toptermpaper.com

Sex, Gender and Health
Introduction

One of the main objectives of the National Health Service set out in the 1940’s was “To ensure that everybody in the country-irrespective of means, age, sex, or occupation-shall have equal opportunity to benefit from the best and most up to date medical and allied services available (Ministry of Health, 1944). Although the words equity and equality do not feature in documents from the early days of the NHS, there are many reasons to conclude that the service was intended to provide equal access or actual treatment for those in equal need (Delamothe, 2008). This concept had been refined since then, and an equitable health service is understood to mean “one where individuals’ access to and utilisation of the service depends on their health status alone.” (Dixon et al., 2003). There are many explanations for factors attributable to differences in the equity of care, such as income, income inequality, social connectedness, and social capital, which have all shown some association with health and illness (Berkman & Syme, 1979; Fiscella & Franks, 1997; Kawachi et al., 1997; Lomas, 1998; Naidoo & Wills, 2000). This paper shall examine the meaning of gender as another of these determinants of health. The differences between the terms sex and gender shall first be discussed. Secondly pathways through which gender effects health shall be examined, paying particular attention to risk behaviours, gender roles, and gender discrimination. Finally, the differential exposure and differential vulnerability hypotheses shall be discussed.

Sex and Gender

Raymond Williams argued that vocabulary involves not only ‘the available and developing meaning of known words’ but also ‘particular formations of meaning-ways not only of discussing but at another level seeing many of our central experiences’ (Williams, 1983 p15). Language in this sense embodies ‘important social and historical processes’ in which new terms are introduced or old terms take on a new meaning. Often ‘earlier and later senses coexist, or become actual alternatives in which problems of contemporary belief and affiliation are contested’ (Williams, 1983 p22). The introduction of ‘gender’ in English in the 1970s as an alternative to ‘sex’ was to counter the implicit and explicit biological determinism pervading scientific lay language (Krieger, 2003). Sociologists describe sex as the relatively unchanging biology of being male or female, while gender refers to the roles and expectations attributed to men and women in a given society, roles which change over time, place and life stage (Phillips, 2005). Genetic profile and hormone profile are both examples of sex, a constant set of biological characteristics that remain the same across societies, whereas expectations about the imperative to bear children, the nature of parenting, or the status of being a mother are more to do with gender roles and expectations. Gender has an impact on health in a variety of ways.

Gender inequalities in health

While women generally experience poorer health than men, the pattern of gender differences in health is varied (Arber & Cooper, 1999). Women have lower rates of mortality but, paradoxically, report higher levels of depression, psychiatric disorders, distress and a variety of other chronic illnesses than men ( McDonough & Walters, 2001). The direction and magnitude of gender differences in health vary according to the symptom/condition and phase of life cycle (Denton et al., 2004). Female excess is found consistently across the lifespan for distress, but is far less apparent, even reversed, for a number of other physical conditions and symptoms (Matthews et al., 1999).

Gender inequalities in income and wealth make women especially vulnerable to poverty. In some parts of the world this makes it difficult for them to acquire the necessities for health, especially during the reproductive years when family needs are greatest (Doyal, 2001). Social norms about the diversions of responsibility mean that many women have very heavy burdens of work, especially those who combine employment with domestic duties, pregnancy and child rearing (Naidoo & Wills, 2001). Often, women in the house receive very little support and many are abused by their family members. It has been estimated that 19% of the total disease burden carried by women aged 15-44 in developed countries is the result of domestic violence and rape (World Bank, 1993). Further to this, anxiety and depression are reported more in women than in men in most parts of the world, yet there is no evidence that women are constitutionally more susceptible to such illness (Doyal, 2001). In Africa, powerlessness and lack of control underlie much of the exposure to HIV/AIDS amongst the female population. Disproportionate barriers (relative to men) in access to resources such as food, education and medical care disadvantage women in much of the developing world. In males risk taking behaviour is the norm amongst males in the developing world.

Risk taking behaviour and its effects on male health

There are now many links on the interaction between masculinity and health emerging (Schoefield et al, 2000). The development and maintenance of a heterosexual male identity usually requires the taking of risks that are seriously hazardous to health (Doyal, 2001). One of the most obvious examples of this regards the working environment. In many societies it is traditional for the man to assume the role of the provider, thus putting males at risk of dying prematurely from occupational accidents (Waldron, 1995), and although there are more women in the labour force, men from the poorest communities still do the most dangerous jobs.

Further to the risks of the workplace, men often feel compelled to engage in risky behaviour to “prove their masculinity”, thus they are more likely than women to die in a car crash or dangerous sporting activities (Canaan, 1996). Men are also more likely than women to drink to excess and smoke, which increases ones physiological predisposition to early heart disease and other related problems (Doyal, 2001). They are also more likely than women to desire unsafe sex. A study in Ontario, Canada examined the causes of male deaths between birth and age 45. There reported 1,812 male deaths, of which 1,372 (76%) are due to motor vehicle accidents, suicide, and AIDS, leaving 440 deaths unrelated to behaviour. Although the male excess of deaths from car accidents may, in part be attributable to greater distances driven and not behaviour while driving, the male “relationship” with the automobile is almost certainly another aspect of gender roles. Only 308 (33%) of the 936 female deaths are explained by such behaviour. When non-risk taking causes of death are isolated from the data, women under age 45 have a mortality which is 1.43 times that of men’s. Over age 45 the leading causes of death for both men and women are chronic diseases. Men die of heart disease in equal numbers but at a younger age than do women. With increasing age the number of deaths for women creeps upward to equal that of men (Phillips, 2005).

Differential exposure and differential vulnerability hypotheses

Since gender is a measure of both biological and social differences, it is likely that the health inequalities between men and women reflect both sex-related biological and social factors, and the interactions between them (Denton et al., 2004). There are two general hypotheses that account for these gender based inequalities in health. The differential exposure hypothesis suggests that women report higher levels of health problems because of their reduced access to the material and social conditions of life that foster health (Arber & Cooper, 1999), and from greater stress associated with their gender and marital roles. Many studies have shown that women occupy different structural locations than men: they are less likely to be employed, work in different occupations, and are more likely to be on lower incomes, and to do domestic labour and to be a single parent than men (Denton & Walters, 1999). There are also gender differences in exposure to lifestyle behaviours, such as those previously mentioned (that men are more likely to smoke, consume alcohol) as well as having an unbalanced diet and being overweight, while women are more likely than men to be physically inactive (Denton & Walters, 1999). De Vries and Watt (1996) also suggest that women report higher levels of health problems because they are exposed to a higher level of demands and obligations in their social roles, as well as experiencing more stressful life events. Women also have lower levels of both perceived control and self esteem than men (Turner & Roszell, 1994), though women report higher levels of social support (Umberson et al., 1996).

The differential vulnerability hypothesis on the other hand suggests that women report higher levels of health problems because they react differently than men to the material, behavioural and psychosocial conditions that moderate health (Denton et al., 2004). Multivariate analyses have shown that men and women differ in vulnerability to some, but not all, of the social determinants of health (Denton et al., 2004). That is, the moderating effect of gender is determinant specific. Having a high income, working full time, caring for a family, and having good social support have been shown to be more importance predictors for predicating health in women than men (Prus & Gee, 2003). Smoking and alcohol consumption are more important as discussed previously, are more important determinants of health for men than women, while body weight and being physically inactive are more important for women (Denton & Walters, 1999). Furthermore, the effects of stress may be experienced and personified by men and women in a variety of different ways. The literature appears to show that women react more to ongoing strains than men do, and are more likely to report and react to stressors experienced by others (Turner & Avison, 1987), while men are more likely to mention and react to economic stressors (Wheaton, 1990). Zuzenak & Mannell (1998) argues that women have a greater vulnerability to the effects of chronic stressors on health due to the greater stress associated with their family and marital roles.

Denton et al., (2004) used multiple indicators of health and its social structural, behavioural, and psychological determinants to gain a comprehensive understanding of the role that social factors play in determining health. They report that women’s poorer health is partly due to the reduced access, on average, to the material and social conditions of life that foster health, to their differential exposure to stressful life events and to everyday stressors associated with a women’s social roles. Men’s health also seems to be reduced by their greater likelihood to partake in risk taking behaviours such as smoking and excessive drinking. These, as well as physical activity are more important to men’s health.

Conclusion

Gender is a social construct, and sex is a biological construct. They are each distinct, and are not interchangeable terms. The use of the term gender facilitates discussion of the effects of social norms and expectations on the health of both males and females. It is clear that gender has many effects upon health and well being, and that this is a complex issue, with behavioural and psychosocial determinants of health growing out of the social context of peoples lives. This paper has discussed the social and structural context of peoples lives for health benefits – clearly a strong and well studies theme in the literature (Denton & Walters, 1999; Denton et al., 2004). It seems that behavioural determinants play less of a role in predicting health, yet there effects also tend to be mediated by social structure (e.g. those with a low income are more likely to smoke, drink excessively, and be overweight and inactive. These factors can then, collectively, lead to chronic health problems later on in life. It also seems reasonable to conclude that men and women suffer from different types of stressor. They also both cope in different ways. For example, the exposure hypothesis proposes that gender-based health inequalities are the result of the differing social location between men and women. There different life style behaviour’s and the differing number of chronic stressors and life experienced by men and women. The vulnerability hypothesis proposes that women’s health differs from men’s because they also react in different ways to factors that determine health. It seems then, that although there are many other sociological factors that can have an impact on health, there are many gender differences to account for also, making this a very complex issue.

References

Arber, S., & Cooper, H. (1999). Gender differences in health in later life: the new paradox? Social Science and Medicine , 66 (6), 61-76.

Bank, W. (1993). World development report 1993: investing in health. New York: Oxford University Press.

Berkman, L., & Syme, S. (1979). Social networks, host resitance and mortality: a nine year follow up study of Alameda County residents. American Journal of Epidermology , 109, 186-203.

Delamothe, T. (2008). Universality, equity and quality of care. British Medical Journal , 336, 1278-1282.

Denton, M., & Walters, V. (1999). Gender differences in structural and behavioural determinants of health: an analysis of the social production of health. Social Science & Medicine , 48, 1221-1225.

Denton, M., Prus, S., & Walters, V. (2004). Gender differences in health: a Canadian study of the psychosocial, structrual, and behavioural determinants of health. Social Science and Medicine , 58, 2585-2600.

De-Vries, B., & Watt, D. (1996). A lifetime of events: Age and gender variations in the life story. International Journal of Aging and Human Development , 42 (2), 81-102.

Dixon, A., Le Grand, J., Henderson, J., Murray, R., & Poteliankoff, E. (2003). Is the NHS equitable? A review of the evidence . Londone: London School of Economics.

Doyal, L. (2001). Sex. gender, and health: the need for a new approach. British Medical Journal , 323, 1061-1065.

Fiscella, K., & Franks, P. (1997). Poverty or income inequality as a predictor of mortality: Longtitudinal cohort study. British Medical Journal , 314, 1724-1728.

Kawachi, I., Kennedy, B., Lochner, K., & Prothrow-Smith, D. (1997). Social capital and health: Implications for public health and epidemiology. Social Science and Medicine , 87, 1491-1498.

Lomas, J. (1998). Social capital and health: implications for public health and epidermology. Social Science and Medicine , 47, 1181-1188.

Naidoo, J., & Wills, J. (2000). Health Promotion-Foundations for Practice. London: BailliereTindall.

Phillips, S. (2005). Defining and measuring gender: A social determinant of health whose time has come. International Journal for Equity in Health , 4 (11), 1-4.

Prus, S., & Gee, E. (2003). Gender differences in the influence of economic, lifestyle and psyhco-social factors on later life health. Canadian Journal of Public Health , 94 (3), 94-102.

Schoefield, T., Connell, R., Walker, I., Wood, J., & Butland, D. (2000). Understanding men’s health and illness: a gender relations approach to policy, reseacrh and practise. Journal of the Amercian Colege of Health , 48, 247-258.

Scotland, M. o. (1944). A national health service. London: HMSO.

Turner, J., & Avison, W. (1987). gender and depression: Assessing exposure to life events in a chronically strained population. Journal of Neurons and Mental Disease , 77 (8), 443-455.

Turner, J., & Roszell, P. (1994). Psychosocial resources and the stree process. In W. Avison, & I. Gotlib, Stress and mental health: Contemporary issues and prospects for the future. New York: Platinum Press.

Umberson, D., Chen, M., House, J., Hopkins, K., & Slaten, E. (1996). The effect of social relationships on psychological well-being. Are men and women really no different? Sociological Review , 61, 837-857.

Waldron, I. (1995). Contributions of changing gender differentials in behaviour to changing gender differentials in mortalitly. In D. Sabo, & G. Gordon, Men’s health and illness: gender, power, and the body. London: Sage Publications.

Wheaton, B. (1990). Life transitions, role histories, and mental health. American Sociological Review , 55, 209-223.

Williams, R. (1983). A vocabulary of culture and society. Revised edition. New York: Oxford University Press.

Zuzanek, J., & Mannell, R. (1998). Life-cycle squeeze, time, pressure, daily stress, and leisure participation: A Canadian perspective. Society and Leisure , 21 (2), 513-544.

1

Aim and Hypothesis

“The conventional nuclear family is already a thing of the past,” writes Madeleine Bunting, author of ‘Willing Slaves: How the Overwork Culture is Ruling Our Lives^[1]’. Current statistics do indeed paint a worrying picture; in the past 30 years the rate of divorce has doubled^[2], Britain now having the highest divorce rate in Europe. Concurrently, the proportion of women in full-time employment has trebled, with maternal employment having increased by 8% to 65%^[3]. As a firm believer in the Nuclear Family model, these findings and predictions are of particular personal concern. For this reason I have chosen this area as the focus for my sociological research. I have chosen to concentrate my study on the relationship between the ever-changing female sex stereotype, and the heightened rates of divorce. My test hypothesis is therefore as follows:

“Divorce is more prevalent amongst families where the mother does not willingly accept the traditional female sex employment stereotype.’

Contexts and Concepts:

The context of this hypothesis is best understood in light of two research studies which have been conducted previously in this area. The first was an exploratory research study conducted by Geoff Dench of Middlesex University into men’s family roles, entitled “The Place of Men in Changing Family Cultures.^[4]” In this study, Dench identified two main family types; the ‘conventional family’ and the ‘deregulated family.’

The conventional family model represents a traditional family formulation in which each member has interpersonal rights and obligations arising from their marriage [or birth, if children]. The reciprocal support structure inherent in this model results in individual free choice being limited; purely personal interests may therefore need to be compromised. Dench identified that members of this group would be more inclined to see a distinction between what may be good for them as an individual, and what may be good for the family as a whole.

The deregulated family model represents an individualist family formulation in which each member is responsible for upholding their own rights and negotiations of those rights. To this extent, individual choice is prevalent within this group; autonomy being the over-arching ideal. Respondents in this group expressed a view that traditional gender roles were a source of social injustice, and rejected the notion of the ‘conventional family’ as ideal on this ground. Dench identified that supporters of this model tended to be young, childless couples.

Whilst this study yielded several very interesting findings, it is one conclusion in particular which is most relevant to the study of this paper: Dench discovered that the ‘highest levels of personal and marital satisfaction were among people who lived in traditional families. The highest levels were connected to families in which the man worked and the woman was at home. The lowest levels occurred when the woman worked and the man stayed at home.’

This is the very conclusion which I am attempting to prove within this research study, via my hypothesis that “Divorce is more prevalent amongst families where the mother does not willingly accept the traditional female sex employment stereotype.” The concept of ‘traditional female sex employment stereotype’ describing the situation where the role of the husband is as breadwinner of the family [i.e. provides the primary family income], and where the role of the wife is as ‘housewife’ [i.e. the primary domestic labourer].

The second research study is entitled “The growth of Lone Parenthood: Diversity and Dynamics^[5]”, and was conducted by Karen Rowlingson, Stephen McKay and Richard Berthoud on behalf of the University of Derby’s Economic and Social Research Council. Their findings, whilst not specifically concerned with the issue of the female sex employment stereotype, suggested that divorce occurs more frequently in families where the woman leaves her full-time employment to look after a newly arrived child.

Prima facie, this finding would suggest that my conclusion is flawed; after all, surely a woman who leaves work to look after her newly born child is adhering to the traditional employment stereotype, and should therefore be less likely to engage in divorce or separation from her partner. This finding however does not contradict my hypothesis, rather helps to contextualise it; this finding from the study concerned women who had previously been non-traditional employment stereotype conformists, but had been forced to give up their work and look after their child through circumstance. A woman who does not willingly accept her traditional role is of course more unlikely to be unhappy, as her ‘individual autonomy’, which as discussed by Dench is held as the over-arching ideal by a subscriber of the non-traditionalist model, is not being allowed to predominate. This helps to explain why my hypothesis is limited to/focussed upon women who do not ‘willingly accept’ the traditional gender employment stereotype.

