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Nowadays, as we know that dress code is very important to man or women that mentioned by the community now because dress code is represent a person respect to another person. Dress modestly is an issue that happening in our daily life or working life. Modestly is all about showing a person’s behaviour, social status, dress and values.

Yet for women, they do not care any things about safety that they wearing clothes where very expose their body or rock and they think this kind of wearing styles will bring them to pretty and feel that they are in the centre of the world nowadays. But all these stuff also determine level of social problem of a country and whole world countries also faced same problem that changing the style of girls dressing.

The way of girls dressing like expose their body is a dangerous action that can caused criminal happened and the girl will be hurt at the end. Sometimes, the girl not only hurt yet she may be killed by criminals. For an example, there is a famous rape case in the Indonesia where an India lady raped by few criminals in the bus until dies and she is not wearing so expose.

So that, government was set few rules or laws that required women dress modestly based on these few rape cases. From that laws set, it may decrease the rate of criminal happened.

RESEARCH ON DRESS MODESTLY OF WOMEN
Rules and regulations in Malaysia

In Malaysia, the school uniform rules are for all students whatever boys or girls, they must wear their shirts or pants over kneel of the leg. Not only for school students, but for every parent that think want visits their child in the school, are they needed to follow these rules.

Types of clothing to dress decently

There are four types of clothing that mentioned dress decently, such as formal or informal, party attire and house coat. All these four types of clothing is a good guideline for every women in their daily life even though they have to work at outside or inside house or have to attend certain wedding dinner or party.

These are some example of formal clothing for women in their workplace.http://businescasualforwomen.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/ACFDF9.jpg

This is an example of party attire of women dressed in modestly.http://i00.i.aliimg.com/wsphoto/v0/530454962_1/European-American-style-font-b-women-b-font-font-b-Attire-b-font-rivets-shoulder-evening.jpg

Why the rules must require women dress decently?

There are many harmful matter that faced by woman who did not dress decently.

For safety

Girls or women should dress decently before step out from the house even in the house because if you are like to dress that just want to expose your body then you just bring benefits to the man that always looking to you and attract them to do criminal on you because of you want to be more sharp in the other eye.

Majority of girls or women did not realise this fact. There are many cases that published in the newspaper to show that many criminal cases such as murder or rape the women or girl whose didn’t dress decently. Clothing can also be used as sexual signal.

Looks more professional

The looks of the way women dressing will be professionalism. In the other word, clothing can give stating or claiming personal or cultural identity. When you are dressing decently, you are giving good impression to other and let other treat you better. So that, in many societies, women have to dressed decently to meeting with customer if not the customer will think the women who meeting with him or her is not serious in the business.

In this case, women wearing properly will bring her leadership character when she is leading a team to the more professional culture in the office.

Keep body warm

In the mentality and physically of women, they could not face any harm form outside such as cold weather. From the biological aspect, body structure of women is weaker than man’s body structure so that they have to cover their body with clothes to avoid getting sneeze and cough.

If they are getting cough or sneezing, they may different with usual in emotional and get them to depress in their life, such as student or employee and this is reason for self-murder case happened.

The way to increase knowledge of dress decently in women

As one friend for whose dressing that exposes their body, we should advise them to wear properly to avoid dangerous or criminal no wonder that you are. Besides that, we as family member should advise them do not dress too expose their body. Yet we as family member done this, we should having family meeting or family day to remind them back also.

As the government, we should enforce or make the laws and rules more strengthen to avoid the rate of criminal case increase. Furthermore, to decrease the rate of criminal, the government should organise campaign or talk to increase alertness of women. The government should organise training for women learn self-defence art as a way to protect themselves from criminals even though they are wearing modest dressing.

Besides that, the police should make more portals in certain dangerous place to avoid criminal case of women increase. The places where there is higher risk of women’s safety are playground, recreational park, shopping complex and car park.

Conclusion and recommendations

From the education aspect, we should increase this kind of knowledge for women into girls who are growing up into women and in another side, as a parent, we should implant some religious knowledge such as Islam, Buddha, Christian and India religious teaching to our children to stop this sad matter that is happening around them. By learning this knowledge, women not only understand other religious knowledge but also understanding the facts which will eventually help them someday.

As my opinion, all parties should work together and solve this issue especially the women. Women should change their clothing style to ensure that they are in safety and do not try wear some clothes that expose their body and then make their life in risk. Sometimes, we as friend should accompany them and help them to choose suitable dress and clothes to avoid they don’t know how to choose and then choose wrong dress and clothes and make their life in risk.

Dress indecently may be make you feel beautiful and get attention when people is surrounding you but please do not make yourself look like yourself wanted to do it because your life is given by GOD and is precious to your parents. So do not make them sad for the sake of your happiness because this happiness would not last long.

INTRODUCTION TO DIVORCE

Divorce is the legal separation of husband and wife, affected by any reasons that make them lost confidence on their marriage and also the divorce must have the judgement of a court by accepted custom. (thelawfictionary.org)

A big change that has occurred in the Western families are an increased with high rate in divorce. In the last 20 years, the rate of divorce was increased with high rate in Western countries. For example, 20 years ago in Australia, only one marriage in ten ended in divorce but the figure is more than three multiples nowadays. (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1996)

http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/images/c/c0/Crude_divorce_rate%2C_selected_years%2C_1960-2011_%281%29_%28per_1_000_inhabitants%29.png

Based on statistic from Eurostat, Latviais reached highest rate of divorce on the Western countries that is 4.0 billion. For the coming Western country, Luxembourg is the next of the Latviais that reached 3.4 billion at the 2011.

RESEARCH ON DIVORCE
Causes that lead the marriage into divorce

There are many causes that will affect the husband and the wife’s marriage and lead them into divorce. Divorced can be caused by simple mistake done by any party of the family and there is no point if the people did wrong and did not realise and correct it to save the marriage based on what they have swear in the wedding.

Cheating and dishonest when having extra illegal relationship

Many respondents said that if their life partner cheated or lie to them, they could end the relationship. They could not live with another life partner that lied to them before because they think this is ashamed. By cheating, the other spouse would lose their trust towards their partner. When there is lack of trust, misunderstanding occurred easily because none of them actually wanted a proper solution for their conflict. They have extra illegal relationship based on the situation that another life partner dishonest to their spouse in return for another life partner. This situation is frequently happened to the majority of marriage.

Higher income

Usually, husband is the sole bread winner but nowadays women play the roles of wife is now earning more income than the husband. Eventually the wife decided to take control of whole family disregarding to the feeling of the husband. This is known as the ‘queen control’ where the wife has more authority than the husband. So the wife’s ego attitude has brought up into family conflict and the husband’s ego underestimate. This will bring the misunderstanding to both parties where both parties could not tolerance with each other and this bring their marriage to broken and afterwards, there are very hard to them recover back their relationship and marriage.

Effects after husband and wife divorced

There are many effects after husband and wife divorced and this will bring many harmful effects to their child. Not only they will bring effect to their child but to their own family members, community or worldwide. These are some effects as stated as below:

To family members or own self

The effect of divorced will bring more suffer and pain or sadness to their own family member first because they are the one closed with divorced people. Furthermore, the people who divorced may thinking lifeless or something related to negative could do some stupid actions like revenge to their life betrayer who betray and dishonest on their marriage before. They will lost confidence on any relationship and marriage to avoid them get hurt again.

In addition to divorce, there are many divorced people hide their feeling and afraid to seek assistance from outside and this will affect their daily life become more tough and stressful than other normal people. This means their mentality is already affected by “divorce” this word. Besides that, they afraid to know new friend even try to enlarge their social network because they keep that outsider is the one who will bring dangerous to them and they could not face any pain or sadness any more.

Many parents no matter is father or mother, they will face mentality problem after they are divorced and this problem will cause divorced parents’ child will get suffer and pain because of abuse from their parents. Child abuse can be sexual abuse from their own parent whose are divorced to fulfil their requirement. The child could not get a good and memorable childhood because they are live in incomplete family. The child will be growth in an incomplete family and their mentality will be affected and do stupidest action to make them happy and enjoy by doing some actions related to social problem, such as taking drug, alcohol and so forth.

Neighbourhood

Generally, a family is not complete by having divorced in that particular family. The divorced story will become a gossip that discussed by neighbours although this is a common matter that will happened if something happened to your family but it is too hurt a people when you are talking and chatting his or her gossip behind when he or she know it. Sometimes, a couple had divorced and then it can be form a bad reputation to other family members. It is because people will not sympathise to what happened to you but they will make joke or keep laughing on you and this is caused divorced couples cannot face any stress because this is most stressful thing they have to face. This is what we call it as human being.

Besides that, the other family will feel ashamed on your divorced marriage because they think the people who dishonest in the marriage are their own relatives but not for the other side or they will put the fault into the people who divorced with their relatives and they will start the gossip and spread it out.

Community

For the divorced family or couples, they will hard to face community ashamed because they think they are isolated from outside party and they only focus his or her own social network and they try do not enlarge it but sometimes they are tried to know more new friends yet the community will think divorced couples or family is unlucky for them and think they make mistakes in their marriage.

The child from divorced families will be isolated from their friends in the school or college because they tend to stay out from the trouble by avoid who from the divorced family. The child from divorced family also will underestimate by other friends in the school because they may don’t have father or mother to accompany them growth together.

Eventually, the child from divorced family will get influence by their bad or evil friends because there is no good friends want be friend with them so they try to be friend with those are the gangster in school to get protection or involved on their gangster activities, such as bully other students or take illegal items to enjoy himself or herself. For an example of illegal items, drug, alcohol and so forth. Afterwards, they are made mistake in the school need their parents to meet with principal rather than their parents need work at outside so that their parents hard to work or find job and they will face jobless. The parents already divorced and adopt the child with single part but they need to take care the whole family with one salary.

Nation

If the rate of divorce for a country is high, that means the country do not make any policies to stop this situation continue happened. In addition, the image of the country will be spoiled at the same time. In spite of the rate of divorce increasing tremendously yet the separation of family still continue increasing equally. Child from divorced family will be friend with gangster because the divorced parents spend time in their working time rather than spending time with their children. So that, they are making trouble in everywhere and caused the rate of social problem increased. In spite of the rate of social problem increased yet the security of the country will be challenged by all these issues and problems of the child and gangster made.

Conclusion and recommendation to reduce the rate of divorce

Divorce is a hot topic that has been discussed by community. Divorce also bring many painful and sad memory to whoever affected by the divorce process or separation. Divorce has been classified as a social problem and this will affect the process of develop for a country. Without any understanding and honest between each other in couple, there is will be separation for them. In the conflict between couple, the most suffer is their children and they never think about it. They only care about their own benefit and make it to the court to judge their children pass to who to take care.

Compare and contrast how your views of a traditional nuclear family, cohabitation and sexuality might differ from those of your parents.

The ever changing world as we know it has led to differences in lifestyles and contemporary views towards how families should be run in modern society but the core values of family life still remain the same. Families are still mediums whereby people can enjoy security, companionship and a refuge from an often harsh and uncaring world. Structures of families have changed along with society in general but the traditional nuclear family of mother, father and children still remains an ideal. Many variations of the traditional nuclear family have arisen in the years since world war 2 that have changed the current generations views to that of our parents and grandparents generations.

In previous generations the mother was expected to look after the household and not partake in paid employment while the father was considered the bread winner and sole source of income for the family. This perception of the nuclear family has changed vastly due to major changes in social structure, education, the feminist movement etc. These forces have changed how we view the modern family along with the increase in cohabitation, decline in marriage, rise in divorce rates and the prolonged postponement of union formation. Single-sex marriages, single-parent families, cohabitation and single living have increased in regularity.

Increases in the rate of divorce has lead to a growth in the popularity of cohabitation whereby more couples live with each other before marriage, somewhat as a testing period, and couples are marrying later in life. Marriage has become less relevant in our generation compared to the ‘golden age of marriage’ during the 50s and 60s where marriage was an important institution in society. Changes in laws such as those concerning same-sex marriage have led to this attitude. In the last two decades there has been a dramatic increase in cohabitation in the US. Between 1970 and 1994, the number of unmarried couples living together rose from about 500,000 to almost 3.7 million. Between 1965-74 just 11% of marriages were preceded by cohabitation whereas between 1980-84 44% of all marriages involved at least one spouse who had cohabited (1). Cohabitation has been prevalent in previous generations where couples were unable to marry due to the fact that they weren’t able to afford marriage or were not lawfully able to marry. Couples also believe that it is easier to end a cohabiting relationship than it is to end a marriage. For one tenth of cohabiters, cohabitation is a long term relationship which does not lead to marriage (1).

In the space of a couple of decades cohabitation has nearly replaced marriage as the regular choice of a first union. In France, a massive rise in cohabitation occurred between 1965 and 1995 when the proportion of couples starting their union by cohabitation increased from 10% to 90% (2). During the 1990s marriage was still the superior marker for first union entry in the south of Europe whereas in juxtaposition most western and northern European countries and the United States cohabitation had surpassed marriage as the preamble for first partnership.

The mean age for which people enter marriage has increased for many reasons. The prolonging of many transitions to adult life(finishing education, leaving the parental household, starting a first job) along with the rise in young adults entering unions without marriage has added to the mean age. Nowadays marriage is no longer seen as the singularly appropriate avenue for childbearing. People who decide to have a child do not feel rushed into marriage and being pregnant is not seen as a determinant for marriage. This attitude can be compared to those of prior generations where pregnancy before marriage was frowned upon and unmarried cohabitation did not last very long due to social pressure.

