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Introduction

Sociology seeks to discover, describe and explain the order which characterises the social life of man (Inkeles, 1964 cited in McNeil and Townley, p.21).Various attempts have been made to define social problems; however there is no adequate definition of social problems. Birenbaum and Sagarin defined social problems as, ‘’ A social problems exists when the collective society is rent by, at the very least a public recognition that there is a sector of society, represented by its practices, which threatens or prevents others or themselves from establishing or maintaining their claims to membership’’ (Birenbaum and Sagarin, p.16). Rubington and Weinberg, offers their own definition of social problem as, ‘’an alleged situation that is incompatible with the values of a significant number of people who agree that action is needed to alter the situation’’ (Rubington and Weinberg, 1989 p.4). The definition of any problem as a social problem, means that it is a problem that requires that affects society as a whole and needs society to come together to deal with the problem (May, et al eds 2001 p.17) Social problems are approached from a constructive perspective and a realist perspective. Saragu develops a social constructive approach to the intersection of social divisions and policy, Bucchi on the other hand develops an introduction to the post structuralist critique of problem and policy centred approach (May, et al eds (2001 p.13). Constructive perspective of social problems looks at social problems three main aspects; namely the society constructs as a problem, the contested character of social construction and the changing character of social construction (May, et al eds 2001 p.8) A realist perspective looks at social problems as real problems that exist and which everyone agrees to their existence and requires explanation. The constructive perspective on the other hand, looks at social problems as a construction of society. The question they ask is who says there is a social problem what sort of social problem, do they say it is (May, et al eds (2001). The main issue between the different perspectives of social problem is whether social problems are factual and objective for sociologists to investigate and explain.

This essay will look at social problems and the difficulty of solving them. I will start by looking at common factors relating to social problems.

Common factors relating to social problems

All social problems are prone to a number of different definitions and interpretations. The journalist looks at a social problem from a perspective different from that of a sociologist or a philosopher. The journalist may report a problem in a certain manner, there by actually exaggerating the real problem and causing further alarm in the society. Sociologist will interpret a social problem from a different perspective.

Different explanations of social problems are another common factor relating to all social problems. People usually do have different explanation why social problems occur. Society is always looking for whom to blame for a social problem. They always attribute the cause of a problem to the individual, family or the government.

How a problem is presented, is another common factor relating to social problems. The press do play a role in this regard. Journalists are interested in sensational news which they feel will interest the public. Issues are termed social problems, when they are brought to the knowledge of the public and they become part of the public discourse

Professional intervention is another fact common to social policies. Professionals in our society are quick to label people, that they believe do not conform to ‘standard normal behaviour’, they more often than not marginalise such people and segregate them, (e.g.) special schools, special needs.

The victims view point is another factor that is common in all social problems. There is a world of difference between the way a victim sees himself and the way society views him. Society stereotypes certain people. We all have our prejudices, knowingly or unknowingly. The way the society views homeless people is different from the way homeless people view themselves.

Finally, how to find the solution to social problems is an element that is common to all social problems. There is no generally accepted way, social problems can be solved. Some solutions can be very complex, while others appear straight forward. Anti Social Behaviour Order (ASBO) was introduced as a straight forward solution to deal with anti social behaviour. However, many young people now regard ASBO as a badge of honour (The Guardian, Monday November 6 2006). To tackle the issue of juvenile crimes and ethnic groups will require complex situations.

Causes of Social Problems

Generally speaking a perspective means a way of looking at things. I will now briefly look at the causes of social problems from different perspectives. I will first look at the individual perspective. Some commentators argue that criminals were abnormally conditioned by biological and environmental factors (Rubington and Weinberg, 1989 p.33). Others however argue that causes of social problems are due mainly to the society/ environment and not due to the physiological make up of individuals. However, certain actions of individuals or groups are so glaring that they causes of social problems are directly attributed to them.

Another reason why social problems occur is due to peer group or family pressure. Disagreement between individuals or groups in a society can also lead to social problems. This is called the interaction perspective.

Fall out between different cultures and religion in a society is a reason why social problems occur. People are usually influenced by their culture and religion. Some people are very fanatic in their views and believe and see some one of a different faith or race as different from them. This can to a lot of social problems.

Social structures are the very basic foundation of any society, and it is a major reason why social problems occur. Some individuals or group might feel excluded from the social, economic or political structures of society. The social structures of society might be designed in such a way that they shut off or marginalise certain segments of their society, usually minority groups. Added to this is that government interferences and policies, might cause social problems, as they may favour certain segments of the society while excluding others.

Examples of Social Problems
Poverty

Poverty has so many definitions. Poverty is powerlessness. It has so many faces and it is changing from place to place and across time (World health Organization, 2001). Absolute poverty is disenabling. It means that one can not afford the basic human requirement. By this, I mean that it robs one of many things in life, including his dignity and pride. Relative deprivation means that one is not keeping up with the standards in a given city. Poverty is one of the major reasons why people are excluded from the political, social and economic structures of society (Maxwell and Kenway, 2001). Poverty is usually constructed by a distinction between normal people, and those that are poor. The constructive perspective of poverty does not deny the existence of poverty, but that only some people at some time and in some place will be labelled as being in poverty May, et al eds 2001 p.7) A realist perspective will look at poverty as objectively describable and will attempt to offer an explanation.

Juvenile delinquency

Juvenile delinquency is a complex, serious problem. The cause of this problem includes peer pressure and the failure of our social structures, among others. However it is not a new phenomenon. In 1880, the penologist Enoch Wines, wrote, ‘’ Delinquent children, the criminals of the next generation, must be prevented from pursuing their criminal carers; they are born to it, brought up to it. They must be saved’’ (Wines, 1880, p.132 cited in McNeil and Townley, p.21-27). We can not overstate, the fact that Juvenile delinquency is a huge social problem today. The government have tried to deal with it, with legislation, cumulating in the crime and disorder Act 1998, Anti Social Behaviour Orders (ASBO) and parenting orders. However, the media seem to be giving a lot of attention to delinquent youths and portraying them as monsters and race and gender issues have not adequately been looked in to. There is also a difference of opinions on how the problem can be solved. The realist perspective will acknowledge the existence of the problem, while a constructive perspective, will view it as a construction of society.

Ethnicity and Social problems

Ethnicity generally refers to a group’s attachment to a particular area and sharing a peculiar way of life. Racism is when a group of people are treated differently because of their colour. There have been ethnic and racial problems in our society. The media have played a part in upping ethnic tension in the UK. Race riots have flared in some parts of the UK. There have also been reported increases in race attacks. Our institutions, particularly the police and the media have been branded institutionally racist. People from ethnic minority are more likely to be stopped and searched by the police and they are more likely to be socially, economically and politically excluded, more than white people. They are also more likely to be projected as social problems. The cause of ethnic tension is usually an unfounded fear that diversity is a threat to the dominant group in society. The realist perspective will acknowledge the existence of this problem and will seek an explanation for it. The constructive perspective will view the issue as a construction by society.

Single parents

Single parents are a social phenomenon now regarded as a social problem because they are believed to have an impact on our values. They tend to impact directly on society, socially, economically, and ideologically. Single parents become a problem, when they cost the state a lot. A good number of single parents depend on state benefits. Fathers are usually absent, and do not contribute towards the upkeep of the children. The social cost of absent fathers can not be overlooked (Dennis and Erdos, 1993). The government have put in place legislation namely the 1989 Children’s Act and the 1991 Child Support Act to deal with the problem.

Conclusion

Social problems are hard to solve. They seem to be ingrained in the complex web of unwanted state intervention, reckless forms of individual behaviour and economic factors. Social problems have no commonly accepted forms of definition, but they all have common factors that relate to them. In the problems that I listed above, they are all seen from different perspectives and given different explanations. It depends on who is viewing the problem. The media and the government also contribute to making social problems hard to solve. Some social problems might be downplayed and others blown out of proportion. Some times the intervention of the government and experts may worsen a problem as they tend to look at the problem form their own point of view, without taking the point of view of individual or groups suffering the problems directly in to consideration.

Individuals can also make social problems difficult to solve. They may mislead the government by providing incorrect data. Economic factors do play a part. The government might not see some social problems as a top priority for them to solve and thus will not earmark enough funds to tackle the problem. Sometimes, the government may not have the political will to solve certain social problems. Some social problems are interwoven in to our social, political and economic structure, that to solve them, we will need to dismantle our entire structure. Finally, there is no generally accepted way to solve social problems. Some solutions appear easy, while others appear complex, but you can not be certain, that the proffered solution will solve the problem.

Bibliography

Bilton et al eds (2002) Introduction to Sociology, Fourth Edition, Macmillan, London

Dennis, N and Erdos, N (1993) Families without fatherhood, Institute for the study of civil society, London

Downes, D & Rock, P (1995) Understanding Deviance, Oxford University Press, New-York

Fulcher, J & Scot, J (2006) Sociology, Third Edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford

Levin, J, Innis, K, Carroll, W & Bourne, R (2000) Social Problems, causes, consequences, Interventions, Second Edition, Oxford University Press, new-York

Maxwell, S and Kenway, P (2001) The Challenge of Ending rural poverty, Oxford University Press, Oxford

May, et al eds (2001) Understanding Social problems, Blackwell Publishers,

McNeill, P & Townley, C (1986) Fundamentals of Sociology, Second Edition, Hutchinson, London

Raab, E & Selznick (1964), Major Social Problems, Paterson and Company, Evanston, Illinois

Rubington, E & Weinberg, (1989) The Study of Social Problems, Fourth Edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford

Rubington, E and Weinberg, M (1989) The Study of Social Problems, Oxford University Press, New-York

Spector, M & Kitsuse, J (2000) Constructing Social Problems, Transaction, New-Jersey

Prepare a discussion of at least four substantial paragraphs answering the questions that follow. Use at least one source beyond the course text that supports your position (remember to cite your source in APA style). Respond to at least two of your classmates’ postings.

What would be the consequences for society if we could effectively halt the practice of prostitution?

Should we do this even if we could?

Could prostitution ever by organized such that it did not result in the exploitation of women?

My Response

There would be an increase in social problems; more rape, abuse, poverty, violence, trafficking, and underground prostitution if the practice of prostitution was effectively stopped. If we halted the practice of prostitution, we might as well halt the practice of pornography also. I am against legalizing prostitution but do not think it should be banned, because no matter what, prostitution will always be around. I believe prostitution is wrong, by legalizing it, some will think allowing sex outside of a marriage is ok, leading to more divorces, disease, and promote the approval of women’s degradation (Henslin 2008, p. 79). Women are not objects, and should not be for sale. I like this statement from former Swedish Deputy Prime Minister, Margareta Winberg (2002), Prostitution and trafficking causes, gender inequality, sex and racial discrimination, and economic deprivation, as well as the rule of law, crime control, law enforcement and corruption (Winberg 2002, Sweden as Chair section para.5 )

In my opinion, streetwalkers should be incorporated into a red zone, or red light district, by doing this would help keep the drug addicts, and disease inflicted people separate from others. They should have to pay taxes, and have a rule where there are no sex services provided after a certain A.M. hour, like individual state laws on bar closing hours. If prostitutes or clients are found outside of that area, or after hours, they should be arrested. All other prostitutes would work as an escort, call girl or in a brothel, be regulated, and have proof that all employees have been tested for diseases and all employees will be taxed like any other worker. Legalizing prostitution will still exploit women.

Searching for prostitution prevents law enforcement from responding to other victims and dangerous felons, and most of the time only the prostitutes are arrested, not the pimps, clients, or the strip club owners/managers, etcaˆ¦ By legalizing prostitution, laws could be enforced against people who abuse, or are violent against sex workers. Child sex, sex trade, forced labor, and kidnapping would be easier to target.

To try to lower or halt the practice of prostitution, we need to warn women against solicitors and stop them, in order to encounter the demand for prostitution. Men, are usually the buyers of commercial sex acts, and the biggest consumers, of trafficked and prostituted women and children. Men do not respect prostitutes, but use them for entertainment, sexual gratification, acts of violence, and use them to meet their emotional needs, not their physical needs. In order to reduce victims of prostitution, and encounter the exploitation of women, all the components of the demand need to be punished; the men who purchase the sex acts, the exploiters, traffickers, pimps, and the culture that lies about the nature of prostitution (Hughes 2004, pp. 3, 4, 7). Sex will sell as long as there are men.

Henslin, J. M. (2008). Seeing the social context. Boston, Ma: Allyn & Bacon.

Hughes, D. M. (2004). Prostitution causes and solutions (Adobe Digital), Retrieved from http://www.uri.edu/artsci/wms/hughes/prostitution_spain_july04.pdf

Winberg, M. (2002, November 28). Address by the swedish deputy prime minister, margareta winberg. Retrieved from http://www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/1105/a/6848

2/9/2010 8:54:09 PM

If we could effectively halt the practice of prostitution the consequences in society would be many. The rise in crime would be, in my opinion, almost immediate. Sexual crimes such as rape and sodomy would be but the tip of the iceberg; domestic violence would rise, more violence could ensue because sexually frustrated people are not necessarily the nicest. Also more poverty would be one outcome, because prostitution is a mean of income for many; therefore robbery, drug dealing, burglary and other illegal means of income would rise as well.

Should we do away with prostitution if we could? As I thought of my answer for this question, an interesting memory came back to me: when I was a teenager my parents would not allow me to wear loose fitting “baggy” clothes because they felt that a person should dress appropriately and that the baggy style looked “street” or like you had no home. In my mind I found my parents to be too stereotypical, they needed to Americanize; after all, we had left our fitted-jeans country a long time ago, who would judge me by my clothes? The more they denied me the right to dress like that, the more I wanted to; I would sneak my father’s t-shirts to school, I would borrow my friends X-L sweat pants and change in the bathroom at my school. I felt I was “cool”, I fit in with the rest of my peers; of course I was caught various times, but I didn’t care, I’d continue to do it. One day my parents sat me down and said, “OK, we get it, you want to dress like the rest to be cool, you’re allowed to do so, baggy outfits are added to the swear jar” I felt like I won, I dressed baggy almost every day for three weeks and paid a dollar to the swear jar, and thenaˆ¦ the magic wore off. I was no longer going against anyone; there was no thrill of getting caught, nothing; if anything I was losing money for my stubbornness. I went back to dressing appropriately. My parents were very smart when they did this, although they did not like it, they approved it and “taxed” it (which I later learned was the money we used for family outings), everyone got their way.