Main Research Method and Reasons:

In light of the obvious difficulties with actually asking random adults about their marital status and employment, I have decided that the best way to glean this information is by asking my fellow students at school to complete a survey questionnaire [a method usually associated with the positivist school of sociology]. It is of course necessary that a significant proportion of my sample population have parents who are divorced, and visa versa. The problem with this requirement is that a random sample of students may not throw up sufficient of the former category. What I therefore propose is a one day trip to Somerset House in London, and armed with a complete list of all students at my college, I will cross reference their surnames against the Divorce Register^[6]. Once I have identified all the students whose parents are now divorced, I will randomly select a proportion of these students to take part in my survey by assigning each student with a number and using a random-number generator program on my computer to decide which students will be selected. By the same random-sampling technique, I will select an identical number of students whose parents are not divorced.

The benefit of conducting this prior research to identify students whose parents are divorced is that it means that the questionnaire itself does not need to ask these people whether or not their parents are separated. To ask this question may prove to upset the students; after all the divorce of their parents is not something which most students would wish to discuss or even recall during a sociological study such as mine. For the student’s whose parents are apparently still together, married, it is important to confirm that the student still lives with both parents; after all just because the parents of these student’s do not appear on the Divorce registry doesn’t mean they are still living together- they could be separated without divorce, or in the process of applying for a decree nisi/absolute.

The questionnaire itself will ask questions designed to glean the following information:

From those students whose parents are now divorced:

If the student’s mother, for the majority of the student’s life, was engaged in full-time employment prior to separation.
If the students mother, for the majority of the student’s life, was engaged in part-time employment prior to separation.
If the students mother, for the majority of the student’s life, was a ‘housewife’ prior to separation.
The reasons for the above answers, if known. [e.g. my mother always though that it was important to look after the family while the man went out to work etc.]

From those students whose parents are still married, and living together:

If the students mother has been employed on a full-time basis for the majority of the student’s life.
If the students mother has been employed on a full-time basis for the majority of the student’s life.
If the student’s mother has been a ‘housewife’ for the majority of the student’s life.
The reasons for the above answers, if known. [e.g. my mother always though that it was important to look after the family while the man went out to work etc.]

In light of the fact that I will need to compare all the data if I am going to test my hypothesis, I plan to use the above information to calculate a total ‘employment score index’ for each student sample. One simple way to achieve this is by structuring the questions of the survey as score lines, i.e. On a scale of 1-9 was your mother, for the majority of your childhood, 1= fully employed 2= fully employed but took some time of work to look after me in my early years 3= was fully employed for some of the time, but also spent a good proportion of those years at home as housewife… 9= has always been a housewife since I was born. In this way the indexes of each student sample whose parents are not separated can be compared with the indexes of each student sample whose parents are divorced, a comparison from which a trend may or may not be identified, and may or may not be in line with my hypothesis.

2 pre-tests will need to be conducted by a sample of 25 students in order to tweak the questionnaire^[7], so that we can be assured that the final questionnaire is appropriately constructed.

This survey will create qualitative results; the limited size of the sample study precludes there being any reliable quantitative conclusions, and besides, there are clearly other factors which cause couples to separate, and therefore from such a study, we can only sensibly be interested in identifying a qualitative trend.

Potential Problems:

One problem associated with proposed study is the fact that due to the time restraints in which I would be operating, the limited size of my sample frame would perhaps not yield sufficient results from which a reliable trend/conclusion could be drawn. This problem could of course be rectified without changing the method, but rather by increasing the sample frame, and as such is not what could be described as an inherent problem.

Another problem is the fact that we are questioning students about their mothers employment history throughout their childhood. Whilst some students may remember these details with great clarity, it may well be the case that certain students are unable to recall this information with sufficient accuracy. One solution to this problem, and a way of avoiding erroneous results through sample guesswork, would be to ask each student on a scale of 1-5 how accurate they believe their assessment to be.

Finally, it may also be the case that there are simply not enough students from divorced families in my school to provide sufficient and therefore reliable data for this side of the comparison. If this is the case, it may be essential to extend the survey across several additional local colleges, although the time-frame available would not make the necessary research for this sample frame extension feasible.

When asking the students to confirm that their parents are still married and living together, students may not be willing to admit that their parents are currently in the process of divorce or separated, as this is often perceived to be shameful by the children of such parents. This will mean that data from students whose parents are in fact separated [but not divorced] will be erroneously attributed to the data for students whose parents are still married and living together, thus causing inaccuracies to any trend which is identified. One solution to this problem would be to allow each sample student to conduct the survey in the privacy of their own home etc., in this way there is no reason to lie as no-one will ever discover their identity.

Technology is very important aspect of human condition as it provides cloths, shelters, foods, transportations etc. Technological determinism is the theory that technology is an autonomous force that changes society and it is also the key force to our society. This provides explanations for many changes that can be observed in society, and it has a very simple cause/effect form. However, this theory is false, if you think you have an instance, it means you are looking at just one part of a much more complex situation, and ignoring the complex social network that supports the technology.

However, technology is a major and really the main cause of social change as a lot of changes in the society is largely caused by technology but within human control. The computer and email technology has reduced the period it takes to transmit messages between two parties or more as emails sent electronically can be received immediately, thereby saving lots of man hours, and consequently even reducing human and vehicular traffic as people don’t need to sometimes travel to send and receive documents.

The computerization of the banking is not necessarily to reduce wage bills and increase profit as new technologies and this computerization brings new employment opportunities for a lot of IT professionals who will manage this technology. The new innovation in banking is to guarantee efficiency and productivity the same applies in the containerization of cargo.

Like earlier specified these technologies were not only technologically determined, it did have its economic, social, cultural and political reasons. These technologies did give room for employment as more people gets employed to manage these technologies, the more income and more revenue for government and ultimately growth in economy, thereby causing political stability which has it cultural advantages as a peaceful society is a viable society.

A society is an organized group of person associated together for purposes such as social, political and religious, while technology on the other hand is an application or even sometime seen as object. This report will help us to determine which of the above mention attempt that is best in relating both technology and society, their strength and weakness, merits and demerits and possible whether they have been able to really answer to the obvious question of whether the society is inflecting technology or its technology that is influencing the society.

2. TECHNOLOGICAL DETERMINISM

Technological determinism is one of the three attempts that this report intends to use in determining the relationship between technology and the society. Before I analyze this attitude or theory, it is important to understand what I mean by technology and society.

Technology determinism does explain the relationship between technology and the society, but it does not adequately explain the relationship technology and society. A lot of social changes are also independent as technology does not have any influence. Technology cannot be said to be autonomous as not all social changes and activities are dependent on technology examples are the computer and email technology where information’s, messages and documents are sent electronically, not needing people to take mail from one location to another, but this technology is still largely not dependent as the computer cannot send mails on its own, which means its not out of mans control as people still get employment to receive, read and possibly reply mails, so does not cause any redundancy or unemployment.

2.1 Technological Determinism explains relationship between technology and society which asserts that. Technological Determinism is also a popular view about the relationship between technology and society. It is the same Technology Determinism that says new technologies develop the change in society. And the theory presumes that a society’s technology drives the development of its social structure and cultural values.

Therefore the term ‘technological determinism’ is an idea, a belief, a theory that human, individual and societal change are caused primarily by technology, that technology is the main agent of social change. However, there is still the debate whether technological determinism is a theory or an attitude. This refers to the belief that technology is the agent of social change. It is both popular attitude, reflected in such expressions as ‘you can’t stop progresses and a theoretical position. Looking at the relationship between technological determinism as a theory and as an attitude, determinism is a popular attitude to technology, but it cannot be used as a theory or basis for explaining the relationship between society and technology.

2.2 I believe that quotes B and D are examples of Technology determinism.

2.3 The reasons why I believe quotes B and D are examples of a Technology Determinism approach to technology and society.

3. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM

Social Constructionism is an “artefact” in a social invention or construction by an individual in a particular society. “Also theory that in addition to express the socially designed ways of our social life which can also be in connect with knowledge achieved and develop within society context, as opposed to realism”. (Nilsen)

“Social Constructionism is a term used theories that express the socially originated way of our social life.” (Marshall, 1994). Main feature of Social construction theory is viewing knowledge as socially distributed. Through origin relationship between knowledge and its social base knowledge becomes a social product and a factor in social change. Social distribution of knowledge has implications for social construction of identity, depending on which identity is appropriate or desired at a specific point in time. As a result, “whatever the experts do, the pluralistic situation changes not only the social position of the traditional definitions of reality, but also the way in which these are held in the consciousness of individuals” ( Berger & Luckmann, p. 115).

3.1 The main features of this theory areaˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦

3.2 The quotes which I think best illustrate SCism are W and Y.

3.3 The reasons why I think W and Y are written from a SCist perspective areaˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦

4. SOCIAL SHAPING

Social shaping is theory that addressed the outcomes or impacts of technological change, the design patterns and implementation of technology. In recent years, social shaping has increased and also gained its recognition. It thus goes beyond traditional approaches, concerned merely to assess the `social impacts’ of technology, to examine what shapes the technology which is having these ‘impacts’, and the way in which these impacts are achieved (MacKenzie and Wajcman 1985). Technological change is often seen as something that takes its own way.

4.1 This theory about the relationship between tech. and society can be explained as followsaˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦

4.2 identify quotes

4.3 state why you have chosen these quotes.

5. CONCLUSION

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alphabetical list of all books, websites, articles etc used in preparing report.

FORMAT:

Author/editor’s last name then initial, (date of publication), title in italics, place of publication: place of publication.

Forester, T. (1987) High-Tech Society, Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Sport is now regarded as an International phenomenon developing from past perceptions as a recreational activity to now being regarded an essential part of societies make up. Jarvie (2006) reiterates that sport is part of the social and cultural fabric and contributes to a variety of areas including targeting social problems and generating economic benefits. The development of sport has resulted in a variety of factors including political movement of nations and globalisation enhancing sport and the changing perceptions of the modern world. Contemporary changes are highlighted by Boyle (2006) as developing sport through advanced sports broadcasting of major competitions resulting in intensified interest and greater emphasis on the sporting sector.

The following report will analyse in depth the contribution sport development has made with regards to society and intrinsic factors. Focusing specifically on areas such as social, political and environmental factors will aim to distinguish how these areas have developed sport within the modern world and influenced the impact sport can have upon society. Reviewing sport policies published by the modern day government will provide discussion on how sport is seen within society as the vehicle to create change not only as a health intervention but using sport to tackle a variety of social constraints. Analysis of sport through political movements will aim to show the impact sport can create on a nation and therefore how this develops the area of sport itself. With major sporting events being delivered in Britain such as the Commonwealth Games of Glasgow 2014 discussion will show how sport contributes to the economy, globalisation as well as integrating social benefits to society. Critical research will be focused upon to discuss sport related theories and how they contribute in understanding modern sport and society.

Modern Day Development of Sport

Sport has gone through radical changes throughout the course of its development. Changes with regards to social, economic and political transformation have altered sport from past centuries to the present day. As sport has developed and evolved as has the audience it now captures. Now a global phenomenon the sporting industry is one of the richest and highest potential developments of modern era. The Executive Vice President of the Beijing Organising Committee Xiaoyu (2009) stated that the Beijing Games 2008 made a profit of at least $16 million USD. Major events such as the Olympic Games and FIFA Football World Cup showcase the phenomenon that sport creates across the world as well as the economical and environmental impact upon the host nation. There was an estimated 25,000 media representatives present at the Beijing Games 2008, representing 159 countries (Olympics, 2009). The mass media circus which large sporting events attract showcases sport to a worldwide audience introducing them to top athletes, new sports and overall an interest in what sport can offer.

Political Impact upon Sport

Political Ideology is referred to by Jones et al (2007) as philosophical ideas whereby human society can be understood and hence provide a framework of principles from which policy can be developed. In 2003 the Labour Party of Scotland introduced Sport 21 (Sport Scotland, 2003), a policy which focused around areas of social inclusion and sporting development where by sport would be the vehicle used to create change. At the heart of these polices was ‘Social Inclusion’, this ideology would cement sport at the heart of social reform. Of recent times Scotland published a national policy which also adopted sport as the foundation to target social issues, Reaching Higher (2007) concentrates on sporting objectives in relation to improving social inclusion by means of health, participation and performance with a clearer focus in achieving success towards 2020 including Glasgow Commonwealth Games, 2014. Labour politician and author Hattersley (1989) reinforced the importance of political ideology stating that ideas and values of politicians have a permanent importance, policies may change with time but ideology abides. Social inclusion activities the government have liaised in include football specific schemes aimed at targeting minority and hard to reach groups. Tacon (2007) stresses that researching the theory of social exclusion results in both positive and conflicting views of sport enhancing this area; sport can improve health however conflicting views suggest that some sports including football initiate violent tendencies to occur in individuals.

Sport was seen as a means to benefit social issues such as crime, employment, education and health. Coakley (2007) discussed the connections both sport and politics share and the importance sport contributes to the government. Connections include health promotion, identifying power between nations and engaging communities and citizens through sport involvement. Social benefits are a significant reason why the government liaise with sporting initiatives but also the economical impact and support politicians gain from the public can be enhanced by adopting sport into national plans. Modern society has seen negative issues within the world highlighted increasingly through the use of interventions such as the media and politics. Factors including violence, differentiation between classes, poverty and gender issues are just some examples which have catapulted in recent times. One method used to combat and try and eradicate these hindrances was through positive models such as sport. Houlihan (1997) states that modern governments see sport as an opportunity to tackling political objectives. The use of sport to enhance society’s problems is a method which highlights the issue and can directly target millions of people. According to a recent document published by Sport Scotland they state that sport was unique and could contribute to a healthier, smarter and wealthier Scotland, (Sport Scotland: 2008). In Scotland alone there are several issues which require immediate action and according to the local government liaising with key governing bodies and sport is essential in helping combat these issues.

Sport has been targeted by the government for a variety of reasons and can be used to highlight a countries wealth or power thus distinguishing them from rival countries. The Olympic Games is one way in which this ideology has been conveyed and is an extremely powerful tool in showing nations prowess on a global scale. For a number of years the Soviet Union and United States of America were locked in a bitter rivalry regarding differentiation between political and economical ideologies. Riordan J and Kruger A (1999) discuss the development sport has impacted on with regards to society; they state that sport had a revolutionary role of being an agent of social change whereby the nation would adopt sport in order to create change and generate impact. Both countries integrated with sport and the idea that success on a global scale such as the Olympics would show their domination and power over rival countries. Hazan (1982) emphasises the Soviet Union’s ideology in the use of Sport during the Olympic Games; for the Soviet Union the agenda was to beat the Americans and show that American sport was inferior and corrupt just like the entire US social system.

The Soviet Union were so engaged in using sport to reinforce and highlight to the world their dominance, power and political stature in comparison to other dominant nations including the USA that they developed drastic measures to achieve success. Extensive training of young athletes and the message of winning at all costs was the main priority of the Soviet ideology. Winning medals was the main goal and it didn’t matter if this involved steroids or performing enhancing drugs, winning was everything to this nation and often athletes suffered from this harsh reality, (Riordan, 1993). Although sport was the driving force during this period to show dominance and success the real reason was based on political movement and sport would act as the vehicle to create world domination as part of the government’s strategy. The Soviets achieving more gold medals than that of rivals US would show their strength and supremacy on a global magnitude.

Sport however does not just benefit political involvement but examples such as the Soviet Union and Olympics enhances the development of sport itself. The idea that the Olympic Games are a global event attaches several benefits for sport to develop extensively. Mass media attention and interest in participation results in Sport becoming a major focus point for the world to not only watch but to become active in resulting in social and personal benefits. Globalisation is a modern concept which has expanded extensively, “it denotes a broad process in which markets, trade, labour relations and culture itself have attained global dimensions” Horne et al (1999 p. 276). Events such as the Olympics and FIFA World Cup develop globalisation in terms of the audience it captures and the marketing it promotes. The impact of globalisation can be seen through the use of role models in sport and how they can encourage and impact on others to follow them. Veseth (2005) provides an example of globalization through football star David Beckham: the “Bend it Like Beckham” movie captures globalization as Beckham’s global stature can therefore tackle issues of prejudice and cultural constraints. Beckham sporting the Adidas brand through worldwide media photography highlights the globalisation factor and effectiveness it can encompass. David Beckham is a universal star with millions of admirers, what he wears and does acts as role for others to copy because they want to be like him thus highlighting the globalisation factor in impacting individuals worldwide.