In our parents generations the normal route of marriage followed by childbearing has been steadily replaced by a number of different pathways: in some countries, the sequence of cohabitation followed by marriage and then childbearing has become the most common path, while in other societies, cohabitation first followed by first or second birth and then marriage has become the most popular pattern and an increasing number of couples with children opt to not marry at all (3). In the United States the number of children born to parents who cohabitate nearly doubled between 1984 and 1994, growing from 6% to 11% (4).

In recent times marriage instability has increased, this along with less-stable living arrangements have led to an increase in the numbers of single parent families and a high frequency of single motherhood across Europe. In Europe a substantial percentage of children are exposed to living with a single parent before reaching the age of 15. The total exposure ranged from 11-18 percent in Southern Europe (Italy and Spain), Belgium, Poland, and Slovenia; to 39-41 percent in Austria, Germany, and Latvia; and, outside of Europe, to a very high level of 52 percent in the United States (these figures are period life table estimates based on the FFS data). In agreement with the evidence provided by the census data in Table 6 above, the authors argue that, while the pace of family change has varied across countries, the shift of childrearing from married parents to single mothers is universal in Western societies, and has been proceeding faster than the shift to cohabiting parents and stepfamilies (5).

In our parents and grandparents generations there was a fundamental belief that marital union should be between a man and a woman. Same sex couples were shunned and granted none of the rights that were enjoyed my heterosexual couples. Throughout the world same sex couples and those in support of equal rights for same sex couples have campaigned for what they feel are basic human rights that should apply to everyone; the right to have their relationship recognised lawfully and the right to marry. Homosexuality has gradually become decriminalised since the 60s in most countries but is still criminal in some countries run by religious laws. Pressure from these groups seeking equality for same sex couples and recognition of their union along with the increase in cohabitation has led to law reforms that allow these couples to achieve a specific legal status when the register their partnerships.

Although same sex couples are gaining momentum in their continuous battles to secure recognition there are still pockets of resistance and intolerance. The introduction of civil partnership to the United Kingdom has granted same sex couples more rights including employment, pension and inheritance related rights. This increase in rights is a stark contrast compared to the limited rights allocated to same sex couples in our parents and grandparents times.

References
Cohabitation: A Snapshot by Hilda Rodriguez, 1998
Cohabitation is here to stay by Touleman, 1997
Children born outside marriage in France and their parents: recognitions and legitimations since 1965 by Munoz-PA©rez, F., and F. Prioux, 2000
Larry Bumpass, 2002
Shifting childrearing to single mothers. Results from 17 Western countries by Heuveline, P., J. M. Timberlake, and F. F. Furstenberg, Jr., 2003

Sociology studies the social structures and influences society has on people, their experiences and interpretations of the world around them. Sociology provides information on how human societies are constructed, where our belief system may stem from, our daily routines and how social identities are formed. This essay will cover a small fraction of sociology; Quantitative and Qualitative methodology, its advantages and limitations. What will also be covered is quantitative approach to suicide by Emile Durkheim (1897) and his critic, J.D Douglas’ qualitative approach to suicide. (Tutor2U 2010)

Emile Durkheim (1938) advocated Comte’s methodology and agreed that social factors should be studied rather than what goes on internally; his rule was to ‘consider social facts as things’, he believed social facts make individuals behave in a certain ways (Haralambous).

Sociologists use different methodologies to reach their conclusion; ways of producing and analyzing data so the theories can be tested which are then accepted or rejected. Durkheim adopted the methods of natural science by applying the use of quantitative methods in his suicide study.

There are two ways in conducting a research, primary and secondary research. Primary research is where sociologist has to start from scratch as there is no data available, for it to be taken from. In order to do this the researcher needs to design they method of collecting data and analyze the results. Primary research is only validated if the research gives true measurement, descriptions or explanation of what was being studied. Unfortunately there is a likely hood that these finding may not be actually explain peoples everyday settings or actions. (Haralambous p815-16)

Secondary research is data that has already been produced by a previous researcher(s); Organizations such as companies, charities, trade unions are useful sources of data as well as documents such as letters, autobiographies and dairies. Secondary research may not be specific enough for researchers needs which in that case means they may have to look at more than one source to come to a conclusion and not only that but more than necessary time is taken up, also information given by the secondary data are sometimes questionable which is why the research has to be aware of this disadvantage (Haralambous 838-9)

Quantitative research, in sociology, contains measurements of variables within society; people and groups. In order to get people’s opinions, a survey may be carried out; fieldwork, experiments or documentary research. When these methods are carried out, the researchers are usually avoiding being biased. In order to be unbiased as possible questions that are asked in a closed question form, so the participant’s replies are very limited or generalised observations are then conducted. Researchers who carrying out quantitative research do not want to get distracted from the intent of the research; they know exactly what they are looking for so their researches are controlled, with closed questions or only statistical information (McGuigan 2010).

Alternatively, qualitative research, in sociology, attempts to gather more in depth understanding of individuals or groups actions in the context of social life (Giddens 2009). There usually is no scientific evidence and if there is, it’s very little evidence. When using qualitative methods of research the investigator is more interested in deeper truths; they prefer to observe things in their natural settings, make sense of things and interpret the information gained; in order to gain information they may interview people or observe them in non artificial settings. Qualitative is more theoretical rather than statistical. Information gained explores deeper into their interest and then data is collected by either observing or interviewing and from the data gain helps generate a hypothesis. Qualitative research digs deeper into reasons of why people may act the way they do.

A survey is a method used by researchers to gather information from a sample of individuals whether it’s from a certain gender, age, race etc where the researcher’s interest is at and changes depending on the purpose of the study. These samples of individuals are questioned on their information that will help the sociologist conclude, questions can be very much closed questions or open, they are sent out to participants or administered directly; surveys can have a variety of purposes and questions are asked in standardized procedures so the same questions are asked; Surveys help obtain a composite profile of the population. In all reputable survey organizations, organisers should present their results anonymously (Scheuren). Surveys are an advantage for generalizing a big group by getting smaller groups to answer the questions once there is an efficient amount of results. Unfortunately there is a risk of answers to the questions being answered falsely, may not actually reflect their true feelings or may even seem superficial. Surveys can be used to either get quantitative or qualitative data, solely relies on the wording of the question, whether it’s a open question or a closed question.

Field work is when the investigator hangs out, works or lives with a group, organization or community and lives the realism of the environment by taking direct part in their activities; in other words ‘real world’ experience. Investigators who take part in this are likely to have a better understanding of those who actually are a part of what they are investigating. This method is more likely to be used to have a qualitative outcome.

There are two types of experiments, one being laboratory and the other being field experiment. Experiments are used to test the hypothesis and the relationships between the two variables are tested. It is conducted in a controlled environment where the variables are isolated and the correlation between things can be discovered. In sociology laboratory experiments are barely used as they believed variables cannot be controlled, the environment people are put in are artificial which will lead to the actions of people being artificial too and they do not believe its right to put laboratories just to measure the effect of variables. Field experiments have been proved to be more used and affective in sociology as they are conducted in normal everyday situations and environments; variables cannot be controlled. Although field experiments aren’t conducted in laboratory they are still not exact but are more valid than lab experiments as the actions from the people are real; less artificial. But if people are aware that they are taking part in a experiment their actions can become artificial, for an example workers may work harder in normal conditions because they know they are being observed.

Emile Durkheim (1897) did a socially confusing study on suicide based on the hypothesis; as the individual’s social unity decreased it was found there was an increase of suicide rates. Durkheim (1897) did not believe that reasoning for suicide was an individual act, he believed suicide was a social fact that can be proved by other social facts; the larger social forces can account for social facts. Durkheim (1897) employed quantitative research to his study of suicide, to make it have a scientific backbone as he believed it to be more rich and valid, by examining the official suicide statistics in France; these official statistics were secondary sources produced by the government. He believed that patterns of suicide were linked to the way which individuals were integrated and regulated by society and how they controlled them, he identified there were four types of suicide, and he generalized these four types of suicide to everyone; the four were Egoistic, Anomic, Altruistic and Fatalistic suicide. Egoistic suicide is when an individual is isolated or their ties to a group is broken or weakened; Catholics and Protestants. Anomic suicide is when an individual feels his life has a lack of meaning and feels as they are worthless, this can be a result of a divorce. Altruistic suicide is when an individual values others more for an example a mother who pushes their child out the way of a oncoming car and hurts herself or a suicide bomber. Fatalistic suicide is when an individual feels hopeless about their fate or feels excessively restraint for an example an individual may take their own life before the police arrest them to avoid being in a cell for the rest of their life or many years. Egotistic and Anomic are the two most common occurred, of the four.

In contrast to Durkheim’s study of suicide Douglas (1967) is one of the many interpretive sociologists; interpretive approach strongly advocate qualitative data as they believe sociologists should be able to understand and interpret the meanings and motives of actions and quantitative data does not help discover meanings and motives. Interpretative sociologists reject studying social facts as things, they say natural sciences deal with matter and matter does not have a mind which in that case has no consciousness which in that case there is no meaning in behaviour. Interpretive approach acknowledges that people have consciousness, it is believed that people will interpret the meaning of a stimulus and then react to it; meaning is attached to the stimulus.

J.D Douglas (1967) conducted his study ‘Social meanings of Suicide’, he believed that the official statistics were systematically biased and could have been made up by friends, families, and coroners. He disputed that Durkheim (YEAR) neglected other meanings attached to why an individual may commit suicide, he believed it to be wrong that Durkheim (YEAR) would treat all suicides the same without investigating other reasoning’s. Douglas was concerned with meanings of suicide and believed there to be different reasons behind a suicide than the four generalisations Durkheim (YEAR) had made. In Douglas’s (1967) study of social meanings for suicide he believed there to be four different meanings of suicide. Douglas (1967) believed in qualitative research methods to find his answers to why an individual would commit suicide; his methods were conducting case studies, unstructured interviews and diaries, from his investigations he found four types of suicide, the four are Transformation of the soul, this is where it is used as a way of getting into heaven, transformation of self, this is where the individual would want others to think differently of them, suicide where an individual wants sympathy and suicide where the individual tries to get revenge by leaving the other person feeling guilty.

The UK family has undergone considerable changes since 1945. Britain nowadays is a society mixed with different household types including cohabiting families with or without children; divorced or never-married lone parents; gay and lesbian couples (McRAE, 1999, p.1). This essay will demonstrate that family as an example of continuity change, an explanation on the changes of household types. I will also discuss marriage and divorce rates, the rising in cohabitation and lone parents, and the sexuality of society and value changes. At the expense of traditions, this diversity has gained and there has been a downward trend particularly in the traditional nuclear family. This will compare the value changes of different family types using three social sciences disciplines of history, politics and sociology.

First of all, Patriarchy and Second World War are the main factors to family of the ‘Golden Age’. According to German (1981), in early days, women must struggle for their rights as that is the time when both the households and society are men-dominated. The ‘Golden Age’ portrayed husband as ‘breadwinner’ of household and wife as ‘home maker’. A social norm is marriage is for ‘life’ and a family was built up by a pair of heterosexual couple with dependent children. To explain further, conservative thinkers stated “family is a place of offspring reproduction, protection of children’s safety, inculcation of proper values on children” (Hughes and Fergusson, 2004, p.60). Also, “hierarchy and stability” are the two important elements to maintain a healthy family and society (ibid.). On the other hand, changes in family structure were related to rising needs for stability and people’s thought of family as a unit after the World War II (WWII) and probably can help reordering of a ‘healthy’ society after a war. Later, the situation of only men working out to earn money did not last long after WWII as the UK’s economy was depraving and thus women need to work to keep it running (“Gender Role”, 1980). Thus, conservatives argued “changes in the labour market,

rise in women’s employment rate and the interventions of the welfare state” give threats to male’s status and power in the society (Hughes and Fergusson, 2004, p.61). It follows that as age at marriage, teenage motherhood and childless has risen and smaller families size. Cohabitation before and between marriages has become common (Rimmer, 1981). Consequently, there is a sharp jump in births outside marriages, such as in the 1990s the birth rate is over 30%, rating above European mean (Irwin, 2000) and rising divorce rates accompanied by numerous lone-parent families (Rimmer, 1981). As a result, the nuclear family is on the decline.

One argument is that marriage is still popular but there is steady two thirds fall in marriage rates since 1970s (The Centre For Social Justice, 2006). The number of marriages has dropped by 35% in England & Wales, following by a rapid fall of 3 to 4 % per annum later (The British Academy, 2010). Previous generations growing up in an environment with strict sexual morality, view marriage as a “life-long promise” and cohabitation outside marriage are prohibited; however, the youngsters are changing their attitude and accepted to them. Moreover, there is evidence showing that the close relationship between cohabitation and divorce. Surprisingly, UK is particularly having higher divorce rate when comparing to the other countries. Before 1867, divorce was unpopular because it costs a lot and heavily stigmatized. Alternatively, the establishment of “Divorce Reform Act (1969)” which introduced an irretrievable breakdown of relationship has contributed to rapidly rising divorce rates (The Social Issues Research Centre, 2008). Apart from women’s higher income and ability to take care of themselves, changes in people’s material livelihoods and unreasonable behaviour of partners are also the causes for divorce. Feminists John Stuart Mill protested that the penalty of self-defense by women due to domestic violence should not be that heavy than

a violent man (The British Academy, 2010). What is more, feminism focuses on the rights and freedom of women and rejects the idea of patriarchy which women are oppressed by men. In 1968, there was a women’s movement which has raised the public awareness about domestic violence and sexual violence (ibid.). This has greatly provided refuges and support for women under oppressions.

