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First of all psychology is the study of human behaviour. The sole purpose of psychology is to unravel the mystery of ‘why’ and individual acts a certain way. Psychology examines an individual’s specific actions, responses and factors that dictate how an individual reacts under set conditions and the environment. The behaviour of an individual has an impact on the greater society that surrounds the individual. Psychological theories cover many branches including organizational psychology, environmental psychology, development psychology, forensic psychology and sports psychology.

The talk about psychology and its branches bring up an individual in particular, Robert William Pickton. This former pig farmer and serial killer convicted of the second degree murders of six Canadian women in 2007. He was also charged with the murder of twenty additional women. The Canadian man born in British Columbia is considered a psychopath and is very easily determined as one because of his childhood. The branch of psychology that specifically affected Picktons mentality was his development as a child and the environment he grew up in, in other words development psychology. Robert Pickton grew up in a childhood filled with denial from his mother. Due to Robert’s mother heavy work regime he would never have fun, spend time with friends or time to play. If Robert was not in school, he would be found in the slaughterhouse where his environment affected his mentality. In such an environment it is easy to see the development psychology theory that has had a major effect on Picktons psychopath killing spree up to a total of forty-nine victims.

Erik Erikson believes that human behaviour can be understood through the experiences an individual encounters during their development. This directly relates to Robert Pickton because of the violent and gruesome environment Pickton grew up in, it is easy to analyze why his psychological behaviour has become what it is today. Erikson suggests that a person may pass a stage of psychological development or they get ‘stuck’. For example, an infant either trusts his/her caregivers or s/he doesn’t. This failure of trust gain can affect the persons trusting relationship later on in life. This same ideology goes for Pickton; he grew up in an environment where killing was occurring periodically in a day. This harsh and violent environment has caused Pickton to have a violent and gruesome psychological personality. He believes that killing has no evil or wrong in it, this is because of the psychological development theory. Pickton has been ‘stuck’ in this psychological environment since his childhood and has been prominent in his life.

Sociology Perspective:

Sociology is a social science perspective that states one area of society will always have an effect; it can be either direct or indirect. This is due to society being a complex structure where there will always be modifications and changes in it due to society itself. The ideology of society influences decisions made on marriage, economics, love, freedom, politics etc. However, recognizing these facets of life does not assist with the explanation of their existence. In other words, sociology is the study of the development, structure, and functioning of human society this can include social problems within society.

Robert William Pickton had a criminal mind set because of his childhood as explained through psychological development. Through his childhood and Picktons brutal treatment as a child from his mother, Pickton grew intolerance for the opposite sex. He felt that males are dominant over females and thus the feminist theory of female oppression. Through the sociological feminist perspective Pickton neglected the female figure. His behaviour as a serial killer towards women was triggered through his childhood and ever since he has developed a feminist social view where he believes males are the dominant gender over females. Hostile affection from Picktons mother led to an angrier individual later on towards the opposite sex and thus the criminal acts released against women in Picktons elder years.

The sociological analysis of Marxist Feminism Theory also plays a role in the behaviour of Robert William Pickton. This implies the lack of balance in society in terms of gender classes in the economic perspective of sociology. Stereotypes within society influenced Pickton as he believed women have a lesser role in society than males. This is why Pickton would go for ‘vulnerable’ areas for kidnapping and base his attacks on lower class levels. For example, Robert Pickton would target women that were prostitutes or drug addicts because there class level in society was lower than his. Picktons targeting specific groups of women instead of the women gender as a whole illustrated sociological perspective of feminism.

Pickton tried to achieve structural functionalism in society where there is a balance, equilibrium in society by maintaining its interdependent social structures. Talcott Parsons stated, “as much as things change they stay the same”. Structural Functionalism deals with the maintenance within a society; it defines changes within a system and will always seek a way to return to its normal functioning state. As Parsons stated, Pickton followed this social theory as he thought he was bringing balance to society by eliminating the lower class of females. Parsons also mentioned, “When part of the system breaks down, it is necessary for the other components of the society to take over the function of the missing social structure or to assist with the recreation of the malfunctioning social structure”. This supports Picktons choice in achieving structural functionalism by the removal of the lower class which consisted of females.

Anthropology Perspective:

Anthropology is the social science perspective of studying people and their culture. Anthropology exists to explore a variety of social phenomena. A benefit associated with anthropology is that its research lies in the huge perspective on the development and sustainability of human culture. This social science perspective poses questions concerning the continuation of poverty, racism, violence and social inequality in the world. There are four main types of anthropology; including linguistic anthropology, cultural anthropology, archaeology, and biological or physical anthropology. Each type studies different aspects of people and their respective cultures including questions such as; why do humans have such different ways of thinking, living and acting? This is the social science perspective of anthropology.

Robert Picktons social interactions and relationships were not fully established. Pickton lived his life in rejection; he was rejected of all social interactions which later led to his rage and intolerance against women. Picktons childhood was lived in neglect and the omitting of social interactions with other kids his age. The entire cause for this rejection was because of his mother, a female figure who was very brutal and hostile to the young Robert Pickton. This inevitably led to anger being stored throughout Picktons life towards women and thus the targeted attacking of women by Pickton. Pickton thought of his values and morals over others, specifically prostitutes (again targeting women). Pickton already thought of women as poor and inferior to males, now including prostitution he believed that those women did not deserve to live amongst society and him. Robert believed that to earn a living an individual should go through pain and hardship but prostitution in his perspective clearly did not show that. He believed prostitution made an earning with pleasure in life and not pain; he believed that individuals should earn a living from physical labour and pain. Robert would never feel any sympathy for women especially prostitutes, thus his guilt-free attitude in killing these specified group of women.

Robert King Merton bases his interpretation of society using the functionalist perspective. Functionalism is a method for understanding how social institutions fill social needs. Every custom or practice in society provides a form of stability for the entire system. This seems like a grand theory but social institutions provide for the physical and psychological needs for its society members. Sex is a practice of functionalism as it is a physical and psychological need for humans. Pickton was a very shy and quiet individual but he acquired sex because it stored up inside of him. Pickton would host wild parties and orgies to release his chaotic thoughts. This also explains why Pickton would have sex with the women he would kidnap and then kill her, it is a practice of Picktons functionalism and this describes the social science perspective of anthropology.

Hypothesis: Psychoanalysis, Functionalism and Feminism

Psychoanalysis is a psychological theory founded in the late 19th century and early 20th century by Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud. In involves the inherited constitution of personality which is an individual’s development determined by events in their childhood. Cognition, human behaviour and experience are largely determined by irrational drives. Mental disturbances from psychology occur when there are conflicts between conscious and unconscious material.

Functionalism’s core idea is that mental states are constituted solely by their functional role. It is a theoretical level between physical implementation and behavioural output. Functionalism is a method for understanding how social institutions fill social needs. Every custom or practice in society provides a form of stability for the entire system. This seems like a grand theory but social institutions provide for the physical and psychological needs for its society members. Feminism examines the perspective of women and their rights within a society, specifically a male dominated society.

To understand and comprehend a serial killer as to what his/her motives are it is important to instigate an investigation. Through this investigation it is important to determine the unconscious and conscious mind of the serial killer by taking a look at their ego. This investigation will determine the ‘drive’ of the serial killer as to what they wish to achieve, what pleasure they wish to achieve etc.

Functionalists regard crime as a necessary guideline in society because it sets moral guidelines and rules through legal punishment. An increase in criminal behaviour loses the society’s trust whereas a decrease in criminal behaviour illustrates that individuals have no freedom or individuality.

When determining a serial killer it is important to gain information of the insights of the psychoanalytic, feminist and functionalist perspectives. These three perspectives combined can determine and give a thorough understanding of a serial killers ambition, pleasure and the ego of the criminal.

In this report I will be evaluating the contribution of social perspectives to our understanding from the two topics found in: OU, DSE212 Challenging Psychological Issues, Book 2.

The topics I have chosen for consideration of psychological research are language, and sex and gender. The approaches taken will be analysed the topic in general terms and not to focus on one particular aspect at detailed levels.

It points to the lack of a conclusive answer which is caused by Psychology as a discipline being relatively young and still in early stages with a lack of adequately strong theories that might assist to connect otherwise contrasting perspectives co existing.

The report concludes that different perspectives within psychology can coexist at times, though conflict is frequent throughout.

Sex and Gender

The Psychology of sex and gender is one the most topical, important and engaging subjects that psychology, it illustrates many of the difficult issues that psychological explanations must address, including the political implications of different perspectives and the challenging of integrating explanations.

It has been a controversial topic since the inception of psychology as a discipline and it powerful illustrates some of the diverse approaches with the field.

A deliberation of how psychology approaches the analysis of sex and gender discloses four psychological perspectives, these are:

Biological sex differences: Explaining the differences between male and female and biological correlates of behaviour. Investigations ere conducted through scientific processes

Evolutionary psychology: Explaining the differences in the behaviour between the sexes in terms of behavioural selection for reproductive fitness. Test are conducted empirically

Social constructionist theory: Gender differences between the sexes through the study of discourse in various historical, cultural and social contexts and so is hermeneutic.

Psychoanalytic psychology: Development and meaning of sexual differences. Studies are largely done through clinical observation.

Direct impressions of the four perspectives are objects of knowledge of each of the perspectives are all valid and useful in general psychology of sex and gender,. They pose somewhat different questions, have different objects of knowledge and use different notions of evidences. These perspectives may be complementary, conflicting however the scope for co-existence is not transparent.

Given that the perspectives do not share common objects of knowledge, however is there can be an underlying hope for complementary theories in which together they all contribute to a broad understanding.

Sex refer to the biological basis of differences between the sexes, where as gender refers to social constructed categories pertaining to these differences.

Assigning a sex to humans can sometimes be a complex process, biological characteristics such as genetics and hormonal used to designate ‘male or female, can be unreliable in small proportions of case, due to genetic abnormalities, such as, Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS) and Klinefelters’s Syndrome ((XXY) (OU, p137)

Certainly the biological and evolutionary perspectives appear complementary at the theoretical level in that both regard biological sex as the determinant of gender and view differences between sexes as biological features that have been selected for during evolution.

Evolutionary psychologists argue that sexual selections and the different optimal reproductive styles of our male female ancestors have results in some differences in the behavioural predispositions of the two sexes. These are seen to particularly apparent in the area of sexual behaviours and attitudes. Buss (1992), found while both sexes reported experiencing jealousy at the though of their partner being involved with another person, there were differences in the focus of their concerned. OU,p145)

In humans, unlike in other animals, clear differences in brain structures that correlate with differences in adult behaviour patterns have proven difficult to demonstrate. Nonetheless, imaging studies show some sex differences in brain functioning of Western adults. This is probably due, at least in part, to the brains plasticity.(Giedd et al, 1999) )p140). While some sex differences are clearly established at birth for most individuals, bodies and brained may become gendered over lifetime of use. A explanations would appear to be consistent with research findings from cross-cultural differences in male and female’s sexual behaviours, which Allen and Gorski, 1990 study has backed (OU, p139)

However, biological psychology attempts to explain differences in male-female psychology in terms of selected physiological characteristics, for example dimorphism in brain structures (cf. Hofman and Swaab, 1991, cited in Holloway et al, 2007, p.139). On the other hand the evolutionary psychologist would principally argue in favour of selected behavioural characteristics such as differences between male and female sexual attitudes (cf. Clark and Hatfield, 1989, cited in Holloway et al, 2007, p.146).

There is thus an apparent conflict at the level of analysis. It is therefore ironic that evolutionary psychology must perforce co-exist with biological psychology since, given the understandable constraints on its ability to conduct the sorts of empirical investigations that might be wished for (cf. Herrnstein-Smith, 2000, cited in Holloway et al, 2007, OU p.141), it is dependent on a certain amount of corroboration from the biological perspective, amongst others (cited in Holloway et al, 2007, pp.184). (22)

Social constructionist point of view, they regard sex and gender as characteristics that are revealed only through discourse and action.

These are consequence of the individual’s behaviour and experience in a given cultural, social and historical context. The depth of the conflict is exemplified by a comparison of evolutionary studies that emphasise cross-cultural stability in particular sexual preferences (cf. Singh 1995, p.148; Buss and Schmitt, 1993, p.148, cited in Holloway et al, 2007) and social constructionist ideas such as Sandra Bem, who developed the idea of the ‘cultural lens of musicality and femininity. This lens is a way of perceiving the world that makes behaviour and experiences gendered, this is called the Gender Schema Theory (1994, Holloway et al, 2007, OU p.153). According to the social constructionist perspectives, biological sex is not central to explaining what it is to be a man or a women, rather it is a signpost to which a whole set of us socially constructed gender differences are attached.

In this account, social constructionist created discourse about masculinity and femininity are used by individual to create their own gendered subject positions.

Whereas the biological and evolutionary perspectives agree that biological sex lies at the heart of explaining gender, the social constructionist perspective explicitly rejects that view; sometimes for political reasons. In relation to Sex and Gender, political differences are often exposed when conflicting accounts of differences occur. Gender and sexuality came to be seen, through Freud’s work, as having far-reaching implications for the development of self. It largely complements the social constructionist, in terms of its interpretive or hermeneutic methodology, its explanations largely focus on the unconscious given that its objects of study entail “the meaning of the biological differences between men and women and how these become internalised in the child’s mind” (OU, Holloway et al, 2007, pp.183).

Thus both the social constructionist and psychoanalytic perspectives conflict with the biological and evolutionary approaches at the methodological level. Uniquely however the psychoanalysis perspective recognises both biological and cultural contributions to it’s theorising. It is not without its share of conflict however. Within the perspective, a important critical developments in the psychoanalytic theory sex and gender includes Freud’s notion for the symbolic significance of the penis( and penis envy) quickly came under scrutiny from feminist psychologists to scientific practices. through Freud’ failure to consider the significant of women’s genitals. (OU, Horney, 1926, , 2007, p.164).

Language and Meaning

There are three main perspectives used to examine the complex area of language, these are:

Theory

Methods

Themes.

These perspectives focus on different aspects of language including evolutionary developments of languages, the processing of languages and the construction of meaning through interaction.

The study of language and meaning, one finds an equally intriguing mix of potential co-existence, complement and conflict when comparing the three principal perspectives.

The evolutionary perspective sets out to explore language to understand how are related structurally and historically, how they are used differently by various social and cultural groups and how languages is used to communicate and create meaning. Language is the main medium for communication between human’s beings and where we express, explore and pursue those goals that mean most to us .It is possible to view the three perspectives as at least co-existent. Their objects of knowledge are different and one might expect their cumulative product to contribute to some sort of unified theory.