Where am I getting to? Well, I feel that we should play it smart. If we were able to successfully stop prostitution, the negative outcomes may outweigh the positive ones. Instead, I think that we should legalize prostitution, set guidelines for the practice – such as testing every week, no pimps, males allowed to “work” in this profession (EEO) – and best of all: tax it; right or wrong it could stimulate the economy. This could have positive outcomes in that, there would be less scandals, less sexual crimes, possibly less STDs going around and a monetary gain to the government.

Organizing prostitution so that it is not exploitation of women, I believe is possible. Exploitation by means of prostitution is a matter of perspective; one can argue that the woman is exploiting the men. The men exploit the women by satisfying his own needs and the women are exploiting the men because they know he has them and is willing to pay. With the exception of prostitutes who are “slaved” by their pimps, I don’t think anyone is exploiting the women. Perhaps if there were rights or laws protecting prostitution as a profession, such as no pimps, medical rights and protection from harassment, the perspective of exploitation could be done away with.

Henslin, J. M. (2008). Social problems: A down-to-Earth approach. 8th edition.

Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.

The Larry Mahoney Case

Read “Issues in Social Problems” on page 121 of your text. Larry Mahoney served ten years in the Kentucky state prison at La Grange. In at least four paragraphs, prepare your discussion around the case questions: Do you think this was just? Instead of going to prison, do you think that he should have been fined and had his driver’s license revoked? Or should he have been given the death sentence, as some prosecutors demanded? What do you think would have been appropriate? Respond to at least two of your classmates’ postings.

I feel that the Larry Mahoney case was treated very lightly. I do not feel that his punishment was just. Yet I am forced to say it was well handled. The jury charged him with manslaughter and other “lesser” offenses and recommended 16 years of imprisonment, and under Kentucky law the judge could not add to the sentence. It is beyond me why the fact that he drove drunk and killed any amount of people didn’t get him his license revoked permanently!

Was the sentence just? Yesaˆ¦ to an extent. It is bizarre to me how some prosecutors throw the death penalty request around like it’s any other paper request in an office. It’s supposed to be justice right? How is it fair that a man who killed 27 people, gets to die and the family of the dead get to live with the pain, sorrow and hurt in their hearts, bodies and soul? No death penalty, let him live to face the consequences; and besides, how would justice for accidentally killing people be served by purposely killing someone else? That is like swatting your child’s hand and yelling “hitting people is wrong, don’t do it!” I am FOR the death penalty when it comes to serial anything, killer, rapist, et al. They pose an extreme danger to society, we cannot teach them a lesson, we cannot “re-wire” their brains, they are not remorseful…

Fining him and revoking his license should have been done regardless of him going to jail or not, regardless of him killing people or not; it should have been done regardless of any outcome when he was found drunk behind the wheel. Spending 16 years in jail seems to me to be a bit fair, because that is what the jury delivered; I was not there, I am not aware of how the law worked back then and I believe that if 12 complete strangers all come to the same agreement of justice, then justice was served for them. I do not, however, agree with the fact that his license was not revoked, or that he was eligible for parole; good conduct or not, he should have served the full sentence.

The sentence I would consider fair, would be:

54 years imprisonment

No eligibility for parole

Permanent revocation of all driving privileges

We can sit here and argue all day on this subject, but the truth is that our judicial system is far better now than it was back then. Justice was served for that time, not ours.

Henslin, J. M. (2008). Social problems: A down-to-Earth approach. 8th edition.

Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.

This essay seeks to answer the social problem of homophobia in today’s Canadian society. Four scholarly sources were consulted and made reference to in this essay regarding homophobia and the conflict theory. The textbook, Sociology your Compass for a New World written by Robert J. Brym, John Lie and Steven Rytina explores the topic of the conflict theory. The conflict theory explains the class struggle in society; the conflict theory can be used to show how homophobes, the upper class people, use their so called power to take advantage of the less powered, homosexuals. Upon reading this essay the reader will be educated on the social problem of homophobia, types of homophobic manifestation, movements against homophobia and how the conflict theory learnt about in chapter one of the textbook, Sociology your Compass for a New World can help us better understand the social conflict created by homophobia.

Homophobia in Today’s Canadian Society

The social problem of homophobia is defined as the fear or hatred towards homosexuals or homosexuality. This fear has negative consequences towards the Canadian society, especially towards the gays, the lesbians and the bisexuals. Homophobia in Canada today can be manifested internally, externally, institutionally, socially and culturally. Homophobia has rapidly increased in the Canadian society, in most part, many not even aware of being homophobic. When one refuses to take part in a social activity because they might be perceived as guy or lesbian is considered a type of homophobia. This type of homophobia is when one is afraid of being supposed as gay or lesbian. The Canadian government has no control over the decision one takes to be homophobic, what they can do is educate the uninformed and reach out to the younger generations, the main source of this social problem comes from the primary agent of socialization, the family. Homophobia is often passed on from generation to generation; children are being raised to believe that homosexuals are not wanted in our society. On May 17th 1993, homosexuality was removed from the International Classification of Diseases of the World Health Organization (WHO). Today Canadians celebrate this movement as the International Day against Homophobia and Transphobia.

Homophobia may be seen as a class struggle because homophobes associate the gay community as less important than themselves or the “normal” community. The conflict theory as read about in the textbook, “generally focuses on large, macrolevel structures, such as “class relations” or patterns of domination, submission, and struggle between people of high and low standing.” (Robert J. Brym, 2007) The conflict theory explains how homophobes use their power, vulgar words or acts of discrimination, to take advantage of homosexuals who to them, have less power. The conflict theory helps better understand the class struggle homosexuals go through as well as the class inequality. “Gay and lesbian adolescents and youth are disproportionately homeless (Health Canada, 1996; Hellquist, 1996). Sexual orientation is a major precipitating factor leading youth to being and staying on the streets (Canadian Public Health Association, 1998), characterized by poverty and often survival conditions.” (Ryan, 2003) This conflict created by homophobes has increasingly negative consequences on the gay community. Many homosexuals feel the need to leave their homes and home towns in fear of rejection. This just goes to show how powerful homophobes can be in regards to homosexuals.

External, internal, institutional, social and cultural are all different ways in which homophobia can manifest itself. In the most part, homophobic people act negatively towards the gay community by either socially avoiding them, by verbally attacking them or by discriminating against them, also known as external homophobia. Homophobes act this way because they are afraid; they are afraid that homosexuals can convert people to their “kind” and feel the need to protect their children or their own identity. Homosexuals are discriminated against everyday of their lives, whether it is at school, in the street or at work. There is no getting away from homophobia because of all the norms and policies the Canadian society has created. The society of today is constantly surrounded by homophobic manipulation, most not even aware of it. The general population sees ads on a daily basis, watches the television and reads magazines all of which give off the same impression on homosexuals, which is, that they do not exist. Rarely, will TV shows have a gay couple as the main characters of the sitcom. Cultural homophobia is when one is thought to believe that heterosexuality is better than homosexuality; people are being influenced to believe this every single day of their lives. “There is an absence of accurate and positive portrayals of GLB in mainstream media (O’Hanlan, 1995). There is also a lack of positive GLB role models in society (Morrow, 1993).” (Banks, 2004)

Most homophobes deny that they are even homophobic. In most cases, homophobes are uninformed on the homosexual community and base their fear on stereotypes, beliefs and myths. In other words, they are afraid of the unknown. Studies have shown that people who are personally involved with homosexuals either as a friend or just a mutual acquaintance demonstrate little to no hatred towards them. Homophobia is still a social problem today because the population has no accurate information on the subject, some religions are against homosexuality, children are not educated on the subject and the consequence of discrimination towards homosexuals is minimal. The reason in which homophobia has increased is due to the coming out of most homosexuals. Before, homosexuals were afraid to admit their sexual orientation because of the consequences they would have to face. Today, more and more homosexuals are coming out making the homophobic community increase. Both may be seen as parallel lines moving as one. The homophobic line has been showing a slight decrease due to national movements such as the International Day against Homophobia and Transphobia.

To conclude, the social problem of homophobia has impacted the Canadian society, in the most part, negatively. Canada has done a great job in trying to put an end to this social problem and discrimination, by participating in the International Day against Homophobia and Transphobia. This is a day not to show off your gay pride, but a day to try and silence the homophobes and speak up against them. Too many people are being hurt by homophobes and most of the time it goes unheard. According to statistic Canada in 2006 police data reported that, “More than one-half (56%) of incidents driven by hatred towards a particular sexual orientation were violent, higher than the proportion of incidents motivated by race/ethnicity (38%) or religion (26%). Common assault was the most frequent type of violent offence.” (Study: Hate-motivated crime , 2008) It is time for Canada to silence this social problem and become a more united country.

Social Networking Relation1.0 Introduction

“Social networking is really recommendation between people about the things that they are interested in and they like… this has stimulated people’s attention in terms of the importance of public relation. The people who are going on these sites didn’t want to be monetised, they didn’t want to be advertised to, so again editorial communication is so powerful, they would rather be communities that can exchange views that are untarnished.” – Sir Martin Sorrell

Social media is a global phenomenon in which old demographics no longer apply. Conversations happen at the click of a button. New communities are born every day and brands need to be involved; in the first instance to listen, and then to participate. Social media is booming.

Every day new statistics, white papers and articles appear discussing its continued growth. Independent market analyst Datamonitor (2008) has revealed how quickly the number of people participating in online social networking is growing: the United Kingdom currently leads Europe, in terms of membership, and is expected to reach 27 million users – a threefold increase on today’s figures – by 2012 (www.datamonitor.com).

“Social networking sites are the reality television of the Internet,” said Jon Gibs (Senior Director of Media, Nielsen//NetRatings). “The content is relatively inexpensive for publishers to produce, and social networking is not a fad that will disappear. If anything, it will become more ingrained in mainstream sites, just as reality TV programming has become ubiquitous in network programming,” Gibs continued (www.acnielsen.com). “However, again like reality programming, the concept of ‘reality’ alone, or in this case ‘social networking,’ is not enough. In this competitive marketplace, sites also have to provide consumers with distinct content they can identify with.”

A new survey reveals that almost 50 percent of attorneys are members of online social networks and over 40 percent of attorneys believe professional networking has the potential to change the business and practice of law over the next five years. “Online professional networking is a growing area of importance in the legal industry,” said Ralph Calistri, Chief Executive Officer of Martindale Hubbell and senior vice president of Global Client Development at LexisNexis. “As we develop a global network for the legal community through Martindale-Hubbell, objective research such as this survey by Leader Networks serves as an important way for us to listen to clients and guide our efforts.”

Table: United States: Top 10 Social Networking Sites (March 2008)

Source: AC Nielsen

The Internet has broadened the area of word of mouth influences from interpersonal communication among acquaintances to online communication to general public (e.g. posting reviews). Harrison-Walker (2001) defined word of mouth as “informal person-to-person communication between a perceived non-commercial communicator and a receiver regarding a brand, a product, an organization, or a service.” Marketing practitioners try to encourage such “informal” communication in a positive manner, and several approaches such as “viral marketing” (Wilson 2000) and “buzz marketing” (Rosen 2000) have been developed.

Facebook was created in February 2004 by Mark Zuckerberg, a student at Harvard University. According to Zuckerberg, “The idea for the website was motivated by a social need at Harvard to be able to identify people in other residential houses” (Moyle, 2004). Today Facebook has more than 7.5 million registered members at over 2,000 U.S. colleges and is the seventh-most-popular site on the entire Web with respect to total page views (Cassidy, 2006).

Social networking sites are online spaces that allow individuals to present themselves, articulate their social networks, and establish or maintain connections with others. These sites can be oriented towards work-related contexts (e.g. LinkedIn.com), romantic relationship initiation, or connecting those with shared interests such as music or politics (e.g. MySpace.com). Users may use the sites’ communication tools to interact with those they know from offline contexts, such as school, or they may use the sites to meet new people.

The way in which these sites allow for new connections to be made between individuals has resulted in proposed legislation which would bar libraries and schools to block minors’ access to social networking sites such as MySpace and Facebook (McCullagh, 2006). MySpace in particular has generated public concern due to its large member base — 78 million registered accounts according to one source (Wright, 2006) – many of whom are teenagers.

There is little academic work examining online social networks. A 2005 survey of academic community members found that 90% of the undergraduates participated in a social network community, primarily Facebook, MySpace, and Friendster, and that many of them disclosed personal information such as email address (Stutzman, 2006). In her ethnographic work examining self-presentation and social connections among Friendster users, boyd (2004) notes that users have a variety of motivations for using the site, including connecting with old friends, meeting new acquaintances, dating, and furthering professional networks.

In one of the few pieces to examine this new breed of online fora, Donath and boyd (2004) point out that one of the chief hallmarks of these sites is that links between individuals are mutual, public, unnuanced and decontextualized. In the sites that Donath and boyd examine, public displays of connections serve to warrant, or signal the reliability of, one’s identity claims. Social networking sites are distinguished from the first wave of virtual community sites in that they allow for both maintenance of existing social ties and formation of new connections.

A hallmark of the early research on computer-mediated communication and virtual communities in particular is the assumption that individuals using these systems would be connecting with those outside their pre-existing social group or location, liberating individuals to form communities around shared interests, as opposed to shared geography (Wellman et al., 1996).