On the other hand, cohabitation has become a common form of partnership in today society. People cohabitated as an alternative to marriage. The cohabitation rate wasn’t high in the 1960, about 5 %, yet by the 1990s, it has risen to 70% (Haskey, 1995). Social scientists do not view cohabitation can be long lasting as it is fragile. On average, cohabitations usually last for less than two years before breaking up (Ermisch and Francesconi, 1998). Since the proportion of cohabitating unions’ proportions are getting larger than the marriage rate, this composition will lead to breakdown of the traditional families. From the mid-1980s, the growth of this kind of families was possibly regarding to changing attitudes toward pre-marital sex of the young generations, shotgun weddings, and cohabitating is simpler than marriage (McRae, 1999). Lone parent families are more likely to suffer from poverty and imbalance between work and family as the only parent needs to bear the responsibility of child rearing and earn money by themselves at the same time. Also, UK has had the highest percentage of children living in these families in the European Union (15%) and doubled the EU average and just only followed by Denmark (Murphy and Wang, 1999). Nevertheless, “Teenage Mothers” is another “new family” form arise in the society, which has the fastest increase rate than the others from 1969 (Murphy and Wang, 1999). On the face of it, it seems the age of lone parent and family sizes in UK are tend to be smaller than the cases in the past which is definitely connected to the ideological and pragmatic separation of parenthood from marriage

(The Social Issues Research Centre, 2008).

After that, people’s changing attitudes towards sexuality have created diverse family arrangements and one of the most argumentative issue is gay and lesbian families. The term “gay” is often refers to “homosexual individuals, particularly men” while “lesbian” is described as “homosexual women” (Morrisey, 2010). The “Sexual Offences Act 1967” stated legal sex between consenting males aged above 21(The Law Commission, 2000). An ESRC report showed that there are approximately 1,700 same sex couples in Brighton, the highest in the UK at 2.67% of all couples (Duncan & Smith, 2004). What is more, a civil partnership is a legally binding agreement as in 2004, the parliament has passed the “Civil Partnership Act” which gives legal rights and responsibilities to same-sex couples as married heterosexual couples (The Social Issues Research Centre, 2008). Legal process is also set by the act on the dissolution of partnership (ibid.). Thus, these changes are evidence illustrating that the society is becoming more liberalised and the move from conservatism to feminism. Both genders are having equal rights and social status. The situation of same sex couples being discriminated by others have altered since the society is more accepted to it and there are policies to protect them now.

Last but not least, changing attitudes of people is of paramount importance towards the increasingly diverse family life and structures in UK. Accounting for continuity in these changes, Scott and Brook suggested that, most individuals’ held the same values with commitment to their family even in the post-war period, and results in complex attitudinal and behavioural choices. Besides, shifts within the social and economic trends did also contribute to the road of a more liberalized society of UK. In addition, another main factor is the

changing role of women in the family and society. Higher educational qualifications have

increased the participation of women in workforce which also gives them a higher social status.

To conclude, families have fluctuated over time from the traditional nuclear family to lone parent families, cohabitation, same sex couples and teenage motherhood. The tendency to blame for family break-up relates to social, economic and personal attitude and behaviour regarding the issues. There is no doubt that the traditional nuclear family is getting weaker but not the case what people have said about the fading out of the family as most of the people still have a strong family ties in their heart and they have proved family as a demonstration of continuity change.

In this essay, I will be discussing the analysis of the data collected in finding out the possibility of reality television programmes influencing the perception of the youth on matters surrounding them socially, looking at the series, “keeping up with the Kadashians” and using Ugandan youths as a case study. As a method of collecting data, I chose interviews both as a one on one and as a large group interview. I will be discussing the procedure of data collection and data analysis methods of the data collected.

During data analysis, I used the discourse analysis method mainly because I used interviews and focus groups as the data collection methods as it was informative to analyze the discourse of the interaction between the respondents and researcher.

Interviews as a method of collecting data

I chose interviews as the data collection method because they are widely used in the qualitative methodology for gaining an understanding of peoples experience (Evans, 2012). They also provide a means for exploring the points of view of the research subject, thus, granting the culturally honored status of reality (Miller and Glassner, 2011:133).

However, qualitative interviews require a great deal of planning as the absence of a predesigned set and sequence of questions, the interviewer has to prepare to think beyond their feet during the interview. (Mason, 2002:67). In addition, qualitative interviewing operates on the notion that knowledge is constructed rather than straight forwardly excavated (Mason, 2002:63).

There are two forms of interviewing I used, i.e. structured interviews and unstructured interviews. Structured interviews with open-ended questions elicit “authentic accounts of subjective experience” (Miller and Glassner, 2011:131), showing that interviews are very good for collecting data because they offer a researcher true accounts for data analysis. However, radical social constructionists have argued that there is no knowledge of a reality “out there” in the social world, but rather that it can be obtained from an interview. This is because the interview is obviously and exclusively an interaction between the interviewer and interview subject where both participants create and construct narrative versions of the social world (Miler& Glassner, 1997:99 cited in Silverman, 1997).

Interviews construct not just narratives about social world, but the primary issue is to generate data that gives an authentic insight into people’s experience, (Miller &Glassner, 1997; 100 cited in Silverman, 1997).

My previous assignment in which I described the methods of collecting data in researching and rationale of the research topic, was interested in finding out the chances of imported programming content and how it can be used to develop new characters or ways of thinking from the youth in Uganda. Such examples of imported programming are reality television programs, which are aimed at filming people in ‘real time’ as they live out events in their lives, contrived or otherwise as they occur (Nabi et al, 2003:304 cited in Beck, Hellmueller and Aeschbacher, 2012:2-5).

During data collection, I set up three areas of topics to explore. Firstly, how these people made sense of reality programmes and “Keeping up with the Kardashians” in particular. Secondly, how the respondents understood the themes played out in the series and the thirdly, how they related it to their own experiences. I set up several questions to be answered, in some situations however, the respondents did not particularly like being asked many questions individually but could answer them in a group.

In this, several questions were asked during the interview ranging from how they understood reality television down to their perception of the program, ‘Keeping up with the Kardashians’. I found that to prove my hypothesis, I had to ask questions that were more likely to explore the themes and ideas I already had about the programme. Not to impose my ideas on them, but to have something of a debate where the respondents gave me their own views.

As such, I started with the big questions, breaking them down into smaller questions where the smaller questions were supposed to get the relevant issues. I carried out three interviews with different girls and two boys from Uganda. Even though the interview is primarily about female perception on this content, the urge to get a male point of view kicked in because of the male characters in the series where I became interested in hearing their views on their portrayal. My main criterion therefore was any youth from Uganda. Luckily, I did get two Ugandan respondents living in the UK, which made it interesting because they could compare and contrast what they had seen from their experience living both in Uganda and in the UK.

Mason, (2002; 77) suggests that recordings be made as fully and explicitly as one possibly can, the route by which the researcher came to the interpretations they are making. In order to ensure that I was not imposing my own interpretations therefore, I had to obtain ethical approval and maintain a code of ethics before we could conduct the interviews. I mentioned it to the respondents that I would have the interview recorded but that they would remain anonymous which they agreed to. However, some of the respondents had problems with the interview asking what was in it for them to gain and after I told them nothing monetary was to be given, they opted out leaving me with just four respondents. I thus gave them a form to sign and recorded the interview (on the audio device in my phone, Samsung ace).

Method of analysis

The method used in analyzing the data collected is discourse analysis mainly because I used interviews and focus groups as my data collection methods, thus analyzing the discourse of the interaction between the respondents and myself.

Discourse can mean many things depending on different disciplines. In cognitive psychology, it focuses on the use of mental scripts and schemata to make sense of narratives (Potter, 1997; 145). Discourse is a set of meanings, metaphors, representations, Images and statements (Evans, 2012). Discourse Analysis emphasizes the production of the different versions of the world, society, events and inner psychological worlds in discourse (Potter, 1997; 146). During research, I needed to find out how the youth in Uganda perceived programmes such as “Keeping up with the Kardashians”. This kind of data analysis can only be done in the field and not in a laboratory (Evans 2012). Talking to these people and finding out from them what and how they truly feel.

According to a lecture conducted by Doctor Evans, discourse analysis has three approaches namely conversation analysis, interpretive repertories and the Foucaldian discourse,

An interpretive approach, not only sees people as primary data sources, but also seeks their perception rather than impose an “outsider view” (Mason, 2002; 56). Mason (2002; 56) adds that it also supports a study, which uses interview methods where the aim is to explore individual and collective understandings, reasoning processes, and social norms.

Conversation analysis on the other hand aims at studying methods for producing orderly and social interaction (Silverman, 2001:167, cited in Mason, 2002; 57) especially through naturally occurring talk. Foucaldian discourse.

Discourse analysis emphasizes the role of language in the construction of social reality (Talja, 1999) where Michele Foucault says language produces knowledge through doing things such as creating meaning. Language is also produced socially and as well leads to action (Travers, 2001; 84). I would have to understand in analyzing my data how these people make sense of the information they receive from these programmes and what worlds they thus construct. How they understand themselves in this world and how it all makes sense.

According to Harvey Sacks (Travers, 2001; 84), language is a central part in the methods used for understanding things around us and displaying their meaning. He believed that one can develop a truly scientific approach to studying society through studying tape recordings of conversations.

Data Analysis

During data analysis, I described generalized views of the respondents regarding the questions given to them. This is because they were a group of people and I could not give all transcripts of the interviews. The discursive object is the family life portrayal in the programme where the respondents generally agreed that the family members are cooperative, supporting and caring of each other. Family is a priority where they always try to spend time with each other through organizing trips and events.

Regarding how they made interpretations of reality television, the respondents said they knew it was staged but still allowed them see the characters’ daily lives. How I would interpret this that the respondents like the programme because it is appealing, and however much it is staged, they still watch it. For them, it is just another entertainment programme on television.

However, the belief that what the respondents were watching goes on in the characters’ lives meant they did not know much about reality television, which relates to the hypothesis that reality television programmes can be perceived in ways that could have certain attitude changing effects on the youth.

My next questions were on how they made sense of the themes portrayed in this program. When asked about the characters individual roles ,the respondents agreed that the females were the more dominant parties in the family with one respondent going further to say that culturally,’ women are meant to be followers of the men, not the other way round’.

Majority of the respondents said that the mother/wife tries so hard to be there for everybody, which for the respondents is what a good mother should do but that however, she often exceeded her limits. Two respondents said that she was dominating and materialistic as she at times seems to put money making before her children’s needs such as when she urged Kimberley Kardashian to pose for playboy.

The respondents therefore seem to relate what they view on programmes such as ‘Keeping up with the Kardashians’ with their knowledge of what family should be from a cultural context. They are also able to relate to their experiences. Some expressed strong views on the portrayal of family life in the series, stating that the females were the dominant characters giving the impression that women had to have control over not only housekeeping affairs, but also their personal relationships. In line with the state of affairs in characters’ home country, the respondents saw this as a means of spreading female empowerment. However, with the male characters seen as “easy”, as generally agreed by the respondents, it distorted the cultural values they held.

Lastly, on whether such imported programming could be responsible for a change in the attitudes of the youth’s concerning how they view their society, the respondents agreed it would be a long time before it happened. This is because, “it didn’t make sense in real life” and that “it existed on a different level to that back home”. However, that was true for how family life is portrayed and that on an individual level, the programming held some power in “making ‘society’ want to be like them through the clothes they wore” which was fine because it “encouraged females to work harder.”

Strengths and weaknesses of the discourse method

Discourse Analysis emphasizes they way versions of the world, society, events and inner psychological worlds are produced in discourse (Potter, 1997; 147 cited in Silverman, 1997) through systematizing the different ways of talking, making the perspectives and starting points on the basis of which knowledge and meanings are produced, visible in a particular historical moment (Talja, 1999).

Discourse Analysis pays attention to the way in which discourses produce and transform social reality, making it possible to evaluate the practical consequences of different ways of approaching a particular phenomenon (Talja, 1999).

On the other hand, Discourse analysis is much a craft skill because it generates interpretive claims with regard to the power effects of a discourse on groups of people, without claims of generalizability to other contexts (Cheek, 1997 cited in Powers).

Wetherell & Potter (1988), argue that discourse analysts are more interested in the regularities of language use such as the possible kinds of descriptions and accounts of a topic. What kinds of evaluations these descriptions are based on as well as how different modes of accounting construct different versions of the topic or produce different kinds of truths, and what these versions accomplish rather than the processes taking place either in individuals’ minds or in reality.

References:

Evans, A. (2012). Discourse Analysis [online lecture] module M96MC, Coventry, Coventry University available from < http://adrienneevans.com/teaching/m96-research-methodologies/>

Potter. J, (1997) Discourse analysis as a way of seeing naturally occurring talk in Silverman, D. (1997) Qualitative research; Theory, Method and Practice. London, Sage Publications.

Silverman, D. (1997) Qualitative research; Theory, Method and Practice. London, Sage Publications.

Mason, J. ed (2002). Qualitative Researching. 2ed. London, Sage Publications.