However, the potential for conflict between the cognitive and social constructionist perspectives is revealed in how they view meaning as the object of knowledge. For the former it is something that is constructed internally by the individual prior to transmission, and subsequently reconstructed by the audience. For the latter it is negotiated as a result of discourse between individuals – meaning emerges as the result of a complex interplay of intentions, interpretations and power-relations. Thus, there is cause for disagreement as to what “meaning” is and where it comes from (Sperber and Wilson 1986, OU, p100). That this is adequate to justify a claim of conflict seems weak since the types of “meaning” espoused by the two perspectives are themselves different.

A major social constructionist argument against a purist cognitive perspective is that cognitive processes cannot be transparently reported. This argument is one that cognitive researchers have long acknowledged. Commenting on early research into the cognitive modelling of language Boden (1977, pp.113ff, et passim) notes that a person’s understanding of language in a given instance is dependent, not simply on their knowledge of the world around them, but crucially on their understanding of their relationship with who they communicate with.

Within the evolutionary perspective there is also a debate as to whether language evolved as an adaptation advantage and was the foundation for other cognitive abilities. Pinker (1994) believes that languages may have evolved through natural selection, perhaps in conjunction with other cognitive abilities, OU, p83) or as a consequence of selection for an ability to form our “Metarepresentation” (Sperber, 2000, p.86). These are contradictory and conflicting views..

The major differences between psychological methods based on natural science principles and those based those on hermeneutic principles means that preservatives based on these methods may have difficulty achieving more than uneasy coexistence.

Psychologists do not stand on such substantial bedrock. The questions they pose are often difficult to formulate computationally without reducing the predictive power of any solution, whereas the history of physics can be measured in thousands of years, psychology as a recognisable discipline has existed for just over a century.

A inevitable conclusion is that psychology is characterised by perspectives that at one or more of these levels conflict, co-exist or complement, No perspective on its own can tell the whole story. The perspectives and levels of analysis and explanations cannot just be combined without an account of how they interact.

Word count: 1793 – 294 (References + Quotes +Titles + Bullet Points) = 1499

Adolescence is a term usually used to describe transitional period or a passage from childhood to adulthood and in today’s context seem to be distinguished by 2 distinct stages: the puberty and transition to adulthood.

Today’s adolescence seem to be particularly vulnerable because, in addition to physical and psychological changes that an individual goes through, young people are subjected to rapid changes in society and multicultural influences; not the least because of advancement in technology, demography and demands of both, the knowledge and achievement. This is particularly relevant to more advanced, western societies.

An early thought in psychoanalysis led by Miller 1950 (cited in Briggs 2008) suggested that adolescence is “the age between” characterised by puberty (physical changes), mid adolescence (short period of opposition to authority) and late adolescence (leaving the school and becoming an adult).

However, the changes occurred post that period exposed a gap in experiences, raising a need for further exploration. These influential changes are reflected in the finding that late adolescence and the transition to adulthood extended considerably in regards to previous assumptions (Briggs 2008).

Today’s view contradicts that of Miller and alike in understanding that adolescence stretches into mid to late twenties as opposed to teenage years.

Furthermore, there is evidence to suggest that those who accomplish the transition early, at the end of teenage years, may be disadvantaged and at increased risk of social exclusion (Briggs 2008).

On the other hand, the onset of puberty itself has changed little for the last fifty years.

Contemporary understanding of adolescence also raises the issue of its complexity, sparking the wide debate on accurateness of its earlier description, deepened further by discussion whether there is a need for early intervention. This latter debate divided the community of professionals into two major groups: interventionists and non-interventionists. The interventionists argue that the adolescence is the time of great uncertainty and changes making this group particularly vulnerable; if left unattended, it could influence development itself, educational achievement and the difficulties could persist into the adulthood. The support for interventionists view comes from recent studies that show that most of disorders found in adults, begun in adolescence between the ages of 12 and 24, even though they may not be noticed until the adulthood (Briggs 2008).

On the other side we have non-interventionists who believe that the time of “stress and turmoil” would pass with time and intervention is unnecessary (Briggs 2008).

However, there seem to be general consensus within the psychoanalytic world that the adolescents are vulnerable and exposed to risks of anti-social behaviour, a high risk of offending, substance misuse, eating disorders, depression, suicide and inappropriate sexual behaviour.

Although these risk factors are present even within the normal development in adolescence for the minority of adolescents, if “untreated”, it can persist into adulthood.

In adolescence, the changes in physique are also accompanied by increased societal demands for conformity, change of school, increased academic demand and so on; therefore this is the period of uncertainty and anxiety. While the majority of adolescents navigate through these changes successfully, for significant minority this period is turbulent and stressful.

Individual differences in terms of inner resources to deal with these transitional issues lie within the relationship with adults. These relationships are rooted in the early childhood and could act as determinants of successful or unsuccessful transition.

From psychoanalytic point of view, adolescence is the time of powerful changes not only physically, but accompanied by surge of instincts and urges demanding powerful control.

In order to examine these inner processes of change we will look into adolescence through two distinct phases: the puberty and the transition to adulthood.

The puberty is characterised by changes in physical development and growth spurt. Growth spur describes faster growth rate in weight and height, where girls are noted to enter the growth spur around the age of 10, typically reaching its peak at the age of 12, and more steady growth rate at the age of 13. On the other hand, boys begin the growth spur at around the age of 13 and peak at the age of 14, achieving more stabilized growth rate at the age of 16. In addition to becoming taller and heavier, both sexes assume adult like appearance, with girls growing breasts, widening of hips and for boys broadening of shoulders. Facial features also change in such way that the forehead protrudes while the jaw and the nose become more prominent (Shaffer, Kipp 2006).

The puberty is also characterised by sexual maturation, which is quite different in boys and girls. With girls, sexual maturation starts somewhat earlier (before the age of 10) with formation of “breast buds”, followed by the appearance of pubic hair. With entering the growth spur, the breasts grow faster and sexual organs (vagina and uterus) begin to mature taking adult like forms in its readiness for future motherhood. At around age 12 the girl enters menarche, the time of the first menstruation (Shaffer, Kipp 2006).

For boys, sexual maturation starts later at around age of 11 with an enlargement of testes, followed by appearance of pubic hair and penis enlargement. At around age of 13 the production of spermatozoa occurs and ejaculation follows. By the age of 15 most boys would have achieved sexual maturity, rendering them capable of becoming fathers.

Somewhat later, facial hair grows and voice changes (Shaffer 2006).

It is important to mention that although literature describing puberty varies, in terms of onset, there seem to be general consensus that the earlier growth spur occurs the more dramatic changes become. This seems to be applicable to both sexes.

Adolescent physical development is accompanied by many psychological changes.

Some of the more obvious psychological changes in adolescence are reflected in growing concern for physical appearance. Girls in particular become more concern with “looking pretty” and how other people would respond to them, with a hope that they would be seen as attractive. Girls that develop at different pace to the perceived norm are prone to internalising a negative body image. Their reaction to menarche is mixed; they are often excited and confused, especially if they were not told what to expect.

On the other hand boys are more likely to welcome body weight in hope that they would become tall, hairy and handsome. What they have in common is preoccupation with physical appearance and mixed feelings about sexual maturity ( Shaffer, Kipp 2006).

The sexual maturation and adult like appearance are accompanied by eruption of infantile feelings and a “crisis of separating from childhood ways of relating to parents” (Blos 1967 cited in Briggs 2008). The prospect of possible parenthood causes identification with the same sex parent, the process called oedipal stage. Sexual urges and passions are revived and the desire for the affection of the opposite sex parent results in unconscious competition for that affection. These urges were present in infancy, however, now they are accompanied by the real possibility of achievement, thus becoming a conflict and destabilising (Briggs 2008).

These re-emerging passions and urges demand reconsideration of the relationship with parents and a new dimension of these relationships. Psychoanalytic perspective explain these changes as both, liberating and frightening experience, opening doors to vulnerability and anxiety and developing sense of power. It is also, according to psychoanalytic view, accompanied by identification, separation and loss of childhood relationships (Briggs 2008).

These new states of anxiety, vulnerability and power are significant in adolescent development and require particular attention. From the psychoanalytic perspective the adolescence is turbulent because of these new states, which greatly contradicts more common psychological and social perspective that emphasises smooth process of adolescence (Briggs 2008).

It is suggested that these turbulent aspects are “forgotten and disowned” and then projected onto adolescents by adults who do not wish to remind selves on the turbulence once they encountered (Briggs 2008).

It is also suggested that the period of adolescence is often idealised or alternatively projected as miserable. Jacobs (1990 cited in Briggs 2008) explains this split as two different stages of adolescence where early adolescence is characterised by misery and turbulence, while the late adolescence is marked by the sense of accomplishments and smooth transition.

Briggs demonstrated this idea through the case of Maria, 21 year old self-referred patient.

While Maria passed through the teenage years without much of a struggle and in concordance with her parents, at the age of 21, when she achieved financial independence and established professional life, Maria seemed uncertain of her identity, questioning her capacity to be independent in expressing her own opinion.

In addition to these observations, it is important not to overlook other influences on the development of adolescence, such as changes that occur in the brain. The understanding of adolescent development has altered taking into consideration of deeper knowledge of neurological changes that take place during this time.

According to neuroscience, some of the adolescent behaviour may have its roots in neurological causes. The findings suggest that cognitive abilities needed for mature behaviour are underdeveloped in adolescence. The changes that occur in the brain during the adolescence have effect on regulation, learning and memory. Stressful experiences may have adverse outcomes on brain development, increasing susceptibility to psychopathologies. Advocating enhancement of social and learning environment, the neuroscience suggests that the adverse outcomes could be significantly reduced, even reversed (Briggs 2008).

In summary, the biological perspective deepens our understanding of adolescence in a way that indicates the greater need for an integrated approach linking internal, biological, psychological and environmental aspects of adolescent experience. (Briggs 2008). This is to say that the development of the brain increases ability to control behaviour but, the successful execution of that control needs to be facilitated by environmental factors such as stable and supportive relationship with parents. If the environment is filled with adversities, the stress of adolescence could become pathological and in need of an intervention.

So far we have discussed biological perspective in conjunction with psychoanalytic view, however it was emphasised that social factors could benefit or damage the normal development of adolescence. This concept of influence of the social context on adolescence is called psychosocial perspective.

Some societies mark adolescence with the rite of passage, in western societies this rite of passage does not seem to be either marked or acknowledged. Besides, with extended adolescence the psycho-social context becomes ever more complex.

In today’s society there is disparage between biological and psychological maturation and transition to adulthood. Patton and Viner ( 2007 cited in Briggs 2008) found this disparage particularly present in the developed world of western societies stating:

“the development of reproductive capacity and sexual activity precede role transition into parenthood and marriage by more than a decade” (p11).

This disparage is significant in the way that increases risk and vulnerability of adolescents.

In helping a better understanding of this disparage, psychoanalysis relies on the theory of psychosocial development by Erikson. Erikson provided and extension to original model of 5 stages of development described by Freud in a way that accommodated this latency in adolescence by introducing a concept of psychosocial moratorium. The focal point for Erikson is adolescence and the creation of personal identity. The crisis arising during this phase is identity versus role confusion (Papalia and Wendoks-Okds, 1978; Cardwell, Clark, and Meldrum 2004). He argued that adolescents are going through many physical, cognitive, and social changes, associated with puberty, and often become confused undermining their self- esteem .This in turn can lead to a “psychosocial moratorium”, a temporary suspension of activity. According to this theory, the most important task for adolescents involves achieving “a conscious sense of individual uniqueness”. This means to discover “who am I?”, and in doing so adolescents must make some occupational choices or they will remain confused about the roles they should play as adults (Gross 2005; Papalia and Wendoks-Okds, 1978; Shaffer and Kipp 2006). Erikson goes one-step further to identify four kinds of behaviour linked to identity confusion: Negative Identity (which relates to criminal and anti social behaviour as a sense of control and independence from others); Intimacy (which refers to avoidance “from fear of losing own fragile sense of identity”, often resulting in isolation); The Perspective (which relates to avoidance of planning the future because, doing so means thinking about ramifications of adulthood and evoking anxiety) and Industry (which relates to difficulty in striking a balance, thus results in inability to concentrate) (Cardwell, Clark and Meldrum 2004).

The premise for the reformatting was that adolescents’ identity creation involves crisis and commitment; Crisis occurs through having to re-evaluate previous choices and values, while commitment occurs when the individual takes on a set of roles and beliefs (Cardwell, Clark, and Meldrum 2004) The moratorium could create additional tension and inner conflict which in turn are met by either by repression or foreclosure . Repression simply is the unwilling yet continued deferment that simply creates more anxiety. Anxiety can turn into development of antisocial behaviour, delinquency, inappropriate sexual behaviour or more severe self-destructive behaviour (e.g suicide, self-harm).

Under such a challenge, the experience is one of a “… split of self images, a loss of center, and a dispersion” (Erikson, 1968). These symptoms and the experience of the self as “disrupted” have been described as the “… dark and negative side of identity formation,” and they are viewed as vital to the identity process (Erikson, 1975).

Up until this fifth stage, development depends on what is done to a person.A At this point, development now depends primarily upon what a person does.A An adolescent must struggle to discover and find his or her own identity, while negotiating and struggling with social interactions and “fitting in”, and developing a sense of morality and right from wrong.

Some attempt to delay entrance to adulthood and withdraw from responsibilities (moratorium).A Those unsuccessful with this stage tend to experience role confusion and upheaval.A Adolescents begin to develop a strong affiliation and devotion to ideals, causes, and friends.

Description:

At this stage, adolescents are in search of an identity that will lead themto adulthood. Adolescents make a strong effort to answer the question “Whoam I?” Erikson notes the healthy resolution of earlier conflicts can nowserve as a foundation for the search for an identity. If the child overcomesearlier conflicts they are prepared to search for identity. Did they develop thebasic sense of trust? Do they have a strong sense of industry to believe inthemselves?

Elements for a positive outcome: The adolescent must make a conscious search for identity. This is built onthe outcome and resolution to conflict in earlier stages.

Elements for a negative outcome: If the adolescent can not make deliberate decisions and choices, especiallyabout vocation, sexual orientation, and life in general, role confusion becomesa threat.

Examples: Adolescents attempt to establish their own identities and see themselves asseparate from their parents.

Age: Adolescence –12 to 18 years Conflict: Identity vs. Role Confusion Important Event: Peer relationships

The most important question asked at this stage is “who am I?” The major event at this stage is peer relationships. This encompasses the middle school, high school, and even college years where one is trying to figure out where there niche is. What type of person are they? Even though their parents believe in abortionaˆ¦do they? What do they want as a career? Do they believe in Godaˆ¦do they want to use that to attach labels to themselves as religious or atheist?

Erik Erikson was one of these outcasts. He agreed with Freud that development proceeds through a series of critical stages. But he believed the stages were psychosocial, not psychosexual. Erikson also argued that life’s developmental stages encompass the whole life span According to Erikson, a crisis is equivalent to a turning point in life, where there is the opportunity to progress or regress. At these turning points, a person can either resolve conflicts or fail to adequately resolve the developmental task.

