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Introduction

Looking at migration through the lens of gender can show us how futile it is to try to divide up experiences of migration as either forced or voluntary, positive or negative, empowering or restrictive.

Gender is often mistakenly used to signify ‘women only’. The debate on the ‘women and gender’ question represents an attempt to introduce an analysis of how power relationships between men and women impact their lives. In the early feminist analyses, all gender references concerned women, men had no gender. Such analysis about the basis and the boundaries of the categories ‘woman’ and ‘man’ were problematised in post structuralist and post modernist frameworks of analysis. Gender, it is argued is not about women or men as separate and independent categories, but is a relational concept. It focuses on understanding how the terms of man-woman and masculine-feminine are mutually constituted and interdependent, that is, they presuppose each other’.

Migration is an enduring theme in human history and has its own pros and cons. In one-way migration and development are simultaneous procedures and is a part of every civilization. Migration/displacement has been occurring due to varied reasons, mainly political, social, religious, economic and environmental. In the earlier centuries migration was mainly driven by natural disaster, calamities and economic reasons. Industrialization and urbanization is another main cause of migration, which today is being further facilitated by globalization. Conflict, violence today seems to be never ending and so are its effects on human beings. However, till recently, conflict, war-torn victims and conflict induced displacement/migrant experiences were initially not been made a part of the accounts of war as they were seen to represent no real elements of valour. The need of the hour is to focus on the victims of conflict and make their experiences central to an understanding of the war story.

Migration/displacement is mainly perceived as being male movement with women either being left behind or following their men folks as dependents. However figures suggest that women have been displaced in almost the same as men. Despite the rising numbers of women, they are not given equal importance as compared to men since they are still not perceived as equal actors. A review of existing studies on displacement and rehabilitation reveals little information on the gender dimensions of the problem. Almost all analyses on displacement and policies on relocation assume the household or the family to be the smallest unit of convergent interests where all members share the benefits and burdens of policies. Yet there is evidence today that the burden of change is far greater for women and that they have even less access to the benefits of development than do men.

Migration however can generally be placed under two broad categories- Voluntary migration and Involuntary or forced migration.

Today when we talk of migration, forced migration seems to dominate the picture and hence is a major cause of concern.

In my paper my focus area would be gender and migration.

The term conflict is understood with broad framework that includes the entire spectrum of inter-state wars, internal conflicts, ethically driven insurgencies and secessionist movements. The main focus is on the consequences of these conflicts in terms of internally displacing people or rendering them as refugees, it is important to briefly address the changing character of warfare to understand its implications for causing forced migration.

There is a clear distinct shift in the emerging discourse on conflict analysis from traditional warfare military contests between nation-states to defend their territorial integrity and independence to the ‘new wars’ or intra state conflicts where the state is only one among many other players in a conflict that includes guerrilla groups, ethically mobilized armies and insurgencies.

‘Forced displacement is the clearest violation of human, economic, political and social rights and of the failure to comply with international humanitarian laws’. People have often been uprooted from their homelands due to political, religious, cultural and/or ethnic persecution during conflict. Displacement disproportionately disadvantages women, because it results in reduced access to resources to cope with household responsibility and increased physical and emotional violence.

International migration

In 2000 there were 175 million migrants in the world, meaning one out of every 35 persons in the world was an international migrant (including both refugees and international migrants).

Numbers of international migrants have more than doubled since 1960, and as a percentage of the world population have risen from 2.5 in 1960 to 2.9 per cent in 2000. A significant part of the increase was due to population movements following the disintegration of Czechoslovakia, USSR and Yugoslavia.

25 percent of all international migrants are in Asia, 23.3 percent in North America, 18.7 percent in Europe, 16.8 percent in USSR, 9.3 percent in Africa, 3.3 percent in Latin America and 3.4 in Oceania.

The Philippines is the largest exporter of migrant labor throughout the world, the majority of whom are women. Mexico is the second largest exporter. The majority is male who leave to work and earn living for their family.

In 2000 there were 17 million refugees in the world or 9.7 percent of all international migrants. While there are as many women as men in refugee camps, in several countries more men apply for asylum (UNRISD 2005).

Internal migration

Combined internal migration within China and India alone exceeds total international migration worldwide.

Internal migration in most commonly from rural to urban, from poorer to more prosperous rural areas is also significant and more common in some countries, for example India. Here where rural workers travel to more prosperous green revolution states, it accounts for roughly 62 percent of all movements in India 1999-2000.

In most in Latin America, women migrate internally in larger numbers than men.

Rural to urban internal migration in South Asia (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh) is still largely male-dominated, although women’s migration is on the increase, in part due to relocation of light industries such as textiles to areas where labor is cheap.

There are 25 million internally displaced persons (IDPs) in more than fifty countries, half of these in Africa (UNHCR 2004)

GAPS & LIMITATIONS OF STATISTICS

Statistics on migration have their limitations. Irregular migration (that does not conform to legal requirements) is hard to document. The predominance of women migrating as “dependent spouses”, the invisibility of women’s labour (e.g. domestic labour), restrictions on their right to work and involvement in activities that are deemed to be criminal offences or against public order (e.g. sex work) mean that a higher proportion of women are statistically invisible and undocumented (UNRISD 2005). By far the most international migration takes place among countries in the southern hemisphere and goes largely unreported (GCIR 2005). In general, less information is available on internal than on international migration, and sex-disaggregated statistics on internal migration are particularly rare. Migration among African countries is possibly the least well-documented migration flow globally. More research and documentation has been done on gender and migration in Asia than in other regions.

Gendered movements: causes and impacts

Individuals may migrate out of desire for a better life, or to escape poverty, political persecution, or social or family pressures. There are often a combination of factors, which may play out differently for women and men. Gender roles, relations and inequalities affect who migrates and why, how the decision is made, the impacts on migrants themselves, on sending areas and on receiving areas. Experience shows that migration can provide new opportunities to improve women’s lives and change oppressive gender relations – even displacement as a result of conflict can lead to shifts in gendered roles and responsibilities to women’s benefit. However, migration can also entrench traditional roles and inequalities and expose women to new vulnerabilities as the result of precarious legal status, exclusion and isolation.