Talja, S (1999). Analyzing Qualitative Interview Data: The Discourse Analytic Method Volume 21, Issue 4, November1999, Pages 459-477 [online]

Available from< http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0740818899000249>[07.01.13]

Travers, M (2001). Qualitative Research through Case Studies. London. Sage Publications.

Powers P ( ) The Philosophical Foundations of Foucaultian Discourse Analysis, Critical Approaches to Discourse Analysis across Disciplines 1 (2): 18-34 [online] availablefromhttp://cadaad.net/files/journal/Powers%20%20Philosophical%20foundations%20of%20Foucaultian%20Discourse.>[7.01.13]

Appendix 1

M96 Research in CCM Rehema Nakalema

Informed Consent

INFORMED CONSENT

I confirm that I have read and understand the information sheet for the above study and have had the opportunity to ask questions.

Please initial box

I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw at any time, without giving reason.

I agree that my data gathered in this study may be stored (after it has been anonymised) in a specialist data centre and may be used for future research

Please tick box

Yes No

I agree to the interview / focus group / consultation being audio recorded

I agree to the interview / focus group /consultation being recorded

I agree to the use of anonymised quotes in publications

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Name of Researcher Date Signature

Intersectionality is defined as the relationships among multiple dimensions of identities and modalities of social relations and experiences of exclusion and subordination, including gender, class, race, ethnicity, nationality and sexuality (Collins 2000; McCall 2005; Davis 2008). It starts on the premise that everyone live multiple, layered identities. The theory attempts to expose the different types of discrimination and disadvantages that occur as a consequence of the combination of biological, social and cultural identities (AWID 2004).

Intersectionality, as coined by Crenshaw (1989) attempts to address the fact that the experiences and struggles of women of colour fell between the cracks of both feminist and anti-racist discourse (AWID 2004; Davis 2008). Subsequently, this concept had extended to the understanding of women holding different disadvantaged social identities. Such intersections indicate that oppression cannot be reduced to one fundamental type, and that oppressions intersect together in producing injustice and inequality, instead of multiplying around the different social identities (Collins 2000; Conanhan 2009; Yuval-Davis 2007). An understanding of intersectionality suggested the attainment of political and social equality of disadvantaged women and improving the global democratic system (Harjunen 2008).

This paper attempts to understand the intersection of social identities of Foreign Domestic Workers (FDWs) in Singapore. The number of women coming into Singapore to work as a FDW had increased over the years, and the increment of these ‘outsiders’ had created many negative stigmas towards them, discursively created by the State and the society. By understanding the intersectionality these women face, it will establish an understanding of what shapes their experiences and opportunities as an FDW in a foreign land.

Domain of study: Foreign Domestic Worker (FDW) in Singapore

As the temporary home to 196,000 Foreign Domestic Workers (FDWs) and an estimate of employment of one live-in domestic worker in every five households (Daipi 2010), Singapore was and is an immigrant society. The FDW performs various household and maintenance chores for the families, including cooking, cleaning and care-giving to the young and elderly. Evidently, many FDWs now are the caregiver for babies and toddlers while their mothers were obliged to put in long working hours in the ‘old male model’ and subordinate their family time for work demands. This may constitute more than mere care-giving, where many FDWs devote their love and emotional attachment to their ‘young employers’ as a response to what the FDWs cannot provide for her own child (Hochschild 2004). With the introduction of the Foreign Maid Scheme in 1978 [1] , labour mobilization of women was promoted by the government which prioritises economic development that brought about the significance of the Singapore female labour. FDWs have since been a visible feature of households in Singapore. This gradually led to the outlook of an ‘ideal’ family in the Singapore context that comprises not only the kin but also the fictive kin.

The ‘ideal’ family in Singapore is one that consists of two working parents, a foreign maid who looks after their child(ren) and an older relative – usually a grandmother – to supervise the domestic worker (Teo 2011).

According to Ochiai (2010), the model of Care Diamonds as proposed depicts patterns of care provision in each society in four different sectors, namely the State, the Market, the Family (and Relatives) and the Community.

C:UsersshiminDesktopPicture1.png

Figure . Care Diamonds in Singapore

In the Singapore context, we see that there is a good proportion of care responsibility of familialism falling onto the Market, which reflects “the bulk of welfare responsibility towards its members, in terms of both income distribution and care provision” (Ochiai 2010) falling from the Family into the hands of the foreign domestic and care workers from the Market. This signifies the importance and prevalence of FDW in Singapore families, in both child care and elder care. It also shows the trend where families are now more prone in outsourcing their filial piety, which is also known as ‘liberal familialism’ as the cost of purchasing care services is still borne by the family (Ochiai 2010). This is constituted as discussed from the increase participation of female labour into the workforce that displaces the natural caregiver role from the woman in the family to the woman from the market.

Outsourcing the domestic chores in the house to the FDWs living in, they may become not merely an employee but close to a ‘fictive kin’ through the constant interactions. This propels the assignment of kin relationships to non-family who embody the “special characteristics of family, and are those who provide caregiving and emotional attachment like family and are given the labour of kin with its attendant affection, rights, and obligations” (Gubruim and Buckholdt 1982; Tronto 1993; Karner 1998).

FDW and Singaporeans [2]

FDWs in Singapore are live-in domestic helpers (Ministry of Manpower 2013), and this establishes a close fictive kinship living under one roof. As a Singaporean who was raised by a kin (instead of a fictive kin) all my life, I decided to interview some employers of FDWs and learn about how they perceive these supposedly ‘fictive kin’.

In my understanding, the acknowledgement of the status of a fictive kin has to be conscious between the FDW and the employer like a two-way traffic. This contradicted with the literature definition (Tronto 1993) which only addresses fictive kin as a person who provides kin-like care. Though most of these employers deem the help of FDWs to ease their load in housework, some of them do not recognise the FDWs as a fictive kin, but as a mere ’employee who I hire with money’. For the employers who do not deem the FDWs as helpful, they made frequent complaints about the FDWs’ work including criticism such as ‘stupid’ and ‘clumsy’ towards the FDWs’ productivity in front of others in the presence of the FDW, lack of appreciation by saying ‘please’ or ‘thank you’ or blamed for mistakes that were not committed by the FDWs. This can adversely affect the psychological well-being of the FDW who are labelled as ‘quiet indignities’. Moreover, research shows that though there is a decrease in ‘maid abuse’ cases in Singapore for the past 10 years, there still possesses a great number of cases where FDWs were stripped of basic human rights, including not being allowed to go out of the house, not having enough time to rest and having a heavy workload (Transient Workers Count Too 2011). This affects the physical well-being of the FDWs. The psychologically and physical well-being of the FDWs tend to be jeopardised in Singapore because of the inferior-superior mentality held by the employers towards their FDWs.

A minute fraction of the employers acknowledged the FDWs as a great help in the house and a fictive kin, where these employers will buy new clothes for the FDWs, invites her to join in for dinners, and bring her along during family vacations.

FDW and Intersectionality

Figure . Intersectionality in FDWs in Singapore

As a FDW, some of the axes of social identities that she holds include the intersection of her gender, nationality and social class. Each of these axes contributes to inequality on its own facet, and a complete picture will be portrayed when these facets intersect. As a social construct, gender emphasises the biological and psychological differences between man and women, which had constituted to the inherent power relationships. Nationality is also a social construct that emphasises on the basis of the arbitrary division and belongingness towards geographical spaces. Social class as a social identity determines the access to resources, which then shapes the power and position of the individual and the family in the society.

Notably, these FDWs braved through obstacles to come to a foreign land alone to work in. The inherent power relations from different social identities differentiated the FDW and the employer, in an in-group-out-group context. This empowers employers to discriminate and oppress these FDWs which affect their opportunities and experiences as a FDW in Singapore, and it is tougher when she is helpless without the support of her community.

Gender and Social Class

In Singapore, FDWs had been portrayed as the lowest strata in the society. The society, constituted by the local policies [3] , associated an FDW to only the female gender. The legalization of the legislation that FDWs are strictly females also constitute to the internalization and naturalization of women occupying jobs in this sector. Comparatively, their female counterparts in Singapore were able to enjoy an overall increase in access to education, higher education, healthcare from the industrialization of the nation in the late 1960s, allowing Singapore to attain one of the highest standards of living amongst its neighbours in Southeast Asia. This improvement of status was not universal and not extended to the FDWs, who were mainly from Indonesia and Philippines (Humans Right Watch 2005; Arifin 2012). Despite both females being conformed in a patriarchal society in Singapore, the FDWs and the Singapore females were clearly distinct in their class status which is evident from the developments of the two groups of countries. This is despite that many FDWs were college graduates (International Labour Organisation 2007) but still segregated into the low-wage, low-prestige domestic work in Singapore. This instils a superior-inferior relationship between Singaporeans and FDWs. This hence led to negative stigmas from the Singapore women who were the employers, who acknowledged the FDWs as their assistance and also their inferior (Arifin 2012).

Gender and Nationality

As the policies [4] in Singapore discourage Singaporean women to participate in the domestic service sector, there is a synonym of women from the sending countries (predominantly Indonesia and Philippines) as ‘maids’ in Singapore (Human Rights Watch 2005; Law and Nadeau 2009). As the provision of domestic service is seen as ‘difficult, dirty and demeaning’, these FDWs are portrayed as unskilled labour. In the patriarchal society, these women are not duly respected for their contributions, yet perceived as inferior as of their gender as a female and their nationality recognised as sending countries for FDWs – both identities equating to the identity of maid. This created a discursive idea of FDWs as ‘Other’ in the society. They are held with sharp contrast with other foreigners who come to Singapore with better skills, commonly addressed as ‘foreign talent’ or expatriates. The call for ‘talent’ capital from places such as United Kingdom, Australia and North America had allowed Singapore to be ranked as the top expat destination in the world (HSBC 2012). Evidently, the economic and social development between the two groups of origin countries differs greatly. Though there are more FDWs than foreign expatriates in the country (National Population and Talent Division 2013), there is a huge disparity between, in their income, respect received, and inherent stigma since these foreign expatriates are the people with the ability to hire these FDWs despite both being foreigners in the country. Discourses by the State portray FDWs as a sexual and social threat that breaks up Singaporean families and portrays expatriates as ‘saviours’ of National Survival (Koh 2003; Human Rights Watch 2005). The demonization by the State further deepens the existing stereotypes towards FDWs.

Intersection of social identities

The intersection of gender, social class and nationality constructed the negative stigma of these FDWs in Singapore. It created a social hierarchy where FDWs were strained to the lowest strata without any mobility. Mobility is prohibited by the government through their policies that forbid FDWs to be covered under the Employment Act, or to be able to obtain citizenship from her length of stay and contribution to the economy (Human Rights Watch 2012; Ministry of Manpower 2013). In contrast, mobility is made available in countries like Canada where their live-in caregivers are permitted for permanent residence in Canada after two years of authorized live-in employment in Canadian households (Citizenship and Immigration Canada 2013).

Reduced as a commodity in the global labour market, the FDWs brought about seemly traces of slavery in the modern world. Without adequate social and legal recognition for paid domestic service, the commercialised employment relationship with these fictive-kin FDWs can only be confined in an oppressive, ‘family’-like hierarchy. FDWs often engages in a power struggle (and often lose out) as they are not in any position, financially or psychologically, to negotiate their working conditions even if they deem it over exhaustive (Ueno 2008).

With the improvement in social aspects in life including educational profile and healthcare for women, we see an increase of 10.3% in the women participating in the labour force in Singapore for the past 10 years (Ministry of Manpower 2011). With more women expected to participate in the economy in the future, there will be an increase in the care gap in families – which signifies the greater need for FDWs. However, this may also means there will be more opportunities for oppressions to take place that will further undermine the physical and psychological well-being of FDWs.

The next step: Recognition

The struggle of FDWs in Singapore exceeds more than what the intersectionality of social identities as discussed – they also have to struggle with their employers’ lack of appreciation of FDWs as a fictive kin. This can be problematic because a fictive kin relationship “improves the quality of care and retrieves personal meanings for both the provider and the recipient” (Lan 2003) and the oppression will be a hinder to the delivery of a kin-like care service. However, their social identities which are ascribed rather than achieved, confines them into a superior-inferior relationship with their female counterparts in Singapore.

It reciprocates if an employer is more understanding to the FDW – and evidently the appreciation will be mutual. Institutions such as the employer and the State can step in to improve the situation – where both the sending and receiving countries can include FDWs into Employment Acts to protect them from physical and psychological harm, and to provide them with basic rights extended to every employee. As employers, one has to be reflexive and mindful that the FDW is also another human being – with her own thoughts, feelings and behaviours, and hence behaving as a ‘proper’ employer who treats her FDW well, even to the extent of a fictive kin, will be a good capital for the family members. By being aware of how they understanding their own experience and how their social identities intersect, it is empathetic to relate to how these women struggle through oppressions, all by herself.

Appendix
Foreign Maid Scheme in Singapore

In 1978, Singapore introduced the Foreign Maid Scheme which permits the employment of women from selected Asian countries as live-in domestic workers (UNIFEM Singapore 2011). The scheme is introduced to encourage the participation of local women in the formal economy by introducing an extra helper to maintain the family. The high and steady rate of economic growth demanded massive number of labour in all sectors. The low population and low fertility rate of Singaporeans thus was not able to fulfil the demands of the labour market. Moreover, Singaporeans were not keen to work in the unskilled sectors including domestic work, as influenced by the rising socioeconomic conditions and educational level of Singaporeans.

