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This study examined how pro-social courteous acts affect further acts of politeness. It questioned whether pro-social courteous acts promote the initiative to be more polite. Prior research has shown that gender can influences the act of door holding in a naturalistic setting. This study observed males and females to see if the door was held for them and, in response, if they continued this behavior. Observations of 305 college aged participants found that males are more likely to carry out the continued behavior of door holding while females have a higher rate of holding the door when it was not held for them previously. Generally it was found that, regardless of gender, if the door was held for an individual, that individual is more likely to reciprocate the act.

Introduction

According to Baskerville, Kim, Johnson, et al. (2000), today’s society focuses on taking care of ourselves with lack of regard for others. People seem to have lessened the performance of “random acts of kindness.” Due to the rarity of these acts, people generally are hesitant to accept them. According to the article Reactions to Random Acts of Kindness, “promoters of human kindness believe that kindness begets kindness.” This study is trying to determine if gender plays a role in how often kindness is reciprocated. Baskerville, Kim, Johnson, et al. defined random acts of kindness as “something one does for an unknown other that they hope will benefit that individual.” Other studies have been done researching this question and have found various results.

In one study performed by Yoder, Houge, Newman, Metz and LaVigne (2002) found a strong correlation between male door holding and dating, but not in everyday situations. While on a date, males are more likely to hold the door for their partner than in an everyday situation such as on a college campus. People hold doors based on gender-neutral, helpful, or benevolently sexist classification levels.

Door holding is thought to be a form of courting in heterosexual relationships; gender stereotypes contribute to this. It was concluded that 55.2% of women and only 44.8% of men held the door in an everyday context. Yoder’s findings support the thesis of this study, which ishow pro-social courteous acts affect door holding; courtesy defined as well-mannered behavior It has also been seen that there has been a change in door holding patterns in the past twenty years due to societal transformations. This study predicts that men have a tendency to act more courteous than women in a situation regarding door holding in a public setting.

Expectancy violation is defined as one’s preconceived view on what is socially acceptable in regards to polite behavior in public. According to Johnson and Lewis (2010) expectancy violation relates to swearing in the workplace. When a behavior is performed that does not agree with this preconceived view, it is deemed an expectancy violation.

Swearing in a public setting is known as an expectancy violation, as is not holding the door for someone when it was previously held for them. However, swearing is frowned upon to a much higher degree. Not holding the door only affects the person the door was not held for, while swearing affects everyone in earshot. Expectancy violation depends upon cultural acceptance and social norms. What one would expect for behavior is culturally based according to the standards of the society.

Researcher Gibbons (2008) relays that there are several important factors that play a role in politeness such as age, sex, and socio economic status. Politeness is refined behavior towards others. This study done in Japan suggests that women and children are most polite. The reason for this politeness is possibly due the expectancy for it because they have a lower socioeconomic status. It focuses on variations in politeness. How pro-social courteous acts affect politeness varies across cultures. The given study differs greatly than studies done in western societies. It is included to demonstrate how social norms differ among cultures around the world.

Moser and Corroyer (2001) compared door holding across gender and then across cities showing that, while there seemed to be no difference between sex in Paris (for who was holding the door or who was having the door held for them), people in a smaller French city were considerably less civil and high-density situations decreased the civility in both situations. Also, when they were exposed again to the politeness (the door was held for them) they were again returned to being polite.

Goldman, Florez and Fuller (1981) relay that a person may influenced by the actions of others around them regarding pro-social courteous acts. The study goes on to discuss that “the norm of reciprocity states that people should help those who have helped them.” In contrast with this hypothesis, the study states that women are less polite than men.

There are many benefits to performing pro-social courteous acts. According to researchers Buchanan and Bardi (2010) altruistic behaviors promote a more positive outlook on life. Life fulfillment can be dramatically altered based upon the likelihood that one will perform an act of kindness. A study was performed where happiness was measured before and after these acts of kindness were performed. The experiments group, assigned these tasks of kindness, resulted in a significantly increased measure of happiness.

The hypothesis of this study expected to find that females, regardless of whether the door was held for them, are more likely to hold the door for the following person. The act of holding the door is characteristic of a pro-social courteous act. Door holding can be seen as a pro-social courteous act and can easily be observed in a naturalistic setting. Many variables can influence the probability that one will perform such an act. Gender and previously receiving this form of altruism are both factors that influence the reaction of the individual.

Method

The researchers performed a pilot study to find the best possible location to conduct research. Three different locations were observed over the course of three twenty-minute increments. These locations were the main entrance of the psychology building, Mahar Hall, the front entrance to the Campus Center and the side entrance to the Campus Center of SUNY Oswego. At the front entrance to the Campus Center, we observed seven males and eight females. Then, at the side entrance to the Campus Center we observed 21 males and 33 females. Finally, at Mahar Hall, we observed a total of five males and three females.

Each person had his or her own role in the study. One held the outside door for pedestrians walking in. The second researcher will be standing in between the double doors, waiting to see if the person in turn holds the door for them. The third researcher will be recording each observation. After we choose the optimal location for our study, we will perform our experiment using the same techniques used in the pilot.

After conducting the pilot study, it was realized that it would be potentially problematic for the researchers to hold the door for the participants without their informed consent. It was then decided to make this study purely observational and just observe groups of participants walking in and out of sets of doors, still watching to see if the first person holds or does not hold the door for the second and if the second holds or does not hold the door for the third.

For the actual study, the side entrance to the Campus Center was chosen because it had the highest population density. The participants observed consisted of 139 male and 125 female college students. The participants were randomly observed by all three researchers involved in the study. Time was chosen based upon the large number of students entering and exiting the building between classes. All three researchers recorded the data on a premade table to better organize the information. The table consisted of two parts, [door held and not held]. There were two more columns for gender [male and female], each subcategorized into yes or no depending on whether they held the door.

Two studies were conducted. For the first study, observations were made for people holding the door open for a person entering the building. A third person followed, and it was observed if the door was held for them. All researchers were observing and collecting data. For the second study, the researchers observed the door deliberately not being held for the second person entering the building. It was observed if the third person entering the building had the door held for them or not. Again, all researchers were observing and recording the data. The data was then analyzed to determine a conclusion.

The statistical analysis that was used for this study was a two-way chi square analysis. A Between-Subjects design was used for this study. There were four categories including identification number, gender, hold/not hold and behavior.

Results

To test whether gender and pro-social acts each have an effect on door holding, a two-way chi-square test was performed and was significant on both accounts. In this study, the variables gender and door holding showed the results: 2(1, N=305) = 4.94, p<.05. The variables door holding and behavior were also statistically significant: 2(1, N=305) = 11.064, p<.05. The alpha level for this study is .05. Figures 1 and 2, shown below give a visual demonstration of the findings of this observational study.

Discussion

After the data was analyzed, it was determined that gender was statistically significant in regards to door holding as well as pro-social courteous acts. Contrary to our prediction that women would be more likely to proceed with a pro-social courteous act, our results found that males are more likely to continue the act (males = 57.52%, females = 42.48%).

Whether the door is held or not appears to influence the reactive responses of participants. Interestingly, females are actually more likely to hold the door when the door was not held for them. However, when the door is held, males are significantly more likely to reciprocate the gesture.

The exact reasons for this are unknown, but there are assumptions that can be drawn from this behavior. For instance, the environment that the individual was raised in could have an effect. Males are often taught to hold the door for others, whereas in past times, it was a general practice that females would have the door held for them. In a dating situation, Males are strongly encouraged to hold the door for their partner. In a study done by Yoder, men were found to hold the door two out of three times. According to that study, the act of door holding differs upon societal views on “male dominance and female passivity” (2002). These stereotypes exist because of platforms such as the media, social norms and environment.

In future observations, status can become a focus of the study. Status, defined by the setting, may play a significant role. For instance, in an educational setting, professors compared to college students would be conditions of the study. Age could also be taken into account by comparing across age groups and looking for a significant difference. Also, disability could be looked at to see if people are more likely to hold the door for such individuals. Finally, other cultures may show a significant resulting difference in the data.

Further research would benefit this topic because there has not been a considerable amount of previous research. A suggestion for these researchers could be to have a control group and thereby conduct an experiment rather than an observation. One group could be directly manipulated by the researchers and given guidance on socially courteous acts. The other group could consist of people who have not been given the same guidance. All of these people would be randomly selected among the population.

Prejudice has been around for many years and this behavior still exists, and continues to surround us all in each population. In many countries today prejudice is still a big issue among different cultures people always tend to stereotype others just because of race, sex, color or whatever the case may, be. I feel this is unfair because people’s lives are at jeopardy in so many ways because of the negative thinking. Prejudices are opinions formed beforehand without any reason knowledge or thought. I have learned about the seriousness of prejudice, so many people, and great leaders lost their lives because of stereotyping.

The nature and power of prejudice

There are so many prejudices in the world today from racial, gender, and culture. I have experienced all three in some way or other gender being one. I have a family member that prefers the same sex and I have watched my own family tear him apart. It upsets me because he is family. I have heard these same people sit around and talk about how other people are prejudice and they are doing the same thing to a loved one. I have witnessed people telling him that he needs to stop acting and straighten up or he will be disowned from the family. Now that they have made him feel out cast, he has not come to a family gathering in three years. I know that in the bible it says you must not commit this sin but people are only human and they are going to choose to live how they want. I feel that people can live their lives how they choose. They will suffer their own consequences when the time comes (Myers 2010).

However, racial and culture prejudice is the most despicable and ignorant people should not be judged for the color of their skin these days all colors have some kind of racial slur about all cultures. On the other hand, many people have moved away from being prejudice. For example, people of different races now share many of the same attitudes and aspirations (Etzioni1999). For instance, where I work there are blacks, white, Hispanics and when Obama was being elected in to office only a few where upset and out of that few they were black majority of the white were agreeing that we need a black president in office. I feel that racial prejudice may be disappearing many people attitudes are changing with time from how it has been in the past. I am a very neutral person even when I am hearing my friends or family say negative things about Caucasians’, I pretty much get along with everybody it really just depends on that persons attitude you should do unto others as you wish them to do unto you the world would be a much better place.

Social sources of prejudice

Social sources of prejudice starts from family influences there are so many children raised to be prejudice. Prejudice springs from unequal status and from other social sources, including our acquired values and attitudes (Castelli&others2007). Sinclair stated that children implicit racial attitudes reflect their parents explicit prejudice (Sinclair&others). When raised in these types of homes puts society at risk, many children hold a lot of anger depending on what kind of environment they lived in.

One example being, I watched this movie called bowling for columbine and he talked about a lot of prejudice issues and people who have the authoritarian attitude. He talked about how the KKK still lives and showed clips of how they live and train their children. Many of the clips were disturbing they showed how they taught children to shoot guns and a lot of negativity towards African Americans. He also discussed how those boys killed many students at columbine high school. I remember one clip showing the boys talking about whom they were going to shoot and one of them had stated we are going to get the black boy just because he is black. “The insecurity of authoritarian children seemed to predispose them toward an excessive concern with power and status and a flexible right-wrong way of thinking that made ambiguity difficult to tolerate. Such people therefore tended to be submissive to those with power over them and aggressive or punitive toward those whom they consider beneath them.” (Myers 2010) I fear for society if people are out here teaching their children to hate, I am almost afraid to send my children out in the world when we have people out here with these negative thoughts.

Religion and prejudice

However, religion and prejudice stated by William James those who benefit from social inequalities while avowing, “All are created equal “need to justify keeping things they way they are (Myers2010). I agree with this statement there are so many hypocritical people that attend church they are the most judgmental and stereotypical people I have ever seen. So many churches lead people to support their prejudices. I have an uncle and aunt whom are very deep off into church.

They are always quick to judge, I remember when I was a little girl they would call my father the devil. Because he drank, instead of trying to help him, they would talk about him and he would constantly talk about how he hated lesbians and gays. Sometimes you have to be careful of what you say now their children have grown up and they are now doing those devilish things like drinking, and relationships with the opposite sex. The church that I attend is not bad when it comes to judging people. This church is a come as you are there are different races, cultures and people with the opposite sex whom attend church. My pastor teaches us to love one another and not to be so judgmental towards people. He always says each of us will have our judgment day when that time comes. I feel that people should live their lives how they want they are the only ones whom have to answerer to god.

Social institutions support racial prejudice these people use their superiority to justify their beliefs. This was most common in the 1960s. For example segregation in schools and banks whom would not offer opportunities to unmarried women and African Americans. I do remember a couple of years back reading an article about how a school down south wanted to segregate the prom and how parents were protesting not to segregate the prom. I feel racism still exists in many communities in America. When growing up I have never attended school with any Caucasian. Where I am from you can count on your hand how many Caucasian people that actually reside in our community. It is not because we are prejudice I just think they are afraid because of the crime but crime happens in every neighborhood white and black.

Sources that motivate prejudice

Frustration and anger has a lot to do with issues of being prejudice when people are competing for things that may be a scare to society. Now that we are in recession, many people feel that Caucasians’ have a better chance at job opportunities than African Americans. I feel that in some ways it is true because how society is so judgmental these days and this is why many people have so much hate towards each other. For example, my Caucasian friend and I conducted an experiment to see who would really get the job I had all the qualifications for the position and she did not have any skills for that position. At the end of our interviews, she had been the one chosen to fill the position. This is what keeps society frustrated and angry, this is what showed us how I had been stereotyped just that quick.

