women appropriately follow. In Africa there is no single model of gender roles. Different cultures on the African continent, the role of men and women, many different ideas, although in general women are subordinate in public life and family life of the man. Such as gender roles, sexual behavior and sexual attitudes of different standards of conduct extensive in Africa. For generations, however, regardless of gender roles in Africa and sexual attitudes have changed, especially in the cities and in the West’s influence have been the strongest region.

African traditional culture has been clear that men and women have different roles in society. Girls and boys grow up; they know what kind of society they are growing in. Because of their livestock to boys, girls will be responsible for the firewood and water, while children hunting, girls will improve the strength in mainly the cooking. Then coming towards the marriage, the young men finds himself into a husband’s placed one of the leader of the community. Same goes to the women. Therefore, their life will want to live in this old model is more based on social norms and less based on personal desire.

Women’s and children’s vulnerability To HIV/AIDS

Worldwide, HIV / AIDS are the reason of death for many. The proportion of HIV and AIDS, led to women’s reproductive age. This caused by the change between the various regions of the world significantly. Women account for a lower proportion of people living with HIV. However, Caribbean and sub-Saharan Africa are the main regions, where this ratio is quite high.

Sub-Saharan Africa

1985 led the sub-Saharan Africa with most of the HIV-infected people, because of their female. However, infection rates increased over the years and HIV and AIDS has surpassed the number of women and infection is still more than men. In 2009, some 12 million in the sub-Saharan, most of the women infected with HIV and AIDS patients compare to about 8.2 million citizens. UNAIDS estimates, about three women of all the contaminated with HIV lives in sub-Saharan Africa.

Sub-Saharan Africa is the world where the majority of heterosexual HIV spread occurs during sexual contact areas. Since women are double, they are more likely to obtain than from a man of unprotected heterosexual intercourse in HIV-infected partner, women disproportionately infected in the region.

Women and children

Mother to child transmission (MTCT) is a problem, directly affecting women. Women when documents in pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding the baby of the virus. UNAIDS said that in the last of 2009, an estimation of two and a half million children (15 years old) infected with HIV, most of them will be infected if not treated their mothers. They could live up to maximum 27 years of age; the high numbers of children would possibly not live to their adult life.

Drugs can minimize a gain of about 40% of the HIV virus from mother to child less than 2% chance; they cannot be used in different areas of the world. In the ongoing years, pharmaceutical companies have been substantially lowered, such as AZT and nevirapine drug, which in developing countries to prevent mother to child spread of HIV to help prices. However, due to limited human resources and poor infrastructure, many women still do not get these drugs.

Women who are victims of sexual violence were at higher risk of HIV infection, and lack of condom use rape and forced nature means that more women vulnerable to HIV infection immediately. A South African study concluded that their partners who are beaten or dominated by women more vulnerable to HIV infection, a woman who was not. Another couples in India found that the spread of HIV, not only in a very abusive relationships largely occurs, but abusive husband. HIV infection is more likely than non-abusive husbands.

Social difference in Africa

Social and economic policies favored by the colonial state men generally. Since independence, the role differences in men and women, and even the laws as a result of greater. Thus, women lag behind others in education, literacy, and in getting good jobs.

In the current world women, the third world especially, has given an unfair treatment. No wonder the major international issue has been the gender inequality. In Africa, the gender inequality is worse than the previous few decades ago. Obviously, the West may bring a lot of benefits, but gender equality is not one of them.

Economists have generally focused on the per capita income as the main indicator. In mainstream economic theory, education is often represents a key aspect of human capital, with a positive factor into the production function. Men and women with lower education, lower level of human capital transformation. Therefore, in theory, have a direct impact on women’s education from the income (or growth). There are also some strong arguments to support economic growth beyond the direct impact of female education more positive impact. These measures include the mother’s health, children’s health and education, and fertility effects. In general, support the existence of such indirect effects, higher female education to make women more informed mothers, thus helping to reduce child mortality and malnutrition. Increasing the proportion of educated women may also help to reduce fertility. In general, female education is negatively related to low fertility and low birth rate is related to dependency ratio. Conversely, low dependency ratio is associated with higher income.