However, some online community researchers have explored how online communities present opportunities for people in a common offline community to extend their interaction. Such a theme is articulated by Wellman et al. (1996), who note that “Although CSSNs [computer supported social networks] do transcend time and space, not all ties are either totally on-line or off-line. Much on-line contact is between people who see each other in person and live locally” (p.222).

1.1 Research Question

This research studies the importance of social networking sites and aims to identify how motivations for using social networking sites influence the degree of interaction and the generation of word-of-mouth. Next, in order to study use patterns of social networking sites between users in United Kingdom and to explore the relationship between the degree of interaction and the generation of word-of-mouth, the following questions are generated.

Why / how often do people use social networking sites?
Are social networking sites users generating word-of-mouth? If so, what makes users generate word-of-mouth?
Do the motivations of using social networking sites influence on the degree of interaction or on the generation of word-of-mouth?

H1 – Exploring the relationship between the purpose of using social networking sites and the degree of users’ interaction

H2 – Exploring the relationship between the purpose of using social networking sites and the generation of word-of-mouth

H3 – Exploring the relationship between the degree of users’ interaction and the generation of word-of-mouth in social networking sites

Main Research Question: How effective are motivations for using social networking sites influencing degree of interaction and word of mouth in United Kingdom?

At the same time, the growing importance of word-of-mouth on social networking sites is understood and discussed by both marketing practitioners and academics, and online word-of-mouth communication is considered as a new marketing tool (Kozinets, 1999; Croteau, 2006; Peattie, 2007; McKinsey Quarterly, 2007).

Due to the similar characteristics between social networking sites and word-of-mouth communication, namely, relationship and interaction among people, a number of researchers tried to find out the connection between online communities and word-of-mouth, then, came up with various ways to measure word-of-mouth in the virtual world (Kozinets, 2002; Godes et al, 2005; Dwyer, 2007).

In addition, after their introduction, social networking sites brought in a new organisational framework for online communities. According to Boyd and Ellison (2008), early online communities were constructed as ‘communities of interest’, but social networking sites these days are constructed as personal. In other words, social networking sites are centred around people rather than topics or ‘topical hierarchies’.

2.0 Literature Review
2.1 General Overview

The study of personal influence and the idea that there are certain people who are especially influential over others has fascinated researchers, practitioners, and the general public for more than 60 years. Variously named in academic and popular circles, these people have been called opinion leaders (Katz & Lazarsfeld, 1955), early adopters (Rogers, 1962/2003), influential (Weimann, 1994), and Influential Americans® (Keller & Berry, 2003), while the process of personal influence has been linked to, or synonymous with, various phenomena such as compliance gaining (strategic attempts to seek compliance from others in interpersonal settings; Wilson, 2002), the diffusion of innovations (how ideas spread in a culture; Rogers, 1962/2003), buzz (contagious word-of-mouth commentary about products, services, brands, and ideas; Walker, 2004), and tipping points (the point at which an idea, behavior, or product “tips,” crossing a threshold from being a minor phenomenon to a wild epidemic; Gladwell, 2000).

Numerous organizations, for-profit and not-for-profit, in an assortment of industries (consumer products, fashion, health care, law, higher education, etc.) have sought to capitalize on a renewed awareness and interest in the influential role that informal conversation and relational networks play internally to an organization (e.g., in terms of sharing knowledge within and across organizational units; Cross & Parker, 2004; May & Zorn, 2002) and especially to external audiences (e.g., in the case of viral and buzz marketing).

Thus, although the power of stimulating word-of-mouth and relational networks has been known for some time (Arndt, 1967; Whyte, 1954), a more recent phenomenon is when certain firms seek to consciously engineer buzz in relational networks (Balter & Butman, 2005; Dye, 2000; Godin, 2001; Ozcan, 2004; Rosen, 2000;Walker, 2004).

For example, some firms (such as Big Fat Inc.) pay people to go out and talk up a brand, either in face-toface or online settings, where the fact that they are employed by a marketing agency is not disclosed (a form of “undercover” marketing). Other firms (such as BzzAgent, Inc.) actively recruit volunteers who willingly participate in a campaign by going out and buzzing the product or service (oftentimes in exchange for points that can be redeemed for prizes or the knowledge that they are the first among their peers to have access to a new product) and then report back to the buzz marketing company their own and others’ feedback about the product (the company then compiles and analyzes these various reports from the field and presents them to the client). Still others (e.g., Proctor & Gamble’s Tremor program) form an extensive network of carefully selected teenagers to create buzz among peers for their clients’ brands and products (Wells, 2004).

These distinct kinds of organizational marketing practices have raised a number of ethical concerns, some more than others. In addition to whether or not the institutional identity of the agent is disclosed, whether or not the person buzzing the brand is doing so for some form of compensation, and whether or not agents involve minors younger than age 13 (Wells, 2004), a significant concern is that through buzz marketing marketers are better able to infiltrate everyday conversations and relationships (Walker, 2004), which might be regarded as further instantiation of corporate colonization of the lifeworld (Deetz, 1992).

With traditional forms of marketing and advertising efforts, consumer audiences can “tune out” or “turn off” the advertising. However, what happens when the marketing is your friend or family member, in online and offline conversations? Is society increasingly falling prey to the “commercialization of chit-chat?”(Walker, 2004). Although these concerns are not new— for example, marketing to known others has been well-documented and critiqued in terms of Tupperware parties (Frenzen & Davis, 1990; Taylor, 1978) and multilevel marketing companies (Biggart, 1989; Carl, 2004; Fitzpatrick & Reynolds, 1997)—the fact that increasing numbers of well-known, mainstream organizations seek to amplify buzz in social networks has elevated the concern (Vranica, 2005).

2.2 Word of mouth

Word-of-mouth has grown in popularity over the past several years as a marketing and research medium (BzzAgent, 2005). Marketers seeking to find new methods for reaching customers and communicating with them have wondered if word-of-mouth could provide a potential solution to the dwindling return of traditional marketing platforms. Since the beginning of organized marketing programs, marketers viewed word-of-mouth as an incredibly valuable, yet uncontrollable, result of effective marketing practices.

Many marketers have implemented plans to fool word of mouth into occurring, seeding the marketplace with shills (paid actors talking up products and services). They found the results effective but extremely risky, since consumers didn’t like being deceived. In recent years, a number of companies have formed, seeking to harness the power of authentic word of mouth (BzzAgent, 2005). By organizing real consumers, they train them to share their honest opinions more effectively.

Defining word of mouth can be tricky, especially in light of the Internet and recent emergence of buzz marketing firms. According to Buttle’s (1998) review of marketing research, Arndt (1967) discussed word of mouth as face-to-face communication about a brand, product, or service between people who are perceived as not having connections to a commercial entity. Bone’s (1992) definition is similar though she noted that word of mouth could be a group phenomenon:

“An exchange of comments, thoughts, and ideas among two or more individuals in which none of the individuals represent a marketing source” (p. 579).

Stern (1994) distinguished word of mouth from advertising in that word of mouth is face-to-face, interactive, ephemeral, spontaneous, and does not include such features as clever turns of phrases or jingles. Buttle (1998), however, found these definitions unsatisfactory because (a) Word of mouth can include talk about an organization (in addition to a brand, product, or service), (b) it can be electronically mediated (such as cell phone, chat rooms, e-mail, Web sites, “tell-a-friend” hyperlinks, etc.), and (c) more and more companies may offer incentives or rewards for consumers to spread word of mouth or make referrals (e.g., to refer friends and family members for a company’s services). Buttle concluded that currently the only distinguishing feature of word of mouth may be that “word of mouth is uttered by sources that are assumed by receivers to be independent of corporate influence” (p. 243).

In contrast to traditional word of mouth marketing research, research on buzz marketing is still in its infancy. Verlegh, Verkerk, Tuk, and Smidts (2004) mentioned, but did not study, buzz marketers in their experimental research on whether or not financial incentives used when stimulating customer referrals alter the meaning of the situation such that consumers would perceive the word of mouth episode to be “persuasive” rather than just friendly, peer advice.

Thomas (2004) represented an early conceptual piece on buzz marketing where it was defined as the “amplification of initial marketing efforts by third parties through their passive or active influence” (p. 64). An early empirical study that applied insights from existing word of mouth and social network research from a firm’s perspective was conducted by Godes and Mayzlin (2004).

Abundant research demonstrates that word of mouth (WOM) is one of the most influential channels of communication in the marketplace. The reasons for WOM’s power are evident: word of mouth is seen as more credible than marketer initiated communications because it is perceived as having passed through the unbiased filter of “people like me.” At a time of declining trust in institutions, research shows that its influence is growing stronger. In a recent national survey (Harris Interactive, 2006a), U.S. consumers were asked which information sources they find useful when deciding which products to buy in four common product categories.

WOM and “recommendations from friends/family/people at work/school” were by far the most influential sources for fast food, cold medicine, and breakfast cereal. For personal computers, a highly technical category, we saw a strong reliance on expert advice in the form of product reviews and websites, followed by WOM as the next most useful. The consumer marketplace in which any enterprise operates is a complex, dynamic system.

A study found that disinterested, ill-prepared and unwelcoming salespeople lead to more lost business and bad word-of-mouth than any other management challenge in retailing. “There are a variety of different triggers for having a bad shopping experience, including things like parking or how well the store is organized. Some of those things retailers can do something about and some of them they can’t. But frankly, a very important part of the retail experience is the interaction with the sales associate,” says Wharton marketing professor Stephen J. Hoch, director of the Baker Initiative.

In a telephone survey of 1,000 shoppers who were asked about their most recent retail experience, 33% reported they had been unable to find a salesperson to help them. Many of these shoppers were so annoyed by this one problem that they said they would not return to the store. According to the Wharton analysis, sales associates who are missing in action cost American retailers six percent of their customers. Add to that the 25% of consumers reporting they were ignored outright by sales associates – no greeting, no smile, not even eye contact (Arndt, 1967; Aaker et al, 1996; Reingen and Kernan, 1986).

This lack of engagement turned off three percent of customers to the point where they said they would permanently stay way from the store in which they encountered this behaviour. Hoch remains puzzled by sales associates who retreat from potential customers. “You would think that if these sales associates are spending the whole day interacting with people, they would be a lot happier in their own life if they were friendly. Instead, they pull into their shell (Brown and Reingen, 1987).

What’s wrong with saying, ‘Hi, how are you doing?’” According to Paula Courtney, president of the Verde Group, survey respondents were not frustrated by sales associates who seemed overworked or outmanned by shoppers. It’s the “conscious ignoring” that irritates them, she says. “Customers would walk into a store and the store representative would see them and continue to put items on the shelf or watch the cash register or do administrative work – absolutely ignoring the fact that an actual person was in the store (Cox, 1963, cited in Brown at el, 2007).”

In the above example, the degree of interaction was bad with consumers at a particular retail outlet. This provided bad word of mouth and hampered long term sustainability for the retailer. In other words, this forms the central part of the dissertation that degree of interaction and word of mouth are slightly interrelated.

2.3 Motives of Social networking

British anthropologist Robin Dunbar estimates that humans can only maintain stable relationships with around 150 people. That number refers to significant relationships like those in a family or tribe and other purposeful groups. Yet in today’s over-informed digital business world, where bloated data moves at the speed of thought, it’s not who you know that really counts, but who knows you (Kozinets, 1999; Boyd and Ellison, 2008).

Professional online social networking tools are invaluable in creating personal brand equity and raising awareness about who you are, especially beyond your 150 closest friends (BBC News, 2005). Online social networking software enables you to find quality people who may not be familiar with you, or with your organization, and creates an opportunity to connect with them and sell them on your opportunities (Boyd and Ellison, 2008). They may be unfamiliar with your company or business, or may not have even been looking for something.

Because you already know someone who knows them, you can feel more comfortable that they are a quality prospect or at least can do some checking around (Boyd and Ellison, 2008). Also, because of that mutual connection, you can more easily overcome cumbersome barriers and begin a relationship with a little more trust and warmth than with a total stranger. Like “Six degrees of Kevin Bacon,” social networking sheds light on the contacts you never knew you had. For example, you can contact people in your network to:

Rekindle old connections
Maximize value in your weak connections
Build business relationships with clients or hiring managers
Find and meet prospective job-seekers
Grow a referral network
Heighten your corporate and personal brand
Make new connections and grow your sphere of influence
Open doors to future career opportunities, increased pay, or promotions
Increase visibility, which improves influence and effectiveness internally with your organization as well as externally

Social networking also helps you find new leads for networking into companies to:

Educate yourself and ask questions about other organizations
Conduct competitive intelligence on companies, industries, or individuals
Make fewer cold calls and better prepare for them
Leverage contacts you already have

With the help of existing literature, Ridings and Gefen (2004) categorised four reasons to join online communities: ‘information exchange’, ‘social support exchange’, ‘friendship, and ‘recreation’. Firstly, people choose to use online communities to access and exchange information. By using online communities, people can access a huge amount of information generated by other users since online community providers offer effective systems or technologies in order to make their users easily exchange, create, request and search information (Hagel and Armstrong, 1997).

The second reason why users participate in online communities is to obtain the social support. Wellman et al (1996) suggested that online communities give emotional support and sociability to their users by giving ‘a sense of belonging’. For instance, Mickelson (1997) gave examples of online communities which focus on recovering social problems such as alcohol and drug addicts in order to explain why the social support can be the motivation of using online communities.

Thirdly, people join online communities to manage relationships. To seek friendship or to generate social capital, which can be defined as the resources gathered through the relationships among people (Coleman, 1988), online community users interact with other users with the aim of establishing and continuing relationships. For example, offline social capital can be generated by means of online tools, especially using social networking sites when people want to expand or keep up their offline relationships. Lastly, recreation is another reason why people experience online communities.

In conclusion, how word-of-mouth affects consumer behaviour can be described by those three factors; tie strength, homophily, and source credibility. As mentioned above, Brown et al (2007) and other researchers (Silverman, 1997; Money et al, 1998; Bansal and Voyer, 2000) explored the nature of word-of-mouth in online communities. Finally, the summary of the research above is compared by Brown et al (2007) as the following Table 1.