Delving further into these differences, Erikson contended that each stage of life has its own psychosocial task. Young children wrestle with issues of trust, then autonomy, then initiative. School-age children develop competence, the sense that they are able and productive human beings. In adolescence, the task is to synthesize past, present, and future possibilities into a clearer sense of self. Adolescents wonder: “Who am I as an individual? What do I want to do with my life? What values should I live by? What do I believe in?” Erikson calls this quest to more deeply define a sense of self the adolescent’s “search for identity.”

To refine their sense of identity, adolescents usually try out different “selves” in different situations – perhaps acting out one self at home, another with friends and still another at school and work. If two of these situations overlap – like when a teenager brings a friend home from school – the discomfort can be considerable. The teen may ask, “Which self is the real me? Which self should I be?” Often, this role confusion gets resolved by the gradual reshaping of a self-definition that unifies the various selves into a consistent and comfortable sense of who one is – an identity.

But not always, Erikson believes that some adolescents forge their identity early, simply by taking on their parents’ values and expectations. Others may adopt a negative identity that defines itself in opposition to parents and society but in conformity with a particular peer group, complete perhaps with the shaved head or multi-colored coif. Still others never quite seem to find themselves or to develop strong commitments. For most, the struggle for identity continues past the teen years and reappears at turning points during adult life.

During the first social stage, trust versus mistrust, an infant’s basic task is to develop a sense of trust in self, others, and the world. The infant needs to count on others and develop a sense of acceptance and security. This sense of trust is learned by being caressed and cared for. From Erikson’s viewpoint, if the significant others in an infant’s life provide the necessary love, the infant develops a sense of trust. When love is absent, the result is a general sense of mistrust in others. Clearly, infants who feel accepted are in a more favorable position to successfully meet future developmental crises than are those who do not receive adequate nurturing. However, Erikson postulates that since development is a ongoing lifelong process, personality is not fixed at any given time. Events, circumstances, and social relationships are dynamic and changing. Thus, even a child who emerged from the first stage of life with a strong sense of trust may become mistrustful and cynical if betrayed in later social relationships. Hence, personality is not viewed as fixed by the fifth year of life, as Freud believed, but remains fluid throughout the life span.

Between the ages of one and three (Freud’s anal stage), children are developing a growing sense of control over their lives. They can now walk, run, climb, and get into all sorts of mischief. A sense of autonomy develops as they learn new skills and achieve a feeling of control over their environment. Thus Erikson’s titles this stage Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt. During this period, some parents, out of concern or impatience with their children’s progress may intervene and do things that the children should be doing by themselves. Other parents may demand a level of competence of which their children are not yet physically and/or emotionally capable. In either case, these children begin to doubt their own abilities and feel ashamed when they fail to live up to parental expectations. Children who fail to master the tasks of establishing some control over themselves and coping with the world around them develop a sense of shame and feelings of doubt about their capabilities

During the next stage, Initiative versus Guilt, which takes place during the preschool years (ages 4 to 6 – Freud’s phallic stage), children seek to find out how much they can do. According to Erikson, the basic task of preschool years is to establish a sense of competence and initiative. Preschool children begin to initiate many of their own activities as they become physically and psychologically ready to engage in pursuits of their own choosing. If they are allowed realistic freedom to choose their own activities and make some of their own decisions, they tend to develop a positive orientation characterized by confidence to initiate actions and follow through on them. On the other hand, if they are unduly restricted, or if their choices are ridiculed, they tend to experience a sense of guilt and ultimately withdraw from taking an active and initiating stance.

By the age of six, the child should enter elementary school. It is during this age that the stage of Industry versus Inferiority occurs. During the ensuing five years, the most important events in the child’s life revolve around setting and accomplishing goals related to school situations. When children are successful in mastering the many behaviors expected of them during these years, they develop feelings of competency and a sense of industry. They may express such feelings as: “I can do anything if I just work hard enough.” Children who encounter failure during the early grades may experience severe handicaps later on. A child with learning problems may begin to feel like a worthless person. Such feelings may drastically affect his or her relationships with peers, which are also vital at this time.

During the adolescent years, teens experience Identity versus Role Confusion. Typically, adolescents feel they are on center stage and everyone is looking at them. They are often highly critical of themselves and feel that others are equally critical. Their thoughts often turn inward. They look at themselves and question whether or not they measure up to their peers. They also begin thinking about lifelong goals and careers, wondering whether they will make it in the world of the adult. Their ruthless self-appraisal is often beneficial. It results in the development of values, social attitudes, and standards. This inward focus appears to be necessary for the development of a firm sense of self and of broader roles in the social order.

During the stage of Intimacy versus Isolation, adolescence is now behind the individual and the early adult years loom ahead. Energies are focused on building careers, establishing lasting social ties, and achieving then maintaining intimate relationships. Marriage or cohabitation creates new demands on the individual – sharing, compromising, and relinquishing social mobility to some degree. Also, many young adults begin having children and raising families. Those who were unsuccessful in resolving their identity crises may find themselves isolated from mainstream society and unable to maintain healthy intimate relationships.

It basically identifies the developmental interaction between maturational advances and the social expectations made upon the child

Ego “identity is never ‘established’ as an ‘achievement,’” as something static or unchangeable, but is a “forever to-be-revised sense of reality of the Self within social reality” (Erikson, 1968: 24, 211). Although the identity crisis is most pronounced during adolescence and gives that age its stage name, identity issues remain a lifelong concern. A redefinition of one’s ego-identity emerges quite commonly when major role changes occur, such as when college freshmen leave home and have to make their own decisions, often for the first time. Other issues that tend to renew identity concerns are: one’s first job, marriage, parenthood, the death of one’s parents, divorce, unemployment, serious illness, widowhood, and retirement.

The ability to cope with these later identity issues that result from major changes in one’s role in life may well depend on the degree of success with which one bas mastered the adolescent identity crisis.

Adolescence bas been characterized by Erikson (1950) as the period in the human life cycle during which the individual must establish a sense of personal identity and avoid the dangers of rote diffusion and identity confusion. Identity achievement t implies that the individual assesses strengths and weaknesses and determines how he or she wants to deal with them. The adolescent must find an answer to the identity questions: “Where did 1 come from?” “Who am I?” “What do 1 want to become?”Identity, or a sense of sameness and continuity, must be searched for. Identity is not readily given to the individual by society, nor does it appear as a maturational phenomenon when the time comes, as do secondary sex characteristics.

Identity must be acquired through sustained individual effort. Unwillingness to work actively on one’s identity formation carries with it the danger of role diffusion, which may result in alienation and a sense of isolation and confusion. The search for an identity involves the establishment of a meaningfu1 self-concept

in which past, present, and future are brought together to form a unified whole. Consequently, the task is more difficult in a historical period in which the anchorage of family and community tradition bas been lost and the future is unpredictable. ln a period of rapid social change, the aIder generation is no longer able to provide adequate role models for the younger generation. Mead (1970) describes in detail the changing relationship of adolescents to parents as societies move from post- to co- and pre figurative cultures (see Chapter 6). Keniston (1965) bas even suggested that in a rapidly changing society, the search for an identity is replacing the socialization process, since the latter implies that there actually exist stable, uniform, socially defined scales and values into which the adolescent can be guided.

The aider generation no longer provides effective role models to the younger generation in the process of searching for a personal identity. If the elders do provide them, adolescents may either reject them as personally inappropriate, or follow them-in what will later be discussed as a “foreclosed fashion”-that is, seeking to fulfil their parents’ aspirations for them, without appreciating the search for an identity as a personal opportunity. Thus, the importance of the peer group in helping the individual to answer the identity question, “Who am I?” cannot be emphasized enough. The answer to this question depends on social feedback from others who provide the adolescent with their perception and their evaluation of him or ber. Identity is based on psychosocial reciprocity. Therefore, adolescents “are sometimes morbidly, often curiously, preoccupied with what they appear to be in the eyes of others as compared with what they feel they are and with the question of how to connect to earlier cultivated cales and skills with the ideal prototype of the clay” (Erikson, 1959: 89). Adolescents’ preoccupation with the thinking of others is the basis of Elkind’s (1967) theory of egocentrism. Since an identity can be found only in interaction with significant others, a process Erikson refers to as psychosocial reciprocity, the adolescent often goes through a period of a great need for peer group recognition and almost compulsive peer group involvement.

Conforming to the expectations of peers helps adolescents find out how certain cales fit them, but peer group conformity can also createa new kind of dependencys, o that the individual accepts the values of others tao easily without really addressing the identity issue ofhow weIl they do fit him or ber. The peer group, the clique, and the gang, even the lover, aid the individual in the search for a personal identity since they provide bath a cole model and very personal social feedback. The seemingly endless telephone conversations during adolescencea nd later, the bull sessioni n college, can serveg enuine psychological purposes by providing this kind of personal information. As long as the adolescent depends on role models and feedback, the in-group feeling that the peer group provides will remain quite strong. AIso, behaviors of conformity to the expectations of the peer group reflect the learned skill of not making oneself an easy target of “catty remarks” or to avoid being “mocked out.” The ensuing clannishnessa and intolerance of “differences”-including petty aspects of language, gesture, hair style, and dress-are explained by Erikson as the “necessacy defenses” against the dangers of self-diffusion that remain prevalent as long as the identity bas not yet been achieved. Particularly during the time when the body image changes so rapidly, when genital maturation stimulates sexualf antasiesa, nd when intimacy with the opposite sexa ppearsa s a possibility with simultaneouslyp ositive and negative valencest,h e adolescent relies on peers for advice, comfort, companionship, and uses peers as a personal sounding board. Eventually, adolescents must free themselves from this new dependency on peers-which bas just replaced their dependency on parents-in order to find themselves, that is, to attain a mature identity. Such an identity, once found, gives the young adult “a sense of ‘knowing where one is going’ and an inner assuredness anticipated recognition from those who count” (Erikson, 1959: 118). Pubescence, according to Erikson, is characterized by the rapidity of body growth, genital maturity, and sexual awareness. Because these changes are qualitatively quite different from those experienced during childhood, an element of discontinuity from previous development may emerge during early adolescence. youth is not only confronted with an internal “physiological revolution” that interferes with the easy establishment of a new body image, but also confronted with a “psychological crisis” that revolves around issues of identity and self-definition. Erikson maintains today that the study of identity bas become more important than was the study of sexuality in Freud’s rime. For the searching adolescent, identity-the establishment and reestablishment of sameness with previous experiences and a conscious attempt to make the future a part of one’s personal life plan-seems to be subordinated to sexuality. Adolescents must establish ego-identity and learn to accept body changes as well as new libidinal feelings. Identity exploration depends at least in part on these psycho physiological factors. I

Karl Heinrich Marx (Karl Marx), a philosopher, historian, sociologist, political theorist and journalist who developed the theory of Marxism. His sociological ideas have played a significant role in the understanding and development of social sciences and Marxist political movements. Marxist theories about society, politics, economy and culture signify that the culture gets progressed through dialectic of class efforts. On the other hand, Karl Emil Maximilian Max Weber (Max Weber) was another economist and sociologist of Germany who got profoundly influenced by the sociology along with its theory and research findings. He became famous for the notion in economic sociology that was completely elaborated in his book on “The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism”. This essay provides an insight about the concept of progress together with its comparison, by considering the opinions and views of the two sociologists depicted above. Specifically, the present essay concentrates on the cultural theorists who are interested in the process of social development as a whole and understands the concept of progress relative to this context.

In the reconsideration of this concept of progress, Karl Marx (1818-1883) grew highly influential as he started attacking the dominant philosophic and idealistic traditions pertaining to German Science and Philosophy with his inspection of the economies related to France, Germany and England as well as the emergence class associated to these countries. According to Marx, a man creates and reflects himself by the labour processes and develops awareness not only about himself but also his social characteristic features in relation to other individuals in the society. Nevertheless, a man’s association to his labour and to himself, nature and other people was been highly disturbed through the establishment of Division of Labour as highly and well-organised means of production that subsequently resulted in man’s estrangement from his own labour. This context of alienation was intensified further with the considerable development of capitalist mode of production where in which worker was further divided from his dynamic labour through industrialist’s ownership in means of production. Thus, Marx asserts that individual’s progress towards self realisation has been stymied by the development of capitalism-a structure of economic associations that utilize working man’s labour in the name of proceeds (profits) and isolates man from other individuals and himself in a way through the conflict between the proleterian and bourgeois classes. But, in Marx’s historical explanation, the bourgeois class development and the specific capitalistic mode of production is an obligatory step towards the category of society where the individual may once again obtain the origin for his perspective of self-realisation: communism. These enhancements of production forces, a construction of man’s ability, find its restrictions in the association of power and contraindication of dominance. Thus, he meets the necessary criterion with the explanatory belief of self-realisation by his investing analysis of conflicts entrenched within social and economic construction of capitalism. In addition, Marx expands the idea of ‘false-consciousness” by recognising the class that is unable to direct their true interests associated to well-being, self realisation and exploitation. By developing consciousness among the proletarian’s class, the utilisation of human reason in understanding the characteristic nature and cause of exploitation as private possession of the ways of fabrication in capitalist society. Nevertheless, it can be understood that it is the subjugated use of reason, allied with Marx’s philosophy of material practice that can result in the development of freedom to humans and thus assist them in achieving progress. Lastly, the use and application of human reasoning as critiques with the faith in religious salvation, can be considered as human means for transforming their materialistic social situations and commence the re-arrival of enlightenment promise of freedom, which in Marx’s perspective was been impeded and succeeded by the estrangement and exploitation conditions that manifest within the capitalistic society.

Contrastingly, Max Weber (1864-1920) considered seriously about the emerging dilemmas from the socio cultural and political state of affairs in Germany and criticised purely the historical materialistic concept of explanations. Within his book “The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism”, Weber instead depicts a more conceivable and pragmatic explanation that the materialization of capitalism owed much to the specific patterns of religious motivational explanations in Calvinism between various industrialists at that period. As these people (Calvinists) believed that god’s knowledge and astuteness was immeasurable to human minds, deliverance and resistance cannot be anticipate confidently as a reward for one’s inherent merits. In this uncertainty, the preachers of Calvinism can only offer their valuable suggestions in a way that expertise in one’s worldly calling can be assumed to be as a spot of celestial errand. This consequential methodology of hard work, methodological planning and reinvesting profits then led to success within business and economic growth. In Weber’s edifying history writings, the principal theme is the rationalisation, the long-standing trend in Western societies towards considering every segment of social activity more acquiescent to calculation. He asserts that, in increasing yearn for achieving mastery over meeting human needs (by maximisation of efficiency, predictability and control) an individual drives the rationalisation process. Unlike Marx, Weber direct that rationalisation cannot advance identically and concomitantly in every sphere and instead each individual sphere is rationalised in its own specific direction that is unique and different. In the spiritual sphere, the process of rationalisation advances with the deflation and the exclusion of magic through logical expansion and the realistic descriptions of Protestantism, especially the abstinent material performances. Different to Marx, Weber describes that rationalisation in economic sphere discovers itself in the modern bourgeois capitalism (Marx view of capitalistic progress) and the critical utilisation of reasoning in the computation of quest of yields. Additionally, Weber explains that the progress in administrative sphere can be directed only through a guided reckoning, impartiality and competence. In the intellectual sphere, progress was thought to be achieved by the aid of scientific methods, testing skills, experiential data collection because theories that are imitative through scientific reasoning supersede to those that are previously attributed to magical causes. However, this particular enlightenment ideology of motive and self realisation is distinguishable with that of Marx’s view of progress and is still qualified by Weber by the rationalisation itself.