Migration can provide a vital source of income for migrant women and their families, and earn them greater autonomy, self-confidence and social status. At the same time, women migrants, especially if they are irregular migrants, can face stigma and discrimination at every stage of the migration cycle. Before departure, women can be faced with gender-biased procedures and corrupt agents. In fact, gender discrimination, poverty and violence, can provide the impetus for women to migrate or enable women to be trafficked in the first place. During transit and at their destination women can be faced with verbal, physical and sexual abuse, poor housing and encampments, sex-segregated labour markets, low wages, long working hours, insecure contracts and precarious legal status. And upon return to the source country they may be faced with broken families, illness and poverty.

EFFECTS OF MIGRATION

Migration, both international and internal, can bring gains and losses. Migration entails a complex, often contradictory class positioning, whereby a migrant might experience social upward mobility vis-a-vis the place of origin but social downward mobility vis-a-vis the host environment. If women are trailing spouses they may find it more difficult to establish a footing in the new community and maintain

their status within the family. Some women migrants experience downward social mobility by engaging in jobs that are beneath their educational qualifications – such as the numerous examples of domestic workers from the Philippines in Canada, Hong Kong, Europe and elsewhere.

NGO work on migration from mainstream and gender-focused NGOs has similarly been much stronger on migration in the context of conflict, including promoting and protecting the rights of women displaced by conflict. National-based organizations, including gender and women-focused organizations and migrants’ organizations, have focused on lobbying governments on emigration and immigration policies (including asylum) and working to secure and protect the rights of migrants including ensuring access to basic services and housing. Also, women’s organizations have placed a particular emphasis on preventing trafficking, especially trafficking for sexual exploitation, and on upholding the rights of those trafficked. Few organizations, including labor unions, are prioritizing work on trafficking for other types of labor exploitation, including those likely to involve men

METHODOLOGY

Closer interaction as research is considered to be an interactive process, a communal exercise where people, the subject of the research, are equally involved with the research process from the conception of research. The whole process, it is felt should eventually create a non-hierarchical base for intervention and sharing.

A variety of feminist research methods including ethnographic research, in depth interviews, dialogue, oral history, textual analyses, consciousness-raising techniques i.e., role-playing and establishment of networks and communication.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Are opportunities equal for both men and women in home country?

Do sex segregated labor markets mean only men can find jobs, or that job for women are restricted to less skilled and lower paid jobs?

What compels women to migrate? Is it poverty and seeking economic betterment or gender discrimination or violence?

Since displacement is a traumatic experience for everyone undergoing it, how does it affect women differently?

Are women migrants more vulnerable to exploitation and sexual violence?

What are the legal rights of the IDPs including men and women? And why they need protection for their rights?

What are the measures taken to help the dislocated migrants?

Do the IDPs get the guarantee of security anywhere they are?

Does migration change gender relations? And if so, in a positive or negative way?

HYPOTHESIS

Gender is an integral part of the migration process. The impacts of migration for women and men depend on many factors, all of which have gender implications. These include: the type of migration (temporary, permanent, irregular, regular, labour, natural disaster- or conflict-induced, independent or as dependent spouse); policies and attitudes of the sending and receiving countries; and gender relations within the household. Gender affects how migrants adapt to the new country, the extent of contact with the original country and the possibility of return and successful reintegration.

SIGNIFICANCE

Levels of development may lead to migration or encourage people to stay put. Migration has the potential to challenge and support the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) at the same time. Yet migration does not feature prominently in development debates and the MDG framework. In fact it is only recently that the links between migration and development, and in turn the MDGs, have been recognized by both the migration and the development “communities”. Gender, in turn, influences how development and migration impact on each other. Gender dimensions of migration, it has been suggested, are important to the achievement of the whole range of MDGs and not just the gender equality Goal. Working for greater gender equality in migration not only benefits women migrants but also increases the development impact of migration, moving us closer to meeting the MDGs.

TIMEPLAN

I plan to submit my proposal by the end of December 2009. I will do literature review and analytical work on daily basis. Personal interviews with the IDPs will be conducted in November.

The ILO is the standard-setting agency of the UN working on migration (outside of conflict) and has two Conventions on Migrant Workers. While these conventions are not specifically gendered, ILO (along with United Nations Development Fund for Women [UNIFEM]) has a significant commitment to the rights of women migrant workers and has a strategy to mainstream gender in all ILO work. Their Gender Promotion Programme (GENPROM) has produced ‘An Information Guide – Preventing Discrimination, Exploitation and Abuse of Women Migrant Workers’ and 10 Reports on Women and Migration across 10 countries revealing that migrant women are not aware of their rights. The new ILO 2004 Action Plan on Migrant Workers includes specific coverage of women in domestic service and the informal economy who are most at risk of rights violations and falling outside of labour legislation.

Gender refers to a range of behavioural, physical and mental characteristics that people use to differentiate masculinity from femininity. The context of definition may take the concept as a synonym to sex, which means the state of being male or female. The term can be used to define social roles and gender identity among different individuals.

In the text, The Tale of Hong Kiltong, the story revolves around a man who raises beyond his birth circumstances to prove his masculinity among the people. Masculinity has a much far horizon that just being male or female, as the text reveals. The living circumstances of the young boy, Kiltong, who was not a very famous son, and his father wanted to kill him but when he realized that, he disappears to another land. His life story reveals another side of masculinity when he takes the role of fighting for the unfortunate. The concept of masculinity conveys the fact that ones behaviour is a reflection of whom they are. In the spirit of capitalism, Minister Hong wishes to eliminate his bastard son because he bore him with a maid-servant. This is the concept of masculinity in the society. The man has the power to have affairs with the maid servant without caring about the consequences. The presence of the other main wife does not bother, because women also understand their place as feminine, in the society.

The play, ‘love suicides’ also depicts aspects of feminism and masculinity regarding the lives of the two protagonists, Jihei and Koharu. By virtue of being a man, the society expects Jihei to be responsible enough to take care of the family, implying that masculinity regards to responsibility. The society also does not criticize Koharu for being a prostitute, but lays emphasis on the reckless life of Jihei who the playwright accuses of being as ‘worthless as a wastepaper…’ (Chikamatsu & Shively, 1991). The masculine aspect of being a man eludes Jihei. The reader also gets the feeling that femininity in the society is described as a pleasure provider since the society deems the lifestyle of Koharu as normal. To the society, prostitution is fine as long as it is a woman.