Table 1: A Comparison between offline and online social network constructs

Offline

Online

Tie Strength

Definition

The intensity of a social relation between pairs of individuals

The intensity of an interactive and personalised relationship between an individual and a website

Homophily

Definition

The degree to which pairs of individuals are similar in terms of certain attributes

The congruence between a user’s psychological attributes and website content

Source Credibility

Definition

Perceived competence of the individual source providing information

Perceived competence of the website and its membership

Source: Brown et al, 2007, pp. 10 Table 1

Bottom line: It could be seen that different internet users have diverse motives to enter social networking sites. Fulfilment of motives can enhance positive word of mouth and higher degree of interaction of a particular website. As per previous academic literature there have been negligible cases that internet users have entered social networking with out motivations. This forms the foundation of dissertation.

3.0 Research Model
3.1 Research approach

The research strategy we intend to adopt is a combination of multi-methods, of deductive, inductive and exploratory. Quantitative data will be collected throughout the life cycle of the project, from secondary sources: journals, databases, past dissertations, newspapers and magazine articles etc. We propose to use the following secondary databases to conduct quantitative data research:

Emerald Full text
Emerald Reviews
Emerald Abstracts
Swet Wise
Reuters Business Insight
Regional Business News
Questia Media

Primary research will be conducted, using a closed questionnaire designed to predict average behaviour of children in general (Saunders et al. 2003). The inductive approach takes to account interpretivism or social considerations, which enables to establish the intentions of the respondents more clearly.

Saunders et al (2003) says that data collected using open-ended questions allows individuals more flexibility in answering, which may confirm a hypothesis or other wise. The limitation or disadvantage of this approach is that it is subjective and can only be applied to a limited sample of participants (Saunders et el. 2003).

Exploratory research will be conducted on a pilot group consisting of young internet users (mainly with Orkut profiles) within the age group 15-20 who will participate in a discussion on the following; the influence of motivations for using social networking sites on degree of interaction and word of mouth in United Kingdom.

3.2 Research Design

A research design is a program that guides the investigator in the process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting observations. According to Nachmias & Nachmias (1987) it is logical model of proof that allows the researcher to draw inferences concerning causal relationships among the variables under investigation. Consequently, the appropriate research design will depend on the problem to be investigated (Churchill, 1991), the purpose of the research, the research questions, and the state of the knowledge existing prior to the research plan (Eisenhardt, 1989).

Research methods and data collection, form an elementary part of the research design. Typically, the research methods and the data collection techniques are functions of the purpose of the research design. The purpose of the research may be organized into three groups based on what the researcher is trying to accomplish: explore a new topic, describe social phenomena or explain why something occurs.

The three basic types of research designs are: Exploratory (Case Studies), Descriptive and Casual.

3.2.1 Case Study

The case study approach is the most widely used in management fraternity. A Case study is the collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular participant or small group, frequently including the accounts of subjects themselves. It’s a form of qualitative descriptive research and it deals intensely at an individual or small participant pool, drawing conclusions only about that participant or group and only in that specific context.

This research design is not used to focus on topics such as discovery of a universal, general

Virtual CommunitiesAbstract

This article is to discuss the claim that new forms of computer mediated social networking sites have created virtual communities. Author analysed two specific examples – Facebook.com and Myspace.com to elaborate discussion. The article will include the analysis of the notion and the value of virtual community and followed by the features of social networking site by take a close look into two famous and successful social networking sites – Facebook.com and Myspace.com. The article will get conclusion by comparison the values and features between SNS and virtual community to identify the relationship between them. The privacy issue also been mentioned in the article.

Introduction

Updated information from Alexa.com – a information website calculate the web traffic metrics also count the ranking of popular website in the whole world shows that the facebook.com has achieved the second popular ranking website worldwide followed Google.com. In additional, many similar website such as windows live.com, Blogger.com, twitter.com, myspace.com etc. get the higher ranking on the list. It indicates the success of social networking sites and those social network sites has been a crucial part of our today’s virtual community. The aim of the essay is to discuss the claim of new forms of computer mediated social networking sites have created virtual communities by analysis two famous successful social networking sites, facebook.com and myspace.com.

A virtual community is a group of people that primarily interact via communication media such as newsletters, telephone, email, internet social network service or instant messages rather than face to face, for social, professional, educational or other purposes. There are many types of virtual community are varies on internet world. They may include applications such as instant message, email, chat room as well as internet site such as blogs, social networking sites, photo and video sharing sites YouTube.com, and virtual realit environments or online game environments such as Second Life. (Boneva, Quinn, Kraut, Kiesler, & Shklovski, 2006; Gross, 2004) Most of those websites and functions are taking advantage the newly technology – Web 2.0.

Web 2.0 and Virtual Community

We are in the midst of a digital revolution that is giving way to a “new information environment” (Bimber, 2003). The most important technology which may stimulate the development of virtual community is Web 2.0, As recently described by Pew, The advent of Web 2.0 – the ability of people to use a range of information and communication technology as a platform to express themselves online and participate in the commons of cyberspace – is often heralded as the next phase of the information society. (Pew, 2007, p.ii) It is the key technology to create a muti-user environment which is the centre to the idea of cyberspace. Although web 1.0 can hold some of online community in early stage like chatting room, they just focused on bringing people together to have a talk or chat while web 2.0 encourage more interactive between group of people with muti-functional tools. Web 2.0 has been defined as ‘a group of technologies which have become deeply associated with the term: blogs, wikis, podcasts, RSS feeds, etc., which facilitate a more socially connected Web where everyone is able to add to and edit the information space’ (Anderson, 2007). Christy M.K. Cheung and Matthew K.O. Lee (2009) stated that the proliferation of web 2.0 technologies made people easier to get involved in information exchange, and it made internet more interactive, customized, social and media intensive. The availability of create and publish online content is one of the most important feature of Web 2.0. It offers social spaces where people can share common interests and exchange information as they want. The feature made online environment create a virtual community.

By take a view into traditional community we can find there are some common features between real and virtual community. In biological terms, a community is a group of interacting organisms sharing an environment, internet offer this common space for internet user. In sociology, the concept of community has caused infinite debate, and sociologists are yet to reach agreement on a definition of the term. Traditionally a “community” has been defined as a group of interacting people living in a common location. Daniel Memmi argued, “though sage varies somewhat, it appears that in the most usual sense, a community refers to a particular kind of social group, defined by strong personal links” the dance community in Brunel University, the member of the community has been assemble together by their common interests and build strong personal link with each other by participate in the community activities. Sometimes the situations are the same with some online community like some fandom blog or online community. Members share their common interests with strong personal relationships. The real communities won’t be large since it is hard for member to know each other and build relationship with each other well in a huge community. Usually traditional community required face to face communication within members as they can share their information together and maintain relationship with others. Virtual Community is new type of community which keeps the main features of traditional community but some characteristics are different.

1. Location & time flexibility

There is no need for virtual community to assemble their members to come to a physical common location or place at same period of time together. ‘The World Wilde Web’ is the place for everyone in every virtual community. People from all over the world can join in any of virtual community and participate in the activities anytime they want. This feature is benefit from the characteristic of network society. Manuel Castells (1996: 445) introduces the concept of ‘timeless time’ which is a famous concept about time & space in the modern network society. He argued the network society endeavors to create a ‘forever universe’ in which the limits of time are pushed further and further back. Take youtube.com as an example, the website has cooperated with many cell phone maker companies to embed the function of upload video to youtube.com from the mobile phone directly, which means people can take a video clip by the mobile phone camera and publish on youtube.com immediately from anywhere they are.

2. Scales

Usually, successfully virtual communities have huge number of members such as facebook.com, the statistics from official website (statistic.facebook.com 2010) shows that they have more than 300million active users and 50% of active users log on to in any given day. And another statistic shows average user has 130 friends on the site. This feature is different from traditional community since the size of realistic community can’t be such huge. People in traditional community need to build relationship with other members and also need to keep in touch with them. It is impossible to achieve that with large number of people while it seems not compulsory for the member in some of virtual community.

3. Strong personal link or Impersonal link

As I mentioned before, traditional virtual community is based on strong personal link. However some types of virtual communities are based on more functional link like youtube.com or ebay.com. Memmi (2006) suggests that virtual community is often large, and show casual, impersonal relationships. People join in those communities for seeking some kind of value and profit. Member of ebay.com can buy or sell their product on this platform and member of youtube.com can get the latest news and update information about what they may interested in. Those types of communities are no difference with our real modern society. The motivations joining those virtual communities may be there are more convenience, more valuable and more democracy on this platform. Most importantly, they are going to exchange their information on internet. Knowledge and information are, in general, a valuable currency or social resource in virtual communities (Binik, Cantor, Ochs, & Meana, 1997; Hiltz & Wellman, 1997; Rheingold, 1993a; Sproull & Faraj, 1997). http://www.fixya.com/ is a virtual community which encourage their member to help other member in IT fix problem. Member of Fixya can either ask question about IT problem or help other member to solve their problem. Member of that website doesn’t even know who help and support you, that is those link are not strong personal link, The other way round, virtual community like facebook.com and online game are based on strong personal link and different like Memmi’s idea about impersonal nature about virtual community. As the high ranking of those social networking sites become more and more popular, SNS has became one of most important part in virtual community that is personal strong relationship maintains in huge part of today’s virtual community. U.M. Dholakia, R.P. Bagozzi and L.K. Pearo (2004: 224) stated 5 types of value offering by virtual community in the table of ‘the values of using a virtual community:

Purposive value

Just like article have mentioned above, information exchange, by information exchange online, people who has no information or knowledge in specific area can get the knowledge they need from the virtual community also they can share their information with other member to accomplish this virtual community.

Self-discovery

People who join in the virtual community may obtain access to social resources and facilitate the attainment of their own future goal; in addition, they may form clearly define and elaborate on their own preference based on interaction with others. (U.M. Dholakia, R.P. Bagozzi and L.K. Pearo 2004: 224)

Entertainment value

Facilitates like online game such as MMORPG or virtual world game like second life become a platform and offer chance for people to play and relaxing in it. Also many SNS websites have the same function with online game. ‘it is the value draw from fun and relaxation through playing otherwise interacting with others’ (U.M. Dholakia, R.P. Bagozzi and L.K. Pearo 2004: 224)

Social enhancement

This value is supported by most social networking sites. Most of them allow user and member to create a profile for themselves such as their interests, favorite book, and graduate university or whether you like to dating with strangers etc. The personal relevance information may help members gaining acceptance and approval of other members and enhanced their network social status in those virtual communities.

Maintain interpersonal relationship

We are in the modern Gesellschaft-type society. German sociologists such as To?nnies, Simmel, and Weber have proposed a fundamental distinction between traditional community (Gemeinschaft in German) and modern society (German Gesellschaft). (Tonnies 1963; Weber 1956; Simmel 1989) in modern Gesellschaft-type society, links are much more impersonal, temporary and functional (as is typical in city life). In larger modern associations, function and social roles replace personal relations as the basis of social status. The increasing size of these organizations makes it impossible anyway to know all other group members on a personal basis, and social functioning is guided by rules, regulations and contracts, rather than by traditional custom and personal obligations. Individual members may well belong to several groups and group identity is much weaker. (Daniel Memmi, 2006) Under this social structure, the emerging of loneliness is unavoidable. That’s why people are keen on express themselves and keep contact with their friend on facebook.com or play a virtual online game such as MMORPG. Join in this type of virtual communities can provide additional benefits beyond that of information exchange – The feeling of being together and being a member of a group and being part of a group, spending time together, companionship, socializing, and networking discussing the same topic with other people no matter how far the distance between members each other. Most people join in social networking sites to seek this kind of value support by virtual community. The article will analyse today’s social networking sites in following parts.

Social networking sites

Danah M. Boyd and Nicole B. Ellison (2007) defined social networking sites as ‘web-based services that allow individuals to construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system; articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection and view and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within the system. ‘Mike Thelwall (2008) argued very similar that social network websites are web servers that allow internet user to register for being a member of that website. The members can communicate with selected other people while they request being a friend with them by showing their own profile, the personal profile usually being created in advance – the same time register as a member. Members may edit their profile by uploading new picture, video clips or other relevant information. Only people who confirm the request by others for being a friend can gain the right to access to the full profile of your friend online. Most SNS offering many applications for members such as online instant message, blogging, photo sharing facility, online game apps etc. Theses applications enhanced the interaction with members. Actually members seem to using social networking site as a tool for maintaining previous relationship and meet strangers on internet. (Jennefer Hart, Ridlely, Faaisal Taher, Corina Sas, Alan Dix 2008) Many pervious scholarships identified that the concept of ‘friendship’ is the key to analyse the social network sites. Those sites are also benefited the strength of weak ties

Weak ties and Strong ties

The term of Weak ties raised by M. Ganovetter(1973). He suggested that there are two types of relationship between peoples – ‘weak ties and strong ties’. Weak ties are different from strong ties while the weak ties relationship usually being maintained between people from different background. Williams, D. (2006) mentioned that ‘weaker ties tend to be to those people less like the first person, they lead to more people in different life situations and thus to a broader set of information and opportunities.’ Social network sites are encouraging people to obtain those weak ties relationship all over the world. By join the SNS like Myspaces.com and Twitter.com, people can make new friend online and they may feel they been connect with the world and can know what happening outside. Weak ties relationship also can let people to know different perceptions towards current hot event from different background. When most social network focused on establishing weak ties relationship between members, Facebook also put much attention on building strong ties relationships. Facebook is encouraging people access to their offline friend rather than strangers on internet. Those friends may come from the same background such as university classmate. People with strong ties relation may be very close friend which may share important information. Members of Facebook.com may keep in touch with their offline friends on internet. The following part of the article will analyse the characteristics of social networking sites by compare two famous SNS – Facebook.com & Myspaces.com

Background information about Facebook.com & Myspaces.com

Facebook.com first introduced on Feb 2004 in USA. Jane Lewis and Anne West (2009) suggested that at the beginning of this website is for Harvard students only. Several months later, the website became also available for students in Stanford, Columbia and Yale. Gradually Facebook.com was reached most university in America for student to reach each other and find their friend on it. The website has been introduced in UK in Oct 2005. With the development of Facebook.com, this more traditional university student only online community became a social networking site which opens to everyone who has a valid email address in 2006. More than half of facebook.com users were non-universities students anymore in 2007 (Facebook.com, 2007b).