Social identity and feeling superior to others was one way that our ancestors lived to protect themselves by living in groups. People will do whatever they have to do to protect their groups in most countries. For example, over in Iraq when the war first started how these people are so willing to kill themselves to protect their country. When lacking self-esteem this is what causes people with social identities to become confused. Many disadvantage people find security in groups and this is what makes them so willing to do anything in their power for their group. Many feel that by being in groups this is a need for status and feeling superior over others.

I have noticed that we do tend to still group when you look at different communities you can see how we segregate ourselves there are many communities where there are all African Americans. Hispanics and Caucasians’ where as some communities have a mixture of all races that live and get along in the same communities with no problems. I feel that in some way or another we all have some kind of issue with prejudice. Even if you do not feel like you are, it is somewhere deep down inside, and that is why we segregate our selves. I have heard some people say that neighbor hoods were blacks live are terrible I could never live there. I have heard people talk about communities saying that the police are prejudice where there are majority whites. That is why they choose to live elsewhere. Nevertheless, these are the same people that are quick to call someone else prejudice and not willing to admit to their own.

However, we must learn to avoid prejudices by suppressing unwanted thoughts this can be very hard for people that have phobias about homosexuals and elderly people. This would be because this is all that that have known all of their lives. I can remember when I use to work in a retirement home in dietary their were a lot of elderly people and they use to always make racial comments when I waited on their tables I would just look at them and ignore the ignorant slurs. I had to deal with this for six years I use to feel so much anger towards Caucasian people. I then started to realize that I could not hate all Caucasians’ because of what a couple of elderly people were saying.

This is the way that they had been raised all of their lives because they were from the segregation days, and times are changing now. Not all Caucasians’ have this same racial attitude. I am proud of myself by going through that experience it had brought me to break the prejudice habits that I may have had. When growing up in my neighborhood as a child there was only one Caucasian family. An elderly couple that lived in the area, they got along with everybody, and my mother told me that they said they were never going to move. They had been living there twenty years and it did not bother them to live around African Americans.

Cognitive sources of prejudice

Cognitive sources of prejudice are in categories by classifying and grouping people from what we perceive. We as people are always quick to put people in two categories by their appearance. “Jim Blascovich stated it is necessary for prejudice social identity theory implies that those who feel their social identity keenly will concern themselves with correctly categorizing people as us or them”(Jim Blascovich1997). For example, when I first moved in to my home my neighbors are Caucasian I had lived here for a couple of months she and I had never spoken so I instantly categorized her thinking she was prejudiced as she had already assumed the same for me.

Until one particular night, someone was trying to break into my home while I was there asleep and she sent her son out to scare the perpetrator away. The next morning she came over knocked on the door and told me what had happened. I then realized she was not what I had thought about her all along she is a very nice person and every since that day we speak on a daily basis and we always keep each other informed on what is going on in the neighborhood. Sometimes we have to be careful on how we judge people because you may actually miss having a good friendship with someone.

I feel that black men in society today or categorized, as dangerous gang members, and drug dealers. This is why when a crime has been committed black men are the first to be accused. I have always heard statements like was he black or white. The main thing that gets me is that they ask if he was black first as if they have already assumed that he is black. I remember a couple of years back when a Caucasian woman drowned her own children. She blamed a black man of kidnapping her children and stealing her car. The police and media were on this big manhunt for this black man just because she had accused a black man. They are always the prime suspects every time something happens.

However, because of all of our negative perceptions of people we all tend to categorize on another. For instance, how men use to categorize women as only being able to stay home and bear children and not being intelligent enough to work. These perceptions also feel that all blacks are uneducated hoodlums, and the same is for how homosexuals are a disgrace to the world. These errors occur because most of us focus on the situations and not on the person. The more we continue to have these types of stereotypical attitudes it is a lesser chance that the world will be willing to accept one another as equal human beings.

Consequences of being prejudice

There have been many problems in society because of the ignorance of prejudice. When society tends to label, it can sometimes lead to dangerous activity. I can remember learning in school about all of our civil rights leaders and how many of them had lost their lives, how people acted out with violence in the sixties. There were billions of dollars lost, because of riots due to the violence in society. They were only trying to bring people together in harmony, so that we can all treat each other’s as equals to put an end to stereotyping.

There were so many people at this time that were angry that they felt there should not be equal rights between each human being and this is what lead them to take the lives of these very heroic men. There are so many innocent people affected by prejudice actions, and this affect’s the behavior of the person holding the prejudice issues as well. For example, most homosexuals find it hard to tell their families that they are living this life style, because they feel unaccepted. So in order to avoid the rejection they end up committing suicide. The person who holds all the anger with prejudice issues will eventually one day act out in society with some kind of violent act and this is how innocent people always end up killed. For instance, the 9/11 attack there were thousands of people who had died for nothing just because the ignorance of prejudice.

In conclusion, Prejudice has been around for many years and this behavior still exists and continues to surround us all in each population. In many countries today, prejudice is still a big issue among different cultures. People always tend to stereotype others because of sex, color, or whatever. I feel this is unfair because people lives are at jeopardy in so many ways because of the negative thinking. The world would be a better place if everyone would just stop being so judgmental towards each other.

Essay topic- How can group work be used to bring about social change? Identify an example of a social change that you want to work towards, and describe and critically analyse what role group work might play in bringing about this change.

The development of thinking and practice that is known as groupwork has its basis from the establishment of human civilisation. Group work is the foundation in the existence of human beings, no individual can survive alone, therefore all human beings need to work together in order to live there potential life and achieve their goals. It has been discovered throughout history that people would live in groups, hunt in groups and travel in groups in order to protect each other from the unexpected. This goes to show how vital it is to work together in groups. Papell (1997, p.11) notes that [groupwork] history reflects “the essentials of the human condition” through social concern, collective action, empowerment and survival. This essay will examine how social change can be achieved by groups through groupwork as well as emphasising the range of changes which women’s groups are capable of bringing about (papell 1997, as cited by Mcdermott 2002).

Defining the term ‘group’, as with a lot of the theories regarding group work, has been undeniably problematic and controvertible. Konopka (1963) identifies groupwork as a practice of social work that is developed sequentially to `help individuals to enhance their social functioning through purposeful group experiences and to cope more effectively with their personal, group or community problems’. This demonstrates a more long-established approach within groupwork of helping individuals with their tribulations. Brown (1992) conveys that `groupwork provides a context in which individuals help each other ,it is a method of helping groups as well as helping individuals, and it can enable individuals and groups to influence and change personal, group, organisational and community problems’.

One of the five perspectives outlined in McDermott (2002), group as a power base, focuses on the group taking political action ,which in turn ‘brings about social changes instead of attempting to change individual behaviour’ (Vinik and Levin 1991; weeks 1994, ch.3; Butler and Wintram 1995; DeChant 1996; Benjamin et al 1997, cited by McDermott 2002). Examining the power structure that manages our capitalist society reveals that parts of the population are discriminated against and oppressed. Women and those who belong to minority ethnic or race groups are often stereotyped and excluded from attaining influence and success in the broader community. Whilst developing a group it turns out to be the place where viewpoint, measures, and outcomes transpire which results in the opportunity to liberate and empower group members (McDermott 2002).

It’s been evident since the last couple of decades that groupwork has become a generally recognised strategy for improving the quality of life of people in a very broad range of situations. Groupwork is now known as a specialist means available to social workers and many other workers in social welfare agencies. Heap (1985) implies that the use of groups often improves the merit and the importance of help. Heap asserts that these are basic human situation and as such the social/group workers need to recognise the key group practices as the major source in groupwork (Heap 1985, as cited by Philips 2001).

The effectiveness of groupwork is its ability to bring about change (Coulshed and orme 1998, as cited by Philips 2001) .Group involvement is seen to encourage and support members to divulge aspects of their own lives in order to give advice to others on how their behaviour and reactions affect the group and the wider community. The progress of this insight into personal motivation and others reactions are seen as providing good potential for change (Philips 2001). The fundamental nature of the effectiveness of group work for Coulshed and Orme (1998) and heap (1985) is that it make the most of personal resources or experiences of members to improve concerns and provides a position ‘to help as well as be helped’ (Coulshed and Orme 1998). Nevertheless Coulshed ,Orme and heap do not downplay the intricate nature of group dynamics.

Group dynamics is interested with the way in which groups function. The ways in which groups attempt to achieve such goals by the relations or communication of their members is viewed as a key area of study, as are the factors that effect member interactions.

The women’s Group could be distinguished as encompassing the psychodynamic theoretical base. This perspective emphasises on feelings and revelations and is centered around the idea that people’s current motivations and actions are a reaction to problematic past experiences, Several of which are likely to be in childhood.

The aim of many Women’s Group is to provide a supportive environment. Whereby each member attempts to discusses issues of concern to them. The group members therefore look for solutions to these issues and reinforce one another’s to attempts to combat with helpful planning.

Women’s groupwork encourages significant outcomes for organisational and individual. The group turns into self-supporting which leads to structure of successful group work practice and other women’s groups and individuals benefit from their work. Therefore has benefits for people who undertake group work but for those desires to understand and treat with contempt institutional attitudes of racism, and sexism and class attitudes.

The conception of ‘power from within’ is an important part of women’s empowerment, and forward to an awareness of external reality as well as their sense of group. The method of empowerment is intended to enable women to be part of decision-making spaces on different levels of society. Then they can act as representative for social change and carry feminine values of peace, justice and equality as it has been shown through out the feminist movement. (Jeong, 2000, Sen, 1999)

Being empowered throughout a process of discussion and cohesion can lead to develop a sense of self involving and progression to a political identity. (Rees, 1998, Carr,2003). Which highlights that there should be no hierarchical structures and no ‘power over’ dynamics as part of an approach for building self-confidence in the women in the course of women groups.

It is very vital to analysis and considerate the establishment for both personal and social change (Carr, 2003) .Moreover, individuality creation and self- focus are essential key of the empowerment process. Freire stated that the oppressed are often at odds in order to gain power need to gain self- knowledge. (Freire, 1970, Carr, 2003). The Burma women who were part of this empowerment process they went back to their community after gaining self confident about them self and understanding of their weakness and strength to share their knowledge and experiences with other Burmese women. They become as an active agents for social changes by empowering other women in their community by holding workshops using the some methodologies. According to Norsworthy and Khuankaew (2004) one group of women established a legal system to deal with partner abuse. Some of the women created organisations for women endorse power- sharing and open of other to have their input; they also work in document gender-based human rights violations by the authority such as the military and the police in Burma. They took risk to show others through unity social changes can be achieved.

Group work has continued to survive during tough times. Its’ strength is a tribute to the determination of the heart of people as well as the power of the process (Ramey interview, 1988).

Group work philosophy has continued for a long period of time because it is well-established in a clear knowledge and understanding of human lives and the human circumstance facts. The theories of people, contribution, collaboration, and democracy are still influential. Middleman and Goldberg (1988) prompt that “it is group work that has kept and continues to secure social work in its practice of social reform.

There lies within every person the dread of be alone in this world, forgotten by God, overlooked by tremendous of households of millions and millions. The fear is swept away by looking upon all those around us as friends or family, but nevertheless it is there and one hardly imagines thinking of what would happen to one of us if all the rest were taken away; (Kirkegaarde,1938)

Human beings; dependent upon each other, Koestler explains this independence as

” one of the central features of human predicament’ and describes it as an ‘overwhelming capacity and need for identification with social group and/ or a system of beliefs which is indifferent to reason, to self-interest and even to claims of self preservation'(1969)

Each person can been seen as the product of a continuing process of interaction with others, but the basis of his or her individual personality has been established by many factors in the early years of life, particularly those close to him physically and affectionately.

Group experience therefore is a general term, but obviously in deferent qualities, intensities and duration; it is also a combination experience of most of people been part of different groups in one time. Our experience in each group has the same effect upon our behaviour in any or all of the others. The idea of dependence comes through different discipline and forms a counter of excessive connection upon the individual as an existing entity. Some strong arguments of interdependence stated in theory like Mead, Cooley and Berger “a process, continually created and recreated in each social situation that one enters held together by slender thread of memory (Cooley 1963).

Without the consideration of one’s own standpoint concerning ideological issues, a good number of theorists would agree that experience has educated us that group work, with its tiny numbers, attempted to preserve identity in the midst.

An ultimate matter of social scientists has been why women continue to lag behind in men salary, promotion and authority. Gender inequalities in the labour market have received considerable attention by researchers over the past twenty years. Since the colonial period, Mauritius has been regarded as a patriarchy society with a high rate of marriage. Overwhelming evidence suggests that gender segregation exists in more occupational categories and the number of women segregation is greater than the number of male segregation.

Gender socialization is one of the factors responsible for the reinforcement of gender inequality since childhood. The society continues to transmit the traditional gender roles to the individual through the various agencies of socialization. The different institutions of socialisation play an integral part in shaping the adulthood of an individual. Since childhood, women learn to be submissive and men authoritarian.

Furthermore, wage gap, organizational power and employment opportunities have narrowed somewhat but disparities remain in the country. According to the gender statistics in 2011, it has been found that a lesser proportion of men in employment and for female activity rate it was 43.7% against 75.5% for men. Even though women are higher than men in terms of population, they are still at the disadvantage of the corporate ladder.

Despite many law Acts against discriminations; many workers are faced with sex discrimination which affects them in the labour market. Studies in Mauritius on the labour market have laid more emphasis on gender equality rather than gender inequality. Therefore, this study will aid to shed light on the other side of the coin where occupational gender segregation is discussed.

Aim of the study: The study aim to analyse gender inequality within the workplace of Mauritius.