According to the Ministry of Manpower, FDWs will be employed under strict regulations, including their source country, age and educational attainment, and subsequent regulations inbound which assures their transience. These regulations were set forth as the political leaders assume that the presence of unskilled migrant workers and domestic workers will disrupt the Singapore society if left unregulated (Yeoh and Annadhurai 2008).

Requirements for a Foreign Domestic Worker

The following summarises the FDWs requirements in Singapore (Ministry of Manpower 2013. The list of requirements can be found in: http://www.mom.gov.sg/foreign-manpower/passes-visas/work-permit-fdw/before-you-apply/Pages/basic-requirements-of-a-foreign-domestic-worker.aspx: C:UsersshiminDesktopPicture2.png

Intersectionality as a critique to Multiple Discrimination

Mentioned in the EU Report on the ‘Multiple Discrimination in EU Law’, EU initially had a sole definition of ‘multiple discrimination’ as an overarching notion, neutral notion for all instances of discrimination between multiple domains including ‘race, age, language, ethnicity, culture, religion or disability or because they are indigenous people’ (UN 1995).

The definition of ‘intersectionality’ debated the EU legal discourse and reinforces the importance of encompassing the notion of gender as an important domain when it discusses the discrimination suffered primarily by the intersection of domains in many instances of discrimination suffered especially by women. It criticises that the mathematical notion that may be conjured by multiplying around the separate strands of discrimination which in reality intersect (Conanhan 2009; Yuval-Davis 2007).

In many countries throughout the world, marriage is primarily an agreement between two families. An alliance through marriage between two successful families can enhance the power, prestige and well being of all the members in that family. Interracial marriage is a potential venue where both partners can enrich their world-view depending on one’s value and ability to accommodate cultural difference. The extent to which interracial marriages are accepted in our global society is a function of the cultural parameters within which these dynamics occur. It is apparent that the figurative shrinking of our globe seems to represent conditions that allow opportunity for the number of intercultural marriages to expand.

This paper seeks to provide an overview of interracial marriages, taking into consideration, its reasons, evolutionary historic nature and its importance to African immigrants.

History of Interracial Marriages

Before discussing how historical changes have influenced interracial relationships, it is imperative to examine how relationships have evolved throughout history. During Medieval times, the families of would be couple arranged their marriage. Much of society placed emphasis on wealth and land ownership. People did not often marry outside of their class. Therefore, it was the role of family to find a suitable partner to make the transition into matrimony (Amt, 1993:77). Also, love was not a factor in the decision making process (Stritof, 2001). In the middle Ages, marriage was seen as a sacrament. Therefore, the transition into marriage was made in order to prevent sin and to procreate as the Bible dictates (Shahar, 1983:15). However, during colonial times, the role of the family was altered. The transition into marriage shifted from the parent’s control to the individual’s control. In spite of this shift, though, the family did still largely influence whom the individual chose to marry. Children were guided and taught on how to choose the most suitable partner. During this time, romance became part of the marriage interest; it was an opportunity to love (Wilkins, 1998:502).

Interracial relationships are historically determined. Interracial marriage started in the United State of America. Laws against interracial marriages date back to 1661. These laws were enacted to prevent whites from marrying outside their race. Individuals who married cross-culturally could be arrested (Schwalbe, 2001:23). These laws were not limited to African Americans, for example in Arizona whites and Native Americans were prohibited from marrying each other, on the other hand, in Montana whites could not marry Asian Americans (Schwartz, 2000:114).Similarly, in colonial Mexico, sexuality, marriage, and “superstitious” love and fertility rituals were subject to control by the Spanish inquisition (Stoler, 1989:134). Moran (2001:29), argued that anti-miscegenation laws established racial boundaries, racial purity, contained ambiguity, and preserved public recognition of sexual decency. Bardaglio (1999) holds that the anti-miscegenation law sought not so much to eliminate interracial sexual contact as to channel them. The main purpose of this law was to keep the black and white race apart. And it is for this reason that Stoler (1994:199) argued that the metissage (mixed blood) was conceived as a dangerous source of subversion, it was seen as a threat to white prestige, an embodiment of European degeneration and moral decay and represented, not only the dangers of foreign enemies at national borders, but the more pressing affront for European nation-states. This is what the German philosopher Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1962:149) so aptly defined as undermining the essence of the nation, and its “interior frontiers”. Therefore, sexual meanings and intimacy are social and cultural constructs which are the main forces conditioning human relationships. It is in this light that, Zelizer in Purchase of Intimacy (2005:1) holds that taboo against romantic affaire in workplace and sex for hire both rests on the twinned belief that intimacy corrupts the economy and economy corrupt intimacy, intermarriage should be forbidden.

In addition to the above, Roger (1990:315), holds that the “United States is the only country in the New world which has carried its law against interracial marriage from its colonial period into its national one”. In this light, Garrison questioned the state’s right to interfere with the private realm of marriage and he argued that “marriage is not a province, and does not belong to the power of legislative assembly, therefore it is a wrong approach for the republican government to decide on the complexional affinity of those who choose to be united together in wedlock, and it may as rationally decree that corpulent and lean, tall and short, strong and weak persons shall not be married to each other as that there must be an agreement in the complexion of the parties” ( cf Washington 1986:84). The right to select one’s mate is one of the most ancient, most sacred of individual rights, and when the state interferes in this, except in the case of the mentally unfit, it but adds humour to the witticism (Roger, 1988:80)

However, in 1967, the Supreme Court Case Loving v. Virginia declared laws against interracial marriages as unconstitutional (Schwalbe, 2001). This allowed individuals to explore other relationship opportunities and thus the rise of interracial marriages. These laws limited the pool of eligible mates and the transition into marriage was directly affected. These laws displayed the views of society; therefore, individuals wishing to make transition into marriage often followed these laws in order to gain society’s approval and to avoid adversity.

Reason for interracial Marriages

As seen above, interracial relationship during the colonial era was considered a taboo or an abominable practice. Association with a European, talk less of marriage or dating a European woman was perceived as a challenge to European supremacy. Europeans regulated social conduct between races, so as to maintain racial purity. In spite of these regulatory mechanisms that were put in place, African immigrants still engaged in interracial marriages. The reasons for interracial marriages among immigrants vary from one person to another.

For example, in some cases, the criteria for citizenship acquisition vary considerably between European states. Within the E U., the minimum residency; before aliens are eligible to apply for citizenship varies from three (Belgium), eight (Hungary) and ten (Austria and Hungary) years (Babcock, 2006:12-23).Some states requires shorter periods for applicants from states with whom they have cultural or historic ties. There are also variations in the requirements that states impose on those wishing to become their citizens. This is both natural and permissible. But, those requirements are nonetheless framed by moral considerations, which define their scope and limit (Caren, 1989:13-49).Many states exclude third country nationals from significant social and economic benefits such as employment benefits and health insurance, even if they have lived in their new state for several years. Citizenship, therefore, if only for instrumental reasons, is clearly a status worth having. But it is also an intrinsically valuable status position, important as it signifies a person’s equality under the law, full civic inclusion and ultimately immunity from deportation. As result, third country nationals have adopted various mechanisms to remain within EU member states. Examples of these mechanisms include commodification of sexuality, finding a shelter, or a job (in the formal or informal economy or as family labour), achieve legal status based on marriage terms (e.g. arranged or contract marriages).

For instance, irregular immigrants attempt to legalise their residence with the help of various strategies. For most, illegal migrants apprehended by the authorities, entering the asylum process is the major form of legalising their stay in Hungary. In 1999, there were 11,500 asylum applications, with 5,100 submitted by citizens of former Yugoslavia and 6,000 by non Europeans. Thus, Hungary is primarily a transit country for asylum. Economic condition prevailing in Hungary can offer only a partial explanation to this phenomenon. Another equally important factor is the lengthy asylum procedures, and scarce opportunities for integration. For these reason, asylum seekers generally seeks protection elsewhere, many in other member countries of the E.U. Therefore, the most common reason for terminating an asylum procedure is that the applicant “disappears” (Ejalu, 2008).

Similarly, Bledsoe and Sow (2008), carried out a study in Germany, and they argued that, Cameroonians in Germany, engaged in interracial relationship in order to maintain family reunification. Cameroonian women, who stay in Germany, are often those who gain residence rights by bearing a child for a German man, who is willing to recognise the child officially, irrespective of any long term paternal obligations. Using the German Federal Statistical office figures on the children of unmarried parents, Fleisher found that, in 2004, although there were about twice as many Cameroonian men than women in Germany, many more were born to Cameroonian women, than to Cameroonian men, that is, an equivalent of 240: 92, respectively. Among married partners, 49 children born to parents who were both Cameroonians but 169 were born to a Cameroonian and German conjugal pair. Again, there were considerably more, proportionately, children born to a Cameroonian German marriages who were born to Cameroonian women and their German husbands, than Cameroonian men and their German wives.

In addition to the above, for Cameroonian men, the pathway to legal residence in Germany is entirely different. Most German women who strike up relationships with Cameroonian men are substantially older than their partners, and are unwilling or unable to have a child. As well, the likelihood of becoming a parent of a German child, independently of its mother, is almost out of question, for a Cameroonian man. Claiming residence by producing a German child is thus much rarer for a Cameroonian man, than a woman from Cameroon. For a Cameroon man, without a job, the best route to acquire residence, is contracting and sustaining marriage with a German woman for at least three year, after which he can obtain residence, although authorities continue to exert surveillance, and may investigates cases of divorces after years. Fleisher found that, in 2004, there were 163 bi-national marriages between a Cameroonian and a German in Germany, most of them Cameroonian men marrying German women-but just six marriages between Cameroonian men and women. The further complexity is that, many Cameroonian men desire children and want to return home eventually. Confronted with the logic of singularity on which family reunification rules of marriage rest, some men quietly retain marriage with a woman back home by which they have borne children, or ask their families members to find a wife, whom they visit periodically before their final return. This is because, a Cameroonian man may come to see marriage to a German woman as a temporary necessity and look to Cameroon for his main “family future”, he may come to see “traditional” or at least Cameroonian marriages as the base, and “formal” marriage in the west as the temporary distortion. (Fleischer,2003).

African immigrants may feel inferior due to a mental, physical, social handicap and enter an interracial relationship after determing that acceptance will be found only outside of a culture of birth. A marriage based on this motive may be consciously considered to be a second best or stand-in marriage interracial may be an act of aggression toward another race. Deviance and revenge by one partner can humiliate the in-law. They will either complement this need by feeling personally inferior or angry and rebellious against parents, culture and society (Blau, 1977:31). Leon (1984), suggests that idealism may be a motive of”liberal” marrying inter-culturally. Identification with the underdog, an inferiority complex, rebellion, and rescue could be an outgrowth of this idealism.

Importance of Interracial Marriages.

Throughout history, the structure of interracial relationships has seen a drastic evolution. What once was seen as non-normative and forbidden practice is now seen as common. Specifically speaking, there has been an increase in heterogamous, cross-cultural, relationships. This rise in interracial relationships can be attributed to the reversal of anti-miscegenation laws, the lack of potential mates, the breakdown of segregation, immigration and advancements in technology. These changes in romantic relationships and the transition to marriage have allowed people to explore alternative lifestyles and relationships. Noticeably, interracial romantic relationships and marriages have become commonplace.

According to Schwartz (2000:17) an increase in interracial marriages is as a result of immigration, increases the chances of meeting people from different racial backgrounds. For instance, the United States of America is considered a melting pot. The U.S.A. has many different races enmeshed into one society (Schwartz, 2007:23). This has allowed African immigrants to have many different types of romantic relationships/interracial marriages. Immigration has effected the transition into marriage by providing mates from many different backgrounds. Also, immigration has affected many people’s views on marriage by introducing people to new cultures. Interracial marriages among African immigrant is advantageous because it is seem as a gate way to integration and assimilation especially on the part on those immigrants who are being excluded from their societies

The degree of social control and the institutionalised discrimination is a function of existing relationships between the majority(host country and minority. An increase in the number of primarily relationship (indicated by interracial marriage) between these groups signals a dissolutions of discriminatory and subordinating practices and less incumbered entrance of minority into social institution of the majority group (Gordon, 1964:35). On the other hand, interracial marriages may indicate a weakening of ethnic cohesion and a loss of highly value ethnic culture (Murguia, 1982). Beaumont (1958[1835]:245), suggests that intermarriages are certainly the best, if not the unique, means of fusing the white and the black races. They are also the most obvious index of equality. While the U.S court of 1873 considered interracial marriages as “immoral”, others saw it as a cultural betrayal .Opponents of interracial dating contend that those who date or marry outside of their race are betraying their families and abandoning their cultural heritage. Many African immigrants believe interracial marriage erodes the solidarity of the African community. Lawrence Otis Graham feels that “interracial marriage undermines [African] ability to introduce our children to black role models who accept their racial identity with pride.” Graham also fears that biracial children will turn their backs on their black heritage when they discover that it is easier to live as a white person (cf Sollors, 2000:23-58).