Myspace.com is also born in USA. The origin of myspace.com was a leading online storage and sharing site called YourZ.com until 2002 (YOLANDA VILLATE 2002). From 2002-2004, Myspace.com existed as a brand associated with YourZ.com, had made the transition from a virtual storage site to a social networking site. Nowadays myspace.com has become 5th most visited in USA and 23rd most visited website in UK. Different from Facebook.com, Myspace.com enhanced the relationship between members which from different background and never met before. Myspace.com also emphasis the fandom issue for members who is the fan of some celebrities. It becomes one of the most reasons for being success in world wide.

Online and offline friendship

As mentioned before, the concept of friendship is very important for social networking sites. It does being considered by both facebook.com and myspace.com. Pointed out by Mike Thelwall (2008) social network friendship has been explored most systematically. In terms of Facebook.com, facebook.com still as its favorite of student based social network site. In 2007’s research taken by Golder, Wilkinson, and Huberman, they states that most communication on facebook.com take place between students at same college or used to be in a same college that is their relationship or friendship has already been established. Jennefer Hart, Charlene Ridley, Fasial Taher, Corina Sas, Alan Dix (2008) argued that there is a particular aspect of Faceboook.com makes it distinctly with others social network sites is the trend of enhanced offline relationship with online relationship. Facebook.com members are using website to maintain relationships with their offline friends. They can also search their pervious friend in college even in high school. At that time, facebook.com becomes a ‘social search engine’. Many people are interested in what happened on their old friend and been access to them without the barrier of distance. McCartjy and Wright suggested that facebook.com members being more intensified wit offline relationships rather than meet new people. Myspace.com is different from Facebook.com; ‘it seems that there is a class divide, at least in the U.S., between education-oriented Facebook.com users and predominantly non college-educated MySpace users.’ (Boyd, 2007) Myspace.com is mainly focus on building weak ties relationship between members. It can be found obviously when register a new account. People who want to being a member of myspace.com need to chose what type of relationship they are looking for such as dating, serious relationship or friend etc. in addition, myspace.com encourage bands to join in the music.myspace.com while other members can register as a member of those bands or musicians. It made possible for members who are the fan of those musicians and bands to track their recent situation and activity. Moreover being a ‘friend’ with idols or celebrities is really attractive for members of myspace.com. Although myspace.com is a weak ties friendship social network sites, the result from recent research about friendship in myspace.com conduct by Thelwall (2008) shows more and more people brings their offline relationship to myspace.com like facebook.com. Also many celebrities has been registered on facebook.com which enable members of faceboo.com to following their speech and activities, that is those SNS has become more and more comprehensive rather than focus on one direction.

Reason and activities of people use social network sites

The article has mentioned above that friendship – maintain offline friendship or meet new friend on internet is the key reason people become member of social network sites. However what they do regularly on these SNS are not yet clearly. Research done by Kaveri Subrahmanyam, Stephanie M. Reich, Natalia Waechter, Guadalupe Espinoza (2008) gave us some suggestion about that.

The chart above shows that participants answered using social networking sites mainly for social reasons that involved people from their offline lives, the reason of keeping in touch with friends they do not see often ranked first (81%) followed by because all their friends had accounts (61%), keeping in touch with relatives and family (48%), and making plans with friends they see often (35%). As the trend mentioned above today’s Social networking site users in the samples are less frequently use social networking sites to look for new friendship online (29%). For most university students, the more popular social networking activities involved interacting with other known users rather than looking for new friends, new music, or finding groups to talk about specific issues. (Kaveri Subrahmanyam, Stephanie M. Reich, Natalia Waechter, Guadalupe Espinoza 2008)

This chart from the same research shows the activities of SNS member which they did most frequently on internet. the most common social networking activities that users did is reading/responding to notes/messages (77%) followed by reading comments/ posts on their profile page/wall (75%), browsing friends ‘pages/profiles/walls (66%), and writing comments on friends ‘pages/posting on other people’s walls/tagging photos (54%). They also put much time on search new friend, looked for profiles and edited/ updated their profile and status. The result also shows that member is more reluctant to create or join a new group. (Kaveri Subrahmanyam, Stephanie M. Reich, Natalia Waechter, Guadalupe Espinoza 2008) These data collect from research may help the article to identify in what extent whether social network sites have created virtual community by compare the value of virtual community and SNS member behavior. The two famous social network website – facebook.com and myspace.com will be discussed in the following part.

Value of virtual community and social network sites

The article discussed above which rose by Christy M.K. Cheung and Matthew K.O. Lee (2009) they pointed out R.P Bagozzi and U.M. Dholakia (2002)’s work about 5 different type of value people may gain from virtual community – purposive value, self discovery, entertainment value, social enhancement, and maintaining interpersonal relationship.

Purposive value

Although there is an application for Facebook.com called news feeds which allow members to share their recently to information about themselves. There is no other information members can get from the website or other member only if other member share their information with you. Myspace.com offering better purposive value compare with facebook.com. Members may link to musician and bands myspace.com account website to track their new released information or listen their new music or watch newly uploaded music video clips and most importantly all the music is free. Celebrities like USA president Obama also have the blog in myspace.com. Members may access to his recent announcement or speech on his blog. In some extent those information are purposive value, however still there are limitation on this type of value compare with other professional video or information sharing website such as youtube.com

Self-discovery value

Both facebook.com and myspace.com enable member to think more about recent hot issue by sharing their views on their blog. People may be influenced by other people by their comments or view towards specific event or issue. The twitter.com is the most powerful SNS in this field. When people open the twitter.com, there is even no need to register, people may search the topic they interested in and to see how people around world think about it. The home page of twitter.com also offers the hottest keyword for recommendations.

Entertainment value

Jennefer Hart, Chariene Ridley, Faisal Taher, Corina Sas, Alan Dix (2008) suggests that one of the most important reasons for both joining and engaging with SNS like facebook.com was the ‘social pleasure’. Social pleasure means that to have an enjoyable experience for using those social network sites. Facebook.com offers different facilities and applications for the members to interact with each other. Despite those common features, the ‘wall’ is really interesting idea which enable member’s friend writing or drawing a picture on their wall. In addition, facebook.com supports many online mini game apps which can be available for multiplayer like you and your friend. Most of those mini online games are quite interesting. Myspace.com share the same function with facebook.com in the part of online game apps, moreover, to build relationship with musician and band and watching music video can be fun for members of myspace.com. It indicates the data above that nearly 50% participants join in the social network sites for have fun and not be board.

Social enhancement

The result of the research shows majority of members of social network site keep adding profile and writing comments. It is a way for member to expressing themselves and also enhances their social status. ‘The aspect of representing oneself to other people in a social situation was a key feature within Facebook.com’ (Jennefer Hart, Chariene Ridley, Faisal Taher, Corina Sas, Alan Dix 2008) Sonia Livingston (2008) suggests similar that people on internet always devoted attention to the presentation of self. Creating and networking online content is becoming a crucial part of presenting one’s identity, lifestyle and social relations. Social network sites like facebook.com and myspace.com allows member to create their own profile to express themselves and share them with their friends. Facebook.com also offers different way for member to show them on the stage such as sharing photo and video with their friend. The process of sign up for being a member of myspace.com also proves that the personal profile may enhance their social status. Despite the basic personal information, myspace.com also request information more details such as Occupation, Ethnicity, seeking relationship choice from Dating, Serious Relationships, Friends, Network. In addition to the information link, following the Background & Lifestyle link gives more choices like Marital Status, Sexual Orientation, Religion, Children (attitudes towards whether to have a baby). Those complicated information may help better targeting by other people who are trying to find a specific type of people with clear aims. Members can be better identified by those complicated profiles. Jane Lewis and Anne West (2009) state that social network sites required members to construct profiles. they can have more to do with individual display and the presentation of self.

Maintain interpersonal relationship

Research data shows that the reason for people join in society networking sites such as Facebook.com is to stay in touch with those friends they can’t meet often. The reason matches the value of virtual community which indicated that people are more willing to keep in contact with others people. Nicole B. Ellison, Cliff Lampe, Charles Steinfield (2007) suggested that our generation become increased isolated because of the new technology of the days. People are getting busy and facing heavy stress from the society. It is more and more time-intensive for people to keep contact with their friend. Facebook.com may offer a opportunity to make new friends moreover to find old friends. It is not only helps people to reconnect with their old friend but also recalls the past memories. (Jennefer Hart, Chariene Ridley, Faisal Taher, Corina SAS, Alan Dix 2008) Facebook.com can give members suggestion about their potential friend by searching the common friend with existing friend. It is surprising to find out someone you know on the suggestion friend list. Updated myspace.com also has the similar function with facebook.com. The article has discussed that social network sites are bridging the relationship between online and offline.

It is not difficult to find out the relationship between social network sites and virtual communities. By analyse the value and feature of them, we may conclude that they shared majority of the value with the similar characteristics. This fact proves that social network sites create the part virtual community as some of the value SNS cannot support like technology and information exchange. Those parts of virtual community are being created by some website which hold more impersonal website like YouTube and Wikipedia.

Privacy issue of social network sites

Privacy issue has emerged regarding the use of virtual community and social network sites such as Facebook.com as a means of surveillance and data mining. It is important to mention this issue as many case studies can prove the threats towards user safety concer. Two MIT students were able to download over 70,000Facebook profiles from four schools (MIT, New York University, the University of Oklahoma, and Harvard University) using an automated shell script, as part of a research project on Facebook privacy published on December 14, 2005. The possibility of data mining remains open, as evidenced in May 2008, when the BBC technology program “Click” demonstrated that personal details of Facebook users and their friends could be stolen by submitting malicious applications. We are benefit from the new technology environment, however this technology also benefit those people who want to collecting personal information from the community. Acqiosti and Gross (2006) presented their idea about there is a disconnect between students’ desire to protect privacy and their behavior. The level of security may influences member of SNS whether to put real information on it such as facebook.com users expressed greater trust on Facebook rather than Myspace.com.

Conclusion

This article has analysed the relationship between virtual community and social network site. Firstly Virtual community has been identified as a new form of community based on internet technology which enables people to shared interests or goals for which electronic communication is a primary form of interaction. (Dennis, Pootheri, & Natarajan, 1998) It is different from traditional community such as there is no limitation on location, time and size of virtual community, also some of the virtual community based on functional link rather than personal link. Within site with strong personal link, the article discuss the social networking site, social networking site is web 2.0 based services which allow member of the sites create their own profile and communicate with friend they established relationship online. Facebook.com and Myspace.com being selected as two examples to analysis the characteristic of social network sites. Facebook.com established on strong ties relationship while Myspace.com encourage more weak ties relationship, that is meet new friend on internet from different background. However the recent trend that more and more members join in society is to maintain their offline relationship with their past friend or existing friend. The boundary of whether the relationship is weak ties or strong ties has been blurred. By review the existing research towards reason and motivation of people how use social networking site, the essay find out that most people join in the SNS for contacting their friend they don’t often get in touch with. Comparisons between the reasons for participate in SNS and value offered by virtual community has been conducted at the last part of the article. The result of comparison suggests the reason and value are very similar between SNS and virtual community that is the result proves the claim that social networking sites created the virtual community, at least a huge part of virtual community. The other impersona

Social movements are loosely formed groupings of individuals which are usually formed with the aim of campaigning for or against the implementation of a certain issue in the society. Social movements do not have standard sizes because some may be made up of few individuals while others may cover even the whole part of the world. The size of the movement generally depends on the issues that are being debated at the time of its formation. Such movements are generally governed by the spontaneous coming together of people guided by no rules of regulations but rather by the common cause that brings the together (Saunders & Walter, 2005). Some of the hottest topics that mostly capture the agendas of most western social movements include freedom of expressions, economic independence, and gender equality among others. The purpose of this study is to identify social movements that address issues related to gender and how such movements have affected gender. This will be possible by analyzing the political environment that led to the existence of the social movements being discussed. The study will also seek to identify some of the impacts that the movements have head in the society at large (Love, 2006).

Women’s Suffrage, Ecofeminism and Women’s liberations movements are some of the social movements identified in this study that have some effect on gender issues and how the society addresses issues related to women. Women’s suffrage for instance is a social movements formed in the early 18th century to advocate for women to vote and run for public offices. This social movement has its basis on the era in which women were discriminated and considered to be too weak to hold any public office with diligence (Chapman, 2009). Such a movement called for the reformation of the economic and political spheres so that women could have equal competing field with men. Additionally, the movement also articulated for the honoring of women by being given equal rights as men in the ownership of property, payment of tax among other rights. Evidence point out that New Zealand became the first nation to vote for a woman to hold public office as a result of this social movement (Saunders & Walter, 2005).

The existence of the Women’s Suffrage as a social movement clearly points out the nature of the political environment at those times to have been discriminative against women. Women were generally not allowed not to hold any public office and they had no right to own property. Generally, women were treated as if they did not have any say regarding their rights. However, the emergence of this movement drastically changed the perspective of the society towards women (Saunders & Walter, 2005). The fact that women became part of leaders and held public offices is a clear indication that the social movement had a positive effect on the society because they ended up accepting the facts given by the social movement. The change also had the effect of changing the political structures of nations that accepted the calls made by the social movement.