The idea that society can watch new sports and understand how they are played can impact upon increased and or new sports being introduced across the world. The sociologist Elias discussed the figuration theory and how people interact as a result of those around us. Figuration relationships involve individuals who are bound together to form a structure based on power which can be conveyed to areas such as sport (Best, 2003). For society and communities to be active in sport this will lead to trends of individuals copying the pattern with regards to social structures and individuals they are bound to. Society follows patterns to those we trust and are intrinsically influenced upon, a community who adopts sport regularly will find that individuals are more open to the idea of sport and what is involved. This theory also links with Bourdieu’s views of ‘habitus’ where perception is how an individual views and does things based on what they know and has impacted as a result of their childhood, (Hillier & Rooksby, 2005).

Sport has also developed extensively through the input the government has had in relation to rules and regulations regarding sports and determining what sports are classified as legal or illegal. Such input has provided Sport with frameworks and safeguarding of human rights where measures are taken to stamp out inhumane sporting activities and assist all sport governing bodies with the correct safety content and rules for participants. The need for law in sport is as imperative as law in society, without it in sports, chaos exists, (Gardner, 2006). Disclosure checking is one way in which participants and sport are safeguarded against potential threats. All coaches and individuals must be disclosure checked to ascertain criminal convictions and determine if individuals are suitable to work with others hence making sure those delivering sport are not only qualified but pose no threats to participants.

Social Effects & Sport

Sport is a form of activity which can be participated by several classes depending on the type of sport played and its position within class and cultural communities. An interesting theory is that of Bordieau who paid particular emphasis on a variety of theories and society. Significant focuses of his beliefs were symbolic violence, Habitus and a close emphasis on class distinction and the theory of power and practice. Bourdieu argues that physical capital acquired through involvement in activities such as sport can be converted into cultural, social, or economic capital. However, he argues that the ability to convert this capital “is not as great for the working classes as it is for the bourgeoisie” (cited in Gilroy in Clare & Humberstone, 1997). Class distinction contributes widely to the idea that certain sports are class related i.e. football for lower class and polo for the upper class individuals. This perception discriminates against individuals to try new sports due to a lack of facilitation, opportunities and class boundaries. A study undertaken by Stempel (2005) suggests that those who have more cultural capital participate in sports aimed at improving the body which emphasise wealth and dominance and refrain from sports where violent tendencies prevail. Lower class citizens have limited sources, expenditure and opportunities to participate in wealthier sports and are therefore prone to play traditional sports which are easy to access and more team orientated. To develop sport and for sport to develop in society a variety of sports, opportunities and facilities must be available to the wider communities. Class distinction highlights differences within society and unequal consideration for all individuals, sport initiatives must vary activities and encourage different classes to attempt new sports refraining from the perception of particular sports for certain individuals.

Ideology focusing around sport is often concerned with idea of masculinity and gender confrontation. Scraton et al (1999) stated that top level female athletes participating in sport meant opposing or rejecting their femininity at some point. Barriers have developed through sport for female participation as a result of male dominance over a prolonged period of time. Although modern society aims to break down these barriers female participation is still behind that of males. Females are underrepresented in many areas of sport through involvement, coaching and management roles. Almost a half of adult women (43%) within Scotland have low levels of participation in sport with majority participating in no sport at all, (Sport Scotland, 2008). One theory which played particular emphasis on females and sport was the feminist theory. Houllihan (2008) discusses Marxist feminist traditions with the belief that men control the ideology of dominance through capitalism and exploitation, women cannot engage in sport due to less earnings and time due to family commitments. This focus concentrates on the traditional views of women and a lesser focus on the contemporary female. Kay & Jeanes citied in Houllihan (2008) that certain sports provide barriers for both genders, dance and sports involving flexibility and balance are often deemed as female orientated with traditional sports such as football and rugby, male orientated. Sport although focused as presenting gender differences can develop these ideologies and break down barriers by displaying to society that females can adopt male perceived sports. A significant sport development and gender barrier was recently broken through the sport of tennis where female tennis players achieved the same competition pay as the male athletes. The All England Lawn Tennis Chairman Phillip (2007) stated that the time was right to bring this subject to a logical conclusion and eliminate the difference.

Football is also a sport that continues to attract female participation with regards to viewing but more importantly playing. A sport often adopted as male orientated only is now one of the fastest growing sports in the UK. The number of female players has increased by 88% since 1999 and there are now 55,000 playing the game (Summers D, 2001). As female football continues to grow there are still issues with equality in the modern world. A recent example would be that of Maribel Dominguez Castelan, a female Mexican footballer. In 2004 she accepted a two-year contract from a second-division Mexican men’s football club, Celaya. This was the first known case of a women signing for a professional men’s team. This however did not last long and soon Fifa the governing body decided against the move. It was stressed that the gender-separation principle in football should be maintained (BBC News, 2004). Sport is attempting to change societies views by encouraging female participation through sport, changing the perceptions accumulated over centuries will however take time. If more sports can adopt similar principles to tennis, positive steps can be made for sport to tackle social issues of gender inequality.

Social inequalities out with gender also pose barriers to society; sport is used as a mechanism to tackle these areas. Cultural diversity and ethnic minority groups are a social issue with regards to integration within communities. Walseth (2008) & Adkins (2005) discuss Putnam’s notion of social capital as connections with area’s such as community well being, inter cultural knowledge and social networks, the idea that social capital acts as glue creating a collective “we” within society. With regards to cultural barriers Putnam refers to two idea’s, bridging and bonding, bridging can relate to getting to know different people e.g. people belonging to a different minority group where bonding is the process of making relationships with people similar to oneself, (Walseth, 2008). Sport can act as glue between cultural communities and inequalities amongst society. Bringing individuals together through team incorporated activities can aim to tackle differentiations. Niessen (2000) stated that the use of sport can help in understanding and appreciating cultural differences and prejudices, sport can limit social exclusion of minority groups. Within Scotland a variety of localised initiatives aim to break down racial barriers and promote communitarianism. Glasgow based coaching company, Sidekix run in cooperation with Strathclyde Police tackling territorialism issues in young men. The concept of a football league integrating target groups aims to break down barriers and teach the youths to interact with one another. Using sport as an incentive encourages youths to participate without realising the wider concept of what they are actually doing. Sport has continued to develop in promoting and tackling social constraints.

Environmental Impact upon Sport

The use of sport to enhance a nation and contribute to its economy and structure are significant factors when considering using sporting events to enhance other areas. Mass tourist opportunities and global recognition from hosting such a superior sporting event were just some of the reasons why Glasgow chose to bid for the games in 2014, on the back of previous successes such as the Commonwealth Games of Manchester 2002. Purcell (2005) highlighted that the social and economical dividend of hosting the games could bring great benefits to Glasgow and hence provides a lasting legacy. Sport develops in governments ideologies when it can impact and benefit their agenda’s and in turn sport therefore develops through the mass interest on show. Developing environmental factors such as attainment of new facilities and modernisation of communities can be achieved through sporting events.

Urban regeneration is a key focus of Glasgow 2014 and they aspire to update and improve upon existing areas of the city by modernising and developing infrastructures worthy of hosting such a superior occasion. Sport Urban Regeneration is a broader process than having merely an infrastructure in place for the Commonwealth Games, (BBC News, 2007). One of the major developments being undertook is the construction of the athlete’s village which will be based in Dalmarnock. As well as fresh, modern housing and a whole new regeneration of an area the positive effects of this build will result in the use of the village after the games when the houses are obtainable to the public. The former First Minister of Scotland, McConnell (2006) reiterated the importance of regeneration not only for the sustainment of the games but for future legacies: he acknowledged that bringing the new village to Dalmarnock would aim to build better life’s for its resident, ordinary Glaswegians and develop a sense of community spirit. An increased benefit of this infrastructure is the potential opportunities of housing Glasgow’s communities following the games as well as allowing the people of Glasgow and Scotland to experience and benefit from the new facilities on offer following the Commonwealth Games of 2014. The importance of large investments in regeneration must continue after the event to benefit local and national societies.

The Glasgow 2014 Committee perceive new infrastructures and regeneration as a positive model however negative impacts of such a significant development is the change of what a large population already call home. Local residents who have grew up in specific areas all their life’s are now seeing complete change and in some areas demolition of area’s they once called home. Moving these people poses a serious question to whether Glasgow is improving in order to look good for two weeks or are the intentions of local residents the major priority. “I don’t think I’m going to be here, the area will be regenerated and old shops like these will have to come down,” (BBC NEWS, 2007), this was just one residents fear of the massive change going underway in the Parkhead Area. Moving people away from area’s they have lived in all their lives is a huge risk and adaptation for those residents could lead to growing issues for local councils and the government.

A key focus of the legacy of Glasgow 2014 is to use this mass event as a fostering vehicle to tackle issues within Scotland including health. Over the last decade the topic of Obesity has seen a surge in media attention and has become a prolific problem within Scotland’s culture. Although regarded as a worldwide issue Scotland for being such a small nation portrays some of the most worrying figures of all. Devlin (2007) communicates this shocking reality as only America has a higher rate of obesity within the developed world. The prospect of the Commonwealth Games has already raised the profile of sport in Scotland and has the potential for the nation to get involved in physical activity, (Glasgow 2014, 2008). In order to achieve this recent government policy must be adhered to and Glasgow 2014 should be used as a target to achieving such aims as well as attempting to obtain more youngsters getting involved in physical participation. In 2007 when Reaching Higher was published many seen this policy as the strategy to implement and deal with issues leading up to the Commonwealth Games 2014. In comparison the Commonwealth Games of Glasgow are also looked upon as a method of striving towards meeting national strategies. The focus of 2014 may seem like a lifetime away however with such social and health issues regarding sport in Scotland it is essential that plans are implemented immediately to move towards improving current standards.

The idea of added TV coverage impacts largely on how we can improve the nation’s health, when children see certain sports being broadcasted it gives an incentive of going out and taking part in this sport. For Scotland to use the Commonwealth Games as a means of improving health the government must provide all communities with opportunities to become active. A key method already being used within schools is the active schools programme. In the lead up to the games clubs and sports should be increased whereby children have more than just one option of a sport to take part in. Commonwealth Games clubs is an area which could be put in place whereby children are provided with multi sports clubs as a lead up to the games where local communities or larger cities hold mini commonwealth Games against each other to add competition incentive for the children participating. All of this can now be more achievable with the new development plans of local sports facilities and new infrastructures being prepared. The focus upon children must be of fun and sport as opposed to getting fit, children will get fitter if they take part in physical activity and therefore all schemes and projects in line with national policies must be fun and eye-catching for the children to want to play sport.

There are several Positive effects of hosting major events which can help with improving health issues in particular areas. When elite athletes and stars of sport participate they are watched by the younger generation and a mass audience. The significance being that children aspire towards role models who they feel they have a connection with often an athlete in the sport they love. These role models can then aim to help motivate or create new schemes which aim to use their sports as a means of improving the health of others. Sponsorship deals can be created whereby as part of the athletes deal they must cooperate with the local communities or national policies therefore providing greater motivation for people to use sport to combat health issues they may have.

Conclusion

Sport has developed extensively as a global phenomenon reaching out to a diversity of individuals worldwide. The impact sport can generate stems from area’s such as social inclusion, health and economic benefits to societies. Sport has developed within itself, through new sports being introduced, media interest and coverage and role models catapulting through the globalisation concept. However the contribution and shifting of modern society has also helped shape sport today and how it is considered as an integral part of everyday living. Political input, environmental benefits and social benefits have helped shaped the dynamics of sport and the perceptions people once had. The fact that sport was often seen as a leisure activity used for individual enjoyment has now been broadened through the perception that sport can help change society and tackle a variety of social issues.

Mass research undertaken in relation to sport suggests there are two sides to each perception. Majority suggest that sport can tackle social issues whilst also recognising that sport can encourage issues to be sustained. Depending on how sport is delivered, the sports that are used and the professionals in charge of these areas contributes widely to how sport will be viewed. Violent tendencies, class differentiation and gender ideologies can still be identified through sport. However considering the entire positive benefits of sport, the idea that it can and has tackled health, crime and the economy steers it in an optimistic manner. If sport is delivered by the correct people in the correct location and adheres to political sporting laws put in place, negative issues around sport can be overcome to achieve its original purpose. Sport has and will continue to develop throughout the world through its political involvement and power to recognise that sport can change and help society move forward.

Assess sociological explanations of the relationship between social groups, religious beliefs and religious organisations

Different social groups, all show different trends in relation to religious beliefs and religious organistions. This essay will only very briefly touch on the difficulty of defining religious organisations, as this is not its focus. It shall split the social groups into three major categories, age, ethnicity and gender; and attempt to distinguish reasons behind varying levels of religiosity.

Religious organisations are difficult to define. Many sociologists, from Troeltsch to Wilson, attempt to define into four different categories, churches, denominations, sects and cults. There however is the problem when there are components which fit many different categories, this can arise when religions change current form (e.g Christianity started off as a small sect eventually becoming a church with its own denominations) as well as times when religions have properties of multiple categories (the church of Jesus Christ of latter day saints, sect or denomination?). Different social groups are generally attracted to different religious organisations, in the class system there is evidence that people of lower classes tend to lean towards world-rejecting sects whilst higher classes choose world-accepting churches and cults.

There are clear differences in religious beliefs and participation between genders. Whilst there is a large majority of men in priesthood running churches (some changes in recent times in the Anglican denomination however only last month, October 21st, numerous news outlets reported how conservatives within the church were rebelling against such changes are leaving to join Catholicism) the majority of people who practice inside religions are female. This is shown by in 2005 1.8 million women in England were churchgoers, as against 1.36 million men. This supported Miller and Hoffman (1995) thesis that women express greater interest in religion and attend church more often. Other sociologists put forward similar theories with Bruce (1996) estimated that twice as many women were in sects then men. In attempt to explain these differences the Davie analyses the differences between women and menaˆ™s proximity to birth and death, she assumes that men do not have as close connection to these life processes meaning women are closer to the ultimate questions. This can be criticised as using the term closer to the ultimate questions is ambiguous, it could mean either closer to pondering about the question or closer to the answer; and even without the ambiguity it seems to overlook the men who work in professions where these life processes frequently occur and levels of non-belief among them, such as Doctors.

Another explanation put forward for levels of female participation is that religion serves as a compensator for deprivation. Glock and Stark (1969) and Stark and Bainbridge (1985) argue that three main types of deprivation exist which are common among women explaining their high levels of sect membership. These include organismic deprivation, stems from physical and mental health problems, ethical deprivation, stems from evidence that women tend to be more morally conservative and social deprivation exists from evidence that women tend to be poorer. Assuming, without evidence, that Stark and Bainbridge carried out extensive research before coming up with their compensation for deprivation thesis it should be analysed to its validity in contemporary society. There have been many changes in society, such as wealth of women becoming higher, wages becoming more equal and receiving higher promotions than previously available; also there is evidence that women tend to vote, what would be generally be considered, more progressive or liberal could challenge Glock, Stark and Bainbridges thesis.

In other social groups within society there is also evidence of varying levels of religiosity depending on ethnicity. According to policy studies institute (1997) the majority religions associate themselves with Christianity (around 72%) however different ethnicities make up this figure, ranging from white British members to those of black African or Caribbean origin. Other religions exist consisting of Muslims, Hindu and Sikhs make with almost all members coming from ethnic backgrounds originating in the Indian subcontinent. The Policy Studies Institute (1997) showed how white Anglicans where least likely to find their religion as important in their lives comparatively with African Caribbean Protestants who rated their religion as very important in their lives. Muslims were also found to have high levels of belief with Hindus and white Catholics being more in the middle of the table.

Bruce (2002) attempts to explain these ethnic differences, he argues that religion is used as a cultural defense factor, becoming something to be unified under in an uncertain or hostile environment. This explains why migrants are more likely to be religious in a new country and explains why the native population inside a country has falling levels of church attendance. Bird (1999) supports this finding; he found religion as a unifying power within minorities. He also found that religion can aid with coping with oppression in a racist society, this is shown by the white churches in the UK not actively welcoming black Africans or Caribbean Christians. These both seem logical and explain how when migrants are integrated into society they start to leave the church.

Will Herberg (1955) gives the reason, which isn’t very different than Bruce of Cultural transition, instead of a means in which religion is used to defend culture; it is used as an integrator into new societies instead. This is also supported by the diminishing levels of religiosity among integrated social groups. It is most probable that both are equally relevant to ethnicity and religiosity, this, in fact, was shown by Ken Pyrce’s (1979) study of the African Caribbean community.