Compared to Marx perspective, the rationalisation and progress according to Weber involve the positive features of effectiveness, manageability, uniformity, unavoidability and impartiality. These positive aspects of rationalisation can result in enhanced capacity, the development of capacity and power relations and thereby assists in attaining progress in each sphere depicted above. Unlike Marx, rationalisation in economic perspective as witnessed in Western Capitalism was been considered by Weber as the process of reasoning out unreasonable sentiments that hamper accrual and estimation of profit, progress and sentiments like faith, thoughtfulness solidarity and apprehension. Similarly, the rationalisation in administrative view by bureaucracy has led to dehumanisation of relationships amid of personnel surrounded by objective regulations of conduct that enhance competence, reduce prejudice and produce reliable, expected results. Moreover, the phenomenon of rationalisation in political perception develops a conflict with the human involvement in the form of democracy and comprises people supremacy with the influence of outside and external forces. Thus, it can be understood that Weber paints an austere picture of dehumanised relationships, where in which love, compassion and human relations are weeded out in rationalised links that promote regularity, impartiality and efficiency. Distinct to Marx, with this, Weber provides a critical analysis to the Enlightenment appeal, not only indicating the positive facets of rationalisation but also its negative implications.

To conclude this interpretation of progress among the two cultural theorists, the approach of modernity, radical discontinuity and the possibility of complete self realisation were figured within the work of each theorist. Simply, it can be explained as for Marx, the progress lies in the advancement of society including economic production methods that dialectically result to its radical oust and a societal reconstruction, a revolutionary shatter from the pre-existing forms of history. Towards the other side, the split is in conventional forms of movement and organisation through rationalisation for Weber. Rather, human maturity and its development in Marx’s view dictated radical variance and structural modifications, Whilst Weber view embodied an emerging tension between ideals of competence and distant relations versus unreasonable principles of human love, consideration and faith. Thus, this process of progress and rationalisation still persists for critical discussion in future as all the social practices and principles strive to conceal their embarrassment with power just in their way of changing domination.

“As psychologists, we hope to see a change in the health professions’ relative silence regarding prostitution’s harm to women, as well as a change in the perspective on prostitution held by the criminal justice system.”

-Melissa Farley & Avnessa Kelly

There is a lot of debate about whether prostitution should be legalized and regulated or whether the continuing laws(in India and elsewhere) which criminalize the act of brothel keeping, living off the earnings of a prostitute, soliciting or seducing for the purposes of prostitution should remain a punishable offence. The arguments for either side ultimately boil down to the question of why one stance over the other? The decision is largely influenced by a person’s perception of what benefits society as well as the exploitative nature of this profession .If prostitution were to be legalized these individuals would become part of a system that sanctions their work and also condones the act of selling one’s body as well as paying for sexual services. Such a system would be accountable for the repercussions this occupation has upon its members. For every occupation that is sanctioned by law and society there exists a representative in the form of an organization or a union that supports the best interest of its employees and ensures their well being. However the question that arises in the case of prostitution is whether the occupation is such that it poses a serious immediate threat to a woman’s psychological and physical health on a regular continuous basis? if so, then the act of sanctioning such an occupation and creating a system that supports it leads to a paradox not only in a moral sense but also in keeping with the actual negative effects of the occupation versus the benefits of legalizing prostitution.

The present paper is an attempt to gain greater clarity about the potential risks of this occupation. To assess whether commercial sex workers will ultimately suffer traumatic experiences to such an extent that their psychological and emotional health will prevent them from leading functional productive social and healthy lives.

Some might argue that traumatic experiences or harmful effects are faced by individuals in various other professions such as the military, war journalism, psychiatry, medical science or people working in factories where they are exposed to harmful substances on a daily basis. Thus these occupations are also a great cause for concern. However prostitution has been described as an act which is intrinsically traumatizing to the person being prostituted.(Farley et al, 1988)

Researchers have found that 92% of people interviewd stated that they wanted to leave prostitution .Also it has been reported that Sexual and other physical violence is the normative experience for women in prostitution (Baldwin, 1992; Farley and Barkan, 1998; Hunter, 1994; Silbert and Pines, 1982)

In light of such evidence one can hardly suggest that prostitution is an occupation that an individual would willingly participate in if she truly had another option or was entirely aware of the health risk involved.Infact Silbert and her colleagues(1982) have described a “psychological paralysis” of prostituted women, characterized by immobility, acceptance of victimization, hopelessness, and an inability to take the opportunity to change, which results from the inescapable violence they encountered throughout their lives (Silbert & Pines, 1982).

According to Farley (2006) Prostitution is sexual violence that results in massive economic profit for some of its perpetrators. The sex industry, like other global enterprises, has domestic and international sectors, marketing sectors, a range of physical locations out of which it operates in each community, is controlled by many different owners and managers, and is constantly

expanding as technology, law, and public opinion permit. She further stresses that prostitution as a profession is rife with every imaginable type of physical and sexual violence.

If prostitution is to be legalized, would it then become a recognized profession such as teaching, management, law etc? Would it be part of a career guidance course, would the individuals engaged in this occupation be treated with the same respect, dignity and rights that are allotted to others? Although it remains a personal choice to judge another human being, collective morality exists in every society and forms the basis for norms and beliefs in that society. Legalization of prostitution would condone an act that is considered inhumane by many yet legalization might afford better right to prostitutes and improve their standard of living. This debate eventually turns into a circular argument that requires a subjective approach rather than an objective methodology applied to all other aspects of human science. It becomes a matter of safety and humanity rather than a debate of legality and morality. Hence from the author’s perspective a Psychological study aimed at evaluating the mental health of prostitutes and determining to what extent this correlates to their occupation will indeed contribute to the argument and perhaps indicate how one can decide the matter of whether prostitution should be legalized and thus condoned by government and subsequently (but unlikely) be accepted morally; or whether we must at some point accept that the ‘oldest profession’ in the world has seriously contributed to the psychopathology of women engaged in this profession.

There are several different perspectives on prostitution that have been discussed and documented. The perspective that prostitution is violence against women has been described and critiqued by Jeffreys (2000).She argues that that child and adult prostitution are inextricably interlinked, both in personnel (the women and children work together), in terms of the abusers (who make no distinctions), in the harm they cause and in that both constitute harmful traditional practices which must be ended.

Another perspective suggests that in recent decades prostitution has been industrialized and globalized. Industrialization means the ways in which traditional forms of organization of prostitution are being changed by economic and social forces to become large scale and concentrated, normalized and part of the mainstream corporate sphere. Prostitution has been transformed from an illegal, small scale, largely local and socially despised form of abuse of women into a hugely profitable and either legal or tolerated international industry. In states that have legalized their prostitution industries large-scale, industrialized brothels employ hundreds of women overseen and regulated by government agencies (M. Sullivan, 2007).

In some parts of Asia the industrialization of prostitution has taken place in the form of the creation of massive prostitution areas within cities. In Daulatdia, formed 20 years ago, in a port

city in Bangladesh, 1,600 women are sexually used by 3,000 men daily (Hammond, 2008).

This paper is presented in three parts. The first part highlights the Framework that governs the sex trade industry in India, the second part focuses on the Psychological implications of prostitution and the third part discusses the implications of legalizing and regulating sex trade.

Prostitution in India

India is a country that prides itself for upholding age old traditions and cultural practices rooted in religious beliefs which encourage a way of life that is ‘morally correct’ and ‘ethically sound’. It is a country which has great respect for the elderly, believes in the integrity of honesty and fidelity and places much emphasis on ‘purity’. Right from the religious scriptures to the common man’s notion about what is the ideal way of living one can witness a belief in simplicity, generosity and secularity. This comes from the fact that India is a country of a hundred cultures all inter-mingling to create a nation that is unified in language, sport and entertainment and often diversified in religion, custom and caste.

However one thing that remains collective and common to all the culturally opposed regions is the practice of sex trade. Prostitution in India has a long history.

Devadasi System:

In ancient India prostitutes have been referred to as Devadasis. Originally, Devadasis were celibate dancing girls used in temple ceremonies and they entertained members of the ruling class. But sometime around the 6th Century, the practice of “dedicating” girls to Hindu gods became prevalent in a practice that developed into ritualized prostitution. Devadasi literally means God’s (Dev) female servant (Dasi), where according to the ancient Indian practice, young pre-pubertal girls are ‘married off’, ‘given away’ in matrimony to God or Local religious deity of the temple. The marriage usually occurs before the girl reaches puberty and requires the girl to become a prostitute for upper-caste community members. Such girls are known as jogini. They are forbidden to enter into a real marriage.

In Karnataka, the most common form of traditional sex work is associated with the Devadasi system.

Today, the districts bordering Maharashtra and Karnataka, known as the “Devadasi belt,” have trafficking structures operating at various levels. The women here are in prostitution either because their husbands deserted them, or they are trafficked through coercion and deception Many are devadasi dedicated into prostitution for the goddess Yellamma. In one Karnataka brothel, all 15 girls are devadasi. (Meena Menon, “The Unknown Faces”).

Researchers have found that differences between Devadasi and non-Devadasi Female sex worker’s (FSWs) with regard to the pattern and environment of sex work were substantial. Devadasi FSWs were much more likely to entertain clients at home, reported a higher average number of sex partners in the past week, and charged less on average to each client. Devadasi FSWs were less likely to migrate to work at another location within the state of Karnataka but were somewhat more likely to have migrated to another state for work. Devadasi FSWs were more likely to accept every client and reported client initiated violence much less often than did non-Devadasi FSWs. Devadasi FSWs also were significantly less likely to report having ever been harassed by the police (Laanchard, F, J et al 2005).

Sex trade Industry in India:

There are approximately 10 million prostitutes in India. (Human Rights Watch, Robert I. Freidman, “India’s Shame: Sexual Slavery and Political Corruption Are Leading to An AIDS Catastrophe,” The Nation, 8 April 1996).The largest red light district in India, perhaps in the world, is the Falkland Road Kamatipura area of Bombay. There are more than 100,000 women in prostitution in Bombay, Asia’s largest sex industry center (Freidman, R.I 1996).

At least 2,000 women were in prostitution along the Baina beachfront in Goa. (Moronh,F 1997).There are 300,000-500,000 children in prostitution in India. ( Bedi,R 1997)

India, along with Thailand and the Philippines, has 1.3 million children in its sex-trade centers. (Soma Wadhwa, “For sale childhood,” Outlook, 1998)

India and Paksitan are the main destinations for children under 16 who are trafficked in south Asia. (Masako Iijima, S. Asia urged to unite against child prostitution,” Reuters, 19 June 1998)

In India, Karnataka, Andha Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu are considered “high supply zones” for women in prostitution. Bijapur, Belgaum and Kolhapur are common districts from which women migrate to the big cities, as part of an organised trafficking network. (Central Welfare Board, Meena Menon, “The Unknown Faces”)

A few hundred thousand men have sexual relations with prostitutes every day in India. Insights derived by health practitioners and social workers from the experience of working in red-light areas suggest that the following categories of men are frequent visitors to prostitutes: low-level workers in the manufacturing and transport industries; other workers living away from their families for a length of time; traders and customers in transitory markets; visitors to fairs, festivals and pilgrim centres; defence personnel living away from families; students; pimps and others who have some control over prostitutes; traders and service providers in red-light areas.

According to one author of “The Unkown Faces” There are three routes into prostitution for most women in India. 1) Deception 2) Devadasi dedication and 3) Bad marriages or families.

A study conducted by researcher s in Karnataka, a Southern state of India found that Participants gave diverse reasons for entering sex work . Overall 26% stated that induction into the Devadasi tradition was at least 1 reason that they entered sex work, and 66% of these Female sex worker’s (FSWs) listed it as the only reason that they entered sex work. Other stated reasons for entering sex work included financial need- 36%, marital or family discord or dissolution -30%, and being coerced or lured- 20%.

Chattopadhyay M, Bandyopadhyay S, Duttagupta C, (1994) conducted interviews with 33 female prostitutes in Domjur, Howrah District, West Bengal, to understand the processes by which women become prostitutes. Twenty-one of them were married. More than 50%, who had been married before the age of 18, became prostitutes before 25 and were older than 30. 66% did not engage in illicit sex before becoming prostitutes. About 20% had been prostitutes for more than 15 years. Most prostitutes earned about Rs. 1000 per month. 66% had a maximum number of five clients/day. Three prostitutes had as many as seven to eight clients/day. Life events and their reactions that led them to become prostitutes belonged to two categories: (1) women who were either widowed (17 women) or abused by husband and in-laws (4 women), leaving them with no social or economic support and (2) women who chose prostitution as an easy means to support themselves (9 women) or because they had sexual urges or were curious (3 women).

Empirical studies along in red-light areas of a few large cities corroborate the common knowledge that prostitutes, in general, lead a poor standard of life in dilapidated and unhygienic environments (Gilada n.d.; Ghosh and Das 1994). A major portion of what their clients pay is shared by pimps, landlords, madams, financiers and policemen. They do not get nutritionally adequate food and they are exploited by local traders who sell them essential goods. Because of strong prejudice against them they cannot take advantage of the government health facilities and have to depend mostly on local quacks who charge them exorbitantly for treatment and medicines. A large proportion of them suffer intermittently from various kinds of STDs. Most of them are forced to enter this occupation because of adverse circumstances.

In a country that has strict values and restrictions towards marriage,dating and pre-marital sex there seems to be a rampant disregard for the value of a woman’s right to dignity and integrity.In India, It is generally considered unacceptable for a woman or man to engage in sex before marriage or with more than one partner. Speaking about sex related issues is taboo in most households and sex education in schools is strongly opposed and rendered inappropriate. It is believed that one should respect traditions and avoid places,people,movies,books or music that are provocative or in any way of a sexual nature. Conservatism and orthodox customs are welcomed and whole heardtedly preached and in some cases practiced in India. Thus, it comes as a shock to realize that the hub of the Sex trade throughout Asia and possibly the world is housed in the biggest city in India-Mumbai. It is a sad and cruel paradox that a country that preaches about purity and chastity has the largest brothels in the world and is a central point in the human trafficking system.