In understanding masculinity, there are three basic features that have been widely used, and they are evident in the text The Tale of Hong Kiltong, which Kiltong expresses, rather than by the virtue of just being a male. The first one is a definition feature, for instance, risk taking. Masculinity has been defined in the past and the present as characterized by risk taking. In the text, the aspect of risk taking is rampant, with Kiltong taking numerous risks by stealing from the rich to help the poor. Despite being wanted for the ‘atrocities’ he commits, risk taking produces him as a man. This implies that masculinity is not only being male, but also having such characters, meaning that there are females who as well manifest masculine characters since there can have been cases of risk-taking female. In the same respect, taking responsibility of situations as a feature can define masculinity. In this case, responsibility over other people was and still is the role of men in most contemporary societies, although in some societies, women have come up to challenge the believe; hence depicting their masculinity. The text, The Tale of Hong Kiltong opens by talking about the minister, who has responsibility over people, his wife, sons and maid servants. Responsibility is the defining feature of masculinity over femininity. Just like the minister, his son is also a vibrant young man whom despite being waned, takes charge of unfortunate people, and when he takes the government post, the people continue suffering; hence showing that he was directly responsible for the poor people. In the love suicide, Jihei does not fulfil his masculinity duties as a man, and lives recklessly ignoring his wife and children. On the other hand, his brother is responsible and runs around trying to prevent the death of his brother and Koharu. This is a depiction of masculinity. Jihei’s wife possesses what the society would refer to as femininity by being remorseful to the extent that she sacrifices her savings to save the life of Koharu. She is passionate and strong, portraying attributes of femininity and masculinity. Despite being a woman, she takes more responsibility of the family than her husband. This implies that the society had different views about responsibility as a factor of femininity and masculinity.

Normative standards of classifying feminists and masculine regards to using the characteristics of what men ought to do and what women ought to do in order to qualify to be in either group. Although this concept is widely accepted, it has a major loophole that masculinity can not be a one minute show. Going by this definition, an individual can depict characters of masculinity in a minute and resume the normal characters. This cannot define the individual as masculine. For instance, the Hong tradition expected the male to have several sexual partners, which led to the Minister having an affair with the maid-servant. This took place for only a day, which bore him a son. The one day affair may not be used to classify the minister as a masculine since he ended up declining the responsibility of taking care of the results of his one day masculinity show.

In love suicides, masculinity evades its normative standards if one is to analyse the life of Jihei. The only aspect of Jihei that classifies him under masculinity is the fact that he is the man of the home, but his actions in entirety, for instance, ignoring his family and his wife taking the responsibility, him being broke to the extent that he cannot redeem his lover and leaving it to his wife, among others, are the depictions that he has more of the feminine attributes that the masculine attributes.

The final landmark that defines masculinity as a distinct aspect is the semiotic approach, which depicts the symbolic differences between femininity and masculinity. In this case, masculinity is the opposite of femininity, meaning that being masculine is not being feminine. Symbolically, an example is that masculinity is marked by authority whereas femininity lacks the authority. In cultural analysis, this is the definition that was effective in stating the traditional gender roles of both sides. In the text, The Tale of Hong Kiltong, the minister is the symbol of authority and he has the power of command in the territory to the extent that he orders pursuit of his son. Masculinity under this aspect regards to the widely accepted relationships through which male and female accomplish their gendered lives. This implies that masculinity is a ‘place’ in the relationships and depends on the daily practices that fit them in their gendered lives and the consequences of the practices in terms of bodily experience, culture and personality.

The texts also reveal the fact that one can understand gender as a social practice that regards to the bodies and their social functions. This can be widely understood by the fact that the daily conduct is organized in relation to the reproduction sphere regarding to the structures of the body and the reproductive system. Despite this revelation, there is no relationship with the body biology because gender presents itself because of the lack of the link between sociology and biology. This aspect, gender relations, is the major aspect of the entire contemporary societies.

Femininity, in the society in ‘love suicides’, comes out as a sacrifice for the survival of men. For instance, Magoemon is ready to force a divorce between his brother and Osan in order to source funds to redeem Koharu and save his brother from suicide. Further, Osan is ready to sacrifice her savings to save the life of her husband and his lover.

Masculinity and femininity regards to the gender practice configurations, rather than being male or female. Understanding the role of male and female in the text, The Tale of Hong Kiltong, can help elucidate this aspect of gender. Understanding gender can take place through various aspects like understanding the course of individual life and their character, the ideology, discourse or culture, and the institutions in the society such as schools and work places. Therefore, the model of understanding gender can adapt power relations, production relations and cathexis, which regard to the characters surrounding sexual desires and the practices that define it, as the aspect of gender order.

The text reveals such aspects of gender through hegemony. The leadership of the Joseon dynasty seems to revolve around the Hong family and the male characters. Masculinity in this aspect is the gender practice configuration embodying an accepted answer to the problem of authenticity of the patriarchy guaranteeing the male dominance and their women subordinating them in their positions.

Subordination is also a feature of gender as there are gender relations that are specific in terms of dominance and subordination between groups. An example in the contemporary society is heterosexuality verses homosexuality.

Complicity is the complexity of the fact that despite there being few men supporting and maintaining the concept of hegemony, many are beneficiaries of the subordination by their women. This provision does not give men a chance for tensions or risks of being in the frontline to protect their positions.

Historically, masculinity and femininity as subsets of gender were distinct from each other by acts of violence and crisis. The structures tend to change with time in response to various factors including external pressures, and sometimes from internal pressures. The conflicts of interest between the two classes of gender have been streamlined by factions like women movements in the past. The socially defined unequal structures, which placed male and female in defensive and offensive positions respectively has met widespread resistance over time. Such battles may not lack violence; hence reducing the aspect of masculinity and femininity as a mere theoretical notion that can erode with changing times.

The system of dominance (in this case, male dominance) is characterised by violence and a measure of imperfection. The hierarchal system may not be legitimate, and the perpetrators employ violence in order to maintain the system. Extreme masculinity has proved fatal in the attempts to maintain dominance. There have been cases of sexual harassment, murder and domestic assault in homes and streets. This implies that in gender politics, violence is important in order for one to prove a point to the other group.