There are big differences between the age of people and their religiosity. The general pattern is the older a person is the more likely they are to attend religious services. The English Church Census, however, found two exceptions to this rule. The under 15s are more likely to attend then other age groups because they are forced to do so by their parents, over 65s were more likely to be sick or injured to attend religious worship. It should be remembered that attendance at church, just as the levels of under 15s show, does not reflect accurately levels of belief. Other age groups could attend church for other elements, such as the social offering of religion, rather than the religious doctrine.

Voas and Crockett (2005) attempt to explain these differences, they use the concept of the ageing effect, which is the view that people turn to religion as they get older. There is also the generational effect this is where each new generation becomes less religious than the one before. The latter being the imperative as it’s claimed that each generation is half as religious as previous generations. To evaluate this claim, the ageing effect, people starting to face their own mortality and turning to spirituality is in a sense logical. The church offers faith-based answers and provides a world in which death is only the beginning. It seems obvious that people facing the own demise would be attracted by this; it could also be supported by the evidence, English Church Census does support the idea that there is a higher number of older people than young in religion. The Kendal project showed people turn to spirituality when they get older therefore making them more likely to attend church. This supports the Ageing factor. The generational effect is supported by the English church census; the levels of the 15-19 year olds fell very sharply since 1979, showing how the new generation had a lower level of religiosity.

Religiosity varies among lots of different social groups, the people who choose different religions generally all have different reasons for doing so. Ethnicity, gender, class and age are all different reasons why someone would want to join a particular religious organisation and have varying levels of religiosity. What is not explained however is what is the most important element, it is quite possible for a person to fit into all four categories, be a member of an ethnic minority; female; working class and young, what would, to this young female, be the most important part of her religiosity and her religious participation.

Prior to 1980, it was generally assumed that Britain was turning into an egalitarian society (Wilkinson, 1986:1). With the introduction of the NHS in 1948 and the increase in protective and regulatory legislations (Wilkinson, 1986), the predominant impression was that class divisions and socioeconomic inequalities were no longer of significance (Bartley, 2004). However, it became clear in 1980 with the publishing of the Black Report, which dealt with class [1] differences in health, that this was not the case. The report revealed very large differences in death rates between social classes and although general health was improving, these differences were not declining (Wilkinson, 1986; Wadsworth, 1997) (Appendix 1). The majority of scientific evidence supports this socioeconomic explanation of the health inequalities (Acheson, 1998; Marmot, 2005), and even though such inequalities of the British population have been recorded since the mid-nineteenth century (Chadwick, 1842), disagreement continues to prevail over the causes of this phenomenon (Blane, 1985). This essay argues that Black’s materialist theory offers the best explanation, and will critically analyse the alternative theories of key thinkers on this topic to further strengthen this argument. After discussing Black’s materialist theory, his other suggestions of artefact, theories of natural selection and behavioural/cultural theory (Black, 1980) will be analysed. The remainder of the paper will critically discuss Wilkinson’s psychosocial theory followed by Barker’s biological programming and Wadsworth and Kuh’s arguments for the life-course approach.

In the Black report, materialist, or structural, reasoning was seen as the most important factor, and many authors have since reinforced this argument (Marmot, 2005; Shaw, 1999; Blane et.al, 1997). The Black report described materialist as;

those explanations emphasizing hazards inherent in society, to which some people have no choice but to be exposed given the present distribution of income and opportunity (Black, 1980:_).

Most studies of geographical areas illustrate poor health and high mortality characterised by poverty (Gorey and Vena, 1995 quoted in Bartley, 2004), unemployment (Sloggett and Joshi quoted in Bartley, 2004) or pollution (Mackenbach, Looman and Kunst quoted in Bartley, 2004). As an example, people who work in occupations exposed to accident hazards and to dangerous substances, as well as extremes of temperature, also tend to be poorly paid (Bartley, 2004:96).

Vagero and Illsely (1995) claim that Black’s favoured explanation is ambiguous, arguing that there is no apparent idea about how poverty leads to disease in modern society, however the results of low or no income are rather self explanatory. Individuals with higher incomes can afford better housing, reside in safer environments and have better access to healthcare (Grundy and Holt, 2001) and “no-one would seriously argue with the contention that sufficient, safe, nutritious food is an essential ingredient for good health”(Tansey and Worsley quoted in Baggott, 2000). Roberts et.al (1993) argue that the twelve-fold class difference in child mortality down to accidental falls can logically be blamed on the inadequate interior and unsafe exterior space in which the children of lower social class families are forced to play. Additionally, many studies, such as that by Carstairs and Morris (1989) (Appendix 2) show the strong correlations between material deprivation and both mortality and morbidity (Davey Smith et.al., 1990:376). Adding to the materialist argument is Tudor Hart’s inverse care law (1971). Tudor Hart (1971:_) claims that “no market will ever shift corporate investment from where it is most profitable to where it is most needed”. In every society where market forces determine who gets what in health care, inequalities are a big feature of the system. However this argument is no longer as relevant in Britain today due to the NHS (_, 2002) however Watt (2002) claims that the inverse care law continues to remain true even with the NHS, as deprived areas lose out in NHS resource distribution.

In contrast to the materialist theory, some question whether socioeconomic health inequalities exist at all (Mackenbach and Kunst, 1997, Bloor et.al, 1987). Black (1980) suggested that;

Both health and class are artefacts of the measurement process and it is

implied that their observed relationship may itself be an artefact of little

causal significance (Black, 1980:154).

This means that mortality discrepancies are down to numerator-denominator bias occurring because class may be allocated differently on the death certificate, numerator, than at the census, denominator (Davey Smith et.al 1990:375). However Black (1980) concluded that should this possibility have truth, it would not play a significant factor. On the other hand Bloor et.al (1987) argue that the role of artefact explanation is bigger, more pervasive, and more complex than Black implied. However this debate has been overcome in a study by the Office of Population Censuses and Surveys. Using social class as assigned at the 1971 census to categorise individuals at death, it was found that eliminating numerator-denominator bias in this way had no effect on the mortality differentials (Vagero and Illsely, 1995:220). Mackenbach and Kunst (1997:767) suggest that the increase in poor health amongst lower social classes could have instead come from an increasing tendency to complain or the criteria against which one’s own health is evaluated could have changed. They except that this suggestion is merely speculative, but attempt to emphasize the need to look at objective health indicators. However it is “almost universally agreed in the academic literature that social class differences in health are real, a property of social relations in all societies, and not the by-product of measurement errors or errors of definition” (Vagero and Illsely, 1995:220). As Bloor et.al. (1987) point out, the measurement process may be hiding as well as creating health inequalities, which does not reject, but rather emphasises, the importance of measurement. “Measurement problems may affect the size and pattern of differences, but do not cast doubt on their existence” (Vagero and Illsely, 1995:220).

The Black report also presented Health selection as a potential explanation for socioeconomic health differences. According to this suggestion, those with initially poorer health may be restricted in improving their social position and are likely to have lower paid and unskilled jobs (health-related social mobility). In this way, socioeconomic inequalities in health may to some extent occur due to the selection of comparatively unhealthy people into lower social classes (the health selection hypothesis) opposed to the result of social position on health (the social causation hypothesis)(Acheson, 1998). According to West (1991:373) this hypothesis is generally regarded as having a very insignificant role in the creation of inequalities, and a “theoretical debt to social Darwinism”. Illsley (1983), Stern (1983) and West (2002) argue that the Black Report gives insufficient attention to the health selection explanation and that inter- and intra-generational mobility and assortative mating appear to be imperative factors in the persistence of socioeconomic health inequalities (Bloor et.al, 1987). However, the data on health selection is conflicting, somewhat due to a need for a distinction between health-related social mobility and how it explains social gradients in health (the health selection hypothesis). Although there is evidence for health-related social mobility (Rodgers & Mann, 1993), this may not necessarily effect or create socioeconomic health differences (Davey Smith et.al. 1990:373). Additionally, the examination of social class data from the 1971 and 1981 census has shown that downward social mobility does not account for the mortality differentials (Goldblatt, 1988, Goldblatt, 1989). As a result, Blane et.al (2008:11) consider the idea of health selection to be the least plausible explanation for social class health inequalities.

The last of the theories presented by Black is behavioural or cultural reasoning. This explanation is preferred by the medical profession and health experts, and often suggests that such behaviours are basically under individual control. From this point of view class can affect health by conditioning behaviours which harm or encourage health (Blane et.al 1997). The assumption is that lower social classes are more likely to consume harmful commodities (refined foods, tobacco, alcohol), perform less leisure-time exercise and poorly use preventive health care (vaccination, ante-natal surveillance, contraception) (Davey Smith et.al. 1990, Grundy and Holt, 2001). There is a formidable bulk of evidence which connects these behaviours to causes of death such as coronary heart disease, lung cancer and chronic bronchitis (___). Appendix 3 shows an example of the extreme class differences in such behaviours (Simpson _).

According to Blane (1985:436), though material factors are accepted as part of a ‘multi-factorial aetiology’, behavioural factors are thought to make the larger contribution. Air pollution and occupational dust exposure, as illustration, can be part of the aetiology of chronic bronchitis, but this illness is considered largely to be due to cigarette smoking. Material factors are therefore considered of secondary importance. This assumption however may be misleading as official mortality statistics understate the health effects of occupational hazards, since material factors of likely aetiological significance have been ignored, and because their combined effect is barely researched (Blane 1985:439).

Blane et.al (1997:385) suggest that “research into health inequalities has been biased towards behavioural explanations and that materialist explanations have been relatively neglected”. If this is the case it could lead to ineffective policy interventions and to holding lower classes responsible for proceedings which are outside their control. Additionally, the ‘behaviours’ being referred to are stereotypical of what one would assume from lower classes. The problem is that many of these do not always hold true. For example, it is assumed that there are higher rates of smoking amongst lower social classes however this has only been the case since mid 20th century (Simpson, 1987). Additionally, the social class differences in fat consumption are very small, and although the manual class may perform less exercise in leisure time they exert more energy at work (Davey Smith et.al. 1990:375). However Tudor Hart’s inverse care law, as mentioned earlier, explains how lower class behaviours affect the treatment of disease, rather than the creation. Cartwright and O’Brien (1978) found that middleclass people ask more questions to their doctors with an average consultation of 6.2 minutes opposed to 4.2 minutes for the working class, meaning the working class benefit less. He also claims that doctors struggle to relate to the working class, leaving their appointments being awkward and the problem not fully discussed (Baggott, _).

Another criticism of the behaviour argument accepts the aetiological significance but discards the autonomous role it assigns to them (__). They see behaviour as conditioned by the material context in which it occurs, which means that disease producing behaviours are “relegated from the status of independent variables to that of intervening variables between social structure and disease” (Blane et.al., 1997:_). The Black Report demonstrates ways in which behaviour may be embedded in material conditions. Whilst discussing the less frequent use of contraception in lower social classes, he asks:

Is it lack of knowledge, outmoded ideas, or lack of access to the means of

contraception – or is it due to an underdeveloped sense of personal control

or self-mastery in the material world? It can certainly be argued that what

is often taken for cultural variation in cognition and behaviour is merely a

superficial overlay for differing group capacities of self-control or mastery which

are themselves a reflection of material security and advantage(Black, 1980:169).

Vagero and Illsely (1995) call this distinction between materialist and behavioural ‘obscure’. Strong (1990) likened this to “the Marxist distinction between the ‘economic base’ and the ‘ideological superstructure’”. In that hypothesis, the first ultimately determines the second. This also appears to be the case here, as much behaviour does in fact depend on materialist matters. Another example is diet; “the effect of low income renders it meaningless to consider diet a matter solely of choice” (Davey-Smith et.al, 1990). However, the distinction between behavioural and materialist is significant for scientific and policy reasons. Merging the two explanations discounts the influence of the material environment which is not mediated through behaviour (Blane et.al, 1997).

This interrelationship suggests that “part of the differential distribution of behaviour is actually caused by the skewed distribution of living conditions” (_). As a result, the independent contribution of behaviour can only be measured after controlling structural conditions. Such a study by Stronks et.al (1996) found that contribution of materialist conditions was much greater (Appendix 4-9). Additionally, they proved that if the overlap between behaviour and material conditions had been ignored, as it generally had been before their study, the role of behaviour would have been overestimated (Stronks et.al, 1996:667). Therefore given this suggestion that behaviour is to an extent embedded in the environment, material conditions can either effect health directly or indirectly through behaviour (Stronks et.al., 1996). This suggestion can be schematised as shown in appendix 10.

The psychosocial environment interpretation suggests that income inequality has a considerable effect on ones psychological health (Lynch et.al, 2000). When referring to deprivation as relative, not absolute, Hasan viewed;

the aetiological pathway as psychological, related to dissatisfaction about unmet social needs, perhaps inspired by the Townsend definition of poverty as the lack of resources to obtain the living conditions and amenities which are customary or widely encouraged (1989:384).

Such needs, Hasan suggested, were historically first formed and satisfied in the way-of-life of the highest social class (Hasan, 1989:384). Lower classes would endure the frustration of not meeting new needs immediately. As a result the class gradient in health will be eternally reproduced, no matter the level of wealth. This idea contradicts the traditional and powerfully held sociological theory that the level of expectation adjusts to fit ones social circumstances (Siegel in _, 1957). Hasan (1989) assumes that this possibly progressively changed with the beginning of mass television and instant world communication. Wilkinson (1992:_) builds upon this and suggests a “psychological mechanism, based on stress, social support, and self-esteem, and their relationship to the income distribution”. Wilkinson (_) speculates that income inequalities affect health through perceptions of position in the social hierarchy which are based on relative placing according to income. Such perceptions create negative emotions such as humiliation and doubt which are translated ‘inside’ oneself to poorer health via psycho-neuro-endocrine mechanisms and anxiety induced behaviours such as drinking alcohol. Simultaneously, these negative emotions are translated ‘outside’ oneself into antisocial behaviour, reduced civic involvement, and less unity within a community. Therefore perceptions of relative income link individual and social pathology. Lynch et.al (2000) accept that income inequality may produce negative psychosocial consequences, but also argue that interpretation of links connecting income inequality and health have to start with the structural reasons for inequalities, and cannot not simply focus on perceptions of the inequality. The psychosocial interpretation conflates the structural sources with the subjective consequences of inequality and reinforces the “impression that the impact of psychosocial factors on health can be understood without reference to the material conditions that structure day to day experience” (__). The structural, political-economic processes which create inequalities exist prior to their effects being experienced at the individual level (__).

According to Davey-Smith (_) the life-course perspective presents a way of moving beyond generalisations about health inequalities. The life-course approach provides evidence that the biological and social beginnings of life are important in determining the child’s potential for adult health. “Biological programming may set the operational parameters for certain organs and processes. Social factors in childhood influence the processes of biological development, and are the beginnings of socially determined pathways to health in adult life”. Life history studies show the vital factors related with the development of these pathways, and the life phases at which intervention to lessen adult health inequalities could be most effective (Wadsworth, 1997). Mackenbach and Howden-Chapman (2003) state that health inequalities begin in the womb, whilst ___ claims that the ages of _ to _ is the most important time to condition positive behaviours. Sweeting and West (1995) suggest that family life in adolescence could have more direct effects on wellbeing than structural factors and may be circuitously linked to health inequalities in adulthood, through social mobility. However, according to Hardy et.al (2004:64) there does not appear to be a phase in life which has particular priority of health status. Each stage appears capable of adding its own defence or disadvantage (Blane quoted in Marmot and Wilkinson, 2003). However it appears that to completely ignore the life-course approach would be unwise. Without a good education, one may not be able to secure sufficient material conditions (_). Without positive behaviours being reinforced from a young age, one may develop negative health behaviours (_). By looking at the observed relationship between life-course with behaviours and material factors, and the relationship already identified between behavioural and material factors, the ‘healthy mix’ model has been created (appendix 11). The direction of the arrow illustrates the offering which can be made. It shows that materialist matters still have the most importance, as they can provide optimal behaviours, a good life-course and, above all, choice, where a positive upbringing and good behaviours can have its limitations. Taking materialist matters out of the mix could be detrimental to health, as the good life-course reinforcing the positive behaviours to want to buy a safe house and fruit and vegetables is not enough. Material factors offer that choice. Taking away the positive behaviours can lead to poor health as having the money to buy fruit and vegetables and the best health care does not mean one will. Taking away a good life-course may lead to psychological health issues. This illustrates, as this essay does, that life-course and behaviours can have some effect on health, but material factors have the most importance when determining ones health.