Legal position in India:

Laws related to prostitution in India:

Suppression of Immoral Traffic in Women and Girl Act -1956

Prevention of Immoral Traffic Act-1956

Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act-1956

In legal terms, the Indian Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act 1956, criminalized the volitional act of “a female offering her body for promiscuous sexual intercourse for hire whether in money or in kind”. But, under the revised 1986 Act, “prostitution” means ” the sexual exploitation or abuse of persons for commercial purpose, and the expression ‘prostitute’ shall be constructed accordingly” – so there is not only no criminality if there is “offering by way of free contract”, there is not even prostitution.

In India the primary law dealing with the status of sex workers is the 1956 law referred to as the The Immoral Traffic (Suppression) Act (SITA). According to this law, sex work in India is neither legal nor illegal; it is tolerated since prostitutes can practice their trade privately but cannot legally solicit customers in public. Unlike as is the case with other professions, however, sex workers are not protected under normal workers laws, and are not entitled to minimum wage benefits, compensation for injury or other benefits that are common in other types of work.

Although prostitution (the act of selling one’s body in a non public setting) is legal in India, brothel keeping, living off the earnings of a prostitute, soliciting or seducing for the purposes of prostitution are all punishable offenses. (Robert I. Freidman, “India’s Shame: Sexual Slavery and Political Corruption Are Leading to An AIDS Catastrophe,” The Nation, 8 April 1996)

Psychological distress among sex workers

Considerable research has been conducted in the area of sex trade and prostitution. Most of this research in the social sciences focuses on the health risks involved, particularly HIV, AIDS.

There is a large-scale ignorance of the psychological harm that is faced by women who are prostituted. Prostitution has been defined in many ways either by political or legal organizations.

The World Health Organization (WHO) defined prostitution as a dynamic and

adaptive process that involves a transaction between seller and buyer of a sexual service (World Health Organization, 1988). WHO has since recommended decriminalization of prostitution (Ahmad, 2001). Much of the health sciences literature has viewed prostitution as a job choice (Deren et al., 1996; Farr, Castro, DiSantostefano, Claassen, & Olguin, 1996; Green et al., 1993; Romans, Potter,Martin,&Herbison, 2001; UN/AIDS, 2002). However the notion that prostitution is work tends to make its harm invisible.

Important questions remain unanswered regarding the epidemiology and etiology of psychological distress among sex traders. Many sex traders and drug users from poor neighborhoods have experienced homelessness, rape, and other violent events associated with psychological distress.

High proportions of prostitutes are drug-dependent and have experienced physical and sexual abuse in childhood and adulthood (Church, Henderson, Barnard, & Hart, 2001; El-Bassel, Schilling, Irwin, Faruque, Gilbert, Von Bargen, Serrano, & Edlin, 1997; El- Bassel, Simoni, Cooper, Gilbert, & Schilling, 2001).

The Psychological literature on Prostitution has focused on different theories to explain the role of a prostitute either as a victim or a risk-taker. There has been tremendous debate over the underlying factors that lead a woman into this ‘profession’. It is assumed that prostituted women have personality characteristics which lead to their victimization. Rosiello (1993) described the inherent masochism of prostituted women as a “necessary ingredient” of their self-concept. MacVicar and Dillon (1980) suggested that masochism plays a central role in the acceptance of abuse by pimps. Psychoanalytic theories that prostituting originates in maternal deprivation or from the anal desires of the child -have been described by Weisberg (1985) and Bullough & Bullough (1996).Vanwesenbeeck, et al (1993) identified three groups of prostituted women as 1) those who had a positive, businesslike attitude and consistent condom use, 2) those who had a negative attitude and occasional failure to use condoms),and 3) “risk takers” who did not use condoms and who reported feeling powerless. The “risk takers” reported fears of violence and despair in situations where they were powerless. One woman stated that health planning was not a priority when “your whole life’s a misery and pain” (Vanwesenbeeck et al., 1993).

Women in prostitution are often assumed to have an underlying personality disorder. De Schampheleire (1990) concluded that 61 prostituted women had emotional difficulties that resulted first in addictions, and later in prostitution, which was itself described as a “diversion” from other psychological problems.

This is clearly indicative that there is a belief that emotionally disturbed or vulnerable women are more likely to enter into prostitution, further become victimized and continue in this ‘profession’ as a means of coping with their initial sense of turmoil or unworthiness. This literature fails to recognize the various other reasons that women enter into prostitution (such as financial need or coercion), and ultimately suffer psychological difficulties as a result of this ‘profession’. It is assumed with a stance of such stoicism that women willingly enter into a profession in which they become victims of battering, rape, fatal physiological conditions, constant trauma and degradation.

However there is literature that supports the idea that prostitution does indeed inflict psychological distress on the individual. Graaf et al. (1995) and Plant et al (1989) found that women’s alcohol use in prostitution was related to the psychological trauma of prostitution. It permitted a chemical dissociation, as well as a means of anesthetizing their physical aversion for the act of sex for payment. Green et al (1993) noted that some Glasgow women were only able to prostitute under the influence of drugs or alcohol.

Alegria et al (1994) found that 70% of 127 Puerto Rican women in prostitution had symptoms of depression which were associated with increased risk behaviors for HIV.

Violence against women in Prostitution:

In the past decade, a number of authors have documented or analyzed the sexual and physical violence that is the normative experience for women in prostitution, including Baldwin (1993,

1999); Barry (1979, 1995); Boyer, Dworkin (1981, 1997, 2000); Farley, Baral, Kiremire, and Sezgin (1998); Giobbe (1991, 1993) .Sexual violence and physical assault are the norm for women in all types of prostitution. Nemoto, Operario, Takenaka, Iwamoto, and Le (2003) reported that 62% of Asian women in San Francisco massage parlors had been physically assaulted by customers. Raymond, D’Cunha, et al. (2002) found that 80% of women who had been trafficked or prostituted suffered violence-related injuries in prostitution.

Among the women interviewed by Parriott (1994), 85% had been raped in prostitution. In another study, 94% of those in street prostitution had experienced sexual assault and 75% had been raped by one or more customers (Miller, 1995). In the Netherlands, where prostitution is legal, 60% of prostituted women suffered physical assaults; 70% experienced verbal threats of physical assault; 40% experienced sexual violence; and 40% had been forced into prostitution or sexual abuse by acquaintances (Vanwesenbeeck, 1994). Most young women in prostitution were abused or beaten by customers as well as pimps. Silbert and Pines (1981, 1982) reported that 70% of women suffered rape in prostitution, with 65% having been physically assaulted by customers and 66% assaulted by pimps.

Of 854 people in prostitution in nine countries (Canada, Colombia, Germany, Mexico, South Africa, Thailand, Turkey, United States, and Zambia), 71% experienced physical assaults in prostitution, and 62% reported rapes in prostitution (Farley, Cotton, et al., 2003). Eighty-nine percent told the researchers that they wanted to leave prostitution but did not have other options for economic survival.

To normalize prostitution as a reasonable job choice for poor women makes invisible their strong desire to escape prostitution. Vanwesenbeeck (1994) found that two factors were associated with greater violence in prostitution. The greater the poverty, the greater the violence; and the longer one is in prostitution, the more likely one is to experience violence.

Research and clinical reports have documented the prevalence of childhood sexual abuse and chronic traumatization among prostituted women (Belton, 1992; Burgess,et al., 1987; Giobbe et al., 1990; James & Meyerding, 1977; Paperny & Deisher, 1983; Silbert & Pines, 1981, Simons & Whitbeck, 1991; Widom & Kuhns, 1996).

Weisberg (1985) reported that 70% of women suffered rape in prostitution, with 65% of prostitutes having been physically assaulted by customers; and 66% assaulted by pimps.

The Council for Prostitution Alternatives in Portland, Oregon, reported that prostituted women were raped an average of once a week (Hunter, 1994).

Women in prostitution are battered women. Prostitution, like battering, is a form of domestic violence. Giobbe (1993) compared pimps and batterers and found similarities in their use of enforced social isolation, minimization and denial, threats, intimidation, verbal and sexual abuse,

attitude of ownership, and extreme physical violence to control women. The techniques of physical violence used by pimps are often the same as those used by torturers. Gray (1973, cited in Weisberg, 1985) reported that one teenager was beaten with a 6-foot bullwhip and another was tied to a car and forced to run behind it. It has been reasonably estimated that prostitution

is 80% to 90% pimp-controlled (Giobbe & Gamache, 1990; Hunter, 1994).

The primary concern of prostituted women in Glasgow was violence from customers (Green et al., 1993). Rape was common. The women in Glasgow were physically abused as part of the job of prostitution. They were whipped and 1 7 beaten up, with payment at times received “per individual blow” (Green et al., 1993, page 328). Prostituted women described a minority of customers as extremely dangerous. These men were likely to assault or murder women in prostitution for pleasure. They used fists, feet, baseball bats, knives, or guns in their assaults on the women. One man inserted a shotgun into at least one woman’s vagina and mouth.

87% of prostituted women interviewed by Miller (1995) were physically assaulted in prostitution, with 31% having been stabbed, and 25% being hit with an object. 37% of her sample had been held captive. Prostituted women were often assaulted and robbed (Green et al, 1993; Hardesty & Greif, 1994; Miller, 1995).

Miller & Schwartz (1995) found that 94% of those in street prostitution had experienced some form of sexual assault; 75% had been raped by one or more customers. In spite of this, there was a widespread belief that the concept of rape did not apply to prostitutes. If rape of a prostituting

woman occurs, some have considered the rape to be “theft” or “breach of contract” rather than rape. Many people assumed that when a prostituted woman was raped, it was part of her job and that she deserved or even asked for the rape. In an example of this bias, a California judge overturned a jury’s decision to charge a customer with rape, saying that “a woman who goes out on the street and makes a whore out of herself opens herself up to anybody.”

One juror interpreted the judge’s decision as a refusal to give rights to prostitutes (Arax, 1986).

Psychological Trauma as a result of prostitution:

Dissociation is the psychological process of banishing traumatic events from consciousness (Herman, 1992). It is an emotional shutting-down which occurs during extreme stress among prisoners of war who are being tortured, among children who are being sexually assaulted, and among women being battered or raped or prostituted. Vanwesenbeeck (1994) considered dissociation in those prostituted to be a consequence of both childhood violence and adult violence in prostitution. She noted that a proficiency in dissociation, perhaps learned in order to

survive sexual abuse as a child, was required in prostitution.

Ross et al (1990) noted dissociative symptoms in women in strip club prostitution. Belton (1998) reported that depression as well as dissociative disorders were common among prostituted women.

It is clear that women in prostitution suffer from psychological trauma which affects their functioning.Other than dissociation,drug use an emotional vulnerability women in prostitution suffer from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Symptoms are anxiety, depression, insomnia, irritability, flashbacks, emotional numbing, and hyperalertness. Farley et al., (1998) interviewed 475 prostituted people in 5 countries (South Africa, Thailand, Turkey, USA, and Zambia) and found that 67% met diagnostic criteria for PTSD, suggesting that the traumatic sequelae of prostitution were similar across different cultures.

The violence of prostitution, the constant humiliation, the social indignity and misogyny result in personality changes which have been described by Herman (1992) as complex posttraumatic stress disorder (CPTSD). Symptoms of CPTSD include changes in consciousness and self-concept, changes in the ability to regulate emotions, changes in systems of meaning, such as

loss of faith, and an unremitting sense of despair. Once out of prostitution, 76% of a group of women interviewed by Parriott (1994) reported that they had great difficulty with intimate relationships. Not only were sexual feelings destroyed in prostitution, but the emotional part of the self was eroded. (Hoigard & Finstad,1986; Giobbe, 1991, 1992) One of the longer-lasting effects of CPTSD involves changes in relations with other people, including changes in perception of the perpetrator of abuse.

Previous research on women who engaged in prostitution has found a high rate of drug abuse among this population (Kuhns, Heide, & Silverman, 1992; El-Bassel et al., 1997; Nadon, Koverola, & Schludermann, 1998; Potterat,)The need for drugs, both physical and emotional, often overpowers prostitutes’ aversion toward the degrading aspects of their occupation (Weeks et al., 1998).

In another study, El-Bassel and colleagues (1997) found that drug-using prostitutes scored higher than drug-using non-prostitutes from the same community on several measures of psychological distress, such as depression, anxiety, and paranoid ideation, and suggested that psychological distress among prostitutes was brought about by the dangerous and degrading circumstances surrounding their work.

Researchers found that the women who were prostituting were more likely to report using drugs to increase their feelings of confidence, sense of control, and feelings of closeness to others and to decrease their feelings of guilt and sexual distress. (Young,A,M et al 2000). Furthermore the researchers found that the subservient, humiliating nature of prostitution suggests that these women would tend to feel less confident and in control while working, and would wish to regain these feelings, and the ability to feel close to others, after being sexually involved with a stranger or strangers. Other studies have found that women engaged in prostitution use drugs and alcohol to feel more confident on the job, more calm and able to suppress negative feelings, and more relaxed and sociable (Gossop et al., 1994; Silbert et al 1982; Feucht, 1993).

The evidence is clear and alarming, Psychological distress is an inevitable result of prostitution and is more than likely to inte

Who would have thought that one green plant, Cannabis sativa, could create so much controversy throughout the centuries? The debate on medical marijuana has been around since the 17th and 18th century. The debate if marijuana is a dangerous and addictive drug, or a helpful medication for pain reliever, preventing vomiting, and treatment of glaucoma (Schwartz, 1994).Science has proven the medical benefits marijuana brings to the field of medicine. Although the American justice system is still undecided about the facts and safety of marijuana, and if marijuana should be legalized, some states have accepted the legalization of marijuana such as California. Many other states are still debating the pros and cons of marijuana’s legalization. If marijuana was legalized and regulated it could save lives, help our economy grow in this economic downturn, and let our national security system attend to more alarming issues.

Allegar, I. (2000). A factual guide to medical uses of marijuana. Townsend

Letter for Doctors & Patients Dec2000, (209), 121.

This is the only book that presents many of the scientific facts about medical marijuana. Facts such as the origin of where marijuana plants came from, to facts about President Regan’s term, where the war on drugs began which gave marijuana a bad reputation. My favorite line from this article sums up why marijuana should be legalized. “A primary fact is the proven safety of this plant- no one has ever died, overdosed, or even become ill from using marijuana. So how did this green leaf plant get such a bad reputation?”(Allegar, 2000, p.209)

This quote presents a great argument for the legalization of marijuana. Other drugs cause people to overdose and die, yet those drugs are legalized. So what is the problem with legalization of marijuana?

Arias, d. (2007). Health findings. Nation’s Health, 37(3), 16.

This article talks about many public health findings of medical marijuana. The discovery that marijuana relieves pain for patients that suffer from peripheral neuropathy, a nerve condition that is present in those affected with HIV (Arias, 2007). The marijuana relieved pain by 34%.Another amazing statistic is that the patients suffering from peripheral neuropathy reduced their chronic pain by 72% when smoking their first marijuana cigarette (Arias, 2007, 16). The placebo cigarette was not even comparable.