Ecofeminism is another social movement that has been shown to have a significant impact on the society. This movement indicates that there exists a commonality between environmentalism and being a woman. According to the proponents of this movement, there is a relationship between the way women are oppressed in the society and the destruction of nature through the creation of concepts that may indicate how inferior women are inferior to men (Chapman, 2009). This social movement explores or existed in a society that believed that men are always superior over women. Such a political environment is seen to have perpetuated social inequalities like racism among others. The brainchild of this movement was driven by the fact that the same intellect that promotes the destruction of the environment.

The existence of ecofeminism describes the political environment in twofold. Women were being oppressed and discriminated in all manners possible. It also shows that there was environmental degradation that would ultimately threaten human existence. The coming of this social movement changed the society’s perspective by improving the interrelationships between human beings. Additionally, the movement is seen as one of the factors that led to the extinction of discrimination on the basis of gender. Consciousness about caring for the environment also developed due to the coming up of the social movement (Love, 2006).

Women’s liberation movement is another social movement distinct from the feminism or ecofeminism which began to develop in the early 1960s. The social movement was formed to fight for all the possible women rights that may have been violated at the time of its formation. The movement was strengthened through the formation of two bodies in the United States. The National Organization of Women and Equal Rights Amendment were formed with the aim championing for the honoring of the rights of women. The political environment during the formation of the social movement clearly indicates how the rights of women we not being respected (Chapman, 2009).

However, the existence of this social movement is seen to have changed the perspective of the society regarding the ways in which they could be able to treat women equally as men. This may have been the reason that led to the formation of the two bodies to oversee the fact that the rights of women were respected. Social movements are important bodies of the society because they address issues that dealt unfairly in the society. The ones related to gender are seen to champion for the respect of the rights of women in a society and a political environment that despises them (Love, 2006). The social movements identified in this study are seen to have facilitated the eradication of vices like racial and gender discrimination among others. The nature of the political environment is seen to facilitate the formation of a social movement in the sense that whenever the rights of a particular groups are infringed, the afflicted groups may be forced to from a movement that will champion for their rights (Saunders & Walter, 2005).

Introduction

Late modern society is a network society (Castells, 1997). Devices such as smart phones are portable connect individuals in a complex system of interaction via emails, Facebook, Linkedin, Mumsnet, BlackBerry Messenger which support the functionalist vision. Social media sites are social platforms such as Twitter and Facebook that function for the purpose of enabling the interaction between millions of individuals whenever, wherever and about whatever given subject they wish to communicate. By the end of 2013 Facebook had 1.23 billion subscribers (Sedghi, 2014). This growth amounted to 170 million new subscribers in 2013 alone (Sedghi, 2014). The main use of Facebook is to maintain socially cohesive contact with friends and family which supports the functionalist vision of society (Ofcom, 2011). It is argued by C. Wright Mills (1956) that society is manipulated into a social order by the one-directional rhetoric of the mass media. In contrast, social media sites are capable of bi-directional interaction with others which is socially cohesive and supports the functionalist vision of society. However, this is not always the case. This paper provides a critical evaluation of the function of social media sites firstly by providing an overview of functionalism and secondly by illustrating how social media both supports and contradicts the functionalist vision of society.

Functionalism

The positivist approach of structural functionalists involves analysing society from a macro-sociological perspective. They view society as a set of interrelated institutions which form a whole (Abercrombie et al., 2000:145). Such institutions include the family, education, politics, law, the media, organisations, economics and religion (Abercrombie et al., 2000:145). These form the agents of socialization which the shape behaviours that form a public consensus among which they do through constant institutional interaction (Durkheim, 1893:50). Durkheim focused on the consequences of social change between two eras; pre-modern [mechanical] society and industrial [organic] society (Durkheim, 1893). Pre-modern agrarian society was cohesive, tied by kinship with a collective consciousness of norms, which were constantly reinforced through socialisation and interaction (Durkheim, 1893). The shift from the simplicity of the mechanical society to the complexities of organic society impacted negatively on kinship and collective values as individuals undertook multiple forms of work in this new mode of production; capitalism (Durkheim, 1893).

Durkheim’s (1893) analysis of organic society extends an analogy originally devised by Spencer (1820–1903) whereby he likens society to the human body insofar as both have interdependent parts that must function for survival (Coser, 1893 [1997]: xvi). If any organ [institution] malfunctions, the body social [society] becomes unstable (Durkheim, 1893). As such, each organism [individual] has a specialist role within these institutions which it performs for the social good; not least because their own survival depends on it (Durkheim, 1893). Appropriating active social change is not advised because the institutions and the body social will be destabilised causing anomie (Durkheim, 1893). Anomie is a causal factor of social instability as a result of the inequalities in the division of labour as a result of some organisms outperforming others (Durkheim, 1893). This differentiation exacerbated the stratification that formed hierarchies in the new industrial workforce which polarised rich and poor (Durkheim, 1893).

Social Dysfunction

In a modern context, anomie also descended on the British inner cities for similar reasons in August 2011 when the dysfunction of the political, legal and educational institutions failed to meet the needs of the body social (Durkheim, 1893). Merton argues that institutional dysfunction which can be the ‘unintentional consequences’ of ‘latent functions’ (Merton, 1968:105). In contrast, adaptations to society by institutions are ‘manifest functions’ which are deliberately applied (Merton, 1968:105). The manifest functions involved (Merton, 1968: 105). As Merton asserts, such functions are targeted towards ‘individuals in diverse statuses, subgroups the larger social system and culture systems’ such as limiting opportunities to education through welfare reforms for British working class youths (Merton, 1968:106).

The response by disaffected youths was the riots that ensued across the UK in 2011 which was orchestrated using the free service BlackBerry Messenger [BBM] (Lewis et al., 2012). BBM is a free service in which one message can be disseminated to hundreds of recipients instantly who then forward the message to the hundreds more (Lewis et al., 2012). The social cohesion resulting from BBM extended to a temporary truce between otherwise rival gangs which is a positive function of interaction (Lewis et al., 2012). The riots came to an abrupt end when BlackBerry disconnected the service thus illustrating how solidarity depends on interaction (Lewis et al., 2012). Twitter was also accused of inciting the riots but it was later proven that the 2.5 million riot-related tweets showed solidarity against the rioters whilst also recruiting individuals to help with the clean-up process which serve the functionalist vision of society (BBC News 2011: [Online]). Similarly, the anomie in Egypt and Tunisia was corrected by implementing the overthrow of their relative dictators which was mobilised via Facebook (Bouteflika, 2011).

The Social System

It is also argued that crime is necessary, inevitable and functional because it elicits the solidarity of the law-abiding public whose anger culminates in the public shaming and punishment of the offender (Durkheim, 1893). Crime therefore serves to redefine the moral boundaries which supports the functionalist vision of society (Durkheim, 1893). Unlike the riots, social stability occurs when all of the component parts are fully functioning producing a system of ‘equilibrium’ (Parsons, 1951which is contingent upon the strength or weaknesses of the interactive relationships between the institutions (Parsons, 1951: [1999: 84). In this context, Parsons (1951) claims that actors are ‘goal-achieving’ and have alternate ways of achieving goals such as through education which is universal and equal (1951:130). In contrast, Merton argues that society sets the cultural goals but fails to provide the institutional means to achieve them (1938:100).

While Durkheim’s functionalist vision is positivist in its assumptions that organisms are homogenous, Talcott Parson’s theory of The Social System recognised that society comprised of a plurality of individual actors interacting with each other (1951 [1991]: 3). Parsons (1951) argued that the social system is contingent upon a set of four prerequisites which include: adaptation in times of social change due to one of the institutions malfunctioning; goals involves achieving certain goals in society; integration is the reliance that actors will identify with their social group; and latency involves maintaining the foundations of the social system such as through solid family socialisation.

Mumsnet

This would never be tolerated by the UKs top parenting site Mumsnet which is an interactive forum run by ‘parents for parents’ (Mumsnet, 2015: [Online]). Mumsnet offers advice to parents on ‘pregnancy, education, money, and work (Mumsnet, 2015: [Online]). Within these discourses advice ranging from breastfeeding to university education is all designed to educate and optimise how parents raise their utmost for their children (Mumsnet, 2015 [Online]). In this context, Mumsnet clearly supports the functional vision of society as it interacts with most of the institutional organs of the body social most all of the institutions (Mumsnet, 2015).

According to Maxwell and Aggleton, (2013:139) Mumsnet contains symbolic and ritualistic undercurrents that allow the class disparities to surface. For example, Mumsnet has a strict netiquette whereby husbands and children are identified within the posts by individuals as DH [dear husband] DS [dear son] and DD [dear daughter] which denotes ritual whilst imposing middle class values on working class families.

Parsons argues that ‘the primary problems and strains centre on the role of the wife and mother … The “easy” solution is for her to be completely excluded from the occupational system by confining herself to the role of housewife (1951:128). However, Mumsnet mothers consider themselves professional mothers who can juggle their work-life balance with ease (2013:139). For example, class disparities are evident in an exchange on Mumsnet between several mothers on children watching TV. For example,

We can’t all be Mother Earth
I wouldn’t listen to some of the militant mums on here
Being pregnant is no reason to be lazy parent to your toddler
How judgey some people can be about a little TV
At least the child isn’t strapped in a buggy with a packet of crisps and a bottle of coke
Nowt wrong with crisps and a bottle of coke
Exactly, as long as they’re organic

(Maxwell and Aggleton, 2013:138)

Such class differentiations are glaringly evident on Mumsnet who sell themselves as professional mothers who are well versed in child rearing (Maxwell and Agglegate, 2013). While functionalists overlook class in their macrosociological analysis, Mumsnet is class led and intimidating it is a site for those mothers who do not fear ‘militant’ mothers or those labelled as ‘Mother Earth’ (Maxwell and Agglegate, 2013:139). While in principle the mother and homemaker serves the functionalist vision of society, through rituals and cultural practices, the fact that many Mumsnet mothers are working or unmarried will contradict this vision as being negative to children (Maxwell and Aggleton, 2013).

The collective consciousness that perform rituals and totemic symbolisation provides a ‘cauldron of collective effervescence’ for the religious (Durkheim, 1915: 469). Religion which is the most socially cohesive element of the institutions ‘collective life awakens religious thought’ (Durkheim, 1915: 469). (Coser, 1915: xx). Evidence of such ‘effervescence’ surrounds Christmas, weddings Bar Mitzvahs and funerals is displayed on social media sites because religion is ‘an eminently collective thing’ (Durkheim, 1954: 47). Death is also a ritual and a commodity as people flock to mourn the departed; this collective mourning is replicated via social media (Durkheim, 1954; Bell, 1992). Durkheim argued that all societies were divided by the ‘sacred’ and the profane; the sacred are the totemic objects that are reserved for religious rituals which are emblematic of the clan or tribe, community or society; this is the case across the globe as all primitive religions adopt the sacred/profane dichotomy (Durkheim 1915: xx). Sacred totems evoke emotional attachment whereas the ‘profane’ represents everyday objects that are used routinely (such as social media devices) (Durkheim, 1915: xx). However, such totems are only sacred because individuals deemed them as such (Durkheim, 1915). To this end, Durkheim dismisses the centrality of a God in religion; it is the society itself that is God (19).

It could be argued that the online community also worships itself as social media sites are central to society (Preston, 2011: [Online]). For example, in the previous week to the time of writing, the Facebook page ‘Jesus Daily’ received 26.6m ‘Likes’ and 3.2m interactions (Facebook, 2015: [Online]). Similarly, In a Facebook post by a Jesuit priest supporting the Supreme Court decision to legalise gay marriage Rev. James Martin asserted that:

“No issue brings out so much hatred from so many Catholics as homosexuality. Even after over 25 years as a Jesuit, the level of hatred around homosexuality is … unbelievable to me, especially when I think of all of the wonderful LGBT friends I have” (cited in Gibson, 2015: [Online]).

The Reverend’s message went viral receiving 18,000 posts,140,000 ‘shares’ and 400,000 ‘likes’ on Facebook (Gibson, 2015:[Online]).However, Pope Benedict warned Catholics that human interaction in physical terms was crucial (Preston, 2011: [Online]). Similarly, a Presbyterian reverend urged individuals to ‘experience the physical sensation of water in Baptism [and] hold hands in a service of worship’ (Preston, 2011: [Online]). This illustrates how religion is mediated in terms of ‘a system of culturally structured and shared symbols’ (Parsons, 1979:6). Durkheim argues that ‘forbidden, beliefs and practises’ assists the solidarity to ‘one moral community called a church’ (Durkheim, 1995:44). A Church is not simply a priestly brotherhood; it is a moral community (Durkheim, 1995: xxii-xxxii). The anomaly lies in the founder of Jesus Daily, Aaron Tabor who is actually doctor and finds time to update Jesus Daily with Biblical texts (Preston, 2011: [Online]; Drescher, 2011 ). Similarly, the retweeting of Pope Francis’ tweets comes second only to Barak Obama (1954: 47).

This is evidence of a shift towards maintaining a less secular online identity which supports the functionalist vision of society for its cohesive qualities. In contrast however, radical religiosity contradicts the functionalist vision. ISIS uses YouTube to showcase its killing; Twitter to increase its presence and Facebook to radicalise and recruit young British Muslims from a distance because criminals ‘are often the result of instinctive, irresistible feelings that they often spread to the innocent object’ (Durkheim, 1893:47; Engel, 2015). While Twitter is constantly deleting ISIS accounts, ISIS is more intelligent than terrorists of the past which most definitely contradicts the functionalist vision (Engel, 2015).

Conclusion

In conclusion it is evident following a critical evaluation of the debates above that social media on the whole supports the functionalist view of society in maintaining to high degree the social stability of the body social. It is evident that rituals are performed constantly and values are reinforced where needed. However, other sites are more philanthropic and patronising of their working class subscribers which contradicts the functionalist vision. Social media has been beneficial to parts of the Arab world by overthrowing oppressive dictators while the social action of British youths served to redraw the moral boundaries. ISIS contradicts the functionalist vision in its aim to eradicated Christians from Iraq and Syria. Nevertheless, the social cohesion of interacting with family and friends while the rituals that religious beliefs behold do support the functionalist vision of society.