Since the emergence of the 1980 Black report, an abundance of studies have attempted to contribute to a broader understanding of socioeconomic health inequalities. After analysing the alternative options, the materialist explanation continues to offer the greatest contribution when explaining socioeconomic health inequalities. Artefact and health-selection are widely agreed to offer little to no significance. The behavioural theory offered the greatest rivalry for this explanation, however it was discovered that the distribution of income sets the parameters within which choices are made. However both behaviour and life-course theories can also play a significant role at the same time. From this observation a model has been derived. The model aims to explain the relationship between life-course, behaviour and materialist matters in a clear manner. The model further emphasises the significance of material factors, and therefore tackling these inequalities should be the aim of health policies.

Appendix 1: (Blane et.al, 1997)

Appendix 2: (Carstairs,_)

Appendix 3: (Simpson,_)

Appendix 4: (Stronks,_)

Appendix 5: (Stronks, )

Appendix 6: (Stronks,_)

Appendix 7: (Stronks,_)

Appendix 8: (Stronks,_)

Appendix 9: (Stronks,_)

Rural areas can be defined as those pieces of land that can lie outside city centers and towns. They are mostly marked by large farms, agricultural activity or large pieces of land that lie idle without much developmental activities. An urban area on the other hand is an area marked with developed town centers and some times these towns have developed into cities. In a majority of cases, these towns were once rural area, which through advances in technology, industrialization and urbanization have grown into what they now are. It therefore goes without saying that both rural and urban centers have something that they can interact in common with. In a quest to develop into urban areas, rural areas need to borrow some development tips from the urban centers, while the urban centers on the other hand would not survive without the support from the rural areas for example in terms of agricultural products that come from the rural areas to support livelihood therein. In addition, movement of people, goods and resources from one point to another keep these two diversified areas in close connections (Routledge, 2005 p. 67).

Over the years, history has proved that any urban city today ahs some rural origin within it. It therefore seems tentatively correct to say that very village is a potential city in waiting. However, there are those special scenarios that would like to prove this otherwise, especially in the case where the more developed areas within the same region, nation or state seem to dominate over the less developed instead of according the necessary support in achieving a common goal of becoming urbanized (Brunn, and Jack, 2003 p. 26).

In order to have a closer analysis of the urban-rural interaction, this study was divided into four sections as follows: Introduction, literature review, findings and analysis and a conclusion.

CHAPTER TWO – LITERATURE REVIEW

Having a glimpse at what authors have to say on this topic helped to get a preview on what was expected as an outcome of the study. According to Eveline Leeuwen in the book ‘Urban-Rural interactions: Towns as focus points in Rural Development, there are some key factors that distinguish rural areas from urban centers, but these factors vary greatly from country to country and from region to region. What may be defined as urban in one country could be totally rural in another and vice versa. However, these are guidelines that could help us to establish the milestones that have been achieved into progression from rural to urban (Eveline, 2010 p. 123)

One of the elements is ecology, which is basically concerned with population density. The number of people living in a given place will help qualify the area as either rural or urban. It is a well known fact that urban areas are more populated than rural ones. However, again the figures could be dependent on the general population of that country as a whole. For example, in Switzerland, urban areas are those that have inhabitants that total to 10,000 or more, while in Iceland, populations of 200 or more inhabitants pass for urban. Such is the contrast in definition in different countries. (Eveline, 2010 p. 123)

The second element that is considered in the differentiation of rural and urban centers is the economic element. This refers to the activities that are carried out with the aim of generating revenue. In rural areas, much of the activities aimed at generation of capital are agricultural-based, while in the urban areas they are non-agricultural. In the urban areas, there happens to be diversifies activities that calls for diversely-oriented labor force. This means therefore that there is a lot of movement in and out of the towns as people either commute to work daily, or they move from the rural areas into the urban in search of employment. Those found to commute between the rural and urban are those who find the living costs within the urban areas too high to bear (Caroline, Anne, 2010 p. 54).

The third aspect that differentiates the two is the social aspect which looks at how people conduct their daily lives in terms of behavior, the values they hold dear as well as the channels they use for communication. There is a wide array of factors that can be categorized into the social aspect of the urban and rural settings, but they are difficult to measure, hence leaving us with an enormous task of defining what is urban and what is rural (Caroline, Anne, 2010 p. 54).

Urbanization and industrialization as factors of transformation from rural to urban

Urbanization in simple terms is the process through which rural villages are slowly but surely transformed from remote, uncivilized centers, into modernized, industrialized and connected centers. This is made possible by the increasing proportions of people living in the urban settings. As people continue to increase in any given locality, in inverse proportions to the size of land, it becomes increasingly difficult for those people to grow their own food and starts depending on the areas considered as hinterlands to provide them with food (David and Cecilia, 2003 p. 96)

Urbanization has become more and more closely associated with industrialization, that the absence of one means a weakness in the other. Cities have always been seen as they ideal places to locate industries. As the industries continue to grow, they need to employ more and more workers, and this facilitates the movement of people from the rural areas as they come into the cities in search of jobs into the factories and industries (David and Cecilia, 2003 p. 96).

Just as an example of how urbanization facilitates growth of rural areas, it has been cited in some reports that only a mere 5% of the total population of the United States lived in the cities around the year 1800, but the figure rose to 50% by 1920. This was the period around which America was undergoing urbanization. The same was happening in Europe. Today, about 80% of the population lives in cities and other urban centers. Yet this transition has been as a result of rural areas silently but surely transforming into urban settings (David and Cecilia, 2003 p. 96).

Importance of urban centers to rural health

It is common knowledge that health is an important component in an individual’s life or the life of the larger society as a whole. Health does not merely refer to absence of disease, but refers to a balanced holistic balance and well being socially, physically, spiritually, physiologically and mentally. With this in mind then, we need not say that the health condition of the people in the rural set up is mostly faced with many challenges and obstacles, compared to their urban counterparts, yet they need to keep healthy in order top keep producing food products for the entire nation. In addition, economic impediments, social differences and cultural disparities all com together to make the situation worse, compounded with the fact that some rural areas are greatly isolated and lack a recognition from the legislators. Let us have a look at some of the health situations around a majority of rural areas (American Sociological Society, 1976 p. 3).

Out of the many health practitioners around the world, only about 10% work in the rural areas as compared to a whooping 70% who work in urban setups. This is great contrast considering that the rural population constitutes a quarter of the world’s population (Detlef, 2001 p. 102).

The rural dwellers hardly ever have employer-provided medical cover, unlike their counterparts in the urban areas. This means that access to healthcare services proves to be a challenge for a majority of them bearing in mind that they only earn meager incomes for their hard labor and this little income must be put into meeting basic needs like food (Detlef, 2001 p. 102).

Rural residents are posed with the threat of death from unintentional injuries other than road accidents than their counterparts in the urban areas. This is because of the even the working conditions that they work under. For example they may get injured while working with farm tools and equipment, get infected with tetanus and have no means of getting injected against it (Sana, 2001 p. 13).

More than 20% of rural children live in abject poverty. As such, it is a great challenge for their parents to be able to accord them the much needed health service that other children their ages and who live in the urban areas are exposed to. Rural residents in general are poorer than the urbanites, with per capita income of $7,417 lower than that of urban dwellers. (Nina, Johnson and Lois, 2004 p. 106)

Rural areas are marked with healthcare provide professional the world over. Statistics show that there are over 2,100 health professional shortage areas (HPSAs) in rural areas as compared to only 900 areas in urban settings (Sana, 2001 p. 17).

Drug abuse and tobacco smoking is more rampant in rural areas than in urban areas among the youth. This is because, while urban youths have other sources of entertainment and numerous activities that keep them busy, the rural youth have nothing but idleness and bad company to hang out with. Drug abuse is also rampant among rural youth because the lack information on the dangers of so doing, bearing in mind that even the quality of education in these settings is quite low (Morton, 1996 p. 12)

There are 40 dentists per 100,000 populations in rural settings, compared to 60 dentist per10, 000 in the urban settings. This says that these rural dwellers are not getting enough facilitation for access to proper dental care. (Morton, 1996 p. 12)

Suicide rate among men and children in rural areas is much higher than that of men, women and children in urban areas. What this means is that we are losing men, who are breadwinners for families and children who are the icons for a brighter tomorrow to suicide due to lack of intervention strategies (Thomas, 1984 p. 134).

Payments done to rural hospitals are quite low, compared to the payments made in the urban hospitals for equivalent health services. Although this spells cheaper service access for the rural poor, it also means that the hospitals are not getting enough resources to keep them going. As a matter of fact, over 450 hospitals have shut down in the rural areas over the last 25 years (Douglas, 1999 p. 57).

These statistics and many more are just a glimpse into what the rural folks are losing out in. What then is the role of the urban areas in beefing up support for the rural areas as far as health care is concerned?

To begin with, urban areas are the places where doctors and other health professional are trained. As such, urban areas need to invest in training many personnel and while planning is being done for the whole nation, ensure that a majority of the personnel are deployed into the rural areas to offer these valuable services (Douglas, 1999 p. 58).

Urban areas are also the place where counselors are trained. They need to be empowered to work in rural areas in order to impart life skills on people so that drug abuse cases and suicide can reduce amicably (Nina, 2004 p. 89).

Financial resources, as we have seen in this paper, are channeled from the cities into the rural areas. As such, strategic planning needs to be done, with the rural hospitals in mind in order to ensure that they run smoothly and that they always have a smooth flow of resources like health personnel and drugs (Katharine, 1982 p. 16)

Without saying much, if urban areas are to continue depending on rural areas for food support, then the urban areas must style up to ensure that rural areas are functioning effectively for example by provision of core essential service, in which health is just a tip of the iceberg. (Katharine, 1982 p. 16)

CHAPTER THREE – FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS

Through the literature review, a few results were gathered and the following specific issues were raised.

Interactions between ancient urban and rural areas

As we have seen from the definition of urban and rural areas, it leaves us with no doubt that these two areas, despite of their diversities, rely on each other for accomplishment of some goals. For example, agricultural products produced in the rural areas and which need further processing, must be transported into the industrialized urban areas for processing. Since there are no food production activities going on in urban areas, rural areas need to provide them with food products for sustenance. The economic benefits that are realized in the urban centers on the other hand are ploughed back into the rural areas, for example through family support by the people working in the urban areas (Richard, 2008 p. 66).

Case study One

Coming to a more specific analysis of the interaction between the urban and the rural, let us have a look at the medieval city settings in the Roman world. This is a case study that focuses on a symbiotic relationship between rural and urban setting. The distinctions between urban and rural in the ancient days were not merely a matter of the physical form, but also an outlook through the administrative hand of governance. According to a group of archeologists working in Roman in the middle age era, an area qualified as urban if it met the following conditions; exhibited defenses, had a well planned street system, had a dense population, had a market, was legally autonomous in that it could govern itself holistically, had a diversified economic base, was religiously differentiated and had a judicial center (Michael, 1977 p. 174).

At around that time, rural areas in Rome were facing some form of modifications in that, there was a need for farmers to become multi-functional, in that they needed to shift focus from small scale to large scale farm management. This way, they were able to adopt relatively modernized methodologies of farming, hence increasing productivity. What this led to eventually was a self-sufficiency policy that brought an overproduction of products. Later on, the systems of farming had to change from ‘productivism’ to post ‘productivism.’ This ensured that there was food security, both for the rural and urban areas, hence alleviating poverty. This means that when there is sustainable food production for both rural and urban inhabitants, reliance on non-agricultural food products goes down, creating a demand for the food products and hence increasing the income of the rural inhabitants. Consequently, this translated to reduced rural-urban migration in search of jobs, ensuring that population distribution was balanced both in the metropolitan cities and in the rural centers. At a closer analysis though, we can comfortably establish that the continued interactions between rural and urban developed a pattern of transformation that gave rise to the cities. To begin with, some urban centers as we know them today were merely pre-industrialized rural settings that got transformed with the coming of industrialization. Moving from the stage of pre-industrialization, they became industrialized, eventually acquiring the status of a fully modernized, urbanized and industrialized city setting. This outlook is as far as economic aspects of rural-urban interactions are concerned (Michael, 1977 p. 177).

Coming to the social aspects of the interactions in the Roman world, there was seen to be a very close relationship between the inhabitants of the rural areas and those in the urban setting. This was proved by the constant visiting patterns by the urban inhabitants into the rural areas to attend functions like annual religious festivities, rites and rituals. On the other hand, people from the rural settings would show up in the urban areas to attend education, training sessions and extension linkages, as well as to access health care services. These forms of social group interactions facilitated growth in terms of facilitating a shift of focus from interaction purely for agricultural purposes, to a more logical outlook on the dynamics of their own needs necessary for growth and development (Mahmoud, 2003 p. 98).

Politically, The Hellenistic Roman urban world shared a lot of interests with the rural world. For example, it is recorder by researchers that in the ancient medieval days, the two setting shared common administrative relationships that oversaw the smooth flow of government budgetary flows. Income generated by the central government within the cities was distributed to the rural areas through interconnected organizations that linked the countryside to the cities. There was also an aspect of authority approval, meaning that before implementation of certain policies in the rural areas, there was need to first get permission from the higher authorities located in the cities where policies were formulated and passed on as legal decision making tools. Ideologically, Romans are known to have shared common ideologies despite their differences in location. This was possible because as the urban areas became modernized, they strived to drag the rural areas along by ensuring that they got information through books, radio, television and advertising (Geyer, 2002 p. 65).

Case study Two

In a contrasting case study, the rural-urban interaction in the Hellenistic Greek world seems to be weak. The first example is drawn from the way the Hellenistic kings seemed to rule and the motives that they had behind accumulation of wealth. While most leaders would seek to increase wealth for the sake of their subjects, these kings simply did not care about development of either rural or urban areas and their sole purpose was to enrich themselves. Whatever wealth they could amass from the rural areas through irrigation or land reclamation went into making themselves the rich even more. To make matters worse these leaders went to the extent of robbing temples, all in the quest to fulfill their selfish desires. While this had one advantage in the sense that it led to the growth of the cities in which the palaces were located, it also meant untold suffering for the rural folks, who never enjoyed the benefits of their work in terms of financial returns (David, 2003 p. 34).

This clearly shows that the urban-rural interactions were weak, what with the inconsideration of the Hellenistic kings that cared less about development issues and instead were out to enrich themselves at the expense of their subjects (David, 2003 p. 34).

Acculturation in Italy, as yet another example of the discrepancy between the rural-urban relations, was biased to a very large scale. How was this possible? It is recorded that the geographical and social-economic boundaries between the urban and the rural are quite noticeable. Culture between the two social groups is highly distinctive. Much of these discrepancies were triggered by the fact that was a great division between the central and southern Campania, and the northern and eastern regions. While one part was exposed to a lot of Greek influence and benefited from a heavy polis presence, the other region had very few Greek contacts and therefore remained with the old rural cultural habits. This meant that while the central and southern areas received advantages of the Greek presence like industrialization and modernization, the northern and eastern areas suffered loss and some sort of barrier to acculturation. Hellenization comes out strongly, characterized by conflict between the Greeks and the Italians. This leads to a hardening of cultural boundaries, as a sign of strong solidarity of one group against ‘invasion, by another. In this case, the Italians as the ones who are rebelling against change which could spell changes in their livelihoods in terms of transforming them from rural-hood to urbanism (Eveline, 2010 p. 43).

Case study Three

This case study focuses on the intense urban-rural interaction in the late antiquity world. When we talk of the antiquity world we are referring to the old ancient days on a more general note. Generally, it has been established that a majority of the cities as we know them today originated from some rural-like forms and only grew into cities through interactions with other more developed towns and cities by an adoption of urbanization and modernization techniques that they could not do without then, as a study into the origin of cities has led us to believe. While man in the ancient past was accustomed to a life of hunting for survival, with time he developed a learning skill, which he developed and utilized to interact with others and with the gods, eventually forming the earliest village (Eveline, 2010 p. 45).

These early developments can be traced into the east in the likes of Mesopotamia, Nineveh and Babylon. Mumford, in his book ‘The City in History’ says that the granary, the library, the store the drain as well as the bank, as they are known today, are a good reflection of what the rural villages looked like and as such, the cities or urban areas are a complete replica of the good old villages. He goes on to suggest that without the village or the rural, there would not be the urban. In the Central Place Theory, he explains that the basic assumptions in the developmental stages of cities are that resources are the same everywhere, meaning that every village or rural setting has the same potential as any other to develop into an urban setting. It is also assumed that villages consist of self-sufficient households that are not dependent on each other and that transportation costs are equal regardless of the direction to be taken and that the costs are also proportional to the distance to be covered (Viswambhar, 2007 p. 73).