Objectives of the study:
To find out how gender socialization process reinforces gender inequality.
To analyse how sex discrimination affect workers.
To discuss the different components of gender segregation.
To identify which gender is more prone towards inequality at the workplace.
Gender inequality and occupational segregation

Gender can be identified as set roles, and behaviour patterns that differentiate women from men in socially, culturally and relations of power (Women Information Centre, 2005). However, radical feminism sees patriarchal roots as creating inequality between men and women. Radical feminism views patriarchy as separating rights, privileges and power principally by gender, and as a consequence oppressing women and privileging men.

In general, radical feminist disagree against political and social institutions for the reason that they are closely linked to oppression. As a result, radical feminism is likely to be convinced that political activities support cultural change that promotes patriarchy. Radical feminism is against patriarchy, not men. To compare radical feminism to man-hating is to presume that patriarchy and men are inseparable.

Anker (1997) distinguished two main explanations for why occupational gender segregation should is a continuing concern: first, it is a major foundation of labor market inflexibility and economic incompetency. Second, it is detrimental to women in the sense that segregation brings about harmful views of both men and women as a result, affecting women’s status, income, education, skills (Anker 1997).

The important outcome related with occupational gender segregation is the segregation of the payment methods and the continual sex discrepancy in earnings with women on the inferior edge. The proportion of the gender wage gap is to 5 to 40 percent attached to workplace segregation is seemingly advanced than the amount by career break 15 percent and equivalent worth wage upgrading 5 percent.

Theories of gender inequality

There are two types of segregation: horizontal segregation, which occurs when there is a concentration of women and men in a determined fields and occupations, and produces disparity in terms of career, pension and vertical segregation, which take place when there is a focus of women and men in determined degrees and levels of responsibility or positions, and produces disparity on salaries.

Theories explaining the existence of occupational segregation by gender can be categorized into three broad groups: the neoclassical and human capital theories, institutional and labour market segmentation theories, and non-economic and gender theories.

The neoclassical human capital model

Neoclassical economics believes that workers and employers are normal and that labour markets function efficiently. The neoclassical economic view explains occupational segregation between individuals or groups by different human capital investment, or by different choices in the tradeoff between pecuniary and non pecuniary job rewards. According to the human capital theory, men are paid more than women because men usually have more human capital. The term human capital refers to qualities of individuals that employers consider useful, like level of education and years of experience. Females are considered to have a lesser experience than males due to careers break up in effect of motherhood.

Some economists who support this theory put forward that women’s are not dedicated towards their jobs and hence, they have to undergo through a series of difficulties. For example, they have less chance to have a permanent job, be promoted to superior and better paid occupation. In this model, wage gender inequality is maintained because men collect more human capital in the competitive free market. But opponent of this theory like Witz (1993) contends that even when female work constantly with no professional rupture, they still terminate in inferior and poor-grade employments.

Institutional and labour market segmentation theories

The initial point of Institutional and labour market segmentation theories is the notion that institutions, such as unions and large enterprises, join in determining who is employed, fired and promoted, and how much employees are paid. Institutional theories are also based on the belief that labour markets are divisional in certain ways. The famous institutional theory is the dual labour market approach.

Dual labour market theory consists of two labour markets. The primary labour market consists of high wage, job security and better chance for promotion. The secondary labour market includes lower paid occupation with little job security and poor working condition. According to this theory, women earn less than men because they are disproportionately employed in secondary labour market. Dual labour market is the outcome of the strategies used by company boss to get hold to the varieties of workforce they necessitate. Companies are ready to propose superior rewards to retain primary sector workers.

It is somewhat a short step to become accustomed to the model of dual labour markets to occupational segregation by gender, with one labour market segment consisting in “female” professions and the other in “male” occupations. This segmentation entails moderately low wage rates in “female” occupations because many women workers are “overcrowded” into a small number of “female” occupations. On the other side of the coin, “male” occupations, benefit from reduced competition within a broad set of occupations and, consequently, tend to enjoy relatively high wage rates. If females, but not males, are crowded into low earnings jobs only due to discrimination, then the gender composition of a job becomes an index of labour quality for males and, to a small degree, for females (Hansen and Wahlberg 2000).

On the other hand, Veronica Beechey in 1986, identified some limitations of this theory, firstly, certain women in blue-collar employment are given low salary even if their occupation is alike to primary area males employment. In addition, this model cannot clarify the reasons why women are less promoted than men, even when employment in same occupation.

Gender theories

The central image of the gender theories is that women’s disadvantaged status in the labour market is mainly due and is an evidence of patriarchy as well as females subordinate position in the society and in the family. In many societies, men are regarded as the sole breadwinner and women are accountable for household chores and child care. Anker (1997) explains, this division of responsibilities and male domination are vital for influencing females to accumulate less fewer human capital in contrast with men prior the labour workforce. That is, why girls receive less education than boys, and is less likely to pursue fields of study such as sciences, but is more talented for literature or languages study. The same influences are also instrumental in explaining why women acquire less labour market experience, on average, because many of them withdraw from the labour force earlier, and many others have discontinuous labour experiences.

This theory further show how female occupations mirror common stereotypical roles. For example, women’s caring nature, skill and experience in household work, greater manual dexterity, greater honesty and attractiveness can qualify her for occupations such as nurses, doctors, social worker, teacher, maid, housekeeper, cleaner, etc. while women’s lesser physical strength, lesser ability in math and science, and lesser willingness to face danger can disqualify her for occupations such as engineer, mathematician, driller, miner and construction worker.

Gender socialisation as a medium for encouraging gender inequality

Crespi (2003) see socialisation as a logical route with its objective to construct gender personality. The gender socialization process is a further composition of socialization. It is all about the way children of different sexual categories are socialized into their gender roles and learn what male or female character is. According to many sociologists, there exists difference between sex and gender. Sex is the biological classification and gender is the outcome of social construction of separate roles of males and females.

According to Lorber (2005), masculinity and femininity is not inborn that is children are taught these traits. As soon as a child is identified as being a male or female, everybody start treating him or her as such. Children learn to move in gendered ways through the support of his environment. As the child grows up, he develops his identity, know how to interact with others and learn the role to play in the society. There are many drivers involved in the socialization process which transmits the traditional gender role to the children and henceforth leading to occupational segregation later on.

One set of gender socialization occur between parents and the offspring. Parents are considered to be the primary agency in the process of socialization. They are inclined to interact with boys and girls in discrete styles. For example, a one year old baby is considered to have no sex difference however; parents are likely to act with boys and girls in dissimilar ways. They react to boys, when they seek interest by being aggressive and girls when they use gestures. As such interaction have long term effect on girls and boys communication styles, leading boys to more assertive styles and girls with more emotive styles in adulthood.

This communication styles can aid to inequalities between male and female in the workplace. Male tend to be dominant in terms of authority and women submissive in whatever status they hold in the organisation.

Ann Oakley (1972), studies mention four central avenues in which socialization into femininity and masculinity roles occur. Firstly, apply diverse physical and verbal manipulations to the child. For example, dress up children according to their sex, girls in pink and boys in blue color clothes. Secondly, draw the child concentration towards gender-identified toys. This is known as canalization whereby, boys and girls are given certain toys, clothing and other objects often culturally identified more with one gender than the other.

The games of the boys tend to advance physical interest whereas for the girls it leads to physical closeness and mother-child talk.

Thirdly, employ different verbal explanations to similar behavior. In professional careers, women might find that they might are identified with different standards for the same behavior, being called “assertive,” for example, for behavior at work that in men is admired for being “aggressive.” In childhood it is the same case, a boy is cheered for being “active,” where as a girl is reprimanded for being “too rough.” Or a girl is complimented for being “gentle,” but a boy is criticized for not being “competitive enough.”

Finally, encourage or discourages certain stereotypical gender-identified activities. For example, girls are asked to help mother with sewing, cooking, ironing, and the like. Boys are to help dad to do yard work, shovel snow, takeout the trash, and so on. The classification of girls with indoor domestic chores and boys with outdoor chores becomes training for stereotypical gender roles. According to Oakley (1972), the socialization route aid to the preservation of male domination and female subservience. The roles learn through the above process shape adult behaviour and hence, contribute to the reproduction of differences in behavior of males and females.

School is the agency where conscious socialization happens. The education system is the main part of gender socialisation process. Looking through books from the very beginning gender stereotypes is present and reinforced. The small kids see women being represented in pictures in their books as with babies in their hands or women in domestic chores or at the high end – women nurses, women teachers. At the same moment, men are usually soldiers, playing some prestigious physical games and leaders. These images often direct to further divisions between man and woman.

The hidden curriculum is known for reinforcing the traditional model of how girls and boys look and act through the use of course material. For example, teachers strengthen gender roles by encouraging boys and girls to develop different skills. According to Thorne (1993), children also split themselves along gender lines in the lunch room, declaring different space of the playground and often sanction individuals who go against gender roles.

The school location can be strong context for gender behaviors. For example, the cafeteria is a strong context where boys and girls separate tables if given choice. Likewise, on the playground, boy and girl groups take over spaces. The children of Different World project found that in societies where all the boys and girls go to school together, identical gender interaction was very high during free play, thereby follow-on in more gender segregation than was generally found in homes and neighborhoods.

Generally the mass media are one of the most influential instruments of gender socialization because television, magazines, radio, newspapers, video games, movies, and the Internet are present in almost everywhere around the globe. As a social institution, the mass media reinforce traditional gender roles. Magazines pointing towards females bring light to the importance of physical appearance as well as finding, pleasing, and keeping a man. While boys’ and men’s magazines focus on significance of physical appearance, financial success, competitive hobbies, and attracting women for sexual encounter.

These supposed ”masculine” and ”feminine” characteristics and behaviors are reinforced across the media system, from video games and movies that show athletic heroes rescuing thin and busty damsels in distress, to television programs that depict women as housewives, nurses, and secretaries and men as lawyers, doctors, and corporate tycoons.

Print media also play an important role in socialization. In children’s literature, for example, boys typically are the protagonists, who use strength and intelligence to overcome an obstacle. Girls are included in stories as being naturally passive followers of the male leader or helper’s eager to support the male protagonist in his plan. This state of affairs is undergoing change, however. An increasing number of television shows, movies and books have crafted new visions of masculinity and femininity. It remains to be seen if these images take hold and affect gender socialization processes.

Gender inequality in the local context

Mauritius is a remote small open island economy. In geological time, it is a very young island, which emerged from waves of volcanic eruptions in the Indian Ocean over the last eight million years. A high degree of concentration and interpenetration of finance, agro industrial and merchant characterizes the economic structure of the country. The structure of formal employment consists of deep gender imbalance against women.

The Economic and Social Indicators (ESI) on gender statistics represents women and men in the Republic of Mauritius. In 2011, Mauritius ranked 63rd out of 146 countries compared to 2008 it was ranked 46th out of 138 countries according to the Gender Inequality Index of the UN. Before 1950’s it has been found that women were in fewer number than men in Mauritius. However, the female population has been growing rapidly such that in the 50’s there were almost equal numbers of men and women. As from 1990, women have been increasingly outnumbering men over the years. The sex ratio in the population, declined from 100.2 in 1972 to 97.3 in 2010 and it is expected to decrease further to reach 95.8 in 2050.

In 2011, it has been found that a lesser proportion of women than men of working age (16 years and above) were active, that is, in employment or looking for work. The economic activity rate for women was 43.7% against 75.5% for men. The active population stood at 582,800 with 363,600 men and 219,200 women compared to 2010, women was 43% compared to 76% for men, the active population stood at 581,300 with 362,400 men and 218,900 women.Men and women have a similar pattern of economic activity during their life that is less active at the younger and older age groups. The activity rates for both are highest in the age group 30 to 45 years.

Some 191,800 women held a job in 2011 and accounted for 35.7% of the Mauritian employed population. It has been found that female employees were more qualified than male, with 22% holding a tertiary qualification against 17% for men. There were an almost equal proportion of working men and women having a School Certificate but 7.4% women had a Higher School Certificate compared to 5% for men.

Both men and women had a high proportion of their working population in the tertiary sector (covering trade, hotels & restaurants, transport and other service industries), 68% for men and 57% for women. The secondary sector (covering manufacturing, electricity & water and construction) accounted for one third of the working men and one quarter of the working women. While women represented some 40% of the employment in the manufacturing sector, they comprised less than 1% of the construction industry.

Women were more likely than men to be employees, with 85% of the employed female in that employment status compared to 78% among the men. They were also much less likely than men to head their own business; while 21% of working men were employers or own accounts workers, only some 11% of women held that status.

On average an employed woman works 38 hours, 6 hours less than a man. However, women heading their own business and those contributing in the family business worked respectively 7.5 hours and 8.2 hours less than their male counterparts.

Both female and male were found spending less hours in the agricultural field than in other areas of the labour market. However, women worked 10 hours less than men in that sector. Women worked 8 hours less in public administration, 5 hours less in hotels & restaurants and 3 hours less in manufacturing, trade & education sectors.

Women as well as men tend to work fewer hours at the older age. The difference in hours worked by women and men varies across ages; it increases with age to reach a peak of 8.3 hours at the age group 45 to 49 years, and decreases thereafter.

In spite of being fewer in the labour force, women are over represented among the unemployed. Unemployed women numbered 27,300 in 2011 compared to 18,800 men. Female unemployment rate stood at 12.5%, much higher than the rate of 5.2% for male.

Unemployment rate is higher among women than men at all ages, except for the elderly. The difference in unemployment rate is more pronounced at the very young age.Among unemployed women with previous work experience, 22% left their last job due to marriage, childbirth and household responsibilities. Another 13% women were unemployed following closure of establishment. The main sectors where the unemployed women worked previously are manufacturing (29%), trade (25%) and hotels and restaurants (10%).