Power relations between men and women in Africa

In many of the African countries, men have been given the part to be the political and business leaders, community development and women at the forefront of the leadership of the family. Women’s groups, thousands of people scattered all over. These people have proven time to time, that unity is real power. Always being the sources of economic power, which in turn makes them much-needed self-esteem. In China, many people were unable to provide the leadership was mainly due to the requirements of professional and downright laziness and apathy. This has left de facto decision-makers in the home of the woman. However, women’s economic barriers greatly limit the decision to leave the economic power of the people as decision makers. Those who are decision-makers do not have time or inclination to make informed decisions.

Today, it is not uncommon for teenage girls to be married, widow inheritance by force and with other ‘property ‘ along. Wife-beating is a very part of our modern life too. The impact of this violence seems unstoppable. However, this is just despicable violence against women, many of the unjust. The United Nations estimates, in each of Africa’s farm sixty-six Eighty percent is borne by women. Many girls in these areas had to drop out of school, because priority is given to boys. Reason for its existence is that the meager resources should take care of children, because they are the ones who will always be with their parents.

Gender role effecting African women

Learn how the people of different gender are expected to act as a growth in any important part of society. In Africa as elsewhere, men and women have traditionally been in the family and the community and the work they do different roles.

Africa’s first economies were based on hunting and gathering wild food. Some societies, such as in the Kalahari Desert! Sai Kung and in the Congo (DRC) of tropical rain Linmubati, survived to modern times is almost entirely unchanged. Through them, scientists have been able to study the ancient hunting and gathering way of life. On the biological and the theory of the early development of human society and hunting meat emphasized the importance of the role of men. Today, however, researchers know that women in many of the early social major economic producers. Between 60 and 80 percent of the outcomes of the existing hunting and gathering societies, calories consumed by people, roots, grains, nuts, honey and other food collected by women.

This pattern did not change after caught agriculture, much of Africa. Today’s women about 60 to 80 percent contribute in agricultural labor. In most rural areas throughout Africa, the role of agriculture in different men, one is by a specific gender-related tools and methods that the truth. Ax is considered a tool for men, because men clear and ready to land. They also plow the fields. Hoe is reserved for women, who grow, harvest, processing and storage of crops. Women also used for the production of the family, including access to water and firewood, food is often involved in the most remote tasks, responsibilities.

Shift in the colonial period generally cash-based economy to benefit more men than women in Africa. In most cases, the colonial officials have acknowledged the authority of men, not women, they were men of business. Women are still an important producer, but often they are produced by her father, husband, brother or sale. The men enjoy women’s work from the belief that income has not completely disappeared in modern Africa.

As colonialism continues to consolidate its land in Africa, women’s contribution to family farming that is less important, because the importance of their role in food production is more lucrative cash crops controlled by men, cast a shadow. Second, by introducing the negative effects of colonialism, women’s labor wages directly affect women, because they must be legal in certain circumstances, for the European plantation economy of wage labor. While forced labor, physical and sexual abuse is often committed by African women for their crimes. Therefore, further damage to plantation work and the ability of the well-being of women, for productivity, because they previously had in the past.

It is clear that colonialism has led to women’s economic independence and their social and political decline in a certain social status. Colonialism in Africa, despite the successful pre-colonial men taught the centuries, this feeling is generally unfounded sense of superiority in non-Islamized women of African countries do not have a strange sense of superiority. Obviously, even today, in modern Africa, women still want to continue with the life of slavery and abuse, because they are women. However, I with great pleasure, once again, we have witnessed a rise in female consciousness and self-confidence for women to say no to social contempt and disrespect. Today’s women, as they have refused to accept the colonial era prison, regardless of their racial injustice.

Conclusion

As Africans strive to restore respect and dignity of African women’s position, even more than she enjoyed in the past, depending only when a country allows respecting the dignity of women and treated fairly. The real development, may occur when we consider women as mothers and primary caregivers in the human front. Therefore, they are nurturing and building, we are building throughout the country and continent.