Word Count: 2,190

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Social Man ProblemsIntroduction

Sociology seeks to discover, describe and explain the order which characterises the social life of man (Inkeles, 1964 cited in McNeil and Townley, p.21). Various attempts have been made to define social problems; however there is no adequate definition of social problems. Birenbaum and Sagarin defined social problems as, ” A social problems exists when the collective society is rent by, at the very least a public recognition that there is a sector of society, represented by its practices, which threatens or prevents others or themselves from establishing or maintaining their claims to membership” (Birenbaum and Sagarin, p.16). Rubington and Weinberg, offers their own definition of social problem as, ”an alleged situation that is incompatible with the values of a significant number of people who agree that action is needed to alter the situation” (Rubington and Weinberg, 1989 p.4).

The definition of any problem as a social problem, means that it is a problem that requires that affects society as a whole and needs society to come together to deal with the problem (May, et al eds 2001 p.17) Social problems are approached from a constructive perspective and a realist perspective. Saragu develops a social constructive approach to the intersection of social divisions and policy, Bucchi on the other hand develops an introduction to the post structuralist critique of problem and policy centred approach (May, et al eds (2001 p.13). Constructive perspective of social problems looks at social problems three main aspects; namely the society constructs as a problem, the contested character of social construction and the changing character of social construction (May, et al eds 2001 p.8)

A realist perspective looks at social problems as real problems that exist and which everyone agrees to their existence and requires explanation. The constructive perspective on the other hand, looks at social problems as a construction of society. The question they ask is who says there is a social problem what sort of social problem, do they say it is (May, et al eds (2001). The main issue between the different perspectives of social problem is whether social problems are factual and objective for sociologists to investigate and explain.

This essay will look at social problems and the difficulty of solving them. I will start by looking at common factors relating to social problems.

Common factors relating to social problems

All social problems are prone to a number of different definitions and interpretations. The journalist looks at a social problem from a perspective different from that of a sociologist or a philosopher. The journalist may report a problem in a certain manner, there by actually exaggerating the real problem and causing further alarm in the society. Sociologist will interpret a social problem from a different perspective.

Different explanations of social problems are another common factor relating to all social problems. People usually do have different explanation why social problems occur. Society is always looking for whom to blame for a social problem. They always attribute the cause of a problem to the individual, family or the government.

How a problem is presented, is another common factor relating to social problems. The press do play a role in this regard. Journalists are interested in sensational news which they feel will interest the public. Issues are termed social problems, when they are brought to the knowledge of the public and they become part of the public discourse

Professional intervention is another fact common to social policies. Professionals in our society are quick to label people, that they believe do not conform to ‘standard normal behaviour’, they more often than not marginalise such people and segregate them, (e.g.) special schools, special needs.

The victims view point is another factor that is common in all social problems. There is a world of difference between the way a victim sees himself and the way society views him. Society stereotypes certain people. We all have our prejudices, knowingly or unknowingly. The way the society views homeless people is different from the way homeless people view themselves.

Finally, how to find the solution to social problems is an element that is common to all social problems. There is no generally accepted way, social problems can be solved. Some solutions can be very complex, while others appear straight forward. Anti Social Behaviour Order (ASBO) was introduced as a straight forward solution to deal with anti social behaviour. However, many young people now regard ASBO as a badge of honour (The Guardian, Monday November 6 2006). To tackle the issue of juvenile crimes and ethnic groups will require complex situations.

Causes of Social Problems

Generally speaking a perspective means a way of looking at things. I will now briefly look at the causes of social problems from different perspectives. I will first look at the individual perspective. Some commentators argue that criminals were abnormally conditioned by biological and environmental factors (Rubington and Weinberg, 1989 p.33).

Others however argue that causes of social problems are due mainly to the society/ environment and not due to the physiological make up of individuals. However, certain actions of individuals or groups are so glaring that they causes of social problems are directly attributed to them.

Another reason why social problems occur is due to peer group or family pressure. Disagreement between individuals or groups in a society can also lead to social problems. This is called the interaction perspective.

Fall out between different cultures and religion in a society is a reason why social problems occur. People are usually influenced by their culture and religion. Some people are very fanatic in their views and believe and see some one of a different faith or race as different from them. This can to a lot of social problems.

Social structures are the very basic foundation of any society, and it is a major reason why social problems occur. Some individuals or group might feel excluded from the social, economic or political structures of society. The social structures of society might be designed in such a way that they shut off or marginalise certain segments of their society, usually minority groups. Added to this is that government interferences and policies, might cause social problems, as they may favour certain segments of the society while excluding others.

Examples of Social Problems
Poverty

Poverty has so many definitions. Poverty is powerlessness. It has so many faces and it is changing from place to place and across time (World health Organization, 2001). Absolute poverty is disenabling. It means that one can not afford the basic human requirement. By this, I mean that it robs one of many things in life, including his dignity and pride. Relative deprivation means that one is not keeping up with the standards in a given city.

Poverty is one of the major reasons why people are excluded from the political, social and economic structures of society (Maxwell and Kenway, 2001). Poverty is usually constructed by a distinction between normal people, and those that are poor. The constructive perspective of poverty does not deny the existence of poverty, but that only some people at some time and in some place will be labelled as being in poverty May, et al eds 2001 p.7) A realist perspective will look at poverty as objectively describable and will attempt to offer an explanation.

Juvenile delinquency

Juvenile delinquency is a complex, serious problem. The cause of this problem includes peer pressure and the failure of our social structures, among others. However it is not a new phenomenon. In 1880, the penologist Enoch Wines, wrote, ” Delinquent children, the criminals of the next generation, must be prevented from pursuing their criminal carers; they are born to it, brought up to it. They must be saved” (Wines, 1880, p.132 cited in McNeil and Townley, p.21-27). We can not overstate, the fact that Juvenile delinquency is a huge social problem today.

The government have tried to deal with it, with legislation, cumulating in the crime and disorder Act 1998, Anti Social Behaviour Orders (ASBO) and parenting orders. However, the media seem to be giving a lot of attention to delinquent youths and portraying them as monsters and race and gender issues have not adequately been looked in to. There is also a difference of opinions on how the problem can be solved. The realist perspective will acknowledge the existence of the problem, while a constructive perspective, will view it as a construction of society.

Ethnicity and Social problems

Ethnicity generally refers to a group’s attachment to a particular area and sharing a peculiar way of life. Racism is when a group of people are treated differently because of their colour. There have been ethnic and racial problems in our society. The media have played a part in upping ethnic tension in the UK. Race riots have flared in some parts of the UK. There have also been reported increases in race attacks.

Our institutions, particularly the police and the media have been branded institutionally racist. People from ethnic minority are more likely to be stopped and searched by the police and they are more likely to be socially, economically and politically excluded, more than white people. They are also more likely to be projected as social problems. The cause of ethnic tension is usually an unfounded fear that diversity is a threat to the dominant group in society. The realist perspective will acknowledge the existence of this problem and will seek an explanation for it. The constructive perspective will view the issue as a construction by society.

Single parents

Single parents are a social phenomenon now regarded as a social problem because they are believed to have an impact on our values. They tend to impact directly on society, socially, economically, and ideologically. Single parents become a problem, when they cost the state a lot. A good number of single parents depend on state benefits. Fathers are usually absent, and do not contribute towards the upkeep of the children. The social cost of absent fathers can not be overlooked (Dennis and Erdos, 1993). The government have put in place legislation namely the 1989 Children’s Act and the 1991 Child Support Act to deal with the problem.

Conclusion

Social problems are hard to solve. They seem to be ingrained in the complex web of unwanted state intervention, reckless forms of individual behaviour and economic factors. Social problems have no commonly accepted forms of definition, but they all have common factors that relate to them. In the problems that I listed above, they are all seen from different perspectives and given different explanations.

It depends on who is viewing the problem. The media and the government also contribute to making social problems hard to solve. Some social problems might be downplayed and others blown out of proportion. Some times the intervention of the government and experts may worsen a problem as they tend to look at the problem form their own point of view, without taking the point of view of individual or groups suffering the problems directly in to consideration.

Individuals can also make social problems difficult to solve. They may mislead the government by providing incorrect data. Economic factors do play a part. The government might not see some social problems as a top priority for them to solve and thus will not earmark enough funds to tackle the problem. Sometimes, the government may not have the political will to solve certain social problems. Some social problems are interwoven in to our social, political and economic structure, that to solve them, we will need to dismantle our entire structure. Finally, there is no generally accepted way to solve social problems. Some solutions appear easy, while others appear complex, but you can not be certain, that the proffered solution will solve the problem.

Bibliography

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This paper presents a critical evaluation on the issues which link the current educational system with social justice. The paper will provide a critical evaluation based on the development of an appropriate framework for finding how education is supposed to be constructed to reflect social justice around the world today. By examining the various research, that centers social justice and education, one finds evidence that educational social justice in the education context is based on the aspect of democracy; this may be seen as an example of the extreme individualism. This hyper-individualism has dominated the educational debate as it relates to social justice. In this situation, the whole society, and social cohesion are marginalized. This marginalization led to the development of a school curriculum which is based on providing education for specific individuals within the economic imperatives. The paper concludes with the recommendation that in the creation of a socially just society, it is important for hyper-individualism to not overlook the importance of the whole social group. This means that there is a need for a shift of culture which would respect individual responsibilities and rights as part of the whole social setting. Development of a curriculum which addresses the needs of all in the educational setting is a product from addressing the middle of a society rather than all of a society.

Introduction

Social justice means ensuring equality in all aspects which affect people in the community, society, nation and the around the globe. Social justice is a concept which fights s for the right of every individual for the opportunities available in the society, no matter the class, age, gender, race or ethnic origin. Social justice in modern day education is aligned to the dominate ideology of democratic liberalism. This is about the examination of the hyper individualism emergence which results into the dominance of the educational system and social justice. American students comprise of those from rich and poor families, those from the urban and rural areas and those who are straight and gay. Each day they are taught on the importance of equality and in every pledging they make, they promise to be indivisible, ensuring there is justice and liberty to all. Students are also taught of the value of democratic equality which suggests on the need of all American to be treated and regarded as equal citizens with no biasness on the basis of one’s background ,economic status, belief , background, religion, race, or sex. The students are also taught on the fundamental on the main democratic value of justice which is a core belief that America provides the same opportunities and benefits to all the citizens. Despite the teachings given to students on social justice the education system of America is characterized by inequalities which from year to year are being perpetuated.

The education system of American the 21st century is characterized by increasing wide gap between those with and those without. This situation has been fostered by the trickle-down economic policies and deregulation. These policies are traced back to the administration of President Reagan and Clinton’s administration which enacted the anti-worker legislation. President Bush administration further supported the major businesses and offering tax free breaks for the rich as compared to the lower and middle class people these polices have hindered the ability of America to move towards being an enlightened society because these policies have introduced a few Feudalism where as other already developed countries have had positive development in their education system.

The implementation of policies which support social justice in the American education system will mean providing equal opportunities to students in their rights to education. The reality about the American system of education is that schools have distinct economic disparities. There are those schools considered for the rich and those schools seen as poor schools. The socio-economic condition of the families the students comes from determines the schools they attend to. The choices of their extracurricular activities, access to money to pay for advanced placement, yearbooks field trips and many other academic and non academic aspects. In most cases, the students of low SES provide special education classes and remedial schools while their counterparts attend schools which have college preparatory curriculum. Therefore the reality is that students in America are not provided with the same educational opportunity as it is often assumed.

History of public education in the United States

The public education of America is very distinct and unique compared to other countries mainly because of the roles and responsibilities played by the individual school district and the states. The formal public education of the United States was created I during the 19th century. The public school system was initially suggested by Jefferson the American leader whose ideas were well incorporated in the development of the country’s education system. Other continents and regions which had been colonists by New England such as New Hampshire, Connecticut and Massachusetts had already established the primary form of education of public education which had already been implemented during the 1600s the main reason why the colonizers took to educate the children was solely based on religious aspects of the Congregationalists and the Puritans who were dominating on those regions. Alter when the regions began to be populated by other people of different faiths. The initial concept of these public schools became weakened through the opposition to learn both in the clergy imposition to the system and also in denial to learn in English. This led to the formation of private schooling which were already a norm by the mid of the 18th century.

The Declaration of Independence brought about unique standards and specifications of the public education system. Jefferson suggestion was that all the public schools be under the control of the government with no discrimination based on religious biasness and to be made available to all people irrespective of one’s social status. Other contributions on the issue of public education by then were made by George Washington, Robert Coram, Noah Webster and Benjamin Rush However the true concept of education system by then was not well defined due to the impact of economic transformation, political upheavals and wide scale immigration. Currently a lot of vast changes have taken place in both the education sector which comprises of public schools, religious, private and charitable institutions.

Public education system in America began in the 1840s and was attended with the wealthy people within a given locality. Reformers came up to fight for the need of ensuring education benefits are provided to even students from the poor families. One commonly known reformer is Horace Mann who was for education reforms in Massachusetts and Henry Bernard based in Connecticut. Common schooling was for the benefit of uniting the society, prevention of poverty and crime by ensuring every citizen is well. These reforms calls led to the development of public schools to students at the elementary level towards the fall of the19th century. The Catholic Church was however not in support of these reforms but instead created its own schools to be attended by students privately.

The first public school which came up in the United States came in 1635 called the Boston Latin School. And later Harvard University became the first university to enroll students from the various public schools who had done well. Students in these early colleges and schools got involved in the events of the time such as the World war 11, the Greater depressions and the Cold war. The passing of Morill Act in 1890 meant greater support to the universities of various states and land was also granted to construct these universities. Efforts were made to finance these public universities and even those at the lower level to ensure that each student in America gets high quality education.