With this in mind then, we can see that there is great dependency on the rural areas for the growth and progression of the urban setting, as opposed to case study one that depicts a very interdependent relationship (Viswambhar, 2007 p. 73).

From the case studies above, it is clear that the two settings, no matter how contrasting, cannot survive independently. There must be a form of relationship, whether symbiotic, parasitic or thwarted. In his book ‘Rural-Urban Interaction in the developing world’ Kenneth Lynch on page 17 tells us that a lot countries still depend on the rural areas for survival of their economic aspects. He looked at the rural-urban relations as symbiotic as cities on the other hand are depended on for financial services, information and channels of communication as well as sources of non-agricultural products (Kenneth, 2005 p. 17).

Extent of variation in interactions between rural and urban settings

Despite the above case study that seems to show that there exists a strong relationship in the interaction between rural and urban settings, the strength of the interaction varies from place to place and just to cite an example to prove this, in the Arabian Peninsula, urbanization is rapidly take charge of urban areas, while there is no agrarian change to brag about is taking place in the rural areas (Ravinder, pg 6). This is because, as the urban areas continues to become urbanized and modernized, they also became globalized, allowing themselves to get assimilated into the culture of other countries, including an adoption of eating habits that led to importation of foods instead of supporting the local farmers by buying food from them (Ravinder, 2009 p. 6).

Something else that affects the strength of interaction making it weaker and almost non-existence is the size of a country, according to Porter, 1980. A small sized nation has more interactions between the urban and the rural and development of such a country is much easier and takes place over a relatively shorter period of time. Such interactions are facilitated by the short distance that inhabitants have to cover to and fro the urban areas and vice versa (Kenneth, 2005 p. 52)

The paradox or rural-urban inequality

As earlier mentioned, the size of a nation greatly determines how fast it becomes urbanized. People living away form city centers find themselves being left behind in matters to do with changing lifestyles like housing styles, medical care, clothing, vehicle ownership and a bunch of many other things that define their social, political and economic lives (David, 2003 p. 18).

Differences in the rural-urban interactions are also triggered by differences in human capital. Most of the cases reported indicate that children from the poor rural settings normally find it hard to find well paying employment when they are much older due to the fact that the level of education they are exposed to is also low quality. However, when they happen to be presented with a chance to access high quality education, it goes without saying that they also become viable for the labor market and the quality of life goes high, the effect that schooling has on labor markets becomes significantly irrelevant (Brunn, 2003 p. 56).

The paradox here brings itself out clearly because, while governments advocate for high school enrolment especially in the rural areas, they know just too well that the quality of education does not match that in the urban areas. This means that the children and populations in the rural settings remain in a ‘rat race’ where in an attempt to eradicate poverty they find themselves stuck in the same race year in year out. The effect is especially felt at the family level as opposed to the community level (Herbert, 1982 p. 100).

While it is expected that where there are many thriving markets people should not go without employment, this is not the case in many nations, China, the world’s strongest economy included. Promotion is also supposed to be on the basis of talent and qualification, but those in the rural areas, no matter their qualifications, are not seen to benefits from the proposal of this theory. In fact, in some states, the gap between the rural folks and the urbanites is growing by the day, be it economically, socially or politically. How then can we expect rural discrimination to diminish if these are the thriving conditions left, right and center? (Surinder, 2007 p. 102).

Should we view the relationship between urban and rural entities as necessary and mutually -beneficial, or as exploitative and one -sided?

The relationship between rural and urban areas cannot be belittled or ignored, no matter how insignificant the interaction may seem to be. Needless to say, both rural and urban areas constitute some functional elements that make life what it is in any given region. Cities, as we have seen, cannot survive alone, neither can the countryside achieve much without some support from the cities. Cities for example, need the human resource or labor that comes from the rural areas, while the rural areas on the other hand need the financial capital support that they derive from the cities (Ravinder, 2009 p. 1).

Cities also function as the market base for surplus commodities being produced in the rural areas. In case of export of any surplus, the cities facilitate such arrangements. What of the products that come form the rural indigenous cottage industries? They find their way into the market, both local and international via the city centers. The urban areas and cities on the other hand provides a ground on which policies and rules that govern activities going on in the countryside are formulated (Michael, 1977 p. 55).

As such, the relationship between these two setups is basically a symbiotic one, save for a few instances where research has presented the relationship between the two as merely exploitative, bringing out the urban areas as an exogenous factor that is out to exploit, subdue and take advantage of the indigenous factor (rural area) (Michael, 1977 p. 55).

The changes and variations in the relationship between countryside and the cities are merely a product of the structural transformations in society and not essentially due to a conscious process aimed at weakening the interactions. Over the years, a new concept, colonialism, has made the whole concept of rural-urban interaction even a little bit more complex that necessary. This is because, colonialism has brought out the aspect that cities are a major link between rural areas and the international markets, something that we cannot overlook if planning for rural areas in relation to the rest of the world is to be done (Richard, 2008 p. 66).

When infrastructure is being developed in any given nation, it goes without saying that the major aim of so doing is to have a linkage between the two social divides. However, when the linkage is not done in a manner that leaves no overlaps, then there are chances that neo-colonialism will develop between the rural and the urban, with the urban dominating the rural, as is the case in the Hellenistic Greek (Caroline, 2010 p. 56).

Furthermore, there is a lot that governments can do to strengthen the relationship between urban settings and the rural ones. For example, if marketing, transportation and communications were strengthened, there would be no doubt that both the private and the public agencies would be more than willing to serve the rural areas and as such promote their growth. Planning hence calls for balanced representation of the rural stakeholder. For beneficial development, there is need to have a socio-economic understanding of the benefits that are likely to be derived from such developments, both for the rural and urban settings. There is evidence that suggests that the future of the rural-urban relations has a very strong potential for improvement as there is no one population that can survive without the other. However, stakeholders must first take advantage of the opportunity for such development and poverty development issues (Herbert, 1982 p. 107).

It also must be kept in mind that urbanization is a continuous strong process that cannot be inhibited, especially in the developing nations. Predictions show that in the next 25 years most of the world’s population will be living in the urban centers and since urbanization cannot go beyond 100%, the process will cease for most cities of the world (Herbert, 1982 p. 111).

With this in mind then we cannot afford to throw caution to the wind and simply assume that the rural-urban relations are exploitative or one-sided, save for the few unrepresentative cases within the Greek world.

Chapter Four – Conclusion

The relationship and extent of interaction between urban and rural centers is yet to be established. Nothing much can be said on whether there is an increased or a decreased interaction between the two for reasons mentioned below:

Rural folks and those in the urban areas have intensively different ways, and each of them is at their own level of civilization. Comparative analysis of such distinct settings becomes relatively difficult, bearing in mind that the milestones used for benchmarking the developmental progress for urban setting are slightly or even intensively different. For example, for urbanites, financial development means more to them than to rural folks, the reason being that urban dwellers live all their lives according to their financial power. In rural areas on the other hand, life can be managed through a number of approaches. For example, while in the city one might sleep hungry if they have no money for food, in the rural area one will never go hungry with neighbors around, not to mention vast fields of land that have crops cultivated on them (Mahmoud, 2003 p. 114).

The issue or urban-rural interactions, according to the literature review, has not received much attention from people concerned with the study, mainly geographers. Furthermore, much of the literature available on this topic concentrates too much on the differences between urban and rural settings, rather that the similarities that draw them together. There is now a growing need to shift focus and give the connections between rural areas and the urban ones the attention that they deser

In this research that we propose to undergo, we are looking to investigate the indirect relationship between the love of money, attitude towards unethical behaviour and propensity to engage in unethical behaviour (PUB) among post graduate management students in India. We plan to test a theoretical model to ascertain the causal link between these variables. Attitude towards unethical behaviour may serve as a mediator of the relationship between the love of money and the PUB helping us better understand the complex relation. However, it is not yet known if love of money causes attitude towards unethical behaviour or it is the other way round. More specifically, in this study, we explore the indirect relationship

(The Love of Money ? Attitude towards unethical behaviour ? Unethical Behaviour ) and the moderating variables being the gender of the respondents. After ethics training, female students change and improve ethical behaviour, but male students do not (Ritter, 2006). On the basis of these suggestions, we attempt to examine the possible differences between male and female students using the same model. PUB has been measured using a 15-item Unethical Behaviour measure with five Factors: Abuse Resources, Not Whistle Blowing, Theft, Corruption, and Deception.

We develop our theory from a small set of research ideas presented below-

It is well known that management education is not only a highly commercialised business (more than other forms of education claims Economist, 2004).these days but is a high stakes affair considering that many of the top CEOs of the world are products of business schools. In a ranking done in ‘Why Do MBAs Make Better CEOs?’ by Herminia Ibarra, Morten T. Hansen, and Urs Peyer, CEOs with an MBA ranked on average a full 40 places higher than those without. Indeed, half of the top 10 went to B-school (although, admittedly, one of them dropped out before getting an MBA). Due to increasing list of scandals and other corruptions( Enron, Arthur Anderson LLP, Tyco, Satyam and Bernie Madoff) the lack of business ethics and standards is a well discussed topic, especially in the media.

The Satyam scandal raises serious questions about the MBA culture and business management education. It is significant that the controversial independent director on the board of Satyam Computer Services, N. Mohan Rao, was the dean of the high profile Indian School of Business in Hyderabad. “Business schools are also blamed for the current world financial crisis. The schools value leaders’charisma over substance and uncritically embrace free market and profiteering” (Business Week)

Many students enter business schools due to their love of money (Cunningham et al., 2004; Tang et al., 2006, 2007) and maintain these values over time (Staw, Bell, Clausen, 1986). Years later, business students become business managers and executives. ” The disgraced chairman of Satyam, Ramalingam raju, too has an MBA from Ohio and has done a course in the Harvard Business School. How is it that people with such elite education are involved in such unethical conduct? One reason is that management education has little concern with ethics. The Harvard Business School, the most prestigious of them all, is itself now under intensive scrutiny (What they Teach You at Harvard-My Two Years in the Cauldron of Capitalism, Philip Broughton)

It is important to instil a value of ethics and trust at the b-school level which will help realise you can stick to ethics even while pursuing your love of money. When greed takes over you will notice that the first casualty are your ethics and integrity

Researchers over the years have tried to identify the causes of these unethical behaviours and scandals. According to some researchers, one of the real root causes of this ethics crisis is ”the bottom-line-mentality” (Sims, 1992, p. 508) or ”maximizing shareholder value” (Kochan, 2002, p. 139). Profit-based mechanisms create pressure (to maximize profits) and opportunity (to earn perverse bonuses) and may have some serious flaws.

Recent research supports the notion that ”the love of money is a root of all kinds of evil” (http://www.biblegateway.com, 1 Timothy, 6:10, New International Version), but money (income) is not (Tang and Chiu, 2003; Tang et al., 2007; Vitell et al., 2006).

”People who want to get rich fall into temptation and a trap and into many foolish and harmful desires that plunge men into ruin and destruction. For the love of money is a root of all kinds of evil” (the Bible: 1 Timothy, 6: 9-10).

There is a dearth of empirical research concerning the love of money and evil because many lay people and researchers may consider this issue as a taboo, a religious/ controversial issue, not a scientific/academic issue, and to be excessively value-laden, thereby, may have shown great reluctance to study this taboo(e.g., Vardi and Weitz, 2004; Vardi and Wiener,1996).Thereby, the construct of unethical behaviour is an under-represented area of research in the management field and deserves further attention. Hence we take up the research, assert that the love of money is positively related to the propensity to engage in unethical behaviour (PUB).

LITERATURE REVIEW

Love of money, ethical attitude and propensity to behave unethically has been widely discussed in a number of research journals.

Love of Money

From time unknown, it has been known to the human knowledge that money is one of the most important factors affecting the attitude as well as behaviour of people. Money finds mention in Bible as well (“Money is the root of all evil”). For the present research, the following definition of love of money has been taken – love of money is “one’s attitude towards money with affective, behavioural and cognitive components; the meaning one attributes to money; one’s desire for, value of, expectation about, or aspiration for money; not one’s need, greed or materialism; a multi-dimensional individual difference variable; and a second order latent construct with several first order latent sub-constructs”(Tang et al, 2007, Law et al, 1998).

The first major attempt to establish a scale capturing the meaning of money was made by Thomas Li-Ping Tang (1992). The money ethics was developed as a result which captured six factors like “money as related to different needs, positive or negative attitude towards money, the management or control of money and obsession and power”. The love of money which measures one’s desire and aspiration to get money is a subset of the money ethics scale. The love of money scale was first developed by Tang et al (2002, 2003) that measured the construct on four different components viz Motivator, Success, Importance and Rich. It measures how much a particular individual is motivated by money, to what extent it represents success to him, how important money is to him and his desire to have more money. Later, an abridged version of the love of money scale was used by Tang et al (2007) where only the sub-constructs Rich, Motivator and Importance were considered. This particular scale has been used for the purpose of this research as well. The money ethics scale as well as the love of money scale have been tested and validated across a number of studies spread across different continents (Tang et al, 2007).

Prior to the 1980s, the relationship of money with other variables was not tested significantly (Furnhaf, 1984). However, there has been a lot of study in the recent past which has tried to capture how love of money interacts with other variables. One striking theme has been that the relationship of money with unethical behaviours has been explored to a great extent in the recent literature. Tang (2007) examined the relationship between the income levels and the quality of life using love of money along with gender, marital status and job satisfaction as control variables. The research showed a few very interesting results. However, the one relevant to this research is the one wherein love of money is negatively related to job satisfaction, income is negatively related to the quality of life. This shows that love of money acts as an important variable in mediating the relationship between income and quality of life. Other similar studies establish love of money as important variable impacting consumer behaviour, subjective well being and pay satisfaction. The impact of love of money on several other constructs like pay satisfaction, commitment, work ethic and commitment has been examined by Tang et al (2000, 2006, 2007) and Hong Meng Wong (2008) with target groups spread across geographies and professions. The result has shown that love of money does have significant impact on all of these constructs.

Unethical Behaviour

The field of ethics and unethical behaviour are very broad and considerable research has been done in them. Ethics is the standard that a person sets while judging what is right or wrong. In other words, ethics is something very personal and varies across the population. Ethics as a part of philosophy has been widely studied from the days of Socrates, Aristotle to its present post-modern form. When a person judges some behaviour as wrong according to his/her ethical standards, he perceives the same as unethical behaviour. Attitude towards unethical behaviour is thus defined as whether the person considers a particular set of behaviour as ethical or not. The propensity to engage in unethical behaviour, on the other hand, is defined as how likely the person is going to engage in behaviour that he perceives as unethical.

The components of unethical behaviour have variously been defined by different authors. Since this paper attempts to look at unethical behaviour within organizations and those which are driven by love of money, white collar crimes have only been considered. Ivancevich et al (2003) attemped to define a white collar crime and used constructs like theft, cyber loafing, workplace deviance, counterproductive behaviour, corruption and organizational misbehaviour. Each of these constructs may include many other sub-constructs. Organizational misbehaviour, for example, contains at least 23 different ones like “arson, blackmail, bribery, bullying, cheating, discrimination, dishonesty, espionage, fraud, incivility, intimidation, kickbacks, lying, misinformation, privacy violation, revenge, sabotage, sexual harassment, substance abuse, thefts, threats, whistle blowing and withholding information”. However, for the purpose of this study, only those variables that are related to the financial scandals are influenced by love of money are taken into consideration. The five sub-constructs that have been used to define unethical behaviour include Abuse Resources, Theft, Corruption, Deception and Not Whistle Blowing (Tang, 2004). These variables have been described in some detail here:

Factor Abuse Resources

This factor measures the extent to which the employee is using office resources like Xerox, stamp, telephone and internet for their own personal benefit rather than for the company’s. The use of internet for personal purposes is also known as cyber loafing and is becoming an area of great concern in present day organizations.

Factor Theft

Theft is widespread in companies, government offices, schools, colleges and medical hospitals. Very often, employees take things from office and use them for their own consumption. This has been identified as one of the menaces plaguing many corporate and other institutions. The factor theft has been measured by the employee’s tendency to steal goods, merchandise and cash from the office. It may involve borrowing cash from the counter without asking, taking merchandise home or gifting it to friends.

Factor Corruption

Corruption is the illegitimate exchange of resources done by parties who have little or no claim to them for furthering their own benefits. The Transparency International comes out with annual measures of the corruption perception index which ranks the various countries according to the perceived level of public sector corruption in them. While comparatively prosperous countries with high standards of living like those in the Pacific and Scandinavia rank highly, India has an abysmal position of 84 and a composite score of 3.4/10. This is just one of many studies that indicate a high degree of corruption present in the Indian system. Corruption in the corporate sector may take many forms like falsifying the accounts of the company and fooling stakeholders (as done in the case of Satyam), abusing one’s position in the organization to receive gifts, money and other benefits and playing with the interests of sub-ordinates to increase the bottom-line of the company and hence get a higher bonus.