On the other hand, proponents of interracial relationships contend that interracial romance is a step towards eliminating racial hatred. According to Mitali Perkins (2007:50), “Where exploitation and anger have separated the races in society, an interracial family called by God is a compelling example of the gospel of reconciliation.” Yvette Walker believes that

“Racism . . . will have to be bred out. We can’t make policies to change it. And certainly, in an interracial relationship the children are raised in a climate of tolerance.” She and others contend that the rising incidence of interracial children will eventually lead to a society where race will no longer matter because everyone will blend into one race, the human race. More importantly, assert many supporters of interracial relationships, colour should not matter when it comes to love. They echo Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous sentiment that people should be judged not “by the colour of their skin but by the content of their characteraˆ¦” (cf Perkins 2007:206)

African immigrants believe that interracial marriages offer the best opportunities for couples and professionals to experience, learn, develop, and educate themselves. Empowerment traits for interracial marriage and intimacy are core ingredients in promoting positive relationships in order that each of the couples’ families might work towards achieving optimal interracial satisfaction and simultaneously cope with external forces such as nationality, community, family, and individual. (McFadden, 2002:220).

In the past, African immigrants were considered as inferior, Buirj (1993:176-179) argued that immigrants are lazy, incompetent, and inefficient because they lack both the cultural and symbolic capital. Michele Lamont (2000) recapitulates the negative feeling toward immigrants and reflects the continuing availability of cultural repertoires stressing the moral failure of immigrants. In the view of historian David Kennedy, in United States “on the one hand

“aˆ¦immigrants were judged to be noble soulsaˆ¦whose talents and genius and love of liberty account for the magnificent American character. On the other handaˆ¦ [they] were thought to be degraded, freeloading louts, a blight on the national character and a drain on the economyaˆ¦”(cf Lamont, 2000:105).

Scientific opinion at present tends to admit that an African immigrant is not inferior in any essential character of mind; and is approximately equal to other races in his ability to acquire culture (Du Bois, 1899). Despite the long-entrenched, labels to racially categorise African population in history, a trend has emerged towards a more fluid view of racial identification. Schacht and Knox (2000:279) argued that due to an interracial marriage/dating relationship amongst immigrants, there has been a gradual, if not, socially recognised shift in how immigrants are perceived. They have gained recognition.

Moreover, interracial relationships are a step toward a more integrated and egalitarian society. For example, the future of Africans belongs to the person who is the product of many different cultures. Through interracial marriage, different cultures will develop their unique identities and come together in harmony. Benefits of interracial marriages would be that an African [immigrant] child would learn more tolerance and respect towards all races. Such children may be open to new ideas, and less hostile regarding one’s religious creed or nationality. Many wars are fought over both religion and patriotic fanaticism, and a child of mixed background is not going to really purely identify with either one of the other racial background, thus, the child is less susceptible to being nationalistic to a fanatical degree. (Innocent, Sirefman, 1992).

However, interracial marriages enable Africans immigrants to acquire citizenship and to engage in the political affairs of the host country. It is therefore a gateway for immigrants with citizenship status to shape and influence decisions at the national level. Thus, immigrants often view citizenship as crucial for the future prosperity of their children and their immediate relatives. The possibility of reuniting with family members is the major reason for acquiring citizenship. Citizenship also carries with it status and prestige among extended family members in the country of origin. Immigrants who have naturalised tell stories about how parents and relatives at home in Africa boast about their accomplishments. Praise and accolades are given to those who have become citizens’ (Arthur, 2000:24) Citizenship in other word, affects the shift in the cultural identities of immigrants (Afolabi, Falola, 2008: 49).

Furthermore, interracial marriage is seen as strategic for integration and a form of assimilation.

Park and Burgess (1969:735) define assimilation as a process of interpenetration and fusion in which person and groups acquire the memories, sentiments and aptitude of other groups and by sharing their experience and history, are incorporated with them in a common life ”the process of interpenetration” is arguably best examplied in intermarriage which is often seen as the final step in the assimilation process. For African immigrants, it is a gate way to better life. Intermarriage is a clear signal that minority groups have adopted the cultural patterns of the host or majority population, such as its language and customs. On the other hand, during the assimilation process, African immigrants tend to lose their distinctive characteristics as they pass through the stages of assimilation, eventually intermarrying with the majority population (Alba 2003; Gordon 1964: 89)

Theoretical Framework

Using the status exchange theory (Merton, 1941, Davis, 1941), I have argued that interracial marriages would frequently involve an exchange of status characteristics. Highly educated Africa immigrants would trade their educational status in order to reap the benefits associated with the racial status of a potential white spouse.’ Similarly, whites with low levels of education would trade their racial status for the educational status of a potential black spouse. Consequently, a black-white marriage is likely to involve a black spouse with greater education than the white spouse because these types of individuals would each have something to gain from the union. Interracial marriages involving white spouses with greater education than their black spouses would be much less likely because blacks would have nothing to offer their potential white spouse in return for the white spouse “marrying down” in terms of race. Both Merton and Davis believed that this process of status exchange was applicable only to black male-white female unions because a black man’s educational background would be more closely tied to future potential earnings and prestige than would a black woman’s education. Lacking empirical data to confirm this hypothesis, Merton provided the framework for a future test of the theory.

According to Merton, the correct procedure would be to compare the relative frequency of three types of interracial marriage: educationally homogamous unions (Group A), unions in which the white member marries “upward” (white hyper- gamy) in terms of education (Group B), and unions in which the white member marries “downward” (white hypogamy) in terms of education (Group C).2 Group B should be the most common type because it involves the expected exchange of status characteristics, and Group C should be the least common type. Numerous scholars have since shown that this test fails because most interracial marriages are educationally homogamous. Individuals have a strong tendency to marry partners of a similar educational background, and this tendency has been increasing over the last half-century (Schwartz and Mare 2005). Thus, to some extend educational status is not the only means used by African immigrants to engaged in interracial relationship but the desire to acquired integration through various means such as citizenship and resident permit is another reason for interracial marriages as already highlighted above.

To conclude, in spite some of the miscegenation laws put in placed in the past, the desire to acquired citizenship, resident permits are reason of the that have pushed Africans immigrants to engaged interracial marriages, in order to reap the benefits of the host country in which they find themselves.

Science and medicine are not immune from social influence, and as a result are not necessarily culturally universal. In regards to sex and gender, social construction plays a meaningful but often hidden role in medicine, producing significant biases (Hubbard 1996). For many clinicians and laypersons functioning within the traditions of biomedicine, gender is understood through sexual dimorphism: that only two sexes, male and female, possess distinct biological characteristics which form gender identity (Herdt 1990). According to the pervasive Western ideology, these sexes come with specific traits, such as genetic markers and physical attributes, and are consequently assigned behavioral gender roles. The notions of distinctive gender and sex are deeply ingrained in the medical community and reinforced in everyday social interactions, to the extent that the idea of ambiguity is not only foreign, but distressing. Perceptions of the qualities that differentiate sex, influence and are influenced by, the social constructs of gender through many avenues, for instance, science, religion, popular culture, and so on. Thus, an examination of the cultural influences on sex and gender, including those present in biomedicine, is necessary to conceptualize ??real?? differences. In exploring how village cultures in Papua New Guinea and the Dominican Republic respond to intersexuality, the constructs of the dimorphic approach on the intersex individual and society can be better understood.

Intersexuality, when used to categorize the physiological conditions which cause ??gender ambiguity?? of various kinds, may present in as many as 4 percent of live births (Fausto-Sterling 1993). These ambiguities include inappropriate virilization and variation in the presence and construction of inner and outer genitalia, varying in severity between and within the conditions that cause them (Kuhnle and Krahl 2002). In a biomedical system, the presence of sex-typed genitalia is used as the primary means to assign sex at birth, so infants with more visually apparent differences from the binary norm are recognized immediately and the assignment must wait for clinical intervention (Kuhnle and Krahl 2002). Individuals whose symptoms are less visually apparent at birth, for instance, an enlarged clitoris mistaken for a penis, atypical internal genitalia, or inappropriate virilization later in life, are subsequently not diagnosed at birth. Recognition of an abnormal condition comes much later for these patients, usually to the surprise of parents and practitioners.

It??s important to consider how biological reductionism as a social construct affects the understanding of sex and gender, because biological sex is not always cut and dry and is not necessarily clearly allocated to male or female by the presence, or lack, of certain hormones or the morphology of genitalia. How does a sexually dimorphic, biologically reductionist approach affect the treatment of intersex individuals? The reaction of the modern West has been to medicalize gender: to determine those attributes that seem to most clearly define one as male or female and, where nonnormative, to address the ambiguity through clinical means. Intersex becomes pathological, requiring diagnostic parameters and medical intervention. This medicalization suggests that there is a threshold for acceptable sex differentiation, but that an individual ought always to fit, as much as possible, into one category or the other. To this aim, research on intersexuality has produced a range of syndromes and attempts to accurately name them, a process which reinforces a medicalized view of gender and sex (Conrad 2007). When faced with anomalies in the biological determinants of sex, the clinician??s goal is to realize an ??optimal gender?? (Zucker 2002), which may or may not reflect an individual??s genetics or hormones. Assignment and treatment towards this ??optimal gender?? is determined using the following parameter: ??reproductive potential, good (i.e. heteronormative) sexual function, minimal medical procedures, an overall gender-appropriate appearance, a stable gender identity, and psychosocial well-being?? (Zucker 2002). It should be noted that popular science ideology stresses the ability of the patient to ??fit?? into either the male or female gender in regards to physical appearance as critical in achieving a ??stable gender identity?? and ??psychosocial wellbeing??, which negates the possibility that attempts to do so might in fact cause dysphoric gender identity. Using these considerations, invasive surgeries are performed in order to ??normalize?? external genitalia, typically accompanied by courses of hormone therapy in order to guide the physical development into the assigned gender (Berenbaum 2006). Since absence or underdevelopment of the phallic structure is typical of intersex genetic males, and it is more difficult to surgically create a functioning penis than a vagina, ??the majority of children born with ambiguous genitals are turned into girls?? (Hubbard 1996). Binary models of sex are reinforced, insisting on a definitive and unchanging view of sex and gender. Limiting notions of success in ??good sexual function??, a ??stable gender identity??, ??psychosocial well-being??, and insistence on genitalia that appears neatly masculine or feminine, serve to impose the Western cultural construct of sexual dimorphism upon the individual (Worthman 1995).

Not only are there variations in realization of the biological attributes assigned to sex differentiation, but also in the societal response to these sex differences, which serve to change and transform both gender and the concepts of it. It is here that the studies of intersex individuals in the Dominican Republic and New Guinea play an important part in understanding gender and sex conceptually and practically, by contrasting the lives of these individuals, who did not receive clinical diagnosis and care, with the binary Western convention of sex. Sexual dimorphism is called into question by the seeming presence of a third gender category (Herdt 1990). While first assumed to support popular applications of biological reductionism, the studies in fact offer documented flexibility between biological conditions and social environments in construction of gender identity (Herdt 1990). These studies are particularly appropriate to the discussion of medicalization because the affected individuals did not undergo permanent surgical alteration or hormone therapy, the two prevalent forms of treatment for the intersex in the West. Their life experiences reflect an opportunity to shift in and out of gender roles without contending with the irreversibility of these clinical methods.

The study conducted in the southwest Dominican Republic draws on narratives to form the sexual histories of 38 genetic males found to have steroid 5-alpha reductase hermaphroditism, a condition characterized by ??severe ambiguity?? (Imperato-McGinley, et. al. 1979). In cases of steroid 5-alpha reductase hermaphroditism, the development of the sex organs in utero is affected, resulting in underdeveloped external genitalia (Imperato-McGinley, et. al. 1979). However, increased presence of testosterone at puberty stimulates phallus growth, the presence of ejaculate, and, in many cases, descending of the testes (Imperato-McGinley, et. al. 1979). According to Imperato-McGinley, et. al., out of 18 cases of genetic males with steroid 5-alpha reductase hermaphroditism who were raised ??unambiguously?? as girls, 16 transitioned into ??a male-gender role?? after puberty (1979), although subsequent research has determined that in fact only 13 were ??observed to make a clear-cut sex role change?? (Herdt 1990).There was no medical intervention in early life, so the 16 males were able to physically and socially transform their gender role upon biological masculinization, more easily than if they had experienced feminizing surgeries and hormone therapy to supplement female-gendered rearing.

Surprisingly, there is little ethnographic data regarding the two subjects raised as girls who did not transition into a male gender role, or the 20 individuals who were raised as men (Herdt 1990). Subject 25 maintained her heterosexual female identity, denied sexual attraction to women, and expresses a strong desire for female assignment surgery (Imperato-McGinley, et. al. 1979). Likewise, Subject 4 continued to dress as a female, although researchers ultimately designate a male gender identity because the individual has the ??mannerisms of a man?? and engages in sexual relationships with women (Imperato-McGinley 1979). The social lives of the subjects reared male is largely underrepresented, although the assumption is relatively normative male development, which may not be accurate. The range of variety in the life experiences of these neglected subjects contradicts a strict interpretation of biological reductionism. While a majority of the genetic males did appear to assume a male-gender identity (regardless of rearing) there still persisted a strong female identity or conventional female behavioral roles in two out of thirty eight subjects, despite experiencing similar pubescent hormonal changes.