This article presents good documentation of public health findings on marijuana. The procedure is organized well and easy to understand the benefits that marijuana presents in the experiment. In the research collected, this article makes the strongest point of how effective marijuana is as a pain reliever. With such high statics how can our government not legalize marijuana?

Boire, R, & Feeney, K. (2006). Medical marijuana law. Oakland, CA: Ronin

Publishing Inc

The book covers every question to what marijuana is, to why it is legal in some states. Also the book explains how the state law and federal law are two different things, and the federal law always wins. This book also brings a more in-depth explanation on marijuana history and the medical benefits. The book talked about two different alternatives to smoking marijuana such as Marinol and sativex. The pros and cons are listed for each drug. The book also explained the procedure of seeing a doctor and getting registration for the marijuana, where a safe place is to get the marijuana, and what the regulations are for growing your own marijuana plants. The book explains how to deal with the federal system and possession of marijuana. The book lists the amount of marijuana that is legal for each state.

Boire and Fenney gave more information on the marijuana tax act of 1937. This book also makes the clear distinction on the federal law vs. state law. The most useful information I found in the book was the description on the qualifying conditions for medical marijuana, which are: “AIDS, cancer, cachexia, epilepsy, glaucoma, HIV, multiple sclerosis, seizures, and severe nausea” (Boire, & Fenny, 2006, p.5).Another great part of the book is about the doctor’s role in prescribing the marijuana. Some states require a copy of the doctor’s license and signed physician statement (Boire, & Feeney, 2006).The different forms of medical marijuana makes a great argument on why it should be legalize. Marinol, which contains synthetic THC, is a better option than smoking marijuana because, smoking is harmful. The down fall with the synthetic THC, is it does not produce the same pain relieving effect (Boire, &Feeney, 2006). The book also talks about the patient’s rights and restrictions about medical marijuana. This information helped me better understand both sides of the debate.

Durand, M. (2007). Considering cannabis. Inside MS Jun/Jul2007, 25(3), 56-57.

The article deals with the medical affects that Cannabis (marijuana) has on patients with multiple sclerosis. The marijuana helps prevent vomiting and muscle spasm. Experiments were done on rats to prove the medical benefit of marijuana. Some of the reverse side effects of marijuana are also listed.

This article helps back up my thesis with the proof of medical facts to legalize marijuana. The drug is helpful with patients who suffer from multiple sclerosis. With dosage controlled and overseen by a physician I feel there is no reason to have these patients suffer and not be able to have marijuana.

Garner-Wizard, M. (2006). FDA denies medicinal value of smoked marijuana. . HerbalGram Sep-Dec2006, 25(72), 22.

This article is very interesting; because attention is brought to what party the U.S. government or medical system is lying. The FDA (Food and Drug Administration) says that there is no medical proof of medical marijuana. The FDA also argues that no science experiment on animals has been conducted and documented. The medical system talks about the lack of faith they have with the FDA. Medical experts do not believe that it is a communication error between the science departments and government officials, rather than the government does not want to accept the medical facts and legalize marijuana. The government wants to keep a strong stand on drugs.

This article is perfect for playing devils’ advocate on the debate of medical marijuana. Medical experts have the facts and experiments in books and other science journal researched in this paper. So if the public can receive these written documents why is the government unable to? This article also presents the question of what is the true motivatation of not legalizing marijuana. What else is the government keeping from us?

Krisberg, k. (2009). Fight for reform of U.S. drug policies slowly

Making headway. [cover story]. Nation’s Health, 39(8), 1-10.

Krisberg has presented facts and many view points from different medical experts. The reading is hard to understand what party believes what. The main concept retained from this reading is the president Barack Obama says “he has the willingness to put science before policies” (Krisberg, 2009, p.7) Meaning he would put opinions and policies aside and make a decision based on facts.

While this article was difficlulent to understand and follow, the article is somewhat humorous. The president suggests he will move the legalization of medical marijuana if facts are presented. This entire annotated bibliography is filled of sources with many facts on the benefits of marijuana. So what is the hold up? Why has marijuana only been legalized in some states, and even then the federal law has many regulation and restrictions. What kind of facts are the government looking for. How can the American society observe the medical benefits of medical marijuana, but our public officials cannot? This creates a great viewpoint to think about while researching.

Marandino, c. (1998). Fired up. Vegetarian Times, (247), 18.

This article is a little old but still presents a great point. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) recommend that marijuana does present some medical benefits for serious illnesses. The American Medical Association also agreed that marijuana had some medical benefits. The public views are also document about the legalization of marijuana.

This article prevents proof that medical research has been conducted and presented to the public. This article was written in 1998, and even though medical facts have been presented for medical marijuana many still opposed the idea of legalization. Marijuana has been viewed as a dangerous drug for centuries. No matter how many statics and facts are presented on why marijuana should be legalized for medical purposes, can change the mind of the American justice system.

Marijuana. (2007). Marijuana fast facts, 1-2.

This article presented some common background information. Because this was the first article researched, on the quest to understand the legalization of medical marijuana it was very helpful. To understanding the scientific name of the drug, to understanding the positive and negative aspects of marijuana, this article was very helpful. After reading this article and gaining some background knowledge, the more in-depth and complicated articles were easier to follow.

Some of the information about the problem facing federal and state laws conflicting the legalization of medical marijuana. Also the information about marijuana being a risk and side effects that come with the drug will be helpful in presenting both sides of the debate.

Marijuana and future psychosis. (2007). Nutrition Health Review: The Consumer’s Medical Journal , (98), 17.

This article argues against the legalization of medical marijuana. All of the information in the article is about the life long lasting side effects of marijuana. How the use of marijuana can lead to psychosis and severe mood changes.

There are two view points to very argument. While there is not sufficient medical evidence shown in this document to oppose the legalization of marijuana, this side still must be presented. The main reason for this view point is because of the side effects of marijuana. Like any other drug, marijuana has side effects. Some side effects are more harmful than those of marijuana, yet they are still legal.

Minamide, E. (2007). Medical marijuana. Framington Hills, MI: Greenhaven Press.

Minamide organized his text to show both sides of the legalization of marijuana debate. Some of the key topics are if medical marijuana is effective medical treatment or not. If the legalization of medical marijuana would negatively impact society or not, and finally if the federal government should ban medical marijuana or not.

Debra J. Saunders argues that marijuana should be legalized because it can help many serious illnesses. Saunders believes that “congress should move marijuana out of the classification of Schedule I drug, a caterogory that includes more serious drugs like heroine, to a Schedule II drug , like cocaine and morphine, which are available for medical use”(Minamide,2007,p.12). Medical experts have facts that prove marijuana as a helpful medicine. Experts in medicane also believe the drug should be moved into the Schedule II drug. On the opposing viewpoints the book highlights a key point that “harm of medical marijuana may outweigh the medical benefits” (Minamide, 2007, p.34). Smoking in itself is harmful to the respiratory system regardless if it relieves pain and prevents nausea. Another great point highlighted in the book is if the legalization would negatively impact society. Mark R.Trouville says that the “legalization of marijuana would interfere with the undermine law enforcement efforts to combat drug trafficking and would send a dangerous message that marijuana is a harmless substance” (Minamide, 2007, p.38). The book also plays devil advocate and presents arguments for the legalization of marijuana that help my thesis out.

Schwartz, H. (1994). Psychiatric practice under fire the influence of government, the media, and special interest on somatic therapies. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric press, Inc.

The book gave facts on medical marijuana and the battle it has been facing for years. The book was written in the 1994 so the legal status was not up to date. Although, the history of marijuana and the medical benefits it had was very informational. The book also broke down the main ingredient in marijuana, and describes how they had medical benefits. A lot of case experiments proved medical marijuana helped the patient. The book also talked about the historic time line of marijuana. From the beginning of time when marijuana came from India in the 17th and 18th century, to Marijuana Tax Act of 1937 all the way to 1942 when American framers started to grow hemp for rope in World War II.

The helpful information presented in this book had some general background information of marijuana. The author talked about “THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) is the main ingredient of marijuana. In 1895 THC was approved by the Food and Drug administration (FDA). The FDA noted that THC was combating nausea and vomiting associated with cancer chemotherapy.”(Schwartz, 1994, p.106) The book also noted three main reasons why medical marijuana should be legalized. The first of the three reasons is to treat glaucoma. The next main reason was to relieve nausea, and last but not least is to stimulate appetite. I think that congress should look at all of the medical facts about medical marijuana and how it relieves pain for cancer patients and also prevents vomiting. In today’s medical world there are a lot of addictive drugs used as pain relievers. Yet these drugs are legalized. The legalization of medical marijuana could help our economy grow. The last piece of information presented in this book was a great example of why marijuana should be legalized.

In August 1992, for example, Valarie Corral, a 40-year-old woman from Santa Cruz, California, who smoked marijuana for 18 years to control epileptic seizures, was arrested for growing five plants in a vegetable garden near her porch (Rogers 1993).Under California Law, she faced up to 3 years for her offense.

Valarie did not get sentenced 3 years for her plants; the judge understood her medical purpose for them. Valarie’s doctor reported her prescription for medical marijuana to help with her spastic muscles when she had seizures. Before her muscles were out of control and she complained of pain. Once she started smoking marijuana when she felt a seizure coming along, her seizures were not as intense or long. This is just one example of how medical marijuana has positively impacted a life. Now Valarie can drive a car and perform day to day tasks thanks to help of marijuana she can live her life.

How Instagram makes us sociable

Introduction

The world has really transformed in terms of technology. Technology is the only thing that changes at a very fast rate. Every day we wake up to a new innovation of technology and ideas. Technology through internet has managed to bring the world together in terms of communication. Despite the varying time zones in different parts of the world, Internet has paved way for Social networks that are turning be a vital field for advertising and creating awareness among people. The internet is a branch of technology where there is loads of traffic. Internet has now become a necessity and has managed to globalize the universe and make it as a small village where people interact freely despite the location and time of the specific region. It has as well given rise to several social networks that allow people to stay connected and in touch at any time of their convenience. Some of the well-known social networks include Twitter, Instagram and Facebook. These social platforms have allowed business people to advertise their companies as well as the products being marketed.

This research paper will focus on how Instagram has managed to make people more sociable. The previous notion was that social networks are responsible of making people lonely and create an ambience of loneliness. It will shade more light on how Instagram brings people’s social life into one stage where each and every individual is required to register an account with so as to be given the unique credentials for logging in and interact with other subscribers. Businesses are now turning to social Medias to advertise and promote their sales. This is because of the ever increasing social traffic which is always present regardless of the time or the place of business. Instagram has remarkable improved social exposure and this research paper will conclude on its importance based on purely facts and figures.

Thesis

The Research topic that this paper is going to investigate in detail is whether Instagram as a Social network has managed to make people more sociable rather than lonely. My stand on the above argument is that I personally believe and completely agree to the fact that Instagram has truly managed to make people more social as compared to before the beginning of social networks. In order to second my stand in opinion, we will use a demonstrative example trying to campaign for an election contestant who is vying for an elective sit. This will put us in a position able to compare the different forms of campaign and establish the one which managed to reach the most number of people. For my research, I will employ Instagram as one of the trending social networks to establish whether it is making people to be more social rather than lonely.

Before putting keen emphasize to the example above we can simply ask ourselves as to why businesses are also targeting the social population as a potential field for advertisement. This is just a way of proving that Instagram (one of the social networks) has made people more sociable and has improved communications. Loneliness on the other hand can be defined as being isolated from the other members of the population and still not in a position to keep in touch with them. A lonely person is one who cannot keep in touch and communicate with others at free will. How can Instagram promote loneliness from our definition of the word itself? Instagram has managed to allow people keep in touch hence my support for the Research topic.

Literature Review

Social network has been essential in changing the internet from a space widely known for broadcast of information or transmission to a place where users are involved in creating and generating their own personal content. This ranges from short films on You Tube to Facebook updates. This is then followed by the process of signposting their networks to the other contents created by other users (Beer, 2008: Thelwell, 2009). For literature purposes, there is a very clear attention on the extent to which social media has become transformative through the way that users keep in touch with one another. Evidences from several sources around that could be found with less difficulty show that campaigning and influencing is the most effectively done activity through people’s already existing social relationships (Alinsky, 1971; Freire, 1970). Despite the fact that all social media platforms play a major role in this, there is a general sense in which social networks have increasingly become powerful. The masses that can be reached within a given short period of time via social networks are overwhelming. One post with no duplicate of exactly the same information can be viewed and followed by thousands if not millions at a blink of a second.

Most of the already existing social networks were initially established on the basis of a more tailored proposition rather than merely creating an online space where people with common interest could interact freely. My space, for instance, is a social network which was initially started with the sole purpose of enabling aspiring music artistes to share and publicize their own piece of work with other likeminded people among the society. (Pace, 2006). Facebook started as a mere service for students in a U.S university which gradually broadened their service to other non U.S universities and this is even before making the platform accessible to everybody (Kirkpatrick, 2010). This is how social networks simply start and end up being a populated platform with millions of users all over the world.

Social network sites provide new audience for civic engagement and for political participation. This facilitates information sharing and brings together networks through actions such as utilizing email, networking practices and user generated content (Montgomery 2007;Vromen 2007;2008). Research studies in Saudi Arabia have shown that 38% of 17-19 year olds employ Social networks (Instagram) for both political and civic engagement (Smith et al. 2009). Political leaders are using Instagram to post images of peace that advocate for peaceful coexistence. The many followers the politician has in Instagram media platform will be able to see what their leader is promoting and even leave a comment if they wish to. Moreover, the followers can get the images from the Politician’s profile and put it as their own so as to spread the message. This is just a simple example of how Instagram has enabled leaders in Saudi Arabia to campaign within a short period of time.

For the young generation who do not think through their participation in either civic or issue-based functions as “political” in the institution or traditional sense, Social networks are used to connect the individuals who have similar interests about their own projects (Collin, 2010). Young people are coming up with new participatory communities which are by and for their peers. (Harris 2008:489; Boyd 2007:13-14). In addition, services and organizations are increasingly observing social networking practices as the succeeding step towards youth participation in community and government decision making (Collin 2010).

Despite the fact that there are still queries as to the extent to which social networks function as virtual public spheres, fostering deliberation and enabling direct participation (Vromen.2008). However, the network for communicating information and numerous point of view “Public sphere” permits the recognition of creative digital expression through the social networks as civic engagement (Burgess, et. al,2006).There is a vast body of academic work on social networks and technology at large which take into consideration the creative, performativity and participatory dimensions of the current digital practices.