Factor Deception

Deception or fraud is the act of intentionally misleading people through the inaccurate representation of facts. The society as a whole has seen a rise in the number of cases of deceptions or frauds and the same has been reflected in the corporate sector as well. It is not very unusual to come across sales persons or agents making false promises for making one extra deal and company advertisements vastly exaggerating product qualities to lure customers. Also, often customers are charged more than the actual price, charged more secretly after being promised discounts or actual benefits are hidden from them so that they cannot avail of them.

The existing literature mainly deals with the various facets of unethical behaviour and the attempts to establish the relationship with other variables are comparatively less in number.. However, the rise of corporate scandals in recent past has led to few interesting studies on understanding the drivers of unethical behaviour. Cohen et al (1996) and McCarthy (1997) attempt to measure ethical orientation among Canadian students and collegiate accounting students respectively. Mackewn et al (2008) identified reasoning skills and philosophical orientation as factors affecting the ethical judgement of students at an US university. Douglas et al (2001) studied the impact of the effect of organizational culture and ethical orientation on accountants’ ethical judgements and found significant relationship. Allmon et al (2000) observes that of the various demographic variables, only age and religious orientation have significant impact on ethical orientation. Tang et al(2007) found that love of money had impact on propensity to behave unethically through a mediating variable of Machiavellianism. Tang et al(2006) again examined the relationship between attitude towards unethical behaviour and propensity to behave unethically among business school students in USA and found that the former led to the latter.

The scale for measuring unethical behaviour in organizations was first developed by Tang and Chiu (2003). It was a 15-item-4-factor scale having the items Abuse Resources, Theft, Corruption and Not Whistle Blowing. Later, another factor was added to the scale in the form of deception and the scale was expanded to a 32 items one (Luna-Arocas and Tang, 2004). Chen and Tang (2006), however, shortened this scale to a 15-item-4-factor one for their paper and this has been used for the purpose of this research as well.

Formulation of Hypothesis
Love of Money and Propensity to Behave Unethically

The relationship between love of money and unethical behaviour has been researched upon in quite a few journals. Tang and Chen (2007) examined the relationship between love of money and the propensity to behave unethically with Machiavellianism as the mediator and college major (business and psychology) and gender as the moderator variables. The results indicated that the relationship hold good for the whole sample, for male students but not for female students, for business students but not for psychology students and for male business students but not for female business students. Other studies which probed this relationship were Hong Meng Wong (2008) for Malaysian Evangelical Christians and Tang and Chiu (2003) for Hong Kong employees, both of which showed significant relationship.

Apart from the support in literature, it is intuitively easy to understand the relationship between love of money and unethical behaviour. From the ancient times, money is considered one of the main drivers of all kinds of unethical behaviours. The higher the love of money of a person, the more is his desire and aspiration for getting money and the more likely he is to focus on the end of getting money than the means of getting the same. When the ultimate objective of a person’s actions is very highly valued by him, he is very often willing to forego the mental discomfort that is caused by acting in a way that is against his personal beliefs. That explains why a person with greater love of money will be willing to act against his own ethical beliefs. Interestingly enough, the relationship has already been validated in places like USA and Hong Kong where people are relatively affluent and money should not be a big driver for unethical behaviours. Thus the relationship is expected to be only stronger in case of India since in a comparatively poorer country, love of money should be the major reason why a person would want to behave unethically. Hence, we hypothesize that

H1: Love of money is positively related to propensity for unethical behaviour.
Attitude towards Unethical Behaviour and Propensity to Behave Unethically

The relationship between these two variables can be explained with the help of the theory of reasoned action (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). This theory tries to find explain the construct of behavioural intention with the help of two other constructs, namely the attitude and subjective norm. Behavioural intention is defined as the strength of intention of an individual to behave in a particular way. Attitude is what he perceives to be possible consequences of his behaviour and how he values those perceived consequences. Subjective norm, on the other hand, is the perceived expectation of others as far as his behaviour is concerned and how far he intends to comply with those expectations. According to this theory, the behavioural intention of a person is the sum of his attitude towards that behaviour and subjective norm weighted in different proportions depending on the person and the circumstance. In other words, the behaviour of a person can be predicted by his attitude towards that particular behaviour and what he thinks of other people’s reactions if he behaves in that way. Thus attitude plays an important role in determining how a person will ultimately behave.

Intuitively speaking, any manifestation of behaviour is a direct outcome of the attitude of the person towards that behaviour. If a person thinks doing something is wrong and still proceeds to do it, it creates cognitive dissonance. The person tries to come out of this stage either by changing his actions or changing his beliefs. So the attitude towards unethical behaviour should have a positive relation with the propensity to behave unethically. However, the relation may be weaker in India than in USA because in a less developed country with limited resources and greater competition, people might be tempted to indulge in an activity they consider is unethical in order to further their gains. Thus, the effect of cognitive dissonance is expected to be less pronounced for a person in a developing country than in a developed country, but it is still expected to be there. Hence we hypothesize that

H2: Attitude towards unethical behaviour is positively related to propensity for unethical behaviour.
Love of money and attitude towards unethical behaviour

Love of money and attitude towards unethical behaviour have not been tested much in the existing literature. Most of the research is concerned with the relationship of either of these variables with the propensity to behave unethically. Hong Meng Wong (2007) tested the money profile of Malaysian Evangelical Christians and tried to map them to their ethical attitudes. Accordingly, they were classified as successful money achiever, careful money manager and money apathetic individuals. The research indicated that the three different groups had significant differences in their attitude towards unethical behaviour. The first group was more likely to view actions as ethical compared to others.

Compared to the relationship between love of money and propensity for unethical behaviour, it is much more difficult to hypothesize the relationship between love of money and attitude towards unethical behaviour. It is true that a person with a higher love of money is expected to have a different ethical attitude i.e. if he perceives a particular action to be ethical or not. A person with a higher love of money is more likely to engage in unethical behaviour and to escape the cognitive dissonance, he is more likely to justify the same as ethical behaviour. On the other hand, a person with lower love of money is likely to have a stronger ethical code. Viewed in another way, love of money will change a person’s attitude towards unethical behaviour and will lead him to engage in unethical behaviour. Hence, we hypothesize that

H3: Love of money is positively related to attitude towards unethical behaviour.
Gender and Love of Money, Attitude towards Unethical Behaviour and Propensity to Behave Unethically

Studies have indicated that males and females have a different attitude towards what constitutes unethical behaviour. A large part of that can be explained by the gender socialization theory. Socialization is the process by which a person tends to inculcate his/ her norms, customs and ideologies. Gender socialization theory suggests that men and women tend to learn different kinds of values and norms in keeping with their defined role in the society. There have been three different theories proposed to explain gender socialization. Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory suggests that gender differences come into existence as soon as children observe their genitals. Social learning theory uses positive reinforcement men and women receive when they exhibit their expected behaviour to explain the gender socialization. Cognitive development theory proposes that men and women try to act differently according to their stereotypes in order to better understand the world around them and differentiate themselves from each other.

The occupational socialization theory, on the other hand, suggests that people in the same occupation tend to behave in a particular common way in order to better adapt to the needs of their jobs. Thus for the purpose of this research, the gender and occupational socialization theories carry contrasting predictions about the impact of gender on constructs like love of money, attitude towards unethical behaviour and the propensity to behave unethically. While according to the former, gender should have an impact, the latter suggests that since the respondents all belong to the same occupation (business school students in India), occupational socialization should prevail and the role of gender should be nullified.

Mason and Mudrack (1996) tried to address this dichotomy by examining the value and ethical systems in full and part time employees, both male and female. The gender socialization theory suggests that there is gender difference in ethics variables regardless of the employment status. The occupational socialization hypothesizes gender similarity on the same variables. The study showed some interesting findings. While there was no significant gender differences in part time employees, the ethical differences between men and women was significant for full time employees and women were found to be more ethical in nature. . This led the authors to argue that the segregation of males and females within the work force has led to the development of different ethical attitudes in the two groups and males generally are more unethical compared to females. . The same line of thought leads us to argue that males will have more love of money compared to females. Studies have also indicated that males are more driven by performance and competition than emotions and empathy as compared to females (Chen and Tang, 2006). More love of money in males can explain this phenomenon. Hence we hypothesize that

H4: There is a positive correlation between gender (male) and love of money
H5: There is a positive correlation between gender (male) and attitude to unethical behaviour
H6: There is positive correlation between gender (male) and the propensity to behave unethically

On the basis of the above discussions, the following model has been suggested:

Love of Money

Attitude towards Unethical Behaviour

Propensity for Unethical Behaviour

Gender

Some of the extraneous variables that could have impacted the results were the kind of education and the age of the respondents. Both these effects have been eliminated by restricting the sample to respondents from business schools. Another variable that was studied in the American context was the income of the respondents since most business schools students there have part time job and are self-sustaining. Even after this, there was no significant relationship observed between income and the other variables. Since business schools students in India do not usually have any source of income, this factor has not been taken into consideration.

Research Methodology

Sample

The sample selected for this survey consisted of only business schools students in India. Accordingly, an online questionnaire was floated and the link was sent to selected respondents in business schools all over the country. In the final analysis, 270 responses were collected of which only 262 have been considered. Care was taken to make the survey completely anonymous in nature since it has been observed that people are generally not very forthcoming while talking about their ethical preferences in public. (Chen and Teng, 2006)

Measures

All the constructs have been measured by using a five point Likert Scale. For measuring the love of money, the abridged love of money scale was used (Chen and Tang, 2007). It is a 9-item-3-factor Likert scale. The measurement and functional equivalence of this scale have been widely established and cited in many different studies across various countries and languages. Unethical behaviour has been measured by using a 15-item-5-factor scale (Cheng and Tang, 2006). This scale also has good reliability, face validity, content validity and measurement invariance data. The scale has been used to measure both the attitude towards unethical behaviour and propensity to behave unethically. While measuring the former, the respondents have been asked to rate the particular items on a scale of very unethical to very ethical. In case of the latter, the respondents have been asked how likely they will engage in the behaviour as mentioned in these items. To reduce priming effects, the measurement of propensity to behave unethically has been done before the attitude towards unethical behaviour (Chen and Tang, 2007).

Consumption has always been an important aspect of human society, in different ways at different times and in different places (Clarke 2003). The consumer revolution, the birth of which is a subject of debates (McKendrick claims to have discovered it in the eighteenth century England, Williams- in nineteenth century France, and Mukerji- in fifteenth and sixteenth century England), represents not just a change in tastes, preferences, and purchasing habits but a fundamental shift in the culture of the early modern and modern world. (McCracken 1988) The consumer revolution is seen to have changed Western concept of time, space, society, the individual, and the state. Western culture gradually became increasingly dependent on and integrated with the new consumer goods and practices, which appeared from the sixteenth century onwards; culture and consumption began to fashion their present relationship of deeply complicated mutuality.(McCracken 1988) In such a consumer culture, consumption has an important significance to the meaningful practices of peoples everyday life. That is, they not only make their consumption choices from the products utilities but also from their symbolic meanings. Basically, consumption is employed not only to create and sustain self but to locate people in society as well. However, from a critical point of view, seeking to create the self through symbolic consumption can also contribute to the enslavement of individuals in the deceptive world of consumption. The following paper seeks to explore the theoretical approaches regarding the relationship between consumption and the self.

{In the postmodern world} Our Identity is moulded as consumers. (Sarup 1996, p.120)

…Living life to the full became increasingly synonymous with consumption. (Gabriel and Lang 1995, p.7)

The construction of self in modern society is considered to be invariably linked to consumption. The modern society undoubtedly represents a consumer culture, where peoples life functions in the scope of consumption. (Firat and Venkatesh 1995) It is, peoples social arrangement in which the relation between lived culture and social resources, between meaningful ways of life and the symbolic and material resources on which they depend, is mediated trough markets .(Slater 1997, p.8) Hence consumption is of great importance to the allusive practice of individuals everyday life. Along with the creation and maintenance of the self, consumption is also employed in order to locate different individuals in society (Elliott 1994a). The various material goods that people buy, the ideals and beliefs they held show who they actually are and whom they identify with. Indeed, people consume various things not only for satisfaction of personal needs but also for creation of their self-creation projects (i.e. for sense of significance in their pursuit of being ), which may be achieved symbolically through mundane consumption. The validity of this is confirmed by a considerable amount of literature. Lang and Gabriel argue that whether one is looking for happiness, identity, beauty, love , et cetera, there is a commodity somewhere which guarantees to prove it. In McCracken point of view, different products embody qualities that reach beyond their attributes or commercial value, which means, they are capable of carrying and accommodating cultural meanings. Symbolically, people use these meanings in order to create cultural idea of the self, to obtain and maintain lifestyles, to represent social connections and to promote changes in society and the self. (McCracken 1988) In other words, people consume these cultural ideas in order to exist in this culturally composing world. McCracken (1988a, p. Xi) confirms the latter point: without consumer goods, certain acts of self-definition and collective definition in this culture would be impossible.

Shopping is not merely the acquisition of things: it is the buying of identity. (Clammer 1992, p. 223)

Sartre (1998) argues that The bond of possessions is an internal bond of being. (p. 588)

He emphasizes on the idea that people come to know who they are trough what they possess. By actually observing their material possessions they structure and sustain a notion of existential self. The idea of seeing is of vital importance, because as Sartre states to see it is already to possess it. In itself it is already apprehended by sight as a symbol of being . Thus, when see a superb landscape, people are capable of obtaining a notion of possessing the given landscape, and then associating it with their sense of being . This idea illustrates how people acquire a feeling of existing trough window shopping alone. To have is to be concept is also asserted by Belk (1988) and Dittmar (1992). Dittmar (1992, p. 204-06) argues:

Material possessions have socially constructed meanings …this symbolic dimension of material objects plays an important role for the owner s identity. …This suggests that material social reality in an integral, pervasive aspect of everyday social life, of constructing ourselves and others.

Belk (1988) in his examination of the connection between having and being , states that it is a two-fold process working in both directions respectively. Not only do people place their self-identities into their possession but they also integrate the latter into their identities; that is mirrored in the so called self-extensions process (i.e. the extended self). As extension of the self, peoples possessions not only enable them to find their actual characters but to achieve or adjust their sense of continuity from the past. Thus, material possessions act as a capacity to manage individual s life in its current course.

As stated above to have is to be but to have also means to belong . Richins (1994, p. 523) states, Possessions are part of the social communication system and are sometimes actively used to communicate aspects of the self. Undoubtedly, when obtain personal possession that expresses peoples individual sense of identity and their sense of belonging to a group and collective identity. Material things encompass symbolic meanings, trough which a bridging of the self to others in society is possible. Dittmar (1992, p. 11) states:

The notion that we express our identity trough our material possessions, and make inferences about the identity of others, on the basis of what they possess, means that there must be socially material objects as symbolic manifestation of identity.

Nowadays, people are able to use consumption symbolically in order to gain a considerable sense of belonging to various imagined communities (Anderson 1983) or different neo-tribes (Maffesoli 1988). Thus, people consume different products that add to the symbolic means of identification of the self, trough which they associate themselves emotionally with those sharing their lifestyles. (Gabriel and Lang 1995)

Consumption, as it has been stated in the above paragraphs, provides people with symbolic meanings to construct their self and identity, but it also can imprison them to the superficial sense of self and the enduring consumption. Therefore, from a critical perspective, to have means to be enslaved.

If I am what I have and if what I have is lost, who then am I? (Fromm 1976, p. 76)

According to Fromm, seeking to obtain a sense of being trough having hides a risk of losing it since having may not stay permanently. Contrary, he raises the idea that people realize the self by giving and sharing practices, et cetera. To have contributes to peoples enslavement of their own possessions. (Fromm 1976) People become slaves (i.e. commodities) in the realm of goods (Giddens 1991). Faurschou (1987, p. 82) argues:

{Postmodernity is} …no longer an age in which bodies produce commodities, but where commodities produce bodies: bodies for aerobic, bodies for sport cars, bodies for vacations, bodies for Pepsi, for Coke, and of course bodies for fashion total bodies-a total look. The colonization of the body as its own production/consumption machine in late capitalism is a fundamental theme of contemporary civilization.