The village societies in which these individuals lived also provided an environment that allowed for transition. There is evidence that the condition, documented to span generations (Imperato-McGinley 1979), was not unfamiliar. Local vernacular contains a term for these males, guevedoche, or ??penis at twelve?? (Herdt 1990). This term suggests that the villagers were aware of not only the condition, but also the physical changes that seemed to blur gender confirmation. Although not noted by the authors of the study, this awareness and terminology seems to reflect an ideology that does not adhere to sexual dimorphism, using instead three categories to reference gender (Herdt 1990). There is not only male and female, but also guevedoche. Herdt??s examination of the narratives also indicates evidence that despite the claim that 18 subjects were raised ??unambiguously?? as girls, the villagers would have had sufficient knowledge of the condition to recognize the possibility for these individuals to undergo pubescent changes, for instance, several of the subjects were closely related to one another and functioned within the same family group (Herdt 1990). Therefore, they were assigned conceptually as guevedoche, not female. This is reinforced by another term adopted by the villagers to describe the males, machihembre, or ??first woman, then man??. (Herdt 1990) The dialect suggests a social construction of biological sex which allows for transition, sex classifications outside the binary, and an adaptation to the intersex individual without medicalizing gender.

Studies among the Sambia of Papua New Guinea also reveal an additional category in gender assignment for intersexuals with steroid 5-alpha reductase deficiency (Herdt 1990). The Sambia possessed an awareness and detailed knowledge of this syndrome, although this was more clearly documented than in the Dominican Republic. The most common term used for the intersex individual is kwolu-aatmwol, meaning ??female thing-transforming-into-male thing?? (Herdt 1990). As in the Dominican Republic, this terminology reflects a more fluid conception of gender and sex that is not static or binary. Even though the term draws an inherent comparison between male and female gender to define the intersex individual, the kwolu-aatmwol are not considered singularly male or female (Herdt 1990). According to Herdt, infants are ??carefully?? examined to determine sex assignment, only kwolu-aatmwol who are mistaken for normative females are assigned and reared as girls; when the condition is recognized the infant is assigned kwolu-aatmwol and ??reared in the direction of masculinity, but not ambiguously?? (1990). This observation communicates a cultural adaptation to intersexuality by the Sambia. The individuals were not raised exclusively masculine or feminine when ambiguity was determined, developing instead within a unique gender category.

The magnified ethnographic scope used in Papua New Guinea provides a closer insight into some of the particulars of the social response of the Sambia to intersexuality, as well as an interpretation of gender transition motives that focuses on social and cultural forces as opposed to the role of biology in identity development. Of the fourteen intersex subjects identified by Herdt, five were mistakenly assigned female and reared, sometimes ??ambiguously??, as girls (1990). One of the subjects lives as a female, although is considered a kwolu-aatmwol and is unmarried, the remaining four transitioned in varying degree toward a masculine gender role (Herdt 1990). However, in contrast to the guevedoche, the transitions came only after social forces exposed their biological differences. For example, one of the subjects was forced to move to a faraway town after she entered a marriage and was discovered to have a small penis. Relative prevented the furious husband from killing her, and she fled. It was then that he began using a masculine name, dressing in men??s clothes, and dating women, although Herdt notes that ??he seems uninterested in them?? (1990). It would seem that in the case of the Sambia, it was rather society??s dissatisfaction with the ??female-assigned hermaphrodite??s body?? and her ability ??to sexually and reproductively deliver what was necessary for her to fulfill her social destiny?? that brought on gender role change, not biological masculinization (Herdt 1990).

The incongruity between gender role and social expectation may be considered more problematic than intersexuality for the Sambia, whose culture provides a category other than male or female in language and social expectation. Within the Sambia, kwolu-aatmwol are typically regarded with pity, but included in ??normative?? society, and may even ??rise to distinction through special achievements?? (Herdt 1990). While the assignment comes with significant social stigma (it is a belief among the men that women may kill an intersex infant), many kwolu-aatmwol are known locally for being shamans or war leaders (Herdt 1990). The mythology of the Sambia contains a narrative with a ??hermaphroditic theme?? that tells the story of ??two persons, with small breasts and tiny penes, who began the world?? (Herdt 1990). These cultural aspects form a special societal, ??sacred?? role (Herdt 1990) for the intersex of the Sambia, instead of imposing the expectations to accommodate a sexual binary.

The studies of intersex individuals in the Dominican Republic and Papua, New Guinea present some significant contradictions to in regards to how gender is typically conceptualized by the Western medical community. From a social perspective, it would appear that the rural villages of the Dominican Republic and the Sambia have fostered and maintained a ??three-category sex code?? in response to the existence of intersex individuals over generations (Herdt 1990). In contrast, the Western medicalization of gender (resulting from reductionist perspectives of sex) has caused the intersex to be viewed as abnormal and ambiguous, requiring clinical treatment to satisfy the conditions of either the male or female sex. Intersexuality is considered incomplete or inconsistent male- or femaleness, which has influenced life-changing and often irreversible clinical ??corrections?? that, in the case of intersex infants, is done without patient consent. While these procedures are generally recommended in the interests of the infant, they also serve the interests of a sexually dimorphic society that frames healthy sex and gender development within a restrictive binary. Cultural examples from Papua New Guinea and the Dominican Republic contradict the assumed universalism of Western sexual dimorphism, and offer a clearer interpretation of the social forces that direct the treatment of the intersex.

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1995 ??Hormones, Sex, and Gender.?? Annual Review of Anthropology 24: 593-617. JSTOR. http://jstor.org/stable/2155951

Zucker, Kenneth J.

2002 ??Intersexuality and Gender Identity Differentiation.?? North American Society for Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology 15:3-13

Boester 5

The first of these themes that Elder suggested was the interplay of human lives and historical time. As social historians and sociologists began to study individual and family pathways, they observed that individuals born in different generations faced different possibilities and limitations within their different historical worlds or generations. Based on research and observation they suggested that as social change occurs, it will affect one group or generation differently than it will affect following groups and generations. An example of this is Elder’s (1974) research on the Great Depression and how that effected young and middle aged children. He found that the life course of the younger children, when compared with the middle aged children, were more seriously affected by family hardship. Others have provided evidence for Elder’s research as well (Elder, 1986; Rindfuss, Swicegood, & Rosenfeld, 1987; Shanahan et al., 1998).

Timing of Lives

In this theme, specific life events and transitions were studied by researchers to see at what ages they occurred. In looking at the different studies there were many ways to classify entrances and exits from certain statuses and roles. In B. George’s (1993) study he classified these entrances and exits as either “on-time” or “off-time” based on the social norms of transitions (George, 1993). For, example, childbearing in adolesence is considered off-time in industrial countries such as the U.S., but in many preindustrial countries it can be seen as on-time. ()

Another way researchers look at the timing is by age-graded differences (formal social organizations based on age). In looking at what influences these social organization differences in roles and behaviors, researchers linked it to the influence of biological, psychological, social, and spiritual processes. However, it should be noted that life course scholars and researchers have not directly addressed the issue of spiritual age. So, in the life course perspective age is usually considered from a biopsychosocial framework (Cavanaugh, 1996; Kimmel,1990;Settersten & Mayer,1997).

B. George also looked at the order in which life events and transitions occurred to gain a better understanding of age regularities and irregularities (George, 1993). Most of the studies that have been performed focus on children completing school and their entrance into adulthood (Modell, Furstenberg, & Hershberg, 1976; Settersten, 1998; Shanahan,Miech,& Elder,1998). Along with the age regularities and irregularities, researchers are interested in the length of time that an individual or family spend in a particular area without changes in their status or roles. In general, some researchers, such a B. George, are concluding that the longer we experience certain environments and conditions, the more likely it is that our behavior will be affected (George, 1996).

The final interest of scholars and researchers is the pace of transitions. In their studies they have found that the transition into young adulthood (completing school, leaving home, getting married) appears to be timed more rapidly than middle and late adulthood transitions (retiring or losing parents) (Hareven, 1978, 2000).

Linked or Interdependent Lives

Elder’s (1993) third theme emphasizes how the interdependence of human relationships both support and control. In this area (support and control) researchers have paid particular attention to the family as a source for this.

Links Between Family Members. Elder’s 1974 longitudinal research of children raised during the Great Depression is the base for the assumption of interdependence between family members. In his research he found that as greater economic pressures were experienced by parents, the risk for depressed feelings and marital conflict increased. As a result of this, the parents’ ability to care for their children decreased, and their children had an increased likelihood of showing signs of emotional distress, academic trouble, and behavior problems (Elder, 1974). This connection between hardship, nurturance, and child behaviors is now well established (e.g. Conger, Elder, Lorenz, Simons, & Whibeck, 1992; Conger et al., 1993). It should also be noted that parents’ lives are interdependent with the pathways of their children’s lives as well. As the children mature into adults there is a pattern of mutual support that is formed through life events and transitions (Harevan, 1996). This link and support is also changed in families through historical disruptions such as wars or major economic downturns. In immigrant families this disruption happens when the children pick up a new language and cultural norms faster than the adults and become interpreters for parents and grandparents (Hernandez & McGoldrick, 1999).

Links with the Wider World. At this point researchers know a lot more about how individuals and their families are interdependent than how individuals and families are interdependent to other groups. However, it has been shown that work has a great effect on families and their transitions (George, 1993). In 1997 Cooksey and his group of researches used data from the National Longitundinal Survey of Youth for ages 6 and 7 to look at the effects of emotions and behavior of children and work. They found that the children’s depression and aggressive behavior were not associated with whether their mothers were employed but rather with the type of work those mothers did (Cooksey et al., 1997). In other words, mothers who had occupations that required complex skills found that their children were less likely to be depressed and exhibit aggressive behavior than those children who mothers were in less skilled occupations (Cooksey et al., 1997).

In other research regarding links with the wider world, researchers concluded that family seemed to have significantly more influence on children’s behavior than the neighborhood did (Elder,1998; Furstenberg, Cook, Eccles, Elder, & Sameroff, 1999; Klebanov, Brooks-Gunn, Gordon, & Chase-Lansdale,1997). In another study done the research found that there were more differences in the behavior of children and adolescents among families in a particular neighborhood than when comparing families in one neighborhood to another. However, it should be noted that there is evidence to support that effects may be greater for children living in high poverty areas (Kats, Kling, & Liebman, 1999).

Human Agency in Making Decisions

Social historians have attempted to correct the traditional focus on lives of elites by studying the lives of common people (Hareven, 2000). By doing so, they discovered that many groups once considered passive victims,for example, working-class people, actually took independent action to cope with the difficulties imposed by the rich and powerful. Historical research now shows that slaves were often ingenious in their struggles to hold their families together (Gutman,1976),and that factory workers used informal networks and kinship ties to manage,and sometimes resist, pressures for efficiency (Hareven, 1982).

However, human agency has limits. These limits include an individual’s choice being restrained by structural and cultural arrangements of a historical era and unequal opportunities that may give others ore options than some. Elder (1998) notes in his research that the emphasis on human agency in this particular perspective has been assisted by Albert Bandura’s work on the two concepts of self-efficacy and the expectation that one can personally accomplish a goal.

Diversity in Life Course Trajectories

Ronald Rindfuss and colleagues are often cited for their study on the diversity of life course pathways. They studied the sequencing of five roles: work, education, homemaking, military, and other in 6,700 men and 7,000 women for 8 years following their 1972 high school graduation. The results suggested that men’s life course pathways are more rigidly structured than women’s. Some researchers hypothesize that this gender difference is because women’s lives are more intertwined with the family domain, which tends to operate on nonlinear time with many irregularities (Sattersten & Lovegreen, 1998). Sattersten and Lovegreen go on to suggest that in contrast, men’s lives are rooted more outside the family (the work world) that operate in direct time. However, in recent years, men’s and women’s life pathways have become more similar due to the education of women and their work patterns becoming closer to men’s. This is in contrast to the thought that it is because men have become more involved in the family domain (Sattersten & Lovegreen, 1998).

Research on the family life pathways in minority groups in the United States suggests that they differ from the family life pathways of whites. For example, in part to the high value placed on “kinkeeping” in many minority cultures, minority youth tend to leave home to live independently later than white youth (Stack, 1974). Interestingly enough when questioned about the appropriate age for leaving home minority respondents gave earlier deadlines for leaving home than white respondents in a random sample of a major urban U.S. city–even though the minority respondents actually left home at a later age than the white respondents (Sattersten, 1998).

Another source of diversity for countries with a lot of immigration is the immigrants individual experience leading to the decision to immigrate, the journey itself, and resettlement period (Devore & Schlesinger, 1999; Hernandez & McGoldrick, 1999). The decision to immigrate can vary from social, to religious, to political persecution or oppression. However when they finally escape that they face new challenges in the resettlement period. They must establish new social networks, changes in socioeconomic status, and the pressures to assimilate to their new environment. To add to that, aspects such as gender, race, social class, etc. add to the difficulty of resettling. Family roles are often renegotiated as children out perform the older family members in learning the language (Fabelo-Alcover, 2001).

Developmental Risk and Protection

As the life course perspective has continued to evolve, it has more clearly emphasized the links between the life events and transitions of childhood, adolescence, and adulthood (Shanahan, 2000). Studies indicate that childhood events sometimes shape people’s lives 40 or 50 years later (George,1996).

In Glen Elder’s (1974) study of children from the Great Depression, the long-term impact of developmental experiences was the subject of the beginning of life course research. In his study he compared two groups: the Oakland children who were born in 1920 and 1921 and the Berkeley children, who were born in 1928 and 1929. At the conclusion of this study, Elder concluded that the Oakland children who were born before the Great Depression faired more favorably than the Berkeley children, even though they both experienced the economic hardship and later difficulties in life transitions (Hutchinson). Elder found that this was due to the Oakland children (who were born before the Great Depression) experiencing normal stability and a secure childhood before the economic crisis and making the transition to adulthood after the worst of the downturn. In contrast, the Berkeley children experienced the worst years of the Depressions during their early childhood and when they reached adolescence many fathers were away in military roles and many mothers were working long hours in industrial factories (Elder 1974).