The general usage of social media can simply be described as the collective media creation and sharing on a legitimately large scale. This includes social network services as well as other participatory activities like news blogs. The rapid up take of both social media and social network services by the young people indicate a very important shift in young generation’s use if internet mainly for information and entertainment as one way of communication. The young generation is made of “producers” who actively produce as well as consume media (Bruns 2008). The participatory media ambience enables the young to take part in creative content production. This also empowers them with brand new means of creating as well as sustaining connections among themselves. As a result, Social network platforms have resulted into new discussions on how to conceptualize and advocate for what has come to be termed as cyber citizenship (Bennett, 1998, 2003: Coleman, 2005).

Research Methodology

As mentioned earlier on in this research paper, I will use a politician social network campaign program via Instagram to establish the power of the social platform in terms of moving masses within a short period of time. I will visit colleges and higher institutions of learning and promote students to register accounts with Instagram. This on the other hand will simplify my work because I expect only few students if any who will not be having accounts with Instagram. I will then advise all the students to follow the Politian’s account so that they can be able to be informed about the Politian updates in his process of campaigning.

I will collect my data for analysis by counting the number of likes and dislikes for each and every update the politician makes. The number of likes will give me a rough idea before the actual data analysis whether the social platform is in support with the campaign trend or not. Reading through the comments left behind by the followers will help me to conclude the factual side of support or critic from the public. The advantage of this methodology is that it comes at no extra cost to the students since opening an Instagram account is predominantly free and there is free access to internet services in campuses. I will collect all the data throughout the campaign period and code it statistically and appropriately while observing all the statistical hypotheses.

In collaboration with the election contestant, I will pose some questions that call for discussions among the respondents (students on Instagram). This will create a thread of comments and opinions from the online traffic generated. I will then read through each individual comment and take it as the opinion from the respective person. Depending on the number of opinions and comments that I will get, I will decide on picking a representative sample of the entire online Instagram traffic. This sample will be free from biasness and will be selected using a statistical formula called “Fishers et. al”. I will base on factors such as age, gender and level of education to ensure that I come up with a good representative sample of the entire school Instagram accounts. . (Raatma, L. 2010)

I will employ systematic random sampling technique to allocate my sample. This will be because of some factors that I find necessary to be observed. These factors will ensure that the selected sample is a true representation of the population at large and inferences drawn from it will be descriptive and informative about the population. I will ensure accuracy of the data by designing self-explanatory research questions that can be easily answered by the online Instagram users. (Raatma, L. 2010)

I will analyze the data using one of the statistical software’s namely S.P.S.S. (Statistical Package for Social Scientists). I will compare the levels of campaign awareness from different Medias of communication with the sample data I will get. These other Medias of communications can be via bill boards advertising, television news and radio. To get information on previous voting exercises, I will go through secondary data and reports that are available in file. I will analyze the data through diagrams such as pie charts, bar graphs and line graphs.

References

Andrews, L. B. (2012). I know who you are and I saw what you did: social networks and the death of privacy. New York: Free Press.

Barnes, J. A. (1972). Social networks. Reading, Mass.: [Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.].

Barnett, G. A. (2011). Encyclopedia of social networks. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage.

Buskens, V. W. (2002). Social networks and trust. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Gottlieb, B. H. (1981). Social networks and social support. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications.

Kilduff, M., & Tsai, W. (2003). Social networks and organizations. London: SAGE.

Lin, N. (2001). Social capital a theory of social structure and action. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Maguire, L. (1983). Understanding social networks. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.

Raatma, L. (2010). Social networks. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Cherry Lake Pub..

PROPAGANDA THEORY ON THE MH370 INCIDENT

Contents (Jump to)

INTRODUCTION
PROPAGANDA THEORY RELATING TO MH370 INCIDENT
COUNTER PROPAGANDA BY THE GOVERNMENT
REFERENCES
INTRODUCTION

Mystery continues to surround the fate of Malaysia Airlines flight MH370, which disappeared en route from Kuala Lumpur to Beijing on 8 March.

Malaysian authorities, assisted by international aviation and satellite experts, are now battling to piece together the plane’s final hours in the hope that they can find its wreckage and explain what happened to its 239 passengers and crew. Some preliminary details were released on 1 May in a short report.

Accordingly, many propaganda arises on this issue. Some of propaganda emanating from the local media and not to forget from abroad. If we look from the point of propaganda theory itself, there is some good propaganda that led to the issue of loss MH370, but there also resulting in a negative impact on public perception towards the way the government is dealing with the issue.

To deal with the propaganda that apply to this incident, we will analyze whether the form of propaganda, the propaganda perspective itself and how the government to overcome this problem.

Merriam Webster Dictionary gives the definition of propaganda as ideas or statements that are often false or exaggerated and that are spread in order to help a cause, a political leader, a government, etc. the spreading of ideas, information, or rumor for the purpose of helping or injuring an institution, a cause, or a person, ideas, facts, or allegations spread deliberately to further one’s cause or to damage an opposing cause; also : a public action having such an effect

First introduced by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky (1988), Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media, the propaganda model argues that the “material news” through five filters, which in turn form the audience received the news. This filter determines what is considered newsworthy events, how they are covered, where they were placed in the media and how much coverage they receive.

Propaganda model of media control that was introduced by Edward. S. Herman and Noam Chomsky (1988) states how propaganda works in the media. This model tries to understand how populations are manipulated, and how social, economic, political attitudes are formed in the minds of the people through propaganda. Herman and Chomsky are mostly concentrated in the American population and the media for their research, but the theory applies universally.

Propaganda model seeks to explain the behavior of the media by examining the institutional pressures that limit and influence the news content in a profit-driven system. In contrast to liberal theories that argue that journalism is defined hostility power, the propaganda model predicts that the company-owned news media will consistently produce news content that serves the interests of established power (Herman & Chomsky, 1988).

PROPAGANDA THEORY RELATING TO MH370 INCIDENT

Among the propaganda that exists from within Malaysia itself mostly spread through social media on the internet, given the sophistication of the current information age, there are blogs and websites questioned the credibility of the government and even spread propaganda relating to this issue of MH370.

Among the widely disseminated propaganda on the website saying that Malaysia experienced a “bad media” Especially from the Western press and especially CNN and Extension of this, of good journalistic practice for hazardous and agenda driven, further lead to more conspiracy theories especially the involvement of CNN.The Mole reproduces an article written by Matthias Chang, the profession as a lawyer, social activist, author and political analyst. He reveals how the MH370 is a multi-dimensional, and why the Zionist hands should not be overlooked. Although somewhat lengthy, is worth reading every word printed: “Before proceeding with Expose of Zionist propaganda Insidious Dastardly and Israel on the Cessation of MH 370, let me take this opportunity to convey my personal condolences and that of my family to a family who loves Ones have been killed in this tragedy and we hope ur strength to overcome the disadvantage pint them.”

He would also commend the Malaysian government’s efforts in the SAR Mission involved 26 countries that had never happened before. Allegations of unfair and unfounded against the Malaysian government made by many people in social media who do not have a clue and or expertise to comment on the operation of the Standard and Poor’s scale.

Another propaganda that there is involvement from the United States, which was propagated that where Maldives island Residents reported sighting of ‘low flying jet’ on the morning of the plane’s Disappearance that’s was finally Reported on twelve days after the fact. The pilot of the missing plane had a home flight simulator, Which was been Reported twelve days later to contain the landing simulation program of the Diego Garcia runway along with four other Approaches in the region. Whether any, all, or none of this information is true is still a matter of Conjecture. What Remains that’s a fact is not a trace of the Malaysian 777-200ER has been found. At his daily news briefing on 3-18-14, WH spokesperson Jay Carney has denied any Involvement of the Diego Garcia facility with the Disappearance of flight MH370.

In addition to conspiracy theories involving the United States, one side is highly spoken of as ‘real mastermind’ behind the MH370 is a tribe of lost Jewish or Israeli. It is the act of buying and Israel has a Boeing 777 2H6 (ER) long owned Malaysian Airline (MAS). Aircraft ‘twin’ MH370 has been recorded at a small airport in Tarbes-Lourdes-Pyrenees, France on October 4, 2013 before he was taken to Ben Gurion Airport, Tel Aviv, Israel on 4 November 2013. Understandable, MAS Boeing 777 aircraft with serial number 28 416 and registered as 9M-MRI has been sold to GA Telesis, LLC in Fort Lauderdale, Florida on October 21, 2013 before the N105GT.Pesawat registered as recorded in Tarbes Lourdes Pyrenees on October 4, 2014 before taken to Tel Aviv a month later.

The question is, why would Israel want to buy and have a long plane MAS this? If referred back Israeli reactions associated loss MH370, a ‘security expert’ of the country, Isaac Yeffet relate it to the theory that MH370 have been captured by the terrorists and taken to Iran to be used for a series of terror will come. Yeffet reportedly gave a statement to the Times of Israel:

“What happened to this aircraft, nobody knows. My guess is based upon the stolen passports, and I believe Iran was INVOLVED. They hijacked the aircraft and they landed it in a place that nobody can see or find it.” (There is no case what has happened to the aircraft. Based on reported cases of stolen passports, I believe Iran is involved in this case. They had seized the plane and fly it into a place that cannot be found).

Another propaganda that arises during the incident came from the opposition parties, where they claim that the incident crated by the government was to create a diversion to the voter, as coincidently at that time Kajang by-election was taking place. The propaganda was that by showing the great effort towards the search and rescue operations, the government will the heart of the voters.

Actually, there was so many propaganda arises during the incident even until now, people are still fed with various elements of propaganda for the positive and negative as well. If we examine this theory from the angle of propaganda, the government should also take the opportunity by using this incident as their leverage in building up the government credibility.

COUNTER PROPAGANDA BY THE GOVERNMENT

According to brownpoliticalreview.org in its reports, the recent disappearance of Malaysian Airlines Flight MH370 and the resulting media spotlight has revealed Malaysia’s fundamental shortcomings and glaring political issues.

While the plane’s disappearance itself is horrendous – in particular for the many families left in limbo – the Malaysian government’s handling of the situation has drawn considerable international disapproval which leads to the dissemination of the propaganda.

In order to deal with the issue of propaganda in connection with the issue of MH370, the government shall be wise to use methods and tactics namely through counter propaganda.

Counterpropaganda is a structure of communication consisting of method in use and messages relayed to resist propaganda which seeks to manipulate action or perspectives among a targeted audience. It is closely linked to propaganda as the two often utilize the same methods to transmit methods to a targeted audience. Counterpropaganda differs from propaganda as it is defensive and responsive to identified propaganda. in addition, counterpropaganda consists of several elements that further differentiate it from propaganda and ensure its efficiency in opposing propaganda messages.

While propaganda messages may not always be straightforward, efficient counterpropaganda commonly only broadcast the truth. Without a doubt, counterpropaganda is generally understood to be the “truthful, honest opposition” to an adversary’s propaganda. Counterpropaganda communicates honest messages for ethical and realistic reasons.

Looking though reporting of the event, the government from the beginning should report the facts related to this incident. Counter propaganda elements should be applied to achieve the best effect. Reporting matters of fact, although filtered, to some extent can relieve speculations made by the public, especially from the families involved. This can create a deficiency or weakness in reporting which leads to the dissemination of wild propaganda, even more so from the opposition.

References:

Chomsky, Noam and Herman, Edward. (1988) Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media. New York: Pantheon Books.
Cole, Robert. (1996)Propaganda in Twentieth Century War and Politics
Lasswell, Harold D.. (1971)Propaganda Technique in World War I. Cambridge, Mass: The M.I.T. Press.
Garth Jowett and Victoria O’Donnell, Propaganda and Persuassion, 4th ed. Sage Publications, 7
Herbert Romerstein, “Counterpropaganda: We Can’t Do Without It,”] in Waller, ed., Strategic Influence: Public Diplomacy, Counterpropaganda and Political Warfare (IWP Press, 2008), 135.
[Frontpost, Nachrichten fur Deutsche Soldaten, Herausgeber: Die Amerikanischen Truppen in Westeuropa,] No. 1(March 1945), 3 in Waller, ed., Strategic Influence: Public Diplomacy, Counterpropaganda and Political Warfare (IWP Press, 2008), 144-145.

As countries were expanding from the industrial revolution, the start of the twentieth century was an era where people were beginning to enjoy the smaller things in life. From dinners to dancing or hanging out with their colleagues after work, all these meetings had one thing in common, alcohol. Around 1900, Chicago was consuming alcohol at an increasing rate which later became a daily ritual in people lives. In the span of a decade, liquor and alcohol became the main topic of legislations, election campaigns, and among a few political debates (Buenker 363). When the word “prohibition” started being used in 1907-1918, people reacted because the word had such a negative connotation. When the law on prohibition came into effect in 1919, the police started closing down all of the large saloons. This was followed by the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment in 1920 (Carter 189), which prohibited the sale of alcohol and liquor, and that anyone caught selling it would be severely punished (Tomkins 15-16). From the late 19th century to the early 20th century, the term prohibition played an important role in the windy city of Chicago, and in some states such as Maine and North Dakota (Brown 722). However despite the laws on prohibition, some proprietors still sold alcohol to private guests in underground saloons, making double than when the solicitation of alcohol was still legal. Even as many people were being arrested, the public began to question what the government was getting out of the amendment.

Although Chicago was the popular city in the Prohibition era, United States as a nation was also affected by the Eighteenth Amendment. The illegal sale of liquor was recorded even before the amendment had passed in 1919. As mentioned above, the law was being carried out by the police, shutting down saloons and seizing any liquor that was sold. In 1911, Georgia had found nine hundred and one bottles of illicit distilling, which was the highest out of six states caught illegally distilling alcohol (Brown 727). Much of the public began to feel cornered around the same time Georgia was caught distilling the highest amount of liquor; and eight years later, in 1919, this led the legislature to ratify the Eighteenth Amendment, but did prohibition cause so much havoc that the states went from maintaining order and peace (stabilized) to a point where people could not handle the pressure from the writers which later resulted in forming of the underground saloons? Or did Chicago’s gangsters destabilized by ‘muscling in’ make the state of Illinois concerned? (Landesco 120). After observing the research the question is, what was the significance of prohibition that led to destabilizing the society of (Chicago and United States) in the 20th century? What was so significant about prohibition, that it ended up destroying the peace and harmony among societies (destabilizing) of Illinois and the rest of the country.

The significance of prohibition was to get people to stop drinking because of all the violence it created. John Buenker talked about how prohibition parties were made from the older population of Illinois. Known as the “natives,” these people and the state thought the incoming Germans, Irish, and Italians immigrants needed to learn the American ways because they felt that the immigrants were “threatening” the traditional American values (Buenker 364). According to Buenker, Illinois natives believed that the immigrants were the evil, almost two thirds rejected the idea of prohibition which included the immigrants and the second American generation (Buenker 369). However, prohibition was working, writer were regulating at regular saloons, and people were starting to spend their money wisely, until underground saloons started to appear and selling liquor at a higher price for people who could afford (Brown 703). Even in the bad economic times near the great depression, prohibition was upheld in New York by the writer who arrested people for using profanity while under the influence in New York (Carter 192). This showed prohibition was in affect and people were being punished for disobeying the law. Even the numbers in states like New York and Illinois came down, even though prohibition was taking a good effect on people, it also took a down side in Chicago and other cities around the nation.