The belief that people are capable of exercising their freedom through certain choices seems unrealistic. Actually, we all not only follow lifestyles, but in an important sense are forced to do so-we have no choice but to choose (Gidddens 1991, p. 8). Also, Elliot (1994b) states that the pleasure, more specifically the immediate one derived from numerous consumption practices may imprison people in the scope of addictive consumption. Gergen (1991, p. 74-5) shows some apprehension over freedom of consumption:

Yet this same freedom ironically leads to a form of enslavement. Each new desire places its demands and reduces one s liberties. …Liberation becomes a swirling vertigo of demands. Daily life has become a sea of drowning demands, and there is no shore in sigh.

The will and eagerness to be more, to grow more, to accumulate more and more, and more results in suffering and self-destruction of the individual. The only possible way of letting go this degenerated cycle is to accept the idea that to be is merely an illusion. Consequently, people should let go of their will to be , leave alone the desire to have .

Considering all that has been stated above in the current paper about relationship between self and consumption strongly confirms their cooperative coexisting within and in developed societies of the contemporary world. The consumer is seen as caught in a cultural project (McCracken 1988), which main purpose is to achieve a full completion of the self. The consumer machine provides individuals with the necessary cultural materials in order to rationalise their varying ideas about themselves and their social roles in society. All of their cultural notions are embodied in the symbolic nature of goods, and it is through their possession and practices that individual understands the meaning in his own life. As Kavanaugh states, …individuals in a society create themselves or define themselves culturally through the objectification of {a culture s} conceptual models in centrally prescribed phenomenal forms (McCracken 1988).

It is through the systematic endowing of the meaningful properties of objects/goods that individual satisfied the opportunity and responsibility of self-definition. The logic and directions of this process of self and world construction through the nature of goods has been increasingly understudied and since recently it has been drawn accurate exploration. But which still needs further examination.

Relationships between women and men are not simply impossible or difficult. Misunderstandings of social beings are inevitable to occur; when men expect women to think and act as men and women expect men to think and act as women, conflicts becomes inevitable. This does not mean that men and women live in absolutely different realities (Corner, 2008). We can also not conclude that all the conflicts that visit relationships between men and women are solely from lack of knowledge of their differences. This paper endeavors to dig into an understanding of the various relational conflicts that springs from perception differences (Patterson, 2007). The greatest challenges that are facing majority of men-women relationships are failure to be aware of their identities and failure to accept their differences so as to live skillful and full lives. For congruent and cohesive coexistence, men and women must understand their differences and similarities.

2.1 Background of Man-Women Relationship

For many centuries the differences between women and men were socially defined. The lenses of sexism were used to distort the relational differences in which men assumed superiority over the women and maintained their position through domination (FGU). When the goals of equality between men and women became a public demand, people started losing the awareness of the importance emanating from the differences. The vision for equality between the two sexes has narrowed all the possibilities of discovering what truly is in existence within women and men (Corner, 2008). The understanding of the differences that exist can serve as a very important tool in facilitating reconciliation between the two sexes when a conflict erupts. If the different sexes were to understand themselves, then they would with ease devise mechanisms of dealing with their sexual differences conflicts that tampers their congruent relationships.

Dr. Michael G. Conner (2008), a clinical medical and family psychologist has purported that men and women are equal but different. He has supported his allegation by stating that even though men and women have equal rights to opportunities and protection under the law they are different in their physical and psychological making. Men and women differ in their perception to some life concepts and consequently diversified approaches.

2.2 Why the Concern on Relational Conflicts?

Relationship between men and women is not always productive; conflicts between the two sexes prompt one to ask ‘what are the sources of the conflicts?’ we do not refute the fact than men conflict with fellow men as women conflict with fellow women, but our area of concern is a desire to know why the conflicts between men and women differs from the conflict of the same sex. Science has endeavored to explain the biological reason behind the differences. McCarthy (2008) did a research that was meant to identify whether the behavioral difference between men and women has any biological explanation. He identified that the behavioral difference is as a result of the distinct mind between the two sexes. He pointed out that female’s and male’s brain appear to be constructed from strikingly different blueprints. The recent neurological studies have identified that the differences in the circuitry that wires the brain and the chemicals that transport messages inside the brain is so vast that one has to conclude that there are two types of brains. People act and react from their perception towards a given situation hence behavior. This acts as a source of conflict between men and women.

2.3 Approach and Intervention

This paper shall explain the various sources of conflicts between men and women derived from their perception differences and explain the intervention measures that can be employed to overcome the conflicts. The hypothetical intervention applicable in overcoming relational conflicts emanating from perceptional differences include: Empowerment; doing away with the ignorance, Communication; sharing perceptions hence overcoming the challenge of relational conflict, learning to be listeners of each other, acceptance of the fact that perception differs, being flexible over conflicting issues and learning to negotiate over issues in dispute.

A research was conducted to identify whether reaction differences between male and female is biological or a result of socialization process. It involved two months old male and female infants prior to the socialization process. The research identified that female infants are more responsive to sounds of a person in distress than male infants. Male infants were more responsive to objects as opposed to female infants who were more responsive to faces (Yarborough, 2006).

3.1 Differences of perception that acts as sources of conflict between men and women
3.1 Processing of information

There are fundamental differences in the manner in which women and men process information. Women can process information more extensively and different pieces of information than men can do; men have a tendency to digest one thing at a time. A study was conducted to find out the truth of this allegation. Man and women were taken to a room for some few minutes and then later were asked what they observed. Almost all men could just remember the general appearance of the room, while the women remembered distinct details such as the position of a flower vessel, the photos on the walls, the cleanliness of the table clothes, the model of television among other details. Such a pronounced capacity to information processing has acted as a major source of conflict between the two sexes (Gilligan, 1982). For example, a woman may be talking to the husband while watching the television and still noticing what the children are doing. She may ask the husband a question who is engrossed on the TV and simply because it’s hard for him to engage in a serious conversation while watching the television, he may not give the right answer. The wife may think that the husband is ignoring her leading to relational conflict. Research has identified that relationship between boys and girls to be sour many times. Many girls perceive the conversations with boys very boring. This is because girls can process diverse information at the same time but the boys can only deal with one thing at a time. The boys find the conversations as time wasting since they become confused during the talks, they would rather engage in sport activities rather than engage in a conversation with some girls who may be engaged in three topics at the same time.

3.2 Reading of sexual cues

Research has identified that men are more responsive to sexual cues than women. This means that during a conversation men can read sexual cues more readily than women. Men have been found to be more sensitive to sexual signals than women. This difference acts a source of relational conflict between men and women. During a conversation between a husband and wife, the husband may expect the wife to read in between the lines his expression of desire for sex but the woman may not see from such a viewpoint. The man may conclude that the wife is not interested or is repelling him (Yarborough, 2006).

3.3 Appearance

Men and woman differ to a great extend in their perception towards appearance. They mostly appear to be fashion phobic. Mostly this emanates from hoe they are perceived by the other men. Men fear that they would appear to be too foppish or narcissistic if they are too overly concerned about clothing (Booth, Crouter, & Clements, 2001). Those selling fashion to women have to approach men from a different perspective. Women and fashion are inseparable. When a woman has the most recent wearing she is adored and envied by fellow women. She is moralized to ask and need more to maintain the glory and celebrity. Their men partners do not seen to understand why their women spend all they have to be fashionable hence a source of conflict (Yarborough, 2006).

3.4 Keenness to Details

Studies have identified that women and men differ in their thinking: Men are macro thinkers while women are micro thinkers; this means women attention are to details in al issues that they deal with while the men are concerned about the end product. For example a woman will concentrate on all the adverts on various types of oils that are in the market to ensure that she applies the right oil to different parts of the body. She will buy different types of hair shampoos, hair oil, hand oil, face oil, legs oil, and body oil. A man will just use one type for the whole body (Sabbatini, 1997). The keenness to details have caused many relationship breakages between men and women as men feels women are too inquisitive in attempt to ensure all things are okay. A woman on the other hand feels a man is irresponsible hence she can not cope with such levels of recklessness.

Researches have identified that women’s two spheres of brain communicate better than they do in men. The studies have identified that women pull in information from both halves. This distinct feature allows women to give more sophisticated emotional responses (Sabbatini, 1997). This makes women to be better in reading subtleties and in talking on emotions. Relational conflicts crops up when a woman is facing an issue that she feels the male partner should feel with her and consequently offer the appropriate moral and emotional support, but simply because men have different perception on emotional issues he may fail to respond as expected stirring a woman to think that the man cares less hence a source of conflict (Ligate & Tucker, 2005).

3.5 Response to threats

Men and women respond to challenges and threatening situations differently. There are many studies that show that many women responds to fears and threats by running away from the threat while men confront the situation. Many researchers have argued that this is a question of socialization, while others have argued that it’s an innate trait emanating from inborn perception characteristic. Conner (2008) has argued the physical differences between men and women are the reasons behind their differences in perception hence dissimilar approaches to threats. Men have greater upper body strength with build muscles and thicker skin; this propels them to believe in themselves. The relational conflicts emanates from a situation where the two sexes are faced with threatening situation that requires an endorsement of the two to face the challenge, if a woman flees the man fail to understand the reason for the reaction perceiving such a move as an act of betrayal (Kuriansky, 2001).

3.6 Approach to problems

Women and men approach a problem with similar goals but with dissimilar considerations. Even though men and women can solve a problem equally well their approach to the problem varies to a great degree. A woman believes in sharing and discussing a problem so as to explore, deepen and strengthen the relationship with the person she is interacting with. For women, their greatest concern is ‘how the problem is solved’ rather than the final solution. The approach that will be used to approach a problem is a determinant of strength or the weakness that will exist in a relationship between the parties involved. Men have a very different approach to a problem. A man will approach a problem as an opportunity to prove his competence as well as his strength to solve problems and commitment to relationships (Berry, & Traeder, 1995). The manner of solving a problem is not of concern as arriving at the solution efficiently and effectively. Men have a tendency to dominate or assume authority in the process of problem solving. They are often destructed and are less concerned with quality of relationship while solving a problem. The different approaches to problem solving are a source of conflict. If a woman attempts to dominate, men feel they are abased and may not take it on a light note. Women may also feel offended if a man cares less on the relationship in problem solving.

4.0 Applied Hypothetical Intervention
4.1 Overcoming Relational-Conflicts between Men and Women

Men and woman differs in one way or another, this paper has explained why men and women differ, the issue of perception: women have shared ways of dealing with diverse situations which differs from men’s approach; these differences are brought about by difference in the way women perceive things being different from the way men view things. As it has been clearly showed in this paper the differences in approaches makes men and women conflict. Men can not live differently from women, they have to co-exist amidst their differences, this calls for adoption of strategies that will facilitate a comfortable or conducive coexistence.

4.1.1 Overcoming Ignorance

One of the greatest causes of the relational conflict between men and women is ignorance: Conflict is inevitable for somebody will feel unfulfilled or offended if a partner or a colleague seems not do things the way you want them done. The reason as to why people feel offended is because they do not know that men and women have diverse perception (UNESCO, January 2002). There is a need to create awareness; as a mitigation measure, social psychologist should put pen to paper on perception differences and use all the available channels of communication to Create awareness. Couples facing relational conflicts should be helped to understand themselves and understand their partners, if somebody understands how his / her partner sees and approaches diverse concepts, he / she will make efforts to see the concept in question from their point of view (Cameron, 2000). Lack of flexibility to accommodate a partner emanates from the ignorance; one wonders why can’t the partner understand a concept that seems so simple?

4.1.2 Use of Communication

Conflicts are worsened by lack of communication between the conflicting parties. If both sexes in a relational conflict were to learn the art of communication; the perceptions diversities could easily be overcome. Many conflicting partners engage in looking for a ‘way to avoid a conflict’, hence the act functions as a part time solution to the problem; partners avoid sharing their views which they make out as contrasting with their partner’s (Booth, Crouter, & Clements, 2001). Conflicting perception and approaches to relational conflicts between men and woman can easily be dealt with by handling a conflict in such a way that will bring growth and constructive solution; accepting the truth about the diverse perception and agreeing on the mode of settling conflicting issues. Councilors should advice people to learn to speak out their hearts, what is their feeling towards a given concept, and why they feel that a desired approach to a given challenge is varied and most workable. Such a strategy calls for flexibility where the partners consent that either could be right hence each should be given an opportunity to support his/ her take. Conflicting partners should not avoid discussing an issue in conflict for such a move worsens the already heated conflict. Both men and women should always take the responsibility of fixing an issue in question at home, workplace or social gatherings (Academic leadership. Com 2010).

4.1.3 Listening, Acceptance, Accommodation and Flexibility

If men and women accept the reality of their perception differences they will get into a position of accommodating each other. Our diversity in perception should not act as a source of conflict rather as an opportunity to learn. It’s only when one learns to listens to the other sexes’ point of view will he/she have a wider perception, of course it again requires flexibility, consequently accommodate the partner’s ideas. In this endeavor both people have to learn to be compromisers. If a situation presents itself that has diverse ways of approach according to the different perceptions, after the sharing of the diverse perceptions, one of the partners will have to compromise their belief so as to avoid conflicting by endeavoring to see things from their partner’s point of view. Negotiation is also very important in arriving at a consensus over an issue in conflict (Phobias-help.com, 2010). After the partners agree that they can never think the same, they should negotiate for a common ground. This is achievable by avoiding competition of ‘whose idea wins’ for such will extrapolate a conflict.

5.0 Conclusion

Conflicts in the society are inevitable, but with the right intervention measures they can be reduced. Relational conflicts between men and women have been so pronounced some times leading to loss of life and property. Many marriages have been broken since the parties involved could not bear the diversity of perception. Men and women continues to conflict because of their dissimilar takes over issues of life. Studies have identified that men and women have different biological makings that causes perceptional differences. The perceptional differences act as sources of conflict.

For fruitful coexistence between different sexes there is a need of acceptance of our diversified perceptions in order to develop mutual existence mechanisms. People should employ all the available resources that will facilitate understating acceptance and mutual relationships between sexes. If the parties in conflict were to accept their differences and face them together without pointing figures at each other and ensure that communication between them is kept on toes overcoming the challenges would not be a big deal. There is no solution that can never be reached if people would learn to be listeners, flexible and accommodating of their partners (Corner, 2008).

6.0 References

Academic Leadership. Com. (2010). Conflict Resolution Menu. Retrieved on February 1, 2010 from: http://www.ohrd.wisc.edu/onlinetraining/resolution/aboutwhatisit.htm

Booth, Crouter, & Clements. (2001). Couples in conflict: Penn State University Family Issues Symposia Series. New York NY: Routledge.

Cameron, D. (2000), Good to talk? Living and working in a communication culture. London: SAGE.

Corner, M. (2008). Understanding the Difference between Men and Women. Retrieved on February 1, 2010 from: http://www.crisiscounseling.com/Relationships/DifferencesMenWomen.htm

Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: psychological theory and women’s development.

London, UK: Harvard University Press.

Greenberg, Bruess, Conklin. (2007). Exploring the dimensions of human sexuality. New Jersey, NJ: Jones & Bartlett.

IFU (INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF UNIVERSITY WOMEN). Workshop on Conflict Resolution Facilitator’s Guide. Retrieved on February 1, 2010 from: http://www.ifuw.org/training/pdf/conflict-facilitator-2001.pdf

Kuriansky, J. (2001). The complete idiot’s guide to a healthy relationship. Complete idiot’s guide to. New Jersey, NJ: Alpha Books,

Legato, M. & Tucker, K. (2005). Why men never remember and women never forget. Washington, DC: Rodale.

McCarthy, M. (2005). Women’s brains are different from men’s – and here’s scientific proof. Retrieved on February 1, 2010 from: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/womens-brains-uareu-different-from-mens-ndash-and-heres-scientific-proof-870849.html

Peterson, J. (2007). Female Perception vs. Male Perception. Retrieved on February 1, 2010 from: http://www.lifescript.com/Life/Relationships/Marriage/Female_Perception_vs_Male_Perception.aspx

Phobias-help.com. (2010). How Do You Deal With Conflict? Retrieved on February 1, 2010 from: http://www.phobiashelp.com/effective_communication_skills/How_Do_You_Deal_With_Conflict.html

Renato, M. & Sabbatini, P. (2003). Are There Differences between the Brains of Males and Females? Retrieved on February 1, 2010 from: http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n11/mente/eisntein/cerebro-homens.html

UNESCO. (January 2002). Best Practices of: Non-Violent Conflict Resolution in and out-of-school. New York, NY: United Nations Education Science and Culture Organization.

Yarborough, M. (2006). Differences in Men & Women’s Perception. Retrieved on February 1, 2010 from: http://etransgender.com/viewtopic.php?f=1&t=197