Shanahan and Elder have stated that the idea of developmental risk and protection is a major theme of the life course perspective (Shanahan & Elder, 1997). Other life scholars have added to this saying that it is not only the timing and sequencing of hard times but also the duration and spacing that provide risk as youth make the transition into adulthood. Others have borrowed sociologist Robert Merton’s concept of cumulative advantage and disadvantage to explain the inequality within groups across the life course ((Bartley et al.,1997; O’Rand, 1996).

Researchers and scholars propose that cumulative advantage and disadvantage are socially constructed. This means that social institutions and structures have developed mechanisms that ensure increasing advantage for tose who succeed early in life and increasing disadvantage for those who struggle (Settersten & Lovegreen,1998).

The idea of cumulative disadvantage has started to influence the research of the the wide spread occurrence of disease across communities (e.g.,Brunner,1997; Kellam & Van Horn, 1997; Kuh & Ben-Shlomo, 1997). Researchers in this area are particularly interested in social and geographical inequalities of chronic disease. Many suggest that as individuals experience more illness, have exposure to unfavorable environments, and unsafe behaviors the risk for chronic disease gradually accumulates. Along with this, researchers are interested in how sme experiences may break this chain of risk (e.g.,Brunner,1997; Kellam & Van Horn, 1997).

The study of risk and protection has led to an interest in the idea of resilience. This specifically refers to the ability of some individuals to fare well in the face of risk factors. In studying resilient children Fraser (1997) is looking at the interaction between risk factors and protective factors in their lives. However this area of study is far behind the study of risk factors but it is hypothesized that a cumulative effect will also be found for protective factors

How effective is the internet as a means of meeting new people? Examine the successes and failures of internet dating.

Background History:
In recent years ‘internet dating’ has become very popular for a number of reasons, mainly due to its ease and convenience. In a world where single people often have little time to socialise and find it hard to meet like minded people the internet has provided a link to the world of dating and romance. The scope of people it appeals to is far reaching with men and women of all ages, backgrounds and ethnicities interested.

The number of internet dating sites is continually growing and has become a very successful and effective business. It is estimated that around 6 million people in Britain belong to an internet dating site. Certainly the stigma which was attached to internet dating a few years ago seems to have passed.
(University of Bath Study, 2005)

Statistics show that internet dating is big business with leading sites such as Yahoo Personals and Match.com drawing in 4.9 million visitors and 4.2 million visitors respectively in January 2004 alone. (Blazier, 2004)

Research:
So just how successful is internet dating as a means of meeting new people? Leading internet dating company match.com was launched in 1995 and estimates that through their site hundreds of thousands of relationships have been formed. Moreover, match.com estimates that over 200,000 members found the person they were seeking through the site. (match.com, 2005)

In 2004 a survey was set up by the Weddingchannel.com with results again indicating high success rates for internet dating. The study found that 12% of the 4743 couples registered had met on dating websites. The study also discovered than over 70% of those who had met their partners through internet dating sites were happy to openly admit this to friends and would recommend internet dating to the people around them. (match.com, 2005)
Furthermore, a recent and crucially, an independent research study has also concluded that internet dating is officially a successful way of meeting new people and forming friendships or romance attachments and summarises that online dating can indeed be a success for many people.

The University of Bath in conjunction with Dr Gavin, Dr Scott and Dr Duffield, carried out an online survey of 229 people aged between 18-65 who had previously used internet dating sites.

The study (2005) found that when couples who had spent time forming friendships through emailing or chatting online met for the first time, 94% of them went on to see one another again. Of these relationships formed, on average they lasted for approx 7 months, with 18% of them lasting for over a year. Such figures are in line with relationships formed in more traditional ways. (University of Bath Study, 2005)

The study also brought up a number of other interesting facts; the degree to which the couples interacted before meeting up seemed to play a vital role in the success of the relationship. For example, those who talked on the telephone before meeting up and those who chatted simultaneously online (as opposed to simply emailing) were found to have formed ‘deeper’ and more emotional attachments. Similarly, those couples who exchanged gifts before meeting up seemed to form deeper and more committed relationships. The study concluded that simultaneous communication forms more of an intimacy.

Interestingly, the research showed that men were generally more likely to be committed to the relationship than the women, and tended to be more dependent upon the women. One explanation for this was the fact that perhaps men felt more comfortable with the anonymity which writing brings as it gave them a chance to express their emotions more easily than they would have been able to face to face. It seems that likewise webcams were not viewed as desirable or successful with anonynimity being preferred. Dr Gavin (Author of Research Study) stated that;

“We also found people are shying away from using webcams because they feel its important not to see their partners for some time – there is something special about text-bases relationships.” (University of Bath Study, 2005)

Of all the relationships studied, 39% of the couples were still together at the time of the survey, and of these 24% of the couples had been together for at least a year, and 8% for at least 2 years. Of the relationships which had ended, 14% had lasted for over a year, and 4% had lasted over 2 years. (University of Bath Study, 2005)

Successes:
Invariably there are always going to be people who are more successful at meeting others than some. Many suggest there is a lot you can do to maximise the success of your internet dating experience. For example, the first thing you need to do is produce a great profile to post online. Dating websites such as the Singlescafe.net express the importance of posting a photo alongside your profile, preferable a happy one! This helps ensure people take the trouble to actually read your profile if they like the look of you. The information in your profile should be kept simple and honest. Good grammar and spelling is also a must. (Dr Black, 2003)

DatingDirect.com like many of its rivals offers advice on dating tips and how to find a successful relationship. They suggest that you become a ‘go-getter’ and don’t just wait for others to respond to your profile but actively seek out profiles of like minded members and beginning posting immediately. The theory obviously being that the more people you respond to, the more likely to are you find someone suitable. Obviously for the highest chances of success you should be contacting people who appeal to you, particularly in terms of their hobbies and interests as well as their location. Similarly, they advise that you should respond quickly to members who have contacted you. You should not worry about seeming to eager, good manners win out here. These tips they argue maximise your potential of successfully meeting people and forming a relationship through internet dating.

There are obviously many happy stories of both relationships and friendships formed through internet dating. It gives people an opportunity they may not have had otherwise for many reasons. For example some personal success stories follow:

“….I was very sceptical at first, not really thinking it would work. Anyway I decided ‘nothing ventured nothing gained’ and sent 6 emails, I received 4 replies, Becky was one of them…since I last contacted you Becky and I have got engaged, we are so happy…. meeting Becky has made my life complete.”
Graham (http://app6.datingdirect.com/public/success/feedback.asp)

“What a brilliant service, I have found the girl of my dreams and we are now going strong. Keep up the good work!”
Patrick (http://app6.datingdirect.com/public/success/feedback.asp)

“I met my wife on a dating website. We married last April and are expecting our first baby this April. We couldn’t be happier. I’ve met the love of my life. My soul mate. I would recommend dating websites to anyone. They do work.”
Adam Stevenson, Plaistow, West Sussex, England(BBC News Page, 2005)

Certainly for shy people or those who fear rejection the internet has opened up a new world. They can contact people who are in the same position as them without fear.

Failures:
Aswell as the success stories there also seem to be some failures. At the very least there are a number of common pitfalls to internet dating. While most subscribers will desire a large number of responses to their profile, this can actually backfire on you if you end up receiving far to many to cope with. Conway (from Askmen.com) discusses how he once received 56 responses to his profile and found this rather overwhelming, meaning he had to spend a huge amount of time replying to all the women and basically often repeating what he had said and asking the same questions over again as he couldn’t keep on top of the correspondence;

“I can’t tell you how many times I’ve been embarrassed because I asked a woman the same question four or five times.”
http://www.askmen.com/dating/dating_advice_100/102c_dating_tips.html)

Likewise, it can be a disappointment to some who do not receive as many responses to their profiles as expected.

On a more serious note its important to be aware of the dangers of internet dating as a means of meeting people. The main concern for the user is that the person they are contacting is not who he/she says they are and what they are telling you is not true. There is no way to monitor this and it is purely down to human judgement and experience. A bad experience may put you off internet dating for good. Dating sites urge a strong need for caution.

One of the biggest pitfalls of internet dating seems to be the issue of whether all of the users are infact single. It is very common that many people will claim to be divorced or single when infact they are not. The internet is an easy way to cheat for these people with little of the risks involved were they to meet someone in a more conventional sense. Jennifer describes her personal unhappy experience of internet dating:

“I tried it a long time ago, but the men I met were all, without exception. control-freaks, psychos and/or chauvinists, and usually married. From a personal point of view, I’d say avoid it like the plague, but if it is all you have got, be very, very careful. It is far too common an occurrence that women get caught in dangerous situations using the world wide web.”
Jennifer, UK (BBC News Page, 2005)

In agreement that internet dating is not a viable option to forming new relationships Sarah say;

“Internet dating never works. You can be sure that if a person says one thing to you, they are saying the exact same thing to someone else.”
Sarah UK (BBC News Page, 2005)

Sadly too, often many con artists will use internet dating sites in order to attract people who may be wealthy. Advice suggests you should never reveal anything financial about yourself and most certainly never offer to help someone out with money.

There is also the issue of age with the minimum age being 18; however, again there is no way to verify this. Similarly, there is no true way of knowing until you meet up whether that photo posted in the profile is really a genuine one. If you meet up with someone who has deliberately misled you the experience of internet dating is unlikely to be a successful one. (www.bol.ucla.edu/~jbred/Dangers.htm)

There are also risks involved when the internet dater takes the next step and decides to meet up with the person they have been chatting with. While most meetings will at the very least be harmless ones its important to be aware that the person you are meeting could be dangerous or unstable. The advice given is to always meet in a public place, maybe even bring along a friend. Never meet in a private place where you will be alone and never give out your home address to a stranger. The chances of meeting someone dangerous are not high but awareness is needed. (www.bol.ucla.edu/~jbred/Dangers.htm)

Conclusion:
Whilst it is clear that internet websites are becoming increasingly popular in a society where people find it difficult to socialise and date in a more conventional fashion, it is somewhat unclear just how successful internet dating is for meeting people, or more importantly, in meeting the ‘right’ person and forming long term attachments.

Whilst researching the information I have found that there are numerous stories and experiences which support the idea that internet dating in indeed a very successful way of meeting people, however, there are an awful lot of people who say it has been unsuccessful for them. I think it is important to consider the aspect of ‘luck’ in internet dating just as you would in traditional dating. Despite this, however, the internet obviously opens up a wide potential for meeting people and therefore logic would argue that with access to more potential partners it is more likely you may meet the one who is destined for you. Certainly for many people who otherwise would not have even been on the dating scene the internet opens up huge possibilities and success can definitely be found.

Infact I would conclude that whilst there are both successes and failures to be found, the majority of the somewhat slim available research on the topic does strongly suggest that the internet is a successful way of meeting people. Certainly all the internet dating sites will agree with this statement and offer and display numerous personal success stories, but more importantly, an independent study carried out by the University of Bath strongly indicated that many long lasting relationships were formed through this method of dating and that couples had as good a chance of staying together as relationships formed in more traditional settings. It must be noted again that the research on this topic is still slim and the study was not a major one but nevertheless evidence available overall strongly suggests that internet dating is a success.

Certainly there are ways in order to make internet dating more successful for you and I discussed these earlier. There are also pitfalls to internet dating again discussed earlier. The key seems to be to persevere just as you would in any other dating scenario and the outcome looks good.

Bibliography:

-Datingdirect.com, Dating Tips, available from
http://app6.datingdirect.com/public/help/datingtips.asp (accessed on 12/03/05)

-Datingdirect.com, Members Feedback, available from http://app6.datingdirect.com/public/success/feedback.asp (accessed on 12/03.05)

-University of Bath Study, 14th Feb 2005, available from http://www.bath.ac.uk/pr/releases/internet-dating.htm (accessed on 12/3/05)

-Jones, Techniques of successful internet daters, available from http://www.girl-dating-tips.com/articles/Techniques_of_Successful_Internet_Daters.shtml (accessed on 12/3/05)

– Dr Black, The Internet Cafe, Internet Dating: How to be successful and safe, 2003 available from http://www.singlescafe.net/internet_dating.html (accessed on 12/3/05)

-Blazier, Internet dating service blissfully successful in lasting relationships, March 6th 2004, available from http://www.eharmony.com/core/eharmony?cmd=community-internet-dating-service (accessed on 12/3/05)

-Ambit Gambit, Internet Dating: Looking for love in all the wrong places, April 30th 2004, available from http://ambit-gambit.nationalforum.com.au/archives/000254.html (accessed on 12/03.05)

-AskMen.com, Dating and love, available from
http://www.askmen.com/dating/dating_advice_100/102_dating_tips.html (accessed on 12/03/05)

-BBC News Page, Online dating good for romance, 14th February 2005, available from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/4250281.stm (accessed on 12/03/05)

-The dangers on internet dating, 21st March 2003, available from http://www.bol.ucla.edu/~jbred/Dangers.htm (accessed on 12/03/05)
-Match.com, More married and engaged couples meet on match.com than any other dating website, February 8th 2005, available from
http://biz.yahoo.com/prnews/050208/nytu177_1.html (accessed on 13/03/05)