However, the education system was not up to the level required by the members of public that education should be made available to all the children irrespective of their gender, race or economic standards. This was not the case in reality. Schools became highly discriminative despite them being founded by the tax paid by all the members of the public. Discrimination of these schools was on the basis of gender and race. In many schools, girls were not admitted and if admitted, they were not provided with the same courses as those done by the boys. They were only taught subjects like tailoring, cooking and secretarial courses. Discrimination in the United States public education has also been enhanced by the unfair public policies passed especially in school districts.

The cause of inequality in education system

According to various researches done to establish the cause of inequality in the education system, it has become evident that the socioeconomic factors play a significant role in the education of a child. Jerome Brunner, a cultural psychologist in his book the Culture of education (1996) explains that the mental growth of a child is determined by the effect of alienation, racism and poverty (p xii). He goes on to say that effective education is as a result b of the constituencies and culture which is powerful in the maintenance of the social status quo than in flexibility fostering (p, 15). The social status quo is promoted by political motivation which aims at developing a body of the underclass people who support the industry.

During the whole of the 20th century, the economy of America was depended on the manufacturing labor which was in need of workers who perform repetitive and simple jobs with no any required formal education. Therefore the aim of these manufacturing companies with the support of the government was not to cultivate a workforce which was educated. The 21st century saw a shift of the manufacturing company reliance into an economy based on information. This reliance required a workforce which is highly educated or literate; employees who are critical thinkers in solving problems have technological know-how. These are the goals which found not been achieved by every student because in the first place they are not been given the opportunity to attend to schools due to the inequality in funding, lack of school environment or the preparedness of teachers. That student who ahead attended the fully funded schools by the government had students who were attended to individually compare to the least successful schools which is a form of both geographical and economic segregation. In 2001 president Bush passed the policy of the No child Left behind Act as a law with the goal of meeting the high standards of education and as a solution to enabling schools around the United States to work and meet the standards provide by the Act. The Act has brought about heated debate on why it is not addressing the issue of racism and poverty which are the central problems that affect the education system in the United States. On the Contrary to the intentions of the Act as a way of maintaining high level of education in the United States the Act has instead fostered the racial segregation in the education system especially through its award system. It is only the schools which perform better that they are provided with funds but when critically examine these high performing schools are the schools attended by the whites students because they have been well equipped with the educational facilities and resources necessary for students success. Those schools which are attended by the Black students are mostly less equipped resulting to high rate of students with the least academic scores.

Public policies
Discrimination based on race

In 1619, many Blacks arrived in the United States as slaves and by mid 19th century there were as many as 5.5 million Black people in the country. The early form of education the blacks were provided with was religious education and to make them be Christians. In many regions with slaves many missionary schools were created but in some parts mainly at the southern states were against the provision of any form of education to the black people m because they were not ready to do way with slavery use. All in all, the education provided to the blacks was of low standards until 1863 when the Emancipation Proclamation was passed by Lincoln. The backs literacy rate was pushed up to 70% by 1910 compared to 5% in the 1860s.

Reaching 1950s, segregation was still a common phenomenon in America. For example in the southern states, there was a clear distinction of the black and white schools according to the Supreme Court rulings on the Plessey V. Ferguson case. Such laws were not in the North of America but still racial segregation in schools was still the common aspect and due to this unbalanced form education, the blacks were provided with inferior forms of education. The schools attended by the whites were also fully funded and had well equipped facilities and teachers were also well remunerated compared to the black schools.

The passing of the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka in 1954 by the Supreme Court was meant to ban any form of racial segregation in the country’s schools. This law marked that racial segregation was unconstitutional and it went ahead in ensuring that schools to be diverse. This was especially in the South where federal courts had made great efforts of eliminating segregation in the schools which in fact had been legalized. Despite the efforts by the courts it was still not possible to totally eliminate the practice of discrimination in schools. The urban schools became a place where the Hispanic Americans who were on the rises and the poor blacks to attend the middle class blacks and majority of the white student were move to private schools. Poverty became a common aspect to many Native Americans who had already lost their lands to the whites making them not to even attend school all together.

Discrimination based on gender

Social inequality in the school system also involves discrimination along gender lines. What the reality was during the time is that girls were not encouraged to study but this was fought by the work of Mary Lyon, Jane Addams, Emma Willard , Mary McLeod . They came up with colleges of higher learning for women which enabled young girls to learn the courses also learned by boys which had been deemed as courses only for the boys. The first college for girls was the Oberlin College which was founded in 1833. Others which followed were Vassar College in 1861 and Bryn Mawr College.

By 1960s many schools for girls and women had come up because of the rise of gender movements which was against sexual discrimination. This lead to the passing of the federal Education Amendment prohibiting against the discrimination based on sexual orientation in 1972. The girl’s schools and school for women began to be funded by the federal government. Despite the equality of education to both boys and girls, women and men, discrimination on the basis of gender is further seen when in search of employment after graduation. Many employees would prefer to employ a man engineer than a lady engineer which also applies to the other professions which were only meant for men in the past.

The current nature of the education system of America

Education today is considered as a vital and lever in uplifting the modern society. But this perception according To Sacks is a myth he presents various insightful aspects which portrays the true nature of the education system in America in the current times. His books present factual statistics and information to show the segregation in schools especially in the higher education level of studies.

For example in 1988 students from the lowest economic background results showed that for him to attain a university degree, he had to 6.9 % chances of gaining this chances. By currently this does not apply. Low economic background means no bachelors degree or even a masters. The only probability is that they can afford to join colleges by 50%. Also as student from high social economic background has 51 % chances of earning a degree and for a masters degree with probability of 8%. 9% and only 4. 4 percent to join a college (U.S Department of education 2002).

In the early 1990s students selected to join the national universities were 3% who are from the lowest economic backgrounds while at the same time those from the highest economic families had 75% chances of joining the compass. These statistics indicate the widening gap of the education level among the rich and poor students. As years goes by those from low economic backgrounds have ended upon not having education and if so they attended poor schools which offer cheap schooling and low quality of education. Racial disparities are evident in the education system. Minorities like the Latinos and African Americans among others are suffering most because of this. These racial inequalities are an associate also of the class inequalities. The educationist also characterized by unequaled findings depending on the prosperity level of the school the quality of education and the social class of most parents in that School.

Recommendation

Addressing the issue of social justice in the education system portrays the negative consequences of injustices in the education sector. Failure of equipping all the students in a given country leads to a group of idol people who have the time to involve in various social crimes in the society as well as Bad habits like drug trafficking and alcohol abuse. For the general good of all the members of the public it is important for the government to look into ways which even students from extremely low economic background can manage to learn. Education to all also means empowering the nation economically because all people will be having the skills and knowledge of investing and earning a desirable living condition. Brunner points that, “”Education is risky, for it fuels the sense of possibility. But a failure to equip minds with the skills for understanding and feeling and acting in the cultural world aˆ¦ risks creating alienation, defiance, and practical incompetence” (pp. 42-43). Dewey also believes that the society can only be empowered through education because it brings forth a change in knowledge, behavior and intelligence (Fishman, 1998). This therefore is the crucial time when the nation has to critically think on ways of improving the society by ensuring there is justices and equality in the education system.

The advancement in learning methods and technology has significantly contributed to major changes in the public education in a positive way but the modern day social life in Americans characterized by smoking, alcoholisms, drugs violence and issues related to sex. The public education I of America has been looked as a system of education which inculcates the ideas of individual freedom and equality but its current low standards has made any educators to find the ways of improving the system. The No Child Left Behind Act is one of the ways of improving the education standards in America but it requires critical examination to prevent the act from further contributing to the issue of bringing forth social injustice based or race and economic backgrounds of the students.

What is socialization? Socialization is the process in which human beings interact with each other individually and in groups. It is the process by which one learns the traditions, customs and accepted behaviour in any given society. It is not a onetime process, but it is a lifelong process that provides individuals with skills, values and attitudes that are necessary for interacting with the society. Human beings need social experiences to learn their culture and survive in the society. They are not born with values and skills. They learn from what they see, hear and experience throughout their life. They have the capability to learn and absorb from what they see around them. Socialization is not a just a simple term that can be seen at face value. It has many layers, and each layer is different from the other and leads to different processes and situations. Socialization has three layers; primary, secondary and tertiary. Primary is what we learn from our family and when we are young, secondary is what we learn in school, and tertiary is what we learn throughout our lives.

We now know what socialization means, but what is identity? Identity is what makes an individual who he really is and what his purpose in life is. It is what makes an individual definable and recognizable. It is who you are and where you come from and what makes you unique from every other human being. It gives an individual a sense of being. Identity can be defined as individuality, personality, distinctiveness or uniqueness that makes an individual stand out. Like socialization, identity too cannot be seen at face value. Identity has many layers to itself, and as we walk through life, each new layer keeps unfolding in front of us.

Now, since we know what socialization and identity both mean, we can bring them together and relate them to answer our question – ‘does socialization lead to identity formation?’ Well, I think yes, socialization does lead to identity formation as we discover who we really are and where we fit in, only in the midst of people and in our interaction with them. Once we start interacting with the society, we learn so much about ourselves as well as about others (individuals or societies), their culture, customs, behaviour, etc. We learn that we are similar to some people, and different from others. Socialization makes an individual more confident. The more people we talk to, the more topics we talk about, and this in turn widens our scope. Also, we make ourselves more visible to society and hence people recognize us. Thus socialization helps in building ones identity. Today’s world is all about power and identity. If one has an identity as well as the right attitude, he can achieve whatever he wants. Socializing also leads to better networking. Better networking means more connections and more connections means higher opportunities at work or elsewhere as well. Hence socialization leads to a boost in ones career or talent and thus helps in identity formation.

The more we interact with people, the more we discover ourselves and form judgements about ourselves as well as others. One is only able to discover his true self when he interacts with others and reacts in certain ways that are different from others. Everyone has a different and unique reaction to a certain situation. This uniqueness is what gives an individual his identity. For example, if we see Phillip Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Study Experiment (Zimbardo, 1971), that was undertaken to study the behavioural and psychological consequences of becoming a prisoner or prison guard, we observe that the prisoners started to lose their identity, and didn’t see it as an experiment, but as a real prison run by psychologist. They forgot that they were actually just college students and not actually prisoners. The prisoners actually gave up their freedom and forgot their rights and liberties. The situation was such that it made them feel that way. The environment was so realistic that they actually believed they were prisoners and thus behaved in rebellion. It is the prisoners who created in the guards a sadistic impulse. The guards were compelled to act in ways that were totally opposite from what they were feeling inside. But few of the guards were actually cruel, and felt no guilt or regret while doing their job. They had completely lost themselves and started behaving in the role that was assigned to them, i.e. the role of a prison guard. The prisoners as well as the guards lost their true identity and became what the situation required them to be. The fresh prison routine, the ‘privilege cell’ for the obedient ones and the ‘hole’ for those who were punished, the clothes they were made to wear, the food they were made to eat, the number given to them by which they were now addressed, made them lose their true identity and become someone else. Thus, from this experiment we learn that situations affect us more than we think. What the volunteers in this experiment experienced was the ‘power of the situation’ and not anything to do with their personality. Prisons are institutions which attempt to rid individuals of their previous identity, and this can be clearly seen in Zimbardo’s prison experiment.

Another example is The Clark Doll Experiment (Clark, 1939) that was carried out by Dr. Kenneth Clark and his wife, where they asked black children to choose between a black doll and a white doll. Most of the children said the white doll was nicer, prettier and the one they preferred playing with, whereas the black doll was the ‘bad doll’. All these children were aged from 6 to 9 only and were already so damaged by racism at such a young age. This racism was due to the school segregation between white and black kids. It was distorting their minds, causing them to have stereotypes and hate themselves. When asked the last question of the experiment-‘which doll looks like you?’ the children hesitated and answered. They wanted to choose the white doll, but reluctantly pick the black one. Thus, prejudice, discrimination and segregation caused black children to develop a sense of inferiority and self hatred. These children were embarrassed of who they truly were, and hated themselves for being black. They wanted to be white like the other kids. Thus, they lost their identity at such a young age and in fact were ashamed of who they actually were. They preferred being someone else.

Thus, socialization does lead to identity formation, and this identity formation starts at a young age itself. Even before children learn the basic do’s and don’ts. So, it is very important to keep children away from bad influences and situations that can make them form bad judgements and ideas about themselves.

Now, arguing against the motion, ‘socialization leads to identity formation’, I would completely disagree upon this statement. Identity is who we are and where we come from. We form our identity by how we behave, how our family has brought us up, what education we get, where our interests lie, etc. It is what we do and how we behave as individuals that form our identity and make us who we truly are. Socialization has nothing to do with identity formation. Socialization will not pour knowledge or talents into an individual; it will not build ones identity. It is important because we get to know more people, and get to widen our base. But it doesn’t form who we are. It is ‘we’ ourselves who from who we are, not the people around us.

Primary and Tertiary socialization may lead to identity formation, but I can confidently say that Secondary socialization does not lead to identity formation. This can be proved by Paul Willis’s ‘Learning to Labour: How Working Class Kids Get Working Class Jobs’ (Willis, 1977). In this study, we see that it is the family that gives the children their identity and even schooling could not change this identity. This is because the school did not teach them what they actually required in life and what they need to live life the way their society lives it. It is the students who distance themselves from the school culture and requirements, and develop their own counterculture. They are resistant to the schooling, and reject what the school offers to them. Willis finds that they are not less talented, but they do develop an antagonism towards the “work hard move forward” mentality of modern education, and develop what Willis terms as “counter school culture” (Willis, 1977). Thus, these children do not form a different identity that their school wants them to become. They stick to what their family has taught them and what their family requires them to be. Their family requires them to be labourers, who earn their living by hard work and labour, not by sitting on a desk and signing papers. Thus, these children reject the education and school culture that schooling is supposed to embed in a student, and prefer living life the way their family has been doing so, not because they want to, but because it is their duty, it is who they are and where they belong.