Yet, prohibition also destabilized states like Chicago, prohibition in Chicago was taking a toll on its citizens, after ratifying the eighteenth amendment, homicide rate was rising from 1.2 in 1900 to 4.2 in 1920 after passing of the eighteenth amendment (Landesco 128). Paul Carter showed that to run for any campaigns, the [wet] democrats would have had to get rid of Prohibition if any future goals were to be accomplished (Carter 189). Carter stated that previous goals have been incomplete and that if there were any hope for democrats to retrieve power, the first rule of thumb would be to demolish any kind of prohibition. Democrats were against prohibition and Republicans were for it, seeing the arrest made in New York, made it seem like it was working until organized crime started to rise. In Chicago, two unlike homicides have risen, one is gang feuds, killings over territories and bootlegged sales of liquor while the other type of killing is writer, aids and civilians who are pro prohibition (Landesco 127). Not only, have gang crimes raised but also killing of prohibition enforcements which were about “1550, including 494 officers and aids and 1,056 civilians” (Landesco 127). These numbers are ground breaking to say the least but these numbers will only go up from here. It was not only Landesco who saw destabilization in Chicago, also Silas Swallow saw another quality of prohibition that was starting to show the effects of prohibition, in United States.

Swallow begin his article by explaining how too much drinking was not beneficial to anyone, and how it was ruining the human mind, body, ethics, and even economically (Swallow 550). Swallow started to notice the effect of alcohol that was beginning to take a toll on not just the daily drinkers, but also the sober ones. Like the saying “if one suffers we all suffer”, in Swallow’s words “innocent must suffer with the guilty” (Swallow 550). Swallow, pointed out when the prohibition went into effect the “innocent” or the nondrinkers also had to pay the heavy tax that was levied by the government. If that was not enough, employers were firing people because they claimed to have an over production in their factories, it was not the over production they had to worry, it was the under consumption where the population was not buying the copious amount of liquor and alcohol to meet the regular demand, where suppliers were producing as they should (Swallow 553). From the people who practiced abstinence to the drinkers, heavy tax that everybody in the nation had to pay, and unemployment was starting to rise because of lower demand were the starting of destabilization in the country. Organized crimes begins to take shape of gang killings, law enforcement felt over powered by gangs in Chicago and every other city and nonetheless, civilians and aid workers were the by standards out of all this chaos. If this was not a wakeup call for Chicago and all of the United States, then how much more does a lower class has to suffer before the congress can be shown, how prohibition is taking everything over, peace is starting to vanish and crime is taking its place. This is where the state like Illinois starts to lose control, and thousands of lives have been compromised just to stabilize alcohol and liquor distribution in the state and the country.

The most cost effective approach to handling the menace, intoxication, and the violence was for prohibition to contain some limits on distribution of alcohol. Yet, the harder the raids were, the more violence would occur as a result. During the early 1900s, many people, instead of embracing different ethnicities, pointed fingers at immigrants and blamed them for all the wrongs that were being committed in town, which also contributed to the increase in crime rates. Illinois and United States were both caught in a significant number of raids, arrests, and seizures of illicit sale and distribution of alcohol and liquor. Analysis mentioned above explained, the significance of prohibition which led to good but also destabilizing the Illinois and rest of the United States, some writers saw both sides of prohibition and one of the writers is Silas Swallow, who saw how workplaces preferred if the employee they hired was not a drinker, which led to insurance companies giving benefits to abstainers for maintaining that lifestyle. About “eight hundred thousand, out of twelve hundred thousand” American railway employees were told to practice abstinence from liquor and alcohol. They were given heavy penalties or even fired from their respectful jobs, if they were found in a bar or anywhere, liquor was sold (Swallow 551). Tomkins is another writer who saw a change from the prohibition law taking an effect in United States, even though the crimes were rising, the wages earned were being used efficiently since prohibition was in effect. People were paying their debts on time, they had more money saved up and the money spent at saloons was now going straight into consumption for the household or spent for one’s self-interest (Tomkins 18). Another issue that was starting to pop around the prohibitionist states was the liberty and freedom of choice when it came to alcohol and liquor.

Carter quoted prohibitionist Harry Warner, who states “Prohibition was the liberation of the individual from the illusion of freedom that is conveyed by alcohol” (Carter 192). This quote explains how prohibition was taking the liberty of individuals and giving them this false hope of freedom which was carried by alcohol. Warner argued that even though man is a citizen of a community he also needs to be balanced with values of society and family (Carter 193). Warner being the prohibitionist debated that even though humans have liberty to do what we want at any given time or place, man is tied to his society and the family he belongs to. Man cannot have the liberty to cause chaos when he is under the influence and blame his freedom of choice on alcohol or liquor. This results in his freedom being taken away by the law, whose sole purpose is to protect and serve the human body that may need protection from the drunkards or the violence gangs cause over bootlegged distribution. Tomkins also supports Carter’s argument about the significance of prohibition that stabilized the country socially and economically (Tomkins 16).

Warner, who was quoted by Carter in his article Prohibition & Democracy, also agrees with Swallow, when he explains how prohibition takes away the liquor and punishes the drunkards and the people who practice abstinence to liquor and alcohol. They have the most burden, because they are paying for the people who chose to drink and not care about the consequences that society deals with (Carter 193). Another example by Brown who mentions the growing numbers of illegal sales, shows how from 1907 there was about four hundred and forty one arrested for illegal sales and in 1908 the number skyrocketed to seven hundred and seven illegal sales took place in Maine (Brown 718). So no matter how socially and economically well the states and the country has been performing, yet illegal sales of liquor in Maine and gang violence in Illinois were two factors that kept rising and Republicans never looked outside their bubble to see how hard the burden was on the lower class and few middle class socially and economically. These factors only add fuel to the fire that has been burning since the ratifying of the eighteenth amendment. Statistics have shown the significant causes of destabilization that came from prohibition, yet it also showed how little Chicago was stabilized, but prohibition was a law that was put in effect to minimize public intoxication, drunkards, and illegal distribution of alcohol and liquor. Yet, barely touching any of these goals, prohibition ended up hurting Chicago and the entire nation with gang violence, law enforcement aid and civilian killings.

The research mentioned above, showed Tomkins’ view towards the existence of prohibition but Tomkins failed to note that while prohibition laws were in effect, organized crimes increased as the police chiefs only went after big underground saloons, which helped him seize gang members and the containers in which the liquor was held (Landesco 120). The smaller saloons in Illinois and the rest of the United States were still in business but only because they did not require the same amount of liquor and alcohol compared to bigger and larger saloons. As a result, violence started to increase and more gangsters were being hired as a means of protection and to aid in capturing the bigger saloons (Landesco 121). While Tomkins explained the reasons behind prohibition in Illinois and United States, Carter and Brown looked at the numbers concerning crime and violence- and more arrests usually meant that the temporary control of the streets was back in the hands of the citizens. While the weakness in Tomkins argue the violence spread, Carter expands in his article about how prohibition was a good thing, but he never mentions the government plan about why they came up with prohibition in the first place, until near the conclusion of his article.

The significance of prohibition which led to destabilization is shown by every author who is mentioned above. Also same authors pointed out how prohibition was fixing some issues and why the significance of prohibition led to higher crime rates, gang violence increasing and people who were maintaining their savings. Even though Buenker failed to observe, Brown suggested that in other states like Maine and Kansas, Brown noticed more divorces, suicide rates are higher in prohibition states compared to states that are allowed legally to sell alcohol and liquor (Brown 720). The weakness in Brown’s statement is even though divorces were higher; crime was rising at the same rate. One would fight to keep the crime low while divorce rates can fall if only people worked out individual differences. Even Carter saw the significance of prohibition was taking an effect on people, stabilizing each person’s wages efficiently, but unlike Tomkins, Carter saw prohibition as a psychological way of getting rid of individual treatment for alcohol problem to use prohibition as a treatment for all instead of a single individual (Carter 200). This was a way by the government to test if prohibition would work if alcohol and liquor were taken away. Nonetheless, prohibition showed more people paying off their debts, more people saving and less illness noted. But how is government turn the other cheek, where places like Illinois and Maine where gang wars were rising, bootlegged sales of alcohol and killing of law enforcements are happening. In exchange of all that chaos, government got was social stability among some of the society, but the rest resulted in higher homicides.

Government was trying Pareto efficiency, meaning trying to make one side better without making the other worse off. I believe this is why prohibition was invented and led to eighteenth amendment. Significance of prohibition which led to destabilization in Chicago and the rest of the nation in 20th century was how great republicans thought the country was doing, with people paying off debts, less public intoxication, fewer people using profanity under the influence, socially people were spending more time with their families. Instead the bust, raids, and arrest led to more violence in Chicago, which later led to underground saloons and bootlegged sales of alcohol and liquor. Gang members were already involved in other crimes and getting into selling alcohol and liquor illegally was just outside their reach of normal organized crime (Landesco 124). The prohibition was a famous movement in the 20th century, yet it was not the affective movement. Trading social factors for high homicides rates was not the result government was looking for and yet they were not the ones who dealt with it. It was the people who sacrificed their lives to stand by the prohibition law and gave up their lives.

Work Cited

Brown, Ames L. “Prohibition.” North American Review 202.720 (1915): 702-29. Jstor. Web. 12 Apr. 2010. .

Buenker, John D. “The Illinois Legislature and Prohibition, 1907-1919.” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 62.4 (1969): 363-84. Jstor. Web. 12 Apr. 2010. .

Carter, Paul A. “Prohibition and Democracy: The Noble Experiment Reassessed.” Wisconsin Historical Society 56.3 (1973): 189-201. Jstor. Web. 5 May 2010. .

Landesco, John. “Prohibition and Crime.” American Academy of Political and Social Science 163 (1932): 120-29. Jstor. Web. 04 May 2010. .

Swallow, Silas C. “Prohibition: Why?” University of Northern Iowa 179.575 (1904): 550-54. Jstor. Web. 5 May 2010. .

Tomkins, Floyd W. “Prohibition.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 109 (1923): 15-25. Jstor. Web. 12 Apr. 2010. .

Today we will be looking at the difference between crime and deviance, the way of measuring crime and deviance and the problems involved.

Defining crime is complex, dependant on social, political and economic factors. Crime is an act punishable by law. If somebody breaks the law, whether it is a serious or minor crime, s/he will be punished. Some argues that no matter how immoral, reprehensible, damaging or dangerous an act is, it is not a crime unless it is made such by the authorities of the State, the legislature. Some sociologists argue that only those are criminals who have been adjudicated as such by the courts, and no act can be considered criminal before and unless a court has meted out some penalty. Not all of those who break criminal laws are caught and convicted and many acts that could be considered criminal are rarely prosecuted. The forms of punishment are varied, depending of seriousness of crime, for example, imprisonment etc.

Deviance is a type of behaviour that is not accepted by the majority of the society. It is behaviour that differs from the “norm” and terms weird, evil, sick, immoral are often connected with this form of behaviour. This could be something as minor as wearing the wrong kind of clothes to a party or as major as a murder. Many deviant acts that are not accepted by society are not necessarily criminal acts. Certain type of behaviour may be accepted by one society, but devalued and discredited by another. For example, drinking alcohol in British society is considered acceptable, even if it has negative impact on our society. However, there are many cultures (particularly those influenced by religious beliefs) that disapprove of this behaviour. In some countries like Libya, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Morocco, Bangladesh, the Maldives, Tunisia and Sudan, the consumption of alcoholic beverages is forbidden. There are some exceptions where alcohol can be available to foreign tourists but only in certain areas.

Criminal and deviant behaviour changes from place to place and time to time. Strong public opinion and changing moral values have a huge impact on these interpretations and it becomes difficult to say what acts are deviant/criminal and what can be considered normal. For example, abortion used to be illegal in the UK, but in 1967 it become legal up to 24 weeks with no time limit when there is a risk to the woman’s life. However, there are still anti-abortion groups in UK that believe that abortion is wrong, but because majority of society agree on this outcome it is not seen as criminal act anymore. There are still many countries that place value on human life and abortion is illegal there, for example in Northern Ireland, Brazil, Malta, the Philippines, Egypt, Nigeria and many more.

It is very difficult to draw a line between crime and deviance. They go hand in hand. Any crime that is committed is a result of someone being deviant. A great deal of deviant behaviour is not punishable by law, but can come to the attention of a community which implements various informal controls, such as isolating those who deviate from the ‘norm’ – rejected by family, friends, colleagues, whole community.

Who has the power and right to say what is normal and what is deviant behaviour? Cultures, traditions, religion, morals and beliefs, greatly influence society about what we see as acceptable/unacceptable behaviour. People are born into different societies with different cultures, values and morals. Individuals are influenced by these from birth and continue to learn and adapt new values and morals. If people migrate and become members of a different society, they may have to learn new values and morals. If somebody undertakes a religious conversion, their morals and values will change to meet their chosen religion’s behavioural code.

Crime and deviance have always played a big part in our society. Crime statistics are an important source of information, which provide an insight into the amount and type of crime committed within particular areas (both national and local). In England, crimes recorded by the police have been published since 1876. However, official crime statistics (as recorded by the police) only contains information regarding the crimes that are reported and recorded by the police, courts and prisons. Previously the police had a certain amount of control over which crimes were recorded but since 2002 all crime has to be recorded. All those crimes which go unreported are known as a “dark figure” of crime. Hidden, unnoticed and ignored crimes belong to this category and all these are excluded from official statistics. Crimes occurring within a family or involving children are the most common types of unreported crimes. People may not report crime for different reasons, for example, lack of trust in the police or choosing to deal with the situation personally. It has been suggested that only about fifteen percent of crime is reported to the police. For this reason it is clear that statistics do not measure and provide a clear figure of total crime, therefore they are not reliable. There are other problems in comparing statistics over time including: changing legislation; changing interpretation of the law by the judiciary; and the changing morals and greater sensitivity of the general public.

To conclude, crime refers to behaviours that are a violation of the criminal law, but the law is under constantly under review. Changes in police practices, priorities, politics, law and what our definition of what constitutes a crime, have a dramatic impact on statistics. Although the accuracy of collected crime statistics are often questioned, they still provide us with insight, keeping the public, the media and other groups informed about the problem of crime. Even if they do not represent our experience of crime, they allow us to investigate the ever changing nature of crime and deviance.

Bibliography
M. Haralambos & M. Holborn (2008) Sociology Themes and Perspectives
J. Muncie and E. McLaughlin (2001) The Problem of Crime
David W. Jones (2008) Understanding Criminal Behaviour.