There is a gap between men and women to fully appreciate the far-reaching; we must acknowledge this basic fact. Gender inequality is not a pain, but many women and men have different life on the range of the girls and boys. It also needs to revisit and closely scrutinize some of our lessons from past experience tend to work. There is no good reason to give up understanding that women’s empowerment to improve the impact of the voice and influence of women does help to reduce gender inequalities in many different types, can also reduce women to conquer men suffered from indirect punishment. However, the growing inequality in the birth rate, basically to ask questions, much more complex. When women in some areas like the boys and girls have their own strength, the resulting inequality on the correct call for the broader needs of the birth rate of women’s organizations comes it would be the addition to at least consider other possible effects.

Somehow in dealing with some of the new – “high tech” – face of gender difference, in the form of inequality, there is a need to go beyond just the agency of women, but to look also for more critical assessment of received values. When anti-female bias in action (such as sex-specific abortion) reflects the hold of traditional masculinity values from which mothers themselves may not be immune, what is needed is not just freedom of action but also freedom of thought – in women’s ability and willingness to question received values. Informed and critical agency is important in combating inequality of every kind. Gender inequality, including its many faces, is no exception.

In different countries of various beliefs and culture, people with homosexual behavior are often being subjected to prejudice and discrimination. In comparison with minority groups, who are one of the common topics of prejudice, this group of homosexual people are also subjected to stereotyping. ‘Social scientists have typically defined prejudice as a negative intergroup attitude’. [1] Sexuality orientation can be classified further into three main topics: Homosexuality, Bisexuality, and Heterosexuality.

Homosexuality refers to sexual behavior/actions or seductive attraction among people of the same sex. The word ‘gay’ is commonly being referred to a male homosexual, whereas ‘lesbian’ is designated for female homosexuals.

Right here in Singapore, majority of the public still have that prototypical mindset and misconstrue behavior which often leads to discrimination against this group of people. ‘This is extremely unhealthy because homosexuality has been declassified as a mental disorder by the American Psychiatric Association in the 1970s, and people in this day and age are still seeking to turn gay people straight, often resulting in negative effects on the subject.'[2]

Simple stereotyping can be thought as all gay are feminine and all lesbians contain machismo hormones within them. Some even have misconceptions and labeled the gay as the main culprit for transmission of sexually transmitted disease or AIDS, considering them having a higher chance of contracting these diseases. In this modernized and civil society, it will be of much appreciation if homosexuality is much understood better by the public. If this discrimination continues to cycle around, it will cause a deleterious effect on the homosexual person. This may eventually lead to escalation of suicidal cases or further deterioration on the mental health. This is a topic that we should pay attention to. Homosexual discrimination can be found in anywhere or in any working sector. A homosexual man who has a kind soul within, have no exceptions either, he may have to bear the brunt of discrimination from a high profile sector. Gays are banned from donating their ‘contaminated’ or ‘filthy’, some might criticized on that, blood out; a legislation set by the Food and Drug Administration. [3]

As mentioned, discrimination can be found in anywhere even in a small country like Singapore. A distinct proof which leads to discrimination being amplified in the country is where colonial legislation, Sections 377 and 377A of the Penal Code [4] are still brought into play. This shows that Singaporeans are too conservative to accept the fact of homosexual behavior coming into their existence. Discrimination against gay is being applied in various level of sector in the society. Achieved from a report, a highly educated personnel displaying out her ferocious attitude during a debate in Parliament in 2007 was shown that she compared anal sex as ‘shoving a straw up your nose to drink’.[5][6] The debater herself was a professor of law; specializing in international human rights law would present out such an outrageous quote on gay rights. Putting aside public discrimination, the power of media plays a strong part in this role. In a newspaper article, exaggerated from the fact by the journalist, the gays were believed to be involved in promiscuous sex or are drug addict which is solely stereotyping thinking from the journalist.[5][6]

The examples mentioned above are showing how typical people possess adverse thinking against homosexuality.