On balance, there has been a dramatic change in the occupational and sectoral distribution of the labour market since, with the rising share in the manufacturing, and a declining share in agricultural and domestic service. Employer’s preference for women because of their natural and culturally defined attributes, as well as their adaptability, productivity and acceptance of lower wages in the past are some of the reasons accounting for the predominance of female labour mostly in the EPZ sector in Mauritius.

Despite increase in employment over the last couple decades, we can still see that there still exists gender disparity in the labour market. In addition, with increased occupational opportunities enjoyed by women, they are still faced with the burden of household responsibilities for example, as mentioned above, woman works 38 hours, 6 hours less than a man. This show woman career is still constrained with household occupations.

The factors which have promoted labour force are: fertility reduction, increased life expectancy, economic hardships and wider aspirations beyond the confines of family and home. However, the main factors constraining higher participation of female Mauritian in the labour market are resistance by own family members, inability to make arrangement for childcare, housework exigencies, nurturing within the household, reproductive responsibilities and difficulties in managing the interface between home and work.

Therefore, women hit a class ceiling as far as the management in concerned. Such is generally the case despite higher academic achievement than men. This secondary role is also reflected in their working conditions and their position in society and family. While the concept of equity and equality should be established in the world of work, women have to be provided with wide opportunities and can be further encouraged to develop their aptitude and potential optimally.

Globalization in Mauritius can also be considered as a threat for widening difference between men and women in the labour market and further creating gender inequalities. Trade expansion has increased women’s access to labour market, however, it worth pointing out that the vast majority of these jobs are low salary and low-skilled. In the light of existing gender inequalities, a widening gap between men and women in terms of access to economic resources and benefits to be derived from globalization can be foreseen.

Mauritian Law protecting against discrimination in workplace

The Constitution of Mauritius is regarded as being the supreme Law which clearly protects this philosophy of equality at Chapter 2 Section (3) and (16) which imparts for non discrimination as follows:

Section 3

”It is hereby recognized and declared that Mauritius there have existed and shall continue to exist without discrimination by reason of race, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed or sex, but subject to respect for the rights and freedom of others and for the public interest each and all of the following human rights and fundamental freedoms”.

Section 16
Protection from discrimination

Subject to subsections (4), (5) and (7)-no law shall make any provision that discriminatory either of itself or in its effect.

Subject to subsections (6), (7) and (8)- no person shall be treated in a discriminatory manner by any person acting in the performance of any public function conferred by any law or otherwise in the performance of the functions of any public office or any public authority.

The Government of Mauritius has also passed law to eliminate all forms of Gender Discrimination and sexual harassment in certain areas of public activity under Sex Discrimination Act No. 43 of 2002. This act protects a worker from all forms of inequality in employment related to recruitment, selection, training, on grounds of gender, marital status and family responsibilities.

Gap in literature

It has thus been seen that gender inequalities is apparent in all societies and many research has been done with the aim of improving the condition of people at work. In Mauritius, however, gender inequality is relatively a concept which is ignored despite many laws exist to eliminate any sort of discrimination. The measures undertaken by the government still remain at initial stage. There exists little research concentrating in the field of gender inequalities in the workplace of Mauritius. The gap in the literature is little because it has focused on only one dimension of gender inequalities. In Mauritius, however, the concept of gender inequalities in the labour market is buried. As a matter of fact, research is urgently required to determine the all the factors leading to occupational gender segregation and also find ways to improve the conditions of employees at work.

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Methodology is influenced by the purpose of the study and it is based on the best strategy to respond to the research questions. The objective is to provide insight into the methodologies used as well as into the reasons and pertinence of their use.

Research design is a plan as to what data to gather, from whom, how and when, and how to analyze the data obtained. It is a systematic plan to coordinate research steps to ensure the efficient use of resources and to guide the research according to scientific methods; again, it is a plan to be followed to meet the research objectives, and is the framework within which to solve a specific problem. A research design describes a logical manner in which individuals or other units are compared and analyzed; it is the basis for making interpretations of the data. The purpose of a design is to ensure that the relation between independent and dependent variable s is not subject to alternative interpretations. It is the clue that holds all of the elements

The project will employ questionnaire to identify the different causes of gender inequality within the workplace. The present research is mainly based on a survey method and the major means of gathering data from a questionnaire. Questionnaire is a medium for collecting and recording information about a topic of interest. It is consists of a list of questions and include clear instructions and space for answers or administrative details.

This study will employ a quantitative research method. In this study the data will be collected by the use of self-administered questionnaires. Self- administered questions will be used in order to accurately gather the required survey data from selected respondents to meet the researcher’s informational objectives, to present as positive an image of market research as possible to the respondents such that they will not feel negative toward the survey but welcome it and future surveys.

The questions in the questionnaire describe the situation in which the respondents experienced discrimination and the way in which he believes discrimination took place. Self-administered structured questionnaires are more cost effective to administer than personal interviews. They are relatively easy to administer and analyse. Most people are familiar with the concept of a questionnaire and it reduces the possibility of interviewer bias. They are convenient since respondents can complete it at a time and place that is convenient for them.

How has gender inequality been explained? (Answer with reference to a range of theories and approaches) Critically assess the attempt of one of the feminist group to overcome gender inequality. Social stratification “A system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy’ (Macionis and Plummer: 2005: 190). Social stratification is common in different aspects throughout society and throughout history some of the most substantial categories affected are class, race, disabilities, sexuality and globally. However this essay shall be investigating the stratification by gender, referred to as gender inequality.

There are many reasons for the disparity of gender “…circumscribed by its underlying social, legal, political, economic, and cultural characteristics” (Rives and Yousefi 1997:1). Gender stratification categories people in regard to their ‘sex’, this can be defined as anatomical differences and physiological differences between male and female for example the difference in chromosomes, sex organs and hormones. The word ‘gender’ has been socially constructed through the means of a stereotype and ideology of the social role, identity, position and behaviour of male and feminine through different institutions and aspects like the media, religion, culturally and historically.

Up until the era of Suffragettes in the late 19th Century women were always deemed lower than men and inequality was highly significant society it was fundamentally a patriarchal society. The traditional preconceptions were that men were strong, intellectual beings that were the hunter gatherers and providers for their household. Whereas, women were passive objects that would cook, clean, cater for their husbands wants and desires, and doing nothing more than bear and raise children. “To the woman he (God) said, I will greatly increase your pain in childbearing; with pain you will give birth to children. Your desire will be for you husband, and he will rule over you.” (Genesis 3:16). This interlinks with religion and reiterates traditional and religious view from The Bible. There are a substantial amount of reasons why there is clear gender inequality in society, this essay will assess and show the many theories into the existence of this.

Biological determinism is a theory that asserts that males and females appearance, mental and general behaviour and position on the social hierarchy is all in relation to their genetic make-up and genes, the differences between male and females socially is dependant on the fact of them being different sexes alone. The Evolution of Sexes written by Geddes and Thompson shows a generalisation of a biological determinist analysis of gender. They claim that social, psychological and behavioural traits were caused by metabolic state. Women supposedly conserve energy (being ‘anabolic’) and this makes them passive, conservative, sluggish, stable and uninterested in politics. Men expend their surplus energy (being ‘katabolic’) and this makes them eager, energetic, passionate, variable and, thereby, interested in political and social matters. These biological ‘facts’ about metabolic states were used not only to explain behavioural differences between women and men but also to justify what our social and political arrangements ought to be. Due to all these factors it is apparent biological determinism theorists that gender stratification is fate, females are meant to be inferior to males and this cannot be fought or changed in society and therefore is highly beneficial.

Functionalists would argue that gender stratification is universal and positive for society. A key functionalist thinker Talcott Parsons explained how the differences in the sexes (gender) have provided complementary roles for both male and female (Instrumental and expressive), and how the difference in roles which are biologically based helped traditionally integrate society. He believes that gender differentiation and the understanding of division of labor means social stability. Women labeled “expressive” by Parson should typically be in control of the family units be the emotional support, take care of the household chores and the security and well being of the children. Opposed to men, labeled “instrumental” whose role is to “connect the family to the larger world primarily by participating in the labour force”(Macionis and Plummer 2008:381), work and focus on issues outside of the internal family unit. Parson theorises that gender identity is social, formed through numerous means of social control and is needed for both male and female to gain appropriate skills to succeed in life. The knowledge of these specific skills and understanding of the difference of gender identities to the opposite sex (expressive and instrumental)are in a sense indoctrinated so that, for example if a male is not deemed instrumental he is therefore unattractive and is rejected by the expressive women. This clear distinction of the division in the family unit ensures harmony in the family and thus benefits society on a whole Functionalists view the potential for social disorder “only when all of the aspects of traditional gender stratification are disturbed.” (Schaefer and Lamm 1998).

During the 20th Century there were huge upheavals in the traditional view of women and their roles and the view of a predominately patriarchal society they were living in. Women now wanted to be able to work and have an education, not deemed less able due to biological determinism and be treated equally, which gave birth to a collection of huge movements in sexism and inequality and also different views with in feminism (Liberal, Socialist/Marxist and radical). One point that is evident throughout all the different interpretations of feminism is that women have not been seen as equal throughout the social structure.

Liberal feminists do not see women’s oppression as part of large system structure but however believes that biological determinism as a source for inequality within the political and justice realm as completely barbaric. There may be some slight procreative differentiation but that should not be any differences in relation to the law, politics, employment or educational institutes, they believed the only way of reformation was through the reform of these institutes. Liberal feminists believe in the rights for every individual woman in society.

Socialist/Marxist feminism is adopted through two major writings, Firstly in Engels writing in 1884 The origin of the family, private property and the State and through Marx’s conflict theory evident in the Communist Manifesto, which is a struggle between the oppressors (capitalists/ bourgeoisie) and the oppressed (working class) to maintain an equal social structure one needs to overthrow capitalism. Beasley wrote that “the base-superstructure model of society, that is, social relations- including those related to sexual inequality- are conceived as crucially shaped by the economic base of society, rather than ideas and attitudes” (Beasley 1999:61) Marxist Feminists believed the only way to end this patriarchy was through social revolutions against capitalism for equality. As males dominated the means of production and owned all the property women Engels contended were alienated due to the economic reliance on their husbands. “Engels links the modern oppression of women to the institution of private property. Correlatively , he argues that the economic system of capitalism draws women into the public workforce and thus sets the conditions for their equality” (Carver and Steger 1999:254) The only way women would be able to throw the unfair justice of capitalism would be to be free of marriage, laundry, cooking, childcare and childbirth and reforming the structure of the family. So that women can get full-time jobs through revolting equaling out the inequality in gender.

This essay has briefly summarised the main theories and some brief approaches of gender inequality, Radical feminism is similar to that of Marxist feminism but more extreme, it is similar in the aspect of it fundamentally believing that the oppression and control of women is to do with how Capitalism promotes gender exploitation. Women are segregated into a “sex class” and therefore should stick together. Radical feminists believe that the only way for gender equality is the complete eradication of patriarchal society and any aspect of society that males dominate, this is the only way for female liberation. Radical feminists believe women are oppressed through their ability to reproduce and the sexualisation by men, they should be seen as the enemy. The only way women can free themselves is through any aspect of association with males, this includes not having heterosexual relationships and not producing off spring in order to liberate. Alice Echols and Ellen Willis wrote about radical feminism in their book Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America that “Radical feminism was a political movement dedicated to eliminating the sex-class system”(Echols and Willis 1989:4) The sex class system also included the sex-role system which sees marriage, family, prostitution, and heterosexuality as repressive. They believed gender inequalities root cause was sexual oppression, women need “to gain control over their bodies/biology and relatedly to value and celebrate women’s bodies”(Beasley, C 1999:55) . This interlinks with a psychoanalytic feminist such as Sigmund Freud where he shows that gender is embedded in language and through sexualisation and thought from the earliest state of childhood. This is through the penis envy theory, this is when girls realise they don’t have a penis and from being attached to her mother, finds a stronger attachment to the father. She accepts her inadequacy and subordination in society by accepting her mother’s values and containing her craving for her father. According to many theorists Radical feminism is also about “generating widespread support for campaigns around issues such as rape, domestic violence and sexual harassment” (Dean 2011) as well as the promotion of contraception, sterilization and abortion.

The word “radical” in itself holds factors for criticism; this is an extreme view that has many factors that can be deemed incorrect. You cannot categorise all women into a sex class as there is no substantial evidence that supports the idea of this. How is it possible that all women just because of their biological similarities are the same, and can be generalised so flippantly? It doesn’t entail any other aspects such as culture, psychological, class or economic factor in a way of determining gender construction.”Radical feminism not only ignores important differences among women but also reproduces exactly the stereotypical vision of women and men” (Beckham and D’Amico 1994:80) Isn’t this exactly what radical feminism is fighting against, the generalisation? Radical feminism ignores legislations like the Equal Pay Act 1970 and The Sexual Discrimination Act 1975 and how politics are constantly changing in regard to sexism and the maltreatment as women as a class. Radical feminism suggests that society should be matriarchal, this would continue the process of gender inequality but just the other way round. Another limitation of radical feminism is that instead of promoting marriage it does the opposite, that women should be rid of all these stereotypical roles, this in a way promotes promiscuity and even unhealthy relationships. Radicalism is damaging to society as a whole because society cannot reach its maximum potential if one group is more domineering than another.

How much is family life changing? In one of the BBC articles written by Mark Easton in 2007, he highlights that in a survey which is made by BBC, three quarters of Britain are positive about future of their family. Correlatively, it is deduced that 40 years ago people were less happy than now. When the BBC exhibited its research of families in Britain, the result demonstrated that closest relationships between family members were deteriorating in time in consequence of reduction in traditional family structures. In spite of all alterations, 93% of the people in the world are satisfied with their family life. Moreover, Easton claims that ‘for every three weddings there are now two divorces’ which shows the highest rate in Europe. Cohabitation has increased to 64% in ten years. So that, approximately half of children were born outside wedlock.

What is the Family Life for a Single Parent?

What Easton states in a BBC article in 2007 is that the highest proportion of lone parenting is in Europe which also indicates that one on four children now stay with a single mother. In addition, Academic studies have been proved in 2007 that children who have one mother are less successful at school than offspring of married couples. According to growing numbers of people (7/10) rely on that parent are getting worse at family life. Although Easton gives a general information and important statistics about lone parenting, Kimberly Gail highlights essential sides of single parenting in 2011 in BBC news.

According to Gail’s point of view, ‘parenting is a challenging endeavour.’ Lone parenting is not only challenging but also very fulfilling. The custodial parent struggles with responsibility of looking after and providing basic requirement. When you are a lonely mother, you are expected to make up your mind by yourself and so that you can have a healthy and happy family life through following some primary steps. Gail divides lone parenting into 5 groups.

COMMITMENT- In an attempt to be as successful parent, you have to have courage to take responsibilities as they fall on your shoulders. Your family is supposed to be your priority. Due to the fact that you are a parent, you are committed to spend time and money to support your children physically and emotionally.

HOME MANAGEMENT- Because lone parenting requires you to be alone in your house hold, organisation is essential. Many single parent families are responsible for arranging household. In order to be successful in organising, one of the good ways is to create an assigned daily list of household chores for everybody. It is even very easy for a small child as she/he will be picking up and putting away the toys.

RESPONSIBILTY- Single parents are responsible for rising children alone and direct them to variety of activities.

RELATIONSHIPS AND TRADITIONS- It is substantial for parents to carry daily rituals. Rituals and traditions are materials of keeping family members together and can be a relaxing reminder of stability. In order to give examples to keep rituals going; get together for a dinner, go out for bowling at the weekend and join to activities that will create a warm environment as it reinforces family chains.

SELF-CARE- Many single parents sacrifice a lot to make stable house warmer for their children. However, parents should know that taking care of them is also very important. Daily exercise reduces stress and provides you a healthy life. Taking time with family and parents is also essential to strengthen relationships. Some parents also take advantage of religious community and spiritual guidance.

Technology’s role

The other factor in family life which we can mention is technology. As it is easier to access to a public transport than 50 years ago, the distance between family members decreased. According to Mark Easton (BBC Home Editor) mobile phones have made communication between family members easier, even though the internet has not yet become very common in family environment. With regard to the researches in 2007 less than a third of internet users preferred contacting their parents every week and 8% of them communicated everyday. Although family life changes fast, we esteem are family ties more than ever.

According to what James Westhead states, despite increasing influence on family life, with computers and internet, it is clear that they have negative impact on relationships. Parents complain about the amount of time that their children spend in front of screens rather than involve in traditional family activities. To give an example, Second Life is a programme which makes people or families interact online as an avatar and even share family meals. Professor Lewis implies that ‘Technology is a double edged sword for families, it can erode and reduce human interaction but at the same time, technology is great at bringing people together just look at mobile phone use within families.’ (Lewic.C, BBC news: 2007)

A BBC pool has indicated that most of the British people are very positive about their family future. A question arises; what will size of families be in the future? According to predictions, in case trends in the past continue, parents in the future will not have many children and not get married. In reference to researches, the percentage of children who has non-married parents has increased 3 times more in last 50 years to 40% while the number of children has dropped to 1.8 in a family. A third of un-married parents are single and the rest of the people are co-habiting, however are more willing to separate than in the past.

According to James Westhead, predictions are unreliable. Professor Charlies Lewis (expert on family psychology) highlights that we will encounter with more single parents and more separation ‘People are already making and breaking relationships more easily and that is not necessarily a bad thing. Fighting between parents who stay together can be harmful for children.’ (Lewis.C, BBC News: 2007). The most influential factor is most probably economic. Moreover, the increasing cost of living and pressure leads people to have fewer children.

Families become hot political topic

It was brought forward that single parents and other family variations should not be involved in government policy. It is a common thought that while some traditional families which includes a married couple looking after children in a constant home seemed to be the ideal, dramatic social changes occurred in last decades and it became intolerable to base policy on it. According to Assinder in 2007, social changes caused the nuclear family to emerge. Furthermore, it was argued by some people that most of the social problems were generated by collapse in traditional family life. Correlatively, Tory Prime Minister John Major began to cut married couple’s tax allowance in mid – 1990s and it was ended by Labour in 2000. The leader David Cameron implied in BBC’s News night in 2007: “Marriage is, on the whole, a good thing that should be rewarded not punished.” In addition, the chief secretary, Andy Burnham gave his opinion about marriage and stated that “I don’t think the Tories should have a monopoly on this kind of thing. This is totally where Gordon Brown is coming from, your roots and your family are everything.”

Never the less, the policy on family is possible to alter, as majority of people showed interest to David Cameron’s announcements. Particularly, Cameron’s promissory speech in order to increase the inheritance tax to ?1million took less attention in the party conference. According to Liberal Democrats, tax break are not the right way to be chosen and they insist to focus on helping couples stay together.

It appears that the family is bound to become one of the most common issues in following elections and policy.

This essay will examine two theoretical sociological perspectives on society and how it functions. It will compare and contrast Marxism and functionalism. By describing and evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of both perspectives.

Marx called the system in which we live in, capitalism, He divided it up into two basic divisions, the ‘bourgeoisie’ (the owners of production), the bourgeoisie own all the means of production for example the farmland and factories and the ‘proletariat’ (The Workers) sell their skills and labour to the bourgeoisie. This is a simple view of a complex social phenomenon; theoretically more social classes should be identified. It fails to take into account any sub divisions.

The bourgeoisie or ‘ruling class’ benefit the most from the way that society operates and the proletariat do not and therefore gain far less than they deserve. Marx believed that the proletariats would, in the end, refuse to conform and revolt, destroying the bourgeoisie in order to become free for oppression and gain social mobility.

“What the Bourgeoisie, therefore produces, above all, is its own grave diggers, (Marx, Engels, 1884).

Marx thought that the bourgeoisie did not improve society but created situations of crisis, what he did not take into account was the money that they were putting back into society and that fact that without them the majority of the proletariat would be without work.

The superstructure for example: The Government, legal system, religion and the mass media are all owned by and used by the bourgeoisie to create ‘false class consciousness ‘ amongst the proletariat in order to avert them from rebelling from their exploitation (Haralambos,2002,p.2).

According to Marx capitalism is the newest type of class system, but it will also be the last. A communist society in which the means of production will be equally owned will replace capitalism, he thought that the proletariat will form unions, political parties and revolutionary movements enabling communism to overthrow capitalism (haralambous, 2002, p.7).

What Marx failed to do is set a time frame for the revolution. Some unions that have previously revolted against the bourgeoisie have failed and temporarily sent society into disarray. The power in economic systems is separable from other sources, male and female inequalities can not be explained in economic terms (Giddens, 2009, p.93).

The theory is inadequate because it only fully explains a proportion of society and does not take into account individuals ideals and ambitions.

A positive aspect of Marxism is that it highlights inequality and institutions that foster and perpetuate inequality it has brought a different perspective to examination of social systems and it has demonstrated a social conscience. The focus of Marxism has lead to the formulation of social policies and programs.

Functionalism is a sociological perspective that society is based on consensus, consensus assumes that norms and values in society are generally agreed and that social life is based on co-operation, rather than conflict (Lawson, 1996, p.48). What it fails to consider is that some people to not agree with the way that society functions and that not everyone holds that same norms and values. It is the oldest yet still is the most dominant theoretical perspective in sociology.

Functionalists such as Talcott Parsons (1902-1979), argued that the key to understanding human behaviour is understanding socialization. He used the analogy of the human body, with each part of society having a function (a purpose) like each vital organ for example; the government of society was compared to the human brain. If one part of society fails the whole system would fail, like the body would if it was to lose a vital organ. Parsons (1971) even viewed the whole world as a system of societies.

Functionalists believe that people and their social roles are produced by society and individuals themselves do not produce a society. He claimed that individuals are products of their influences e.g. families, friends, educational and religious background and the media that they are exposed to. They are born into their place in society, play their roles in it and then they die, without at all effecting how society functions, society does not and it continues to work long after they are gone(Moore,2001,p.6). For functionalists social institutes are believed to ensure that the socially acceptable patterns of behaviour are passed on or reproduced. For example family, education and the media socialise people into the key values of society this includes, respect for authority and the hierarchy (Moore, 2001, p.9). Stratification which is inevitable in societies unites people because it derives from shared values.

Durkhiem (1938) identified four main characteristics of crime he argued that crime is a social construct, which can actually benefit society because crime strengthens bonds between people. It reinforces norms and values, and a limited amount of crime is necessary to stop society stagnating.

“Crime could be reduced if individuals were controlled, but this would prevent development of positive deviants who go against societies norms and values, yet move society forward”, (Durkhiem, 1938).

Parsons (1965) identified religion as an important function in society as it helps people is crises, enabling them to carry on playing their social roles, allowing society to function normally.

Parsons also identified that in order for society to function everyone had to continuously play their own roles, he identified the ‘sick role’, where the function is to play the role of being ill and to get better as soon as possible in order to get back into your role. In order for the system to perform, all roles must be filled by those best qualified to perform them, he even thought that those who are unemployed had a role to play in order for those in higher authority to keep their roles. He stated that those in who successfully played their roles will be ranked highly and will receive rewards, although it can be argued that the mechanism (social stratification) for insuring effective role allocation; attaches unequal rewards and privileges to positions in society. However a criticism of Functionalism is that it is, descriptive and classificatory and only gives names for society and social changes, and does not explain them.

Although both Marxism and Functionalism see society differently, they also have some similarities: they are both positivists, built using scientific research methods. Positivism is called macro sociology because it looks at society as a whole; however looking at society from this perspective does not take into account the individuals and their norms and values.

They both have a ‘top down’ approach, the belief that viewing society as a real ‘thing’ which exists above and beyond us all as individuals is the best way to view society. Both theories agree on the importance of ‘totality’ (marsh, 2006)

The favoured research methods to look at behavioural patterns is those that generate sets of statistics such as questionnaires- known as quantitative methods this is not always that best approach to research society, because not everyone is studied.

They both believe that man is forced into his choices by the structures and systems in society, although they both have different views on this, functionalists believe that this is right and it has to be for society to work, and people accept society as it is. Marxist on the other hand believe that it is wrong and unfair, and that man will fight in order to create a fairer society

In contrast to Marxism which recognises social change and aspires towards it functionalism fails to recognise it altogether, and assumes every institution is a positive for society.

Looking at the evidence of both Marxism and functionalism, the society, today inclines more towards functionalism. Most people are happy with the system they live in. If too many people were to try and change it society would not work as well; an example of this is the post office strikes; people did not receive bills, money or other important mail, this forces society to have no sympathy for the postal workers. This is also an example of Marxist theory not working as he said it would; although it did not last too long and some people did benefit. This gives us reason to question if we only accept society as it is because as a society we are ‘lazy’, if we were to unite as a society, could we overthrow the bourgeoisie as Marx suggested we would?

Lower class citizens are keeping the higher classes in work, this keeps money within the system in turn they receive state benefits from the taxes that they pay. If all the lower classes were to try and move up the social ladder they may be no reason for some of the bourgeoisie, for example if all criminals and deviants, reformed and started working there would be no need for, law enforcement services, county courts and probation officers. Some amount of crime is necessary to keep higher classes such as the uniformed services in work.

Culture can be defined as the increasing deposit of knowledge, material objects, values, religion, notions of time, attitudes, hierarchies, concepts of the universe, spatial relations, roles, and beliefs and possessions gained by a group of people in the path of generations through individual and group striving (Poyatos, 2002). Culture can also be termed as communication and the vise versa. This is because culture is a symbol of communication. Some of these symbols include knowledge, a group’s skills, attitudes, motives and values. Culture can also be defined as the sum total of all the learned behaviors of a group that are commonly considered to be the tradition of a particular group of people and are conveyed from generation to generation. Identity can be defined as a set of personal or behavioral characteristics by which an individual can be associated with a certain group. Identity also refers to the state of an individual having some specific qualities which identify him with a particular group of people or things. The combination of these two nouns (culture and identity) gives rise to cultural identity which refers to the sense of belongingness to a particular group or culture.

From a personal view, culture refers to the way (aspects) of a person’s life. These aspects of life include language which is one of the oldest medium of expression in the human institution, arts and sciences which are the forms of human expression most refined and advanced and thought which can be defined as the methodologies in which an individual perceives, interprets, and understands the world around him. There is also spirituality which is a value system passed through generations for the purpose of well being in human beings. It is expressed through actions, language and social activities which are perceived to be the shared pursuit within any particular cultural community.

All cultures or social organizations have severe dimensions just like physical dimensions of length, height, width, time and height. The cultural dimensions may vary according to size, permeate the whole or by definition one cannot “see” a dimension of culture or society just the way we see an individual person however each person manifests each of the five dimensions of culture. Hofstede came up with five dimensions which are rated in 53 countries basing on indices of each dimension. These dimensions are namely power distance (hierarchy), femininity versus masculinity, collectivism versus individualism, uncertainty avoidance, and long term versus short term orientation (Hofstede, Pedersen& Hofstede, 2002). (PD) Power distance refers to the extent to which less powerful members expects respects and accepts unequal power distribution within a particular culture. According to Hofstede, high PD countries tend to maintain centralized political power and display tall hierarchies in organizations with massive differences in salary and social status. Subordinates always perceive the manager as a benevolent dictator and they are therefore expected to follow the rules just as they are stipulated. The low PD countries perceive subordinates and supervisors as closer to being equal and easily interchangeable (Marcus & Gould, 2000). They also have more flattened hierarchies in organizations and with less difference in salaries and social status. In these low PD countries, equality is generally desired and expected.

As a citizen of United States my country has a current PDI of 40 in comparison to the world’s range of 55 (Marcus & Gould, 2000). I support this low PDI because in my American culture there is better equality between the societal levels, government institutions, organizations and within families. My American cultural environment is stable and there is cooperative interaction in all power levels. I practice American culture and identity and it’s because of this that I can say my culture has sense of equality. For example teachers, students (children) and parents perceive each other as equals but not necessarily identical. The students and teachers relate well. Personally, I relate well with my lecturers and none of us feels like he/she has power over me as his student. In work places, people hold different position but regardless of this many perceive each other as brothers and it is therefore difficult to find some work related humanitarian crises. Individualism in culture refers to “loose ties”. This mans that one is expected to look after himself, his immediate family and no one else. Collectivism on the other hand means that people are incorporated together by birth into cohesive, strong groups that act as protection in exchange for unquestionable loyalty.

According to Hofspede, individualistic cultures value freedom, personal time and extrinsic motivators like material rewards at work (Marcus & Gould, 2000). In these individualistic cultures, individual socio-economic interests are highly valued and strong rights of privacy are maintained. In general it advocates for the ideologies based on self-actualization, self government, self realization and freedom. On the other hand collectivist value skills, training, physical conditions and the intrinsic rewards based on mastery. In relations to family they value harmony, silence, use of shame in the achievement of behavioral goals and the strife to maintain face. The socio- economic interests are highly valued rather than individuals.

According to the American culture which is also my cultural identity, we prefer situations whereby there is self sustenance. For example personally I like attending to my issues in my own way since that’s what my parents have taught me. If I am in need, I believe I should consult my parents, brothers and sisters before going to the external world. I also try to realize my goals using my own version without interference. This tendency is very common in the American culture. This is well supported by the studies of Hofstede which show that in the year 2009 the United States had an IDV of 91 the highest dimension compared to the other countries (Marcus & Gould, 2000). This means that the society has high individualistic attitude and relative loose bond with others. Therefore, the society is more self dependent and is concerned only for themselves and their close family members. Masculinity and femininity refers to the gender roles in a particular culture. Traditionally the masculine roles were based on assertiveness, toughness and competition while the feminine roles were based on tenderness, orientation to people, home and children. These traditional gender distinctions are almost breaking due to the collapse of feminine roles. The traditional masculine work goals included recognition, earnings, challenge and advancement. The traditional feminine work goals included good relations, employment security and good living and working conditions.

As an American upholding the American culture, I have realized many women trends are changing since they are pursuing degrees and diplomas to get into white-color jobs unlike in the early days when females used to stay at home taking care of children. Many females have taken jobs such as engineering, medical and teaching jobs which used to belong to men. According to Hofstede, in the year 2009 the MAS for America was 68 meaning the country experiences a higher degree of gender differentiation roles (Marcus & Gould, 2000). This means that the female population is more assertive and competitive just like men. Uncertainty avoidance dimension deals with the society’s tolerance as it pertains to ambiguity and uncertainty. It depicts how members in a society have attempted to cope with the anxiety through the minimization of uncertainties. In the cultures of high uncertainty avoidance people always prefer formally designed activities and explicit rules. You will also find that most of the employees tend to retain their employers (Amanda.com 1). In low uncertainty avoidance cultures, people always prefer implicit rules and more informal activities. Again, employees cannot retain their employers. In my American culture rules are very flexible and it accommodates diverse ideologies. For example there are many religions unlike in other countries like Islamic where only one religion is tolerated.

My American culture has few rules and it doesn’t do much to control all outcomes and results. It also tolerates a variety of ideas believes and thoughts. The long term versus short term orientation refers to the society’s time horizon. It also examines the importance of the future compared to the present and past. In my American culture I believe that I believe that I will meet my obligations and I also believe the American society will always meet its obligation no matter the hardships and inconveniences we will experience. Also, I appreciate my American tradition which is characterized by a lot of hard work in order to achieve something meaningful in life. Culture and identity positively influences the relationship between me and my parents because we rarely have any conflicts. This is because I know what my parents advocated for since my childhood (family traditions) and this makes it easier for us to interact without much issues arising.

Culture and identity has had a negative impact between my family members and me because some cultural aspects are continually changing but they are not adapting to these changes. For example the American culture has shunned the traditional segregation that existed between the black and the white Americans but my parents do not always welcome the idea of the association between these too American ethnic groups. This means that I am not always allowed to bring visitors from a different ethnicity. Again my culture doesn’t allow people to attend church without formal dressings. This has caused a negative impact on the relationship between me my parents and the church. Due to changing modes of dressing I find the cultural church dressing code not entertaining while at the other hand the church leaders are opposed to the new ways of dressing in the church. Our culture advocates for good mannerisms at school failure to which one is subjected to parental punishment. This has fostered a positive interpersonal relationship between my peer group, teachers and me. This is because I am aware of the rights and the wrong and therefore I try to avoid conflicts resulting from disobedience or arrogance towards my peers. My American cultural identity has also helped me in forming positive personal relations with the surrounding people and communities. This is because it advocates for brotherhood and I therefore try to be careful when socializing with people so as to avoid conflicts. Consequently, many people in the community find me as their friend who they can count on and therefore good interpersonal relations.

Due to my cultural identity I have individually and collectively experienced many challenges in the American society. One challenge is that of persistent identities in form of biracial perceptions. This is because many people keep on asking me about my race because my bodily appearance doesn’t suggest it. Ethnocentrism is the other challenge. This is because some of my college friends like the children from the very rich families in the community feel that they have superior ways of life (culture) than us from middle class families. They tend to perceive us as inferior, wrong in all aspects and strange. Another challenge I have faced due to my cultural identity is prejudice. This has been caused by the attitude of ethnocentrism. My fellow college mates from wealthy backgrounds tend to show intolerant and unfairly biased attitude towards me and other people of my status (middle class). The next challenge is cultural stereotyping. This is because of the exaggerated generalizations about a particular group (females). For example in the American culture the females have been stereotyped in terms of their emotions. It is believed that females experience and also express sadness, fear and sympathy. On the other hand men experience and express anger and pride. Another challenge is cultural proximity whereby many cultures are assumed to be similar. For example due to modernization, the subcultures (white and black) in my country have now been integrated almost into one though people come from different places of origin.

The other challenge I have faced due to my cultural identity is that of misinterpretation of codes. For example due to my dress code most of my colleagues mistake me for a Muslim lady because I always have veil on my neck and put on a long skirt. There are several occasions whereby my verbal behaviors or cues have been misunderstood like when I use inflections (variation of speech). When I lower the pitch of voice too or make it deeper on certain words. This low pitch implies confidence, certainty, and authority. However my college mates view this as a sign of ignorance or lack of cooperation in speech. Other times I use upward inflection (raised pitch) in speech to communicate uncertainty, surprise and doubt. This however bring about miscommunication when am talking to my college friends who come from other cultures like Muslims who perceive my tone as a sign of coercion and harassment. Some times I repeat my statements as a sign of emphasis but some of my friends perceive that as a speech problem. Often, I get frustrated or angered when my friends mistake these verbal behaviors to be signs of weakness. There are several occasions when my non-verbal behaviors have been misunderstood. For example when I use a frequency of glances to indicate attention, interest and involvement most people think that am being timid and am using it to protect myself from them or as a sign of fatigue. Some of my friends have also misunderstood me through tactile communication (touch). For example I give a warm hug to all my friends as a sign or greetings when we meet but some friends mistake me for a multiple lover. Others mistrust their companions due to these kinds of greetings. This mistrust is caused by the fact that they interpret it emotionally. Some of my friends misinterpret my use of “fig” which in my culture means “you can’t have it”. They say that it is immoral or obscene. I feel sad when people misinterpret these non-verbal cues.

Many countries have experienced very significant changes in patterns of family formation and family structure. Great Britain is one of the countries where these changes have been particularly marked with the result that British families have become less stable . The roles of women and men with the parents or within the family have also changed. The last 100 years have seen changes in attitudes and expectations. Bruner, J. (1985) Vygotsk, the last 100 years have been seen in the structure of technology, attitudes and expectations. Families are mix of cohabiting parents, stepfamilies, single parent families, those living apart together and civil partnerships, as well as the traditional family. it was necessary to prove that in one of five ways such as unreasonable behaviour, desertion, adultery, two years separation with consent, five years separation without consent.

The changes in marriage, divorce and cohabitation have contributed to the growing number of new types of family. Two in five of all marriages are now remarriages, which makes stepfamilies one of the fastest growing family forms in Britain. In the decade to 2006, the number of single parent families also increased to 2.3 million, making up 14% of all families. Consequently more and more children are now growing up in single parent families, and in stepfamilies. A growing number of couples are also now living apart together, often following failed marriages or cohabitations. Initial estimates suggest that around two million people have regular partners in other households excluding full-time students and people who live with their parents. In most cases this is due to working in a different location to the family home or because the relationship is still in the early stages . However, women’s focus on their career may also be a factor. As women choose to focus on their career before settling into a committed relationship, they are getting married and having children later in life. Finally civil partnerships between same sex couples have created a new type of family. By the end of 2007 there had been 26,787 civil partnerships since the law was introduced in December 2005.

Teenage motherhood is one of the most distinctive features of British Demography. Without teenage pregnancies, Britain’s rate would fall from 1.8 to 1.68 (Coleman and Chandola, Chapter 2; also Coleman 1997). Teenagers throughout Europe both East and West now engage in sexual intercourse at earlier ages than their parents or grand-parents. In disapproval pre-marital

sex . Marriage was broken, little remained to prevent young people who are physically ready to have sex from doing so. The analysis of European social attitudes data (Chapter 3; also Scott, Alwin, and Braun 1996) provides information about attitudes to pre-marital sex in various countries in 1994. In these information ,52 per cent were opposed to men, and 63 per cent opposed to women, having any pre-marital sex. Only a small number believed that pre-marital sex was ‘natural’ (McKibbin 1998: 296)

For teenage men and women in Britain today, the average age at i¬?rst intercourse is 17. But whereas in most of Western Europe, rates of teenage motherhood have fallen as teenage sexual activity has risen. Demographically, Britain more closely resembles to Eastern Europe, where a tradition of marriage has long meant high teenage fertility rates (Coleman and Chandola, Chapter 2; also Coleman 1996b: 23).Almost all of the East European births are inside marriage while all of the Western are outside marriage with a large number being outside partnership as well. In Britain, teenage births account for just over one-i¬?fth of all non-marital births 21 per cent while 80-90 per cent of teenage births are outside legal marriage.

In 1996, there were 44,700 babies born to women aged 15-19. Although this represents a rise over the previous year. However, it is also the case that the number of teenage girls in the population was falling from the early 1980s onwards and that the rate at which 15-19 year olds become pregnant and remain pregnant .The conception rate and the abortion rate was stable or rising throughout the period and into the late 1990s (ONS 1997d: 62). Figure shows changes in the abortion rates for selected years since 1974.There was a large drop from 1974-84 when teenage births fell steadily. From 1984 onwards, however, conceptions have i¬‚uctuated around 60 and abortions around 35, per 1000 women aged 15-19. The stability of both the conception and abortion rates gives few grounds for thinking that in the short term at least . British teenagers will behave different than they have in the past. And as their numbers in the population are set to rise over the next decade and number of babies born to teenagers (Craig 1997).

Britain is also distinctive for its high divorce rate. Thirty years ago, there were two divorces for every 1,000 marriages. Liberalization of the divorce laws in the 1970s was sharp rise in divorce and by the mid-1980s about 1,000 marriages ended in divorce a rate (Pullinger 1998). The rate of increase is slower now than in the 1970s and early 1980s largely because the married population contains fewer of those at high risk (Murphy and Wang, Chapter 4). Nonetheless, 40 per cent of marriages will end in divorce measures of divorce per 1,000 marriages or per 1,000 population. Moreover, people are divorcing after shorter periods of marriage. One in ten marriages which took place in 1981 ended in divorce within 4.5 years, compared with one in ten divorcing within 6 years in 1971 and after 25 years in 1951 (Roberts 1996: 2). Early marriage have long been understood to be strongly associated with marital breakdown. The younger the age at marriage, the greater the likelihood of the marriage ending (Kiernan and Mueller, Chapter 16). Between 1971 and 1996, people under age 25 experienced the greatest growth in divorce rates with rates increasing for men and women (Pullinger 1998).

The problem of lone motherhood is poverty. Research suggests that, as a group, lone mothers have few chances of obtaining other than low-paid work, often because they enter the labour market disadvantaged by their low level of qualii¬?cations (Bryson, Ford, and White 1998). The majority, however, have young children to care for and thus need jobs which provide enough income to meet the costs of child care. Consequently, lone mothers in Britain are less likely to be employed than in most other case countries and in the 1970s and their employment rate has declined. The difference in economic activity between married and lone mothers is particularly sharp between women with children under age 5. In the 1970s, lone mothers with preschool children were more likely to be in work than married mothers This changed during the1980s, and during the 1990s married mothers with young children have been twice as likely as lone mothers to be economically active. During the1990s one in two married mothers with pre-school children have been in employment compared with fewer than one in four comparable lone mothers (Kiernan, Land, and Lewis1998: 128). Most of the fall in employment among lone mothers has come in full-time work while the full-time employment of married women has risen with part-time work remaining stable. People live alone for a variety of reasons. For example, living alone may be a permanent choice and for others , it may be a temporary. While there are more people living alone at all ages and the largest increases since 1971 have come among men and women under retirement age, particularly those aged under 40 (Hall and Ogden 1997). The increase in solo living among people under pension age rejects the way in which household change is some-times linked to economic change.

Since 1970s ,the number of lone-parent families has been increased in Britain and also the proportion of children raised in such families (Coleman and Chandola, Chapter 2). In the late 1990s, 1.6million families in Britain with dependent children. During the 1960s, divorce overtook death as the primary source of lone-parent families while in the 1970s and 1980s, sharply rising divorce rates and falling remarriage rates furthered their growth (Kiernan, Land, and Lewis 1998; Murphy and Wang,Chapter4). From the mid-1980s, however, most of the growth in lone-parent families has come from never-married mothers as changing attitudes towards pre-marital sex. Nonetheless, there has been a substantial increase in the number of single women who become mothers while not living with a partner (Berthoud, McKay, and Rowlingson, Chapter 15).

Since in 1990s, women who had never married before becoming mothers (Pullinger 1998).

The parents who were working and busy of whole day to day responsibilities, grandparents could spend more time with their grandchildren and develop a special bond (Weissvourd, 1998). Children and their grandparents each were close to each other and were able to offer mutual support for each other. There were lot of facilities on the parents to teach their children even that grand parents played important role in this situation. This gave scope for reciprocal social relationships and joint interaction in learning and contrasts with the role of the parents as well as grand parents in learning (Bruner, 1985). In the context of the family, mutual trust and respect for each member’s perspective (Rommetveit, 1974, 1979) was a important to this process.

Government has moved away from financial support for marriage towards families. Legislative changes have given families more flexibility to maintain their home and work lives and have a degree of choice in their options. The public would like to see support made available to families and delivered to the service provider and providing additional cash. In recent years the amount of money spent by government to support families has increased significantly but it has also been dramatically re-targeted which has the effect of shifting support from one type of family form to others. Up until 1999 the three key family benefits were Child Benefit (which began in 1975), Family Credit for low-income working families, ‘Married Man’s Allowance’ (it became the Married Couples’ Allowance in 1990). Family benefit as it is available to all those in employment with a low income including single people with no dependants. However, couples and single parents do get additional credit and there is a childcare element for those that have children.

Delhi is a complex system of parts. Each part is as critical as the other. Its transport system and its land-use must work in tandem to achieve a well-oiled traffic network. Placing the importance of people in the transport system correctly is critical to its success. But Delhi views the problem differently.

Today, transportation and vehicles are inseparable. The problems faced by city traffic are easily reduced to a simple set of numbers. The number of vehicles, road area, and other statistics dictate contemporary transport design. Transport is far more complex than that. People, the root of all the problems and solutions are left unaddressed. People make the city and therefore its transport system. Their inclusion immediately changes the problem-solution paradigm. How people affect the whole transport construct, their behaviour, social nature, emotions, desires and the rest of the rainbow is under the magnifying glass. (Jacobs, The death and life of great American cities, 1961)

Delhi traffic is plagued with problems which can be solved by introducing more people centric traffic design. Congestion, de-pedestrianization, increasing fuel costs, erosion of streets, design misuse and design failure are some of the problems approached in this study.

Congestion for instance is not always a road widening issue.it is an emergent property of large scale interactions of many people or vehicles or both.

De-pedestrianization occurs because of the risks involved in taking a walk . The transformation of a street to a road marked the end of its pedestrian friendliness. People are forced to turn to safer methods of movement like cars. (Jacobs, The death and life of great American cities, 1961).

But those who can’t afford any will have to manage in dangerous Delhi.

In-equity: The industrialization of traffic has thrown the equity and inclusivity scales off balance creating a self-generated need for powered personal transport. There is a lot of memory and aspiration attached to an automobile and its possession. (Illich, 1978)

This point is more emphasized when the automobile is compared to fashion. Vehicles, like clothes form a skin we’d like to wear on the road while interacting with other vehicles. It is a method today of displaying status.

The majority, Low-income groups are left to suffer due to lack of feasible options. They resort to walking or cycling and are constantly posed with a threat on the motorised road. (TIWARI, 2001)

It may be worthwhile looking into integrated multi modal transport because people tend to value choices in movement. Walking may rightfully be the best solution in any highly congested area, but this doesn’t apply to other places. For example; pedestrianizing and introducing the metro-rail in Connaught place may be a viable solution, on the other hand, the same may fail miserably in the mega-scale, unsafe, roads of Gurgaon. Planners, authorities, and the designers could resort to a more interdisciplinary approach to the challenge.

How can Delhi traffic be more human centric?

Scope of Study

Although what will be discussed could be applied to all cities in general, this study is specific to the city of Delhi and the National Capital Territory (NCT – Gurgaon, Ghaziabad, Noida etc.)

The traffic problems discussed here pertain to urban local road traffic. Automobiles, two-wheelers, Bus transit, metro transit and pedestrians.

The study deals with contemporary traffic. Any reference to the history of Delhi traffic will be only to assert the contemporary situation.

Although many things are measurable in transport networks, most human reactions are intangible and therefore interviews and observations form a major part of this research, i.e. case studies will be used to substantiate any hypothesis.

Limitations

The western v/s Indian literature perspectives in the studies presented is imbalanced content wise as India is a developing economy and traffic is relatively a new problem. The west on the other hand, has a formidable amount of experience in the matter.

Time is critical to any study. The study should prove sufficient for the abundant or short period of 4 months. There is room to always better any work.

Due to the size of NCT, the study will take an overview approach as well as present one or 2 specific examples to illustrate what is considered to be the generic of that area.

Methodology

This study looks at the following as a base to analyse the case studies

Perception, socio-economic and cultural nature of people. The effect of people on traffic and vice-versa.

Understanding the transport system of Delhi.

Comparing both of the above in terms of different critical areas in the city.eg: Shahjahanabad, Lutyens, and New Delhi etc.

As part of the dissertation the author will broadly research the impact of people in the Delhi transport system and its different facets. Case studies will be prepared, secondary studies will be analysed and interviews will be conducted to excavate the method of including people centrally in traffic system.

Definitions

Now, before any argument is put forth or any finding is validated, we must steer clear of any semantic argument. The definitions below are for that very purpose.

Movement: The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines ‘movement’ as the act or process of moving, especially, the change of place or position.

The philosopher Ivan Illich in his essay “Energy and equity” defines the following quite aptly.

Traffic : Any movement of people from one place to another when they are outside their homes.

Transit : Those movements that put human metabolic energy to use.

Transport: That mode of movement which relies on other sources of energy. (illich, 1978)

Why Do We Move?

In simple terms, we move because we can. We are capable of mobility from a very early age. It can be safely said that movement is ‘life’ itself exemplified. With respect to the city man lives at home, he moves to work, for food, clothes, and moves back to his shelter.

His movement is what adds life to the city. His movement along with many others movement induces ‘liveliness’ in the city. (Jacobs, The death and life of great American cities, 1961)

Methodology flowchart

IDENTIFYING THE QUESTION

UNDERSTANDING DELHI’S TRANSPORT SYSTEM

UNDERSTANDING DELHI’S PEOPLE AND THEIR NATURE

IDENTIFY AND ANALYSE CONFLICTS

BUILDING A CASE FOR DELHI

PRIMARY STUDIES

SECONDARY STUDIES

DELHI

OTHER

INFERENCES

INFERENCES

ANSWERING THE QUESTION

SHAHJAHANABAD

LUTYENS DELHI

NEW DELHI

URBAN VILLAGES

SATELLITES

3

2

1

INTREVIEWS

AUTHORITY

LAY MAN

INFERENCES

Before even beginning understanding traffic, it is important we understand the city. The city and its traffic system are so intricately intertwined that for urban areas to be capable of economic activity, an easy and sustainable flow of people and goods must exist. Poor mobility is known to be a major economic dampener and can even lead to deterioration of everyday life. . (POLICY, 2001)

It goes without saying that the city and its traffic are inseparable.

Delhi an Introduction

In 1639 AD, the Mughal emperor Shahjahan built a walled city in Delhi which served as a capital of the Mughal Empire from 1649 until 1857. The British had captured Delhi by 1803 and announced in 1911 that the capital of British India would be Delhi. So a new capital city, New Delhi, was built to the south of the old city during the 1920s. When India gained independence from British rule in 1947, New Delhi was declared its capital and seat of government.During the partition of India, thousands of Hindu and Sikh refugees, fled to Delhi, while many Muslim residents of the city migrated to Pakistan. Migration to Delhi from the rest of India continues (as of 2012), contributing more to the rise of Delhi’s population than the birth rate, which is declining.

The Constitution (Sixty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1991 declared the Union Territory of Delhi to be formally known as the National Capital Territory of Delhi. (Wikipedia)

Construction, power, telecommunications, health and community services, and real estate form integral parts of Delhi’s economy. Delhi has India’s one of the largest and fastest growing retail industries.

In 2001, the population of Delhi increased by 285,000 as a result of migration and by an additional 215,000 as a result of natural population growth – this made Delhi one of the fastest growing cities in the world. By 2015, Delhi is expected to be the third-largest agglomeration in the world after Tokyo and Mumbai. (Wikipedia)

The districts and the satellites
E:workdissertationwrittenintro to delhi634px-Delhi_districts.svg.png

Central Delhi

North Delhi

South Delhi

East Delhi

North East Delhi

South West Delhi

New Delhi

http://mapsof.net/map/delhi-districts-mapNorth West Delhi

West Delhi

Districts

New Delhi – Lutyen’s brainchild, New Delhi has its fair share of circuses and axes.Built to the south of Old Delhi, It consists of India gate, Connaught place, etc.

Central Delhi houses the central business district and high-rises. It includes Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi) which served as capital of the Mughal Empire, and is home to the monuments like the Delhi Fort and the Jama Masjid, Delhi’s principal mosque.

Administratively, the district is divided into three subdivisions, Darya Ganj, Pahar Ganj, and Karol Bagh.

North Delhi administratively, the district is divided into three subdivisions, Sadar Bazar, Kotwali, and Civil Lines.

South Delhi administratively, the district is divided into three subdivisions, Defence Colony, Hauz Khas, and Kalkaji.

South district is considered to be the most affluent of all residential districts of Delhi. With upscale areas like Greater Kailash, Chittaranjan Park, Alaknanda, Hauz Khas, Green Park, Defence Colony, New Friends Colony, Gulmohar Park, Gulmohar enclave and Vasant Kunj, it has the highest land prices outside Lutyen’s Zone in Delhi.

South West Delhi administratively, the district is divided into three subdivisions, Delhi Cantonment, Najafgarh, and Vasant Vihar. (Wikipedia)

In this study, we will focus on places in New Delhi, Old Delhi, and South Delhi.

Satellites
Gurgaon
NOIDA

With focus on Gurgaon

The Transport System of Delhi
The automobiles

Prior to the early 1990s when India opened its then-restricted market, owning a vehicle was viewed as a luxury and taxed accordingly.

Today, along with increase in spending power, a combination of issues are dissuading potential buyers in India from actually buying a car:

India is “scarcity use” economy, one in which families find ways to continually reuse products until the products completely wear out. The combination of fuel cost and insufficient infrastructure has led Indian consumers to purchase primarily two-wheelers and small cars. So, even though some people can afford larger cars, many purchase smaller ones. (Bruce M. Belzowski, 2009)

Automobiles are often conveniently tagged as the villains responsible for the ills of cities and the disappointments and futilities of city planning. But the destructive effects of automobiles are much less a cause than a symptom of our incompetence at city building. .

Suppose automobiles had never been invented, we would still have essentially the same. It is questionable how much of the destruction wrought by automobiles on cities is really a response to transportation and traffic needs, and how much of it is owing to sheer disrespect for other city needs, uses and functions.

The mechanical vehicles, in their overabundance, work slothfully and idle much. As one consequence of such low efficiency, the powerful and speedy vehicles, choked by their own redundancy, don’t move much faster than horses. Trucks, by and large, do accomplish much of what might have been hoped for from mechanical vehicles in cities. They do the work of much greater numbers of horse-drawn vehicles or of burden-laden men. But because passenger vehicles do not, this congestion, in turn, greatly cuts down the efficiency of the trucks. (Jacobs, The death and life of great American cities, 1961)

Economy and Production

In the mid-1990s, foreign manufacturers entered the market through Joint Ventures with domestic manufacturers as required by the government. This entry raised the level of competition and brought many global suppliers to India to support their manufacturer customers.

In 2000, the government lifted the requirement that foreign companies establish JVs with domestic companies. As its gross domestic product (GDP) grew, India built and sold more vehicles, reaching the 1-million-vehicle mark in the 2004-2005 fiscal years.

There has been a shift in the vision of Delhi. Delhi earlier emphasised on the development of the public, but now seems to be concentrating on the middle class.

Roads of Delhi

Delhi is a city for the car owners. The number of car owners and the variety of cars available in Delhi has increased exponential over the last 15 years. The car has gone from a vehicle for the elite to a necessity for every middle class household. The type of car one owns projects one’s status and the car is now seen as one of the symbols of one’s success. They are no more marketed as a way to commute but as a product that is essential for one to own. The lower classes aspire to have one while the upper classes aspire to have more. All this comes from the global level competition to become the biggest consumer. One would expect that, at this rate, the maximum number of people use motor vehicles to commute but the distribution of commuters over the different types of transportation facilities says otherwise. (Nair, 2012)

According to a study conducted by Unified Traffic & Transportation Infrastructure (PLG. & ENGG.) Centre (UTTIPEC), 14%of the total commuters in Delhi are car owners, 13% own 2 wheelers (scooters & motorcycles), and 40% use public transport and 34% are pedestrians and cyclists. Though a large percentage uses public transport, it should be understand that that percentage is also required to walk, to and fro from the point of pick up and drop off. The planning of the city does not seem to accommodate this. (Nair, 2012)

‘Delhi city has invested heavily in its road infrastructure in the recent pastaˆ¦and was welcomed with much fanfare. However, in order to create a private vehicle oriented infrastructure, the public transportation system was neglected. Furthermore, with the city’s buoyant economy, cars have replaced buses on the road and cyclists have switched to two-wheelers and motorcycles. Pedestrians are therefore increasingly being treated like the most marginalised commuters on the road’ (Public Transport International, 2009)

The streets are designed in a way that best accommodate the car. This compounds the idea of trying to portray New Delhi as world class city even if this image only depicts a small section of the society. The streets are centred on the road with maximum area given to it. The pedestrian area is hardly comparable while the area given to cyclist is minimal, and in most cases absent. The advertisements that one sees while travelling on the road, ranging from huge billboards to those on bus stands all give central focus to the road. Even with a minority using the vehicular roads, it is still given the utmost importance and the central view point. (Nair, 2012)

On the road, preference is given to the car over the bus. Nothing is provided for better and safer bus travel. Better buses and bus stops are the most acceptable improvements as they do not hamper the car owner. Any other changes that have tried to be implemented have been received with scepticism and protest. The Delhi Bus Rapid Transport System is a great example of that. (Nair, 2012)

Delhi Bus Rapid Transport (BRT) System

The Delhi BRT was introduced to combat the rising requirement for better public transport and to decrease congestion on the roads. The BRT was designed to provide dedicated lanes for buses, cyclist and pedestrians who make up 50-60% of the total number of commuters. Comparing that to the fact that buses only make up 2-2.5% of the total number of motorised vehicles on the road, goes to show that there are large inadequacies in the infrastructure of the public transportation systems.

A total of 26 BRT corridors were planned, covering a total length of 310 km in major parts of South Delhi. These corridors were placed in the centre of the road, along with bus stands on pedestrian islands, and were divided from the rest of the road by barriers. The pedestrian islands were universally accessible, had well designed street furniture, and even had a demarcated auto rickshaw bay. These changes led to the reduction of motor able area left for the cars. (Nair, 2012)

The Delhi Metro

The latest mode of transport; the metro, is considered to be inclusive. It does not break all boundaries and include everyone, but it compresses the social gap in society. As of now, the widest range of people from different classes use the metro over other modes of transport. (Nair, 2012)

“The metro ‘It has also made public transport a more egalitarian experience. A plumber from Jahangirpuri, in kurta-pyjama and plastic chappals, sits beside a slick-haired, shiny-shoed executive armed with a laptop.’” (Chaturvedi, 2010, p. 6)

On the other hand, only 4-5% of the commuting population use the metro. Those that travel by cycle or walk to their destination still don’t consider this a viable option. Even compared to other modes of transport like the bus and train, it is expensive. The metro was not targeted for the public but for the ever increasing middle class and upper classes. The metro was designed to look ‘world class’ for the upcoming Common Wealth Games, 2010. The materials used and the general appearance of the metro and its stations brings to light the demographic the metro is directed towards. These features dissuade people from lower sections of society from using the metro, as it makes them feel uncomfortable. It is also not as easy to get into the metro as it is to get into a bus.

It is wrong to state that this outlook is unjustified as one of the objectives of the metro was to reduce traffic on the roads; which it did. This was due to the fact that it targeted those people who used private modes of transportation who were used to more affluence. This is also why it was well received (Nair, 2012)

On the flipside, the metro has completely ignored those that do not fit into the preferred bracket of society. The construction of the metro has left many homeless, including the workers hired to construct it. It has also led to the gentrification of the areas surrounding the metro. The Delhi metro bridge the gap between the middle class and the rich but expands that between the poor and the rest. (Nair, 2012)

‘So it is a sleeker, more prosperous Delhi that the Metro has helped create, a city that spares no space for housing its workers even as it continues to rely on their labour to make life easier and smoother for the better-off’ (Chaturvedi, 2010, p. 8)

Owning a car is seen as the ultimate goal in society by the lower classes in terms of mode of transportation and this desire is accentuated by the commercial images one sees every day. While the number of people with financial capacity to own cars continuously increases, the notion that one requires a car to be social acceptable rather than to commute is also becoming true. While sitting in a bus, one sees numerous cars zip past them. The car owner always seems to have the right of way and arrogantly so. Consumerism is also influencing us subliminally on the road, with the constant advertisements of various products. (Nair, 2012)

‘We are exposed to numerous commercial messages while driving on the freeway: bill boards, radio advertisements, bumper-stickers on cars, and signs and banners placed at shopping malls that we pass. Most of this exposure is random-we don’t plan to seek it out.’ (Woodward, 2000)

If one is to compare the Delhi Metro with the Delhi BRT, both were given similar importance and propagated equally. The difference lies in the demographic it was intended for.

The image and exclusivity of a transport system has become very important. The different transport system segregates society depending on their economic status irrespective of the majority that use them. (Nair, 2012)

‘In Delhi, however, it has meant that car owners have felt deprived of what they feel is their birth right. The BRT, therefore, is perhaps the largest symbolic manifestation of the class struggles’ (Chaturvedi, 2010, p. 96)

The implementation of the BRT in Delhi led to the shift in importance from the car owner to the public transit user. Though the BRT created inconveniences, it was also not given the chance to succeed. It was not the type of transportation system the consumer Indian would use and so, it received much criticism when it was introduced. (Nair, 2012)

‘The success of the BRT system mainly depends on managing the behavioural changes. This requires comprehensive planning and on-going efforts at improving the system, as well as driving its acceptability in order to bring about necessary behavioural changes.’ (Public Transport International, 2009)

Infrastructure

Designing an automotive infrastructure for over one billion people is a daunting task for a developed economy, but developing economies must also contend with other challenges, including limited funds and inadequate roads. (Bruce M. Belzowski, 2009)

Transportation infrastructure is a vital element to the automotive industry.

Road construction is the key, and it is a task only India’s government can tackle.

“There is a direct relationship between better connectivity of the metropolitan areas and the progress the industry can achieve. Roads are clearly the biggest bottleneck, both the quality and availability of roads.” (Bruce M. Belzowski, 2009)

Lack of traffic-law enforcement is often cited as an inhibitor to growth.

Traffic fatalities in India are 8.7 per 100,000 people, as compared to 5.6 in the United Kingdom, 5.4 in Sweden, and 6.7 in Japan. (Bruce M. Belzowski, 2009)

As congestion grows, enforcement becomes increasingly more critical.

“Driving and road discipline needs to be enforced both individually and by policy.”

30% of drivers have had no driver’s education, do not understand signals or lane discipline and, as a result, are causing accidents on roads.

Progress in government education, national auto testing centres, licensing of individuals, and the reduction of varying velocity vehicles on the same roads are key to dealing with the problem. (Bruce M. Belzowski, 2009)

“We need to improve on the oil tanking facilities at ports, oil terminals, and cross-country pipelines. Significant investment is required to provide a level playing field between public and private sector companies.”

India’s government needs to build more and better roads to support future not just current growth, and hasten the vehicle friendliness of India’s cities including wider roads and more parking spaces. Improved air quality is also critical. (Bruce M. Belzowski, 2009)

The percentage of urban Indians is currently around 30%, but, this figure is exponentially increasing. The stabilized western countries have over 60% of their share living in cities.

India is going to grow till at least twice its size before it stabilizes. This calls for a plan where the future of a city is well predicted and duly buffered .i.e. Prepare for expansion and concentration. (POLICY, 2001)

Of course, India is only adequately prepared for the present. As basic necessities such as education, recreation, work, are getting more difficult to get to, India is still grappling with the burst in number of automobiles and the lack of road space.

“During 1981 to 2001, the number of motor vehicles went up by over 7.75 times during the same period.” (POLICY, 2001)

Safety

In her book, the death and life of great American cities, Jane Jacobs discusses the importance of safety and security on the street. The success of a city district lies inevitably on the safety and security of streets. The failure of which results in the discomfort of its residents, and that is only the beginning of the problem. (Jacobs, THE DEATH AND LIFE OF GREAT AMERICAN CITIES, 1961)

Travel in the city has become more risky with accident rates having gone up from 1.6 lakh in 1981 to over 3.9 lakh in 2001. The number of persons killed in road accidents has also gone up from 28,400 to over 80,000 during the same period. (POLICY, 2001)

The poor end up in the wrong end of most things in the city and here again is no exception. Among those who are frequently hurt are cyclists, pedestrians, and pavement dwellers. (POLICY, 2001)

Delhi’s People and their Nature
Perception of Spaces

‘We experience the world as a series of spatial patterns and we store them, and we recall them and we match them up against reality and we are making predictions all the time’ (TED, 2003)

Every individual has the ability to observe, understand and respond to their environment. Through the course of one’s life, one’s brain stores every experience that one encounters as mnemonic devices which help them process further situations.

This inference is taken from the cognitive theory of the brain. According to this theory, the observations that one makes are stored in a part of the brain as a database which is the memory. One’s brain is continuously interpreting every instance by cross-referencing every sensory input to their memory. The person then reacts to the environment depending on their inference. (TED, 2003)

The database that each of us creates individually, can be attributed to our culture, local environment and society. As a group of people belonging to the same environment, one can say that, they all share similar inferences and therefore, respond similarly. At the same time, the behaviour of an individual is not constrained only by their society and culture but also by the choices they have previously made.

Culture

All over the world, people have the same basic requirements and perform similar activities to sustain themselves. The basic human needs can be satisfied in any environment. The difference lies in the way they fulfil those needs and that difference is contingent on the physical environment. These variations reflect in the distinctions between cultures.

The ‘constancy, homogeneity and uniformity among traditional groups’ can be termed as a groups’ culture. (Moore(Editor), 2000, p. 183)

Culture gives a society a set of guidelines which tells them how to behave and interact with each other and the spaces around them. It is a form of transmission of information from one generation to the next, through the design of spaces and artefacts and by how a person interacts with them. (Moore(Editor), 2000, p. 180)

Segregation & Exclusivity

Class is a further division of society within a culture. It is the class that one belongs to in a society which establishes for a person their position and status in society. In most societies, occupation was the common basis of segregation at the commencement, but soon occupation as well as status became hereditary. The segregation was also based on the value of ones occupation in society but very little on the character of the person. (Ross, 1920, pp. 404-405)

There is always an aspiration of the lower classes to progress to a higher class. In earlier times, it was impossible to bridge that gap and progress from a low class to a higher class, but, through the ages, the ability to climb up the social ladder has become possible and comparatively easier.

In all cases, the upper class is smaller in number and has greater power than the lower class masses. Those who are part of the upper class try to maintain that divide. They prize and try to maintain that gap, as it makes their position more exclusive. (Ross, 1920)

Exclusivity is the act of excluding or placing restriction on something to only a certain group of people. Exclusivity is a dominant social phenomenon today. It is the modern interpretation of caste and class in most Indian cites.

Architecture has always responded to the divisions in society and compounds exclusivity. Spaces have always been designed to respond to these aspects of culture and society and to propagate these notions.

Cities over the world now have the ability to communicate with each other and influence each other. This has led to an increase in trade and has changed the culture in most cities.

Globalisation & the New Culture

This new culture of the 20th century is highly influenced by the political shift to capitalism and widespread privatization. These changes, along with the boom in technology, lead to great economic growth in many parts of the world and affected the world economy. The privatisation of most major economies has led to economic globalisation.

Today, culture, has grown past being distinctive and unique and is moving towards a common globalised culture which is highly determined by currency. In India, the culture prevalent is still one that is rooted to its people, but in major cities, this is slowly changing and its effects slowly trickling down to the rest of India.

There has been a global shift from state control to privatization. This, combined with the invention of mass productions and better mean of communication and transport, has led to a fierce competition among manufacturers to sell and sell fast. The global culture has now become one based on the mass production of goods and their consumers. (Featherstone, 2006)

The perception of a human being has changed to one of a consumer and their monetary value. One’s income becomes the determining factor of their class in society. This has led to a shift in how people value themselves and others.

‘Consumerism is a social and economic order that is based on the systematic creation and fostering of a desire to purchase goods and services in ever greater amounts’ (Wikipedia, Consumerism)

This new culture, which is broadly termed as consumerism, has started emerging in major Indian cities. Today’s society and culture is based on monetary standing. The socio-economic group now determines ones class. The products one buys, the concept of brands, etc. are the factors that govern how one judges another. One bases their value in society on their buying index and the products they have. Society is now divided on their economic standing and from this stems the underlying exclusivity that is present today in cities like Delhi.

India and especially Delhi, is trying to portray itself as world class city. The modern Indian is represented by the booming and ever increasing middle class, always aspiring to reach the higher classes. They have