Femininity regards to the set of behaviours, attributes and roles associated with the female individuals in the society. The concept is a social construct, although it may include the aspect of biological functions. In behavioural traits, femininity included moral characters of empathy, sensitivity to other peoples’ problems and gentleness. The behavioural traits eliminate the aspect of biological disposition in defining femininity in the contemporary society because either gender has possessed the above character traits at one time or another in a social context. The original context of the definition of femininity encompassed emotional outlook of the female as a distinguishing factor from the male. The texts, love suicides and The Tale of Hong Kiltong present women as emotional characters who, by virtue of their gender roles do not have the audacity to reproach the male for their atrocities. Their emotional outbursts lead to some of them committing suicide for love in the ‘Love suicides’.

Conclusion

The texts provide numerous aspects of masculinity and femininity and depict both as important entities in the social settings of the texts. Femininity and masculinity were respected definitions of the roles of gender in the traditional society. Although the distinctive roles are waning, they remain important concepts in many fields in the contemporary society. Violence and crisis have been characteristics of the gender wars, with the male dominantly staying above the rest by use of violence to maintain their status quo. Feministic movements have arisen over time to challenge the demeaning roles of the gender classes, and through diplomacy, and most times violence, they have succeeded to some degree.

The representation of gender in the texts have been characterised by violence and emotional oppression in order to achieve the gender goals by the powerful masculine practices.

This section of the chapter discusses the overview of the study. It illustrates areas such as the background to the study, statement of the problem, objectives of the study, research questions, potential significance, limitations of the study, delimitations of the study, operational definition of key terms, and the organization of the study. It highlights how the research was organized and carried out to arrive at its final work.

1.1 Background of the Study

The issue of gender bias has become one of the most consistent violations of human rights, denying particularly women of their equality, dignity, security, self-worth, and has infringed their fundamental freedom. This endemic situation is prevalent in many developing countries of which Ghana is no exception. Mostly, the situation usually arises from considerable issues such as inequality in education, employment, and health outcomes. In Sub-Saharan Africa, there are a many discrepancies between sexes in education. Employment opportunities as well as wages and salaries tend differ greatly in developing countries (UNDP, 1995).

This situation tends to sideline women in many spheres of life. This is because they tend to be affected physically, mentally, psychologically and emotionally. Even though there have been interventions to ease the problem of gender inequalities in terms of education and employment, the encountering problems that tends to arise these days seems to be unaddressed. This is because; the limited number of female lecturers in tertiary institutions in the Ghana seems to be unchallenged. It is on the basis of this that, this present study seeks to examine the causal factors and effects of gender disparities in education and employment.

1.1 Problem Statement

The issue of gender with reference to education and employment in Ghana has resulted in limited human resource in terms of female lecturers in tertiary institutions. In Africa as a whole, women constitute 29% of Africa’s academic staff, compared to the global figure of 41%.In the University of Ghana for instance, 24% of females are hired as academic staff. This is not a fair representation compared to male counterparts in the university. (Mama, 2008). Rathgerber (2002) argues that African tertiary institutions were set up to meet the need of male students. This has resulted in few women making it into senior administrative or academic/managerial positions. There is a continual shortage of women in professional, administrative, and clerical jobs. Manuh (1984) argues that as a result of low education women in the formal sector usually receive lower salaries and have less opportunities of promotion than their male counterparts. Even though there are many implementation plans of addressing gender inequalities in terms of education and employment of staff, the problem still seems to be unaddressed. The question therefore is what measures are being taken in place to help solve the problem of gender inequalities in terms of education and employment especially with women who tend to be most affected. Upon this issue is the basis for the research questions.

1.2 Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study are to the continuous impact of gender inequalities against women in Ghana

To examine the causal factors that account for the gender inequalities in university staff

To analyze the effects of gender inequalities against women in terms of education and employment

To make recommendations to help solve the problem

1.3 The Research Questions

The research will answer the following questions

What is Gender Equality?

What factors are still causing gender disparities in terms of education and employment in Ghana?

How has gender inequality affected women in term of education and employment in Ghana?

What are the governmental interventions towards gender equality in education and employment?

What are the people and community doing to minimize gender disparities in Ghana?

1.4 Potential Significance

This study will be very beneficial to the cause of women, organizations, societies and the country as a whole. Governmental agencies such as the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs, the Commission of Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ), Ghana National Labor Commission (GNLC) and even non-governmental organizations such as Women’s Initiative for Self Empowerment (WISE), Women in Law and Development in Africa (WILDAF), etc in their field of work. Additionally, it will help policy makers to formuale policies that will reinforce gender equality in Ghana. It will also provide some supportive evidence for further research studies.

1.5 Limitations

The study will be limited because of the following

Time: This may poses difficulty in how accurate data will be collected and analyzed

Finances: Interviewing many people especially women and children will pose some difficulties.

Data Collection: Cooperation and commitment on the part of lecturers to grant interviews and answer questionnaires are likely to affect data collection owing to their busy schedules.

Distance and Location: Due to the distance and location between the universities some questionnaires are likely to be distributed while some would be interviewed and this could affect the validity of results.

1.6 Delimitation

About ten male and female lecturers will be interview. They will be in the range of the lecturers from different department of study within the university.

These participants will be selected through the snowball approach

There will be the use of constant comparison approach for the qualitative data analysis to analyze the data.

1.7 Operational definition of terms

Impact: Anything that affects individuals or a group positively or negatively.

Gender: A feature that differentiate between a male and a female

Equality: It is a way of treating a person fairly

Lecturers: People who are very high or occupy higher positions in an area of academics.

Tertiary: A high educational level

Institutions: A place where there are formal rules and mechanisms in achieving specific purposes.

1.8 Organization of Chapters

The study will be divided into five chapters.

Chapter 1 consists of the introduction, the problem statement, objective of study, potential significance, and limitations of the study and the organization of the chapters.

Chapter 2 reviews existing literature based gender issues in education and employment in the world and Ghana as a whole

Chapter 3 will cover the methodology

Chapter 4 consists of data presentation, analysis, and discussions of the main findings.

Chapter 5 concludes the research with summary, conclusion and recommendations and suggestions for further research.

Chapter 2
2.0 Introduction

This chapter reviews theories from other literatures in relation to the topic and outlines subheadings from secondary sources. The review of literature on this study is divided into two parts. The first part deals with the theoretical framework that informs the study. The second part deals with the empirical studies that are relate to the study. The chapter will help readers understand how gender issues have affected the society and the world at large. Issues discussed here also reveal the theories of other authors concerning the answering of the research questions about the topic. The literature on both divisions will be group under suitable headings.

2.1 Review of Literature
Theoretical Framework of the Study

Gender disparities tend to be very wide and high on the international policy agenda and the world at large. This situation has become an area of concern to many individuals, organizations and the society at large. The United Nations Development Program (UNDP, 2005) reports that there is a continual discrepancy in education and employment opportunities in terms of gender related issues in Sub-Saharan Africa. Gender disparities still persist in these economies which tend to affect their productivity and the economic growth of such countries. Ghana is not far from this example. This is because, in Ghana even though women make up 51% of the population, they only represent 39% of the economically active group that tends to show the conceptual biases and disparities with regard to the activities of women (Ghana Statistical Service, 1984). In all these circumstances, the women are those who tend to suffer greatly affected than their male counterparts.

Majority of women in Ghana continue to be disadvantaged in terms of education and employment opportunities. Several factors that cause this situation may include lack of education, and societal or cultural perception of women relative to their capabilities and needs.

On the issue of education research on gender studies proves that there is inequitable gender dynamics that reflects in students’ enrolment in most universities and colleges, opportunities, output, achievement and status (Mama, 2008). This assertion seems to be obvious because women constitute 25% of enrolled students while only 3% tend to assume professoriate level. (Ayayi et al, 1996). In recent studies women’s overall enrolments remain far below parity, about 30% of the total enrolment; specifically in Ghana constituting about 35% of enrolment (Ashewa, 2007). This makes education for females to lags behind that for males.

On the side of employment, gender disparities continue to exist in employment opportunities. Statistics on censuses and labor forces in terms of work have led to varying degrees of women being underestimated in labor force participation (Dixon-Mueller, 1985). In Ghana even though women make up 51% of the population, they only represent 39% of the economically active group that tends to show the conceptual biases and disparities with regard to the activities of women (Ghana Statistical Service, 1984). It is quite obvious to deduce that, this trend tends to affect productivity and economic growth of the country.

2.2 Empirical Basis of the Study

A close view of Ghana Christian University College shows that upon all the 34 lecturers in the institution, only two of them are females. (Nortety, 2010). This gender composition is extremely very low and do not show a trend in progress. In the University of Ghana for instance, the low numbers of faculty lecturers have improved slowly. Statistics shows that some department within the university still lack female lecturers especially Physics department, which were not employing females until 1990s. In both faculty and administrative staff, female senior lecturers have almost consistently been only 3.3% to 4.4% of the total staffing, while male lecturers constitute between 14% to 17% (Tsikata, 2007). Even in terms of lectureship rankings, women are disproportionately represented in the lower grade of lectureship. This is because while 79% of men are occupying higher lectureship positions, 20.3% of females are in lower lectureship positions (Tsikata, 2007) This situation has resulted from several factors but the consistent reasons are the fact that women seems to abandon their studies at the first degrees and the demands of their biological and social roles as wives and mothers. Fagerson and Jackson (2004) even confirm that women have been socialized to subordinate their careers in favor of their families. This situation does not seem to be different in most tertiary institutions. In other African countries, such as the Nigeria, Sierra Leone and Uganda the available figures for the proportion of women employed as faculty members are as low as 12.4%, 17.6% and 19.7% respectively compared to their male counterparts. (Teferra and Altbach, 2003). This trend shows that only a limited number of females occupy senior administrative positions.

Defining Gender Equality

Even though, gender equality is broad issue on the international agenda there is no general accepted definition of the term. This is because it is broad concept that is best understood within the wider context of social exclusion that is the systematic discrimination of individuals based on characteristics such as sex, economic status, sex, race, ethnicity, language and even health status. The United Nations however defines gender “as social-cultural construct, and underscores the social relations between men and women, in which women are systematically subordinated” (UNESCO, 2002, p. 15). This definition points out that women are restricted and underprivileged in one way or the other. On the basis of this explanation, the United Nations Economic, Social and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) report on education in 2003 explains that gender equality therefore implies that male and females have equal opportunities to realize their full human rights and contribute to and benefit from economic, social, cultural and political development. (UNESCO, 2003). This therefore means that gender equality has wider circles of development to cover not only on education but also other aspect on development.

Key Terms in Gender Equality

According to the gender equality framework report by EQUATE (2007), three key terms of explaining gender equality were explored. They are parity, equity and equality. By parity, it meant that propositional representation of boys and girls in an education system relative to the population per age group. The UNESCO (2003) reports that parity can be attained when the same proportion of boys and girls have access to an education system, are able to achieve their educational goals and advance through different cycles. Subrahmanian (2005) said that achieving gender equality in education does not only means reaching parity in enrollments and increasing access to education but should be considered as a an outmost measure of progress.

By equity, the report explains that it is the process of being fair to male and females. In simple terms, equity does not mean treating all people the same because some people in one way or the other might be disadvantaged in achieving equitable outcomes in terms of learning. For example, people with disabilities are usually sidelined in many educational policies. On this basis the International Labour Organization (ILO, 2000) affirms that equal treatments should be not be different but there should be equal terms in rights, benefits, obligations and opportunities. The report stressed that parity and equity are therefore the measurable instruments in achieving gender equality in education. This is because; equity mechanisms such as scholarships have been used in achieving parity in educational enrollments rates.

By equality, the report explains that males and females have equal rights, freedoms, conditions, and opportunities for realizing their full potential in society. This simply means that women should have the same opportunities in life as men, including the ability to take part in the public sphere. The explanation however denotes a liberal feminist idea in the sense that preventing discrimination in terms of equal opportunities for women makes them to achieve equal status to their male counterparts. It is based on these differentiations and problems that the Beijing Conference in 1995 was held among national governments, international agencies, non-governmental organizations and individuals to make and develop strategies on gender equitable and equality policies to narrow the gap between male and females and to give equal treatment and opportunities to women who tend to be sidelines in terms of development.

Causes of Gender Imbalance in Institutions

With many activisms, advocacies from individuals, businesses, governmental and non-governmental agencies, local and international bodies such as the United Nations Economical, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), United States Agency for International Development (USAID), International Labor Organization (ILO), and even world conferences including the Beijing Conference and the Millennium Development Goals which have sought to narrow the gap between men and women and to have equal opportunities, there are still causal factors that contribute to gender imbalances in many institutions in our societies and the world at large. The causal factors that contribute immensely to this gender imbalances include the following:

Absence of Gender Equity Policies in Institutions

One of the contributory factors to the cause of gender imbalances in higher institutions is the lack of gender equality and equity policies in most institutions in world at large. Bennett (2002) observed that in Africa, most of the tertiary institutions do not any forms of gender equity policies and even lack plans to increase female enrolments. He further stressed that even where interventions are being enforced, little attention has been received. Even though higher education institutions are obliged to respect and honor national, regional and international policy commitments to gender equality signed by their governments, these institutions by and large do not respond to these policies to achieve full intervention of gender equality policies. According to Bennett, 18 out of 24 gender units exist in most African university campuses undertaking research and activism functions. Such units are found in universities such as the University of Ghana, Ibadan University in Nigeria, University of Dar es Salaam, and University of Western Cape in South Africa in South Africa among others. In the University of Ghana for instance, these equity policies are old and have not generated much controversy (Ofosu, 2006). Ellison (2001) therefore stipulates that the establishment of structures such as labor markets, legislative policies, culture and politics are managed by men and they carry out these situations by employing men to come after them especially into positions of power. This therefore means that in terms of employment and education, men continue to dominate in such spheres. It is therefore obvious to assert that, the absence of these gender equity policies has resulted in limited female lectureships in many institutions.

Lower Admission and Female Enrolments in Institutions

It is easily seen in most African universities that female enrolments have been consistently low. In terms of admission, there has been low admission and enrolments because of inadequate and unqualified females to enter into tertiary institutions. With higher demand for education for both sexes, the preference for educating boys still keeps on going. Higher institutions for the girl-child education are however limited in countries. For instance, in Ghana there are more boarding secondary schools for males than females (Manuh, 1984). Manuh further provides that even in the mixed schools, there are more facilities in place for males than females. Although, there exits affirmative action in most tertiary universities to lower the cut off points for more females to be enrolled, the number is far below parity as to male students enrollments. With a lower cut off points for female students, Ayayi and other provides that there was an increase in enrollment from 21% to 27% in the Ghana between 1990 and 1999. Furthermore, “The net enrolment of children in primary school constitutes 68% in South Asia with 12% more than girls enrolled” (Bellamy, 1999 p. 55). A report from UNESCO (2002) also confirms that literacy rate for male and female adults were 92% and 80% respectively in East Asia, and this has reduced the gender gap. This means the low enrolments of females in education has become a global phenomenon. Considering African universities, in general women enrolment constituted 25% (Ajayi et al, 1996). This still explains that the number as compared to male students’ enrollment is far below parity. Contrary to this basis is the result of limited women in tertiary institutions.

Socio-Cultural Constraint on Women

Many socio cultural beliefs, values and practices have restricted many females from pursuing higher and advanced studies. The traditional factors arising and resulting into gender gap include less value of education for females, early marriages, and early value on motherhood, domestic labor among others. The problem can also be resulted from poverty, which is a major constraint on families finding it difficult to send their girl-child to school especially in the developing countries (UNESCO, 2002). In Ghana, the preference for educating both sexes tends to shift to males rather than females. This is because; certain roles such as childrearing, household chores especially washing and cooking of food, as well as work outside the home have been gendered. However, the prevailing factor affecting most on the gender gap in the traditional institution is as a result of marriage. Mostly the females are easily prone to early marriages with the view of giving birth early and maintain their family. However, these females who fall under the influence of early marriage find it difficult to maintain their homes. For instance, it is affirmed by Mehrotra and Jolly (1997) that women who are educated marry afterwards, have fewer children and even maintain themselves well and their children. They further argued that, such women also seek medical attention for children and themselves which will eventually lead to higher survival rate of both the women and the children. Many studies suggest that there are conjugal situations that are related to spouses in marriages, and over 90% of women tend to suffer abuses (Dobash and Dobash, 1979 and Schwartz, 1987). This specifically means that domestic violence against women usually happens within the context of societal framework where public, family and individual relations are based on male authority and power. Kabeer (1998) even states that the intrahousehold relations are indeed characterized by power. These and many others are contributory constraints and challenges that militate against education of females in our societies.

Insufficient Role Models

By and large all over the world, there are very less and few educated women occupying leadership positions and other professional careers to help encourage more females to enter into tertiary institutions and subsequently reach higher potentials in the educational ladder. It would have been a welcome development to have many women becoming writers, novelists, professors, lecturers but the trend of gender gap still remains the same. Presently, Ghana Christian University College can boost of only three female lecturers (Nortey, 2010). Nortey also confirms that only three females graduated in 2010 among eighteen students in the School of Community Development. In the School of Theology, there was no female representation. This gender disparity is most severe at higher positions and administrative levels in most universities around the globe. It is somehow clear that, the senior positions in tertiary institutions are mostly males. In the University of Zimbabwe, only a single woman is at the professor level (Ayayi et al, 1996). aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦

High Rates of Unemployment for Graduates

Unemployment rates of graduates in African countries are always in a recession. In many West African countries and Ghana in particular, owing to depressed economies coupled with academic programmes that are unrelated to the job market, unemployment rates for male and female graduates are usually high. This has contributed negatively to how most females do not make any attempts in getting into tertiary institutions. Even where there are employment opportunities, the opportunities for the males are usually higher than the females. In Ghana women accounts for 51% of the total population and 39% forms the economic active group. Women are generally given employment in lower levels economic activities such as trade, agriculture, small and medium scale manufacturing. There is therefore a deficit of women getting employment into formal sectors of the Ghanaian economy even after completing a degree. In 1984 with women constituting 51% of the populations only 9% of women were employed into managerial and administrative positions (Ghana Statistical Service, 1984). This shows a wide gap of gender disparity. In contrast, women who are even gainfully employed in the formal sector receive lower salaries and have less chances of promotion than their male counterparts as a result of lower levels of education (Manuh, 1984). Additionally, studies on gender discrimination indicate that female managers are more discriminated against male managers in promotional opportunities (Arnold and Shinew, 1988). In many institutions especially in tertiary academic institutions, there are virtually no strict mechanisms for dealing with occupational hazards such as sexual harassments. This makes most institutions to be women friendly and has contributed negatively to women moving into higher educational positions thereby leading into higher employment positions.

The table below shows the unemployment rates in terms of gender and age groups.

Age Group

Male

Females

15- 24

12.7%

18.7%

25- 44

7.3%

7.5%

45-64

4.8%

4.5%

Source: Ghana Statistical Service (Unemployment Rate 1984-2000)

This table therefore indicates that unemployment rates among females are high than males.

Effects of Gender Disparities in Education and Employment

Chapter 3
3.0 Methodology

This chapter will discuss the research design, the population and sample. It will also discuss the instruments to be used in the data collection, the procedure for data collection and the method for data analysis.

The research design

The research design for this research will be that of a survey. The survey method will involve data collection and analysis from key women personnel who holds executive positions in tertiary institutions. The data will be observed, classified and formulate hypothesis.

3.2 The Population

The target populations of this study are four tertiary institutions in Ghana such as the Ghana Christian University College, Valley View University, University of Ghana and Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration (GIMPA). This is because of there are limited number of women who are lecturers in these institutions

3.3 Sampling Procedure

In getting a fair response, the sampling procedure or technique will be to interview two women and male lecturers in to find out why there are few females in lectureship positions in the universities. The interview will be done with the help of recorder which will later be transcribed. Additionally, questionnaires will be prepared for those who are very busy and will be demanded from them when answered. Purposive sampling approach and the snowball approach will also be used since lecturers in one field of study will be able to direct you to a specific lecturer who lecturers in gender related subjects for the needed information for the study.

3.4 Research Instrument

The most effective instruments to be sued to collect the data are through questionnaires and the snowball approach. The questionnaires will be based on researcher’s objectives in an orderly manner in order to obtain a solution to the problem. In terms of the snowball approach, both the questions will be based on closed and opened questions. Recorder cassette is likely to be used for the interview. Observations will also be used by the researcher.

3.5 Data Collection Procedure

Ten questionnaires will be used for each respondent. The answers to these questionnaires will be solicited through one-on-one interview.

3.6 Data Analysis

For analysis, the outcome of the data collected will be analyzed, hypothesized and qualitatively interpreted.

Chapter 4
3.6 Data Analysis

For analysis, the outcome of the data collected will be analyzed, hypothesized and qualitatively interpreted.

3.7 Discussion of Findings

The findings of the data collected will be interpreted for easy understanding.

Chapter 5
4.0 Summary, Suggestions and recommendations

Based on the research findings, the findings will be summarized while appropriate measures will be suggested or recommended to eradicate or minimize the problem entirely.

4.1 Conclusion

It can be concluded that gender inequality is one of the violations of fundamental human rights. In spite of its numerous effects against women, laws are not effectively enforced to make the act work in practice.

The term gender is just a set of characters that tent to differentiate between female and male, especially in case of women and men. Depending on the context under discussion, the distinguishing characteristics differ from sex to social duties to gender identity as well. Some of the cultures have certain gendered-related social roles that ought to be considered distinct from ladies and gents. On the other hand, the social science at times look at gender as being a social construct and gender studies especially do, research in the natural science looks at whether biological differences in both females and males affect the human development.

The term organization has been defined as a container, an empirical object which has rigid boundary, and a set of structure with real levels as well as departments that are much static and different entity from the organization members. It has been just in the recent past, when scholars have added that, organizations are defined and constituted through members’ communication as a way of sense-making process. In one way, an organization need to be looked upon as a microcosm of the surrounding culture, and on the other hand, can be seen as an arbitrary point where various forces of culture transect (Mats & Yvonne 2009). It creation is through its naming, hence, an organization can be seen as a series of communication performances that is rooted and enacted in day-day discursive practices.

Important Issue Concerning Gender in Organizations

In general, why do women have lower wages, even when in the similar occupation as well as similar level, experience high rate of unemployment, taking many responsibilities in unpaid labor, strongly underrepresented in higher positions in an organization, and also lower expectations to promotions? It is true that, matters concerning gender need to be looked upon from a different point of vie. From the organizational perspective, there have been reasons that need to be considered about the effective use of human resources which originated from the current order of gender. As an effect, is there any reason for the management to consider gender when addressing the culture, practices and structures of the organization?

It has been shown that, more organizations are benefiting from women after knowing that, there position is actually low paid jobs, and the absence of ambitions which has been conventionally ascribed to women as well as their expectations in finding the fulfillment in the sphere of families, that has been facilitating the adaptations to several modestly skilled jobs that tent to be available in modern working life (Krone & Waldron, 1991). The presence of gender division in the workforce might be more advantageous for many organizations, as compared to taking equal chances seriously if the latter at least call s for major alterations.

On the other hand, it has been argued from the organizations point of departure that, the person’s sex has no importance as parse. Gender equality has never been in opposition to the culture of long workweek for the individuals who happen to be in higher positions or career tracks. This has been shown by current researches which are concluding that, females are giving more priority as compared to their spouses. Remaining in the majority of cases, organizations are drawing upon and reinforcing conventional gender patterns when providing encouragements and utilizing career-oriented individuals. However, the male breadwinner picture still supports strongly, the instrumental as well as career oriented gents working very hard for the organization (Asucraft & Memby, 2004). Such like complications need to be considered before making many assumptions that are interested in gender fairness in the organization. Even for the managerial positions, it might be much optimal for the organization if most ladies tent to be not committed strongly to promotions to top jobs.

Other than concentrating on rational arguments, like around objective interests and means to ends, it is much better to explore how individuals in organizations define the phenomena, as this means overstress broad patterns as well as the consistency whilst along with change. On the other hand, it is only gender discrimination and obstacles to the equal opportunity realization in work organizations that many have wished highlighted. However, it is only male dominance along with female victimization and lost opportunities that is to be concentrated on. An issue of interest is also the rich variation in the way in which organizations have been carrying out gender meanings, and how both female and male lives their organizational lives. It is not true that that work organizations are just representative of privileges accorded to men. However, it is true that, gents and ladies work companies can all bring about conformities, suffering as well as constraints (Kirby & Krone, 2002). All of them might experience joy and benefits conversely not only from wage labor but from day-day organizational life too. In other terms, the limitation on individuals in a certain organization, for instance, the pressure to give priority to work over their families, do not emanates from male dominations only, but also upon the working s of capitalism and the idea of organizations effectively along with competitive production of goods and services, making a high material living standards possible.

Exploring gender in organizations, the mapping of what is happening to both the gents and ladies at work place along with gendered organizations, looking at the company’s culture in terms of masculine as well as the feminine values, meanings and ideas, might lead to different stories being told. The perspective of gender in organizations perspective concentrates on gents and ladies as fairly robust categories and looks into the matter of how these issues are treated behave and or experience work along with life. The interests are normally din measurements and male and female group comparisons. According to Taylor, (1993) the idea of gender in organizations shows that, work place is even more than sites where the game of gender is played out. On the other hand, companies are looked upon as the inscribed by gendered meanings , structures and practices, which are characterized by the assumption along with values of either masculine or feminine nature actively ‘producing’ individuals in the organizations (Ganster & Thomas, 1995). Under this, more emphasize are on the construction processes, and how organizations like other social institutions are shaped artificially in some specific ways and in their turn contributes to the gents and ladies construction.

Most of the gender in organization stories, but somehow a few of these concentrating on gender in organizations, are explicitly and pro-women intentionally, that opposes domination of male, and aims at improving the women situations. Nevertheless, it is also believed that, it will be good if On top of this, address how ladies might act conservatively in connection to the quality ideals, perhaps against the interests they have and how the culture of an organization might impact most men in the negative way. To add on that, gender perspective in an organization might provide significant insights into how companies work, for instance, concerning the inter-alia, company strategy, leadership, organizational culture, ethic, groups, communication as well as corporate social responsibility (Pfeffer & Salancik, 1978). This shows that, the approach goes beyond the questions that have been asked about the advantages and disadvantages of gender patterns for careers along with work conditions of both females and men.

Organization Theory and Gender

In real sense the field of organization theory covers a very large area and the field is still expanding. In the past, there has been an increase in the number of research having interest in gender and organizations to a level that, some have observed that the main stream of organizational is just male gendered, this in one way or the other has become something of truism. On the other hand, despite the fact that the recent recognition within the more critical strands, of the discipline, it will be good to emphasize that organization theory has from the past neglected issues addressing with gender (O’Donnell-Trujillo & Pacanowsky, 1983). Some of the workers who have been viewed either supportably gender neutral point of view, but in real sense, they are representing male point of view. This is based on the fact that, studies were carried out invariably on male employees by male researchers. In other words, from the perspective that considers only male and masculine concept of work and organization as very much interesting, though gender concepts have not been addressed ion other works.

In 1980s, the massive literature on organizational culture, were being driven by an interest in the meaning of life at the workplace, the issue of gender was hardly. Despite all these history, the importance of this field has in the recent past received much recognition. Currently, it is almost compulsory to include a section on gender in an ambitious overview of organizational behaviors. Despite all these, both gender in organizations as well as gendering of organizational along with the management theory of organizational analysis which has remained marginalized topics with mainstream organizational as well as the management theory that is still making assumption that both knowledge along with knowledge production are just trying to be gender neutral. The issue of gender for many seems to be a theme that has be included and ticked off, so that the expectations that ought to be addressed are made just in the name of avoiding critiques. Many have questioned the effect that might result due to the analysis as well as the interpretations made on the issue of gender in organizations. It is only few who have considered its effects on the knowledge developing process as well as the understanding of organizations of the issue that, it is only men have taken part in its production. The female sex of course in no way guarantees an interest when considering the issue of gender anymore than the male biological sex an interest in the topic.

The dominance in masculine in the academic life along with the organizations studied has had important effects on the forms of questions raised as well as the answers subsequently produced in the management and organization studies. Some subjects have not been considered in any way, they haven’t been considered from the gender perspective. In addition, there are these who are questioning if the assumption those organizations are neutral to gender, or the world its self is for men. Until recent, the case has been that, the manager is assumed to be ‘he’, though currently, it is perhaps only the senior executives that in most cases are assumed to being male (Kroman & Scott, 2005). As a result, it has been maintained that, it is the life of men and work of gents that has been considered as being the research standard, both within the human relationships school, strategic management research, cultural theory or any other school that individuals might think of, in the organizations theory. It is true that, this holds water in parts of science as well. Uncritically, research in most cases has been reflecting cultural believes. The North American traditional concept of leadership might be described as an imitation that is based on masculine ego-ideal, that glorifies the competitive, creative, combative, aggressive, controlling, as well as self reliant individuals. It has been argued that, the whole field of management has so far had a masculine bias; in addition, other researchers have added that, even more neutral theories like Maslow’s need hierarchy have similar biasness. Nevertheless, there have been some changes in the in the discourse on leadership and management, possibly including the issue of feminization, or in other words, at least de-masculinization, though some reality easily lag behind a changing world. There are those claims and results concerning gender studies that seem more important yesterday, than today or even in future.

It has been found that, gender perspective means the analysis of the significance, meaning and consequences of what culture defines as male as well as female ways of thinking, valuing, along with acting. It also means the analysis of the organizational practices that maintains the labor division between sexes. Vertical labor division depending on sex, can be connected to conceptions of masculine/feminine, that ascribes a gendered meaning to things that are contingent upon the cultural believes of what are the real orientations along with behaviors of both male and ladies

The usage of gender point of view on organizations would also result to a higher degree of sensitivity to contradictions plus ambiguities concerning social constructions and reconstructions of gender relationships and to what is considered as discrimination and equal opportunities at the work place level. It is much significant to stress that gender relationships are not structured statistically and defined and for all, however, are emergent and changeable. This has been used to account for overall societal degree and every day interactions in the workplace (Hess & Kramer, 2002). Despite the study of discriminating actions as well as gender bias in the organization, it is also much important to research on the elements of modern organization that has been producing tendencies towards equality between the sexes. This last concept has been neglected for long in gender studies. Though there are strong reasons for critical approach, but some current societies and several firms have social values along with rules that promotes the espoused interests and chances of ladies and do not only or majorly discriminate against them, even without the usage of special laws. Such social rules are of greater significance to middle class as compared to