Prejudice and discrimination against homosexuality will bring a vicious cycle effect to the society as it can be commonly identified as a talking topic for adults, or it may be a mistaught lesson for a child. Basically, chances of stereotypically thinking and discriminating against homosexual persons can happen in everyday conversations between people. Living in this society, people only know how to discriminate homosexuality as they tend to follow the majority. This is similar to, giving a primary school student a complicated algebraic question where he/she only knows how to apply simple standard mathematics formulations. This society needs to be better educated about homosexuality just like the student needs to be taught on how to work out that algebraic question. By educating people about homosexuality does not mean that they will stop discriminating gays. However, providing positive and correct information about homosexuality to teenagers who are stepping into this society and understanding of their sexuality is important. They will feel less fearful in the future. An example can be taken, the author of an article has a niece who came home and shouted, “Gays are disgusting!” He knew that the niece learnt that hatred from a classmate, who in turn had this hatred digested from the parents. This shows that people allow this hatred to become an ongoing cycle, which in time it turns out to be a fear for some people but under the influential of people around them they have no choice but to accept it resentfully. Here is another down to earth reason why is it important to stop all there discriminations. Let’s ask ourselves this question, “Who are all these gays and lesbians?” These people are our very own Singaporeans. Living in a country, which does not give you the rights that belongs to you, is equivalent to pushing the gays and lesbians with no choice but to move out from this country to another, which will truly welcome them despite of their differences. A country without any natural resources cannot afford to drive out her gay sons and daughters. People always have the wrong comprehensive thinking that spreading of HIV and AIDS are associated with gays. They will think that as long as they perform safe sexual intercourse or preventing themselves to have sex with men will free them from contracting HIV or AIDS. They have shown an erroneous thinking which makes them believe that as long as they are not gay, they will be safe from diseases. A statistics result [7] shows that the number of people infected with the diseases through homosexual means is lesser than those of heterosexual means. When it comes to a serious stage, it will be death. Therefore, this myth has to be busted. People who are being discriminated might not have the courage to face it and the solution they will go for will be ‘death’. Sexuality based discrimination caused death in teens, a report shows. [8] In response to such incidents, Ellen DeGeneres speaks out, urging that we stop discriminating against gays, because “one death is tragic, four is a crisis” [8]

Be it homosexual or heterosexual, we still come together and live as one and everyone deserves the right to be treated equally. The homosexual citizens will not be pleased if they found out that they are not treated to the same benefits that heterosexual citizens are being treated as. We should not hesitate to open up our views on them or in another way we must learn to accept what they are. Penal code337a criminalizes those who have sexual act between two males [2] [4]. This is one of the main reasons why Singaporeans are still badly discriminating the homosexuals. In many other countries, homosexual were slowly being received and laws were executed to protect them similar to the laws which heterosexual have. Protecting homosexuals against violence and discrimination is important. As they are the minority group which makes them an easy target. As we know, all the male Singaporean has to go through National service. Even homosexuals have no exception to this. The worst case will be, they do a self declare that they are gay and they will go through a thorough psychiatric assessment which then they will be by default downgraded to Public Employment Status C (PES C) in regardless of their fitness[9] . Once a soldier declared that he’s gay, his army’s world will be totally different from others. From this example, we call recall on that; inequality being faced by them in this society was a result from prejudice and discrimination on homosexuals. In order to have a prominent result, one should draw back their attention to the society. We all know that the root cause of this problem came from the society who discriminates, as and when; like or dislike, as they want. Thus, a solution which deals directly to the root cause will be an ideal one to recede the problem. In this society, filled with excitement, it is still required to be better educating these people about homosexuality. As research has found out that there are two groups of people with the different attitudes on how they think gay are. The group with a positive attitude toward gay usually has a few friends around them who falls under this, being gay, category. In contrast, with those with negative attitudes believe that they do not have any gay friends around them, in actual fact they do. Their discrimination towards gays goes back to the being stereotypical and prejudice. [10]

We can conclude this by looking at simple theory. In order for a majority group to keep up its performance, it seeks cooperation from the minority group. To put in simpler words, a minority group like homosexuals can be influential to the majority group. Therefore, there is a need to bring prejudice and discrimination on homosexuals to a halt. Education on understanding one’s sexuality needs to be taught to young adults and teenagers. Negative remarks about the homosexual society should be reduced via this education.

Even parents need to be taught that being homosexual is not a crime nor is it wrong, and that it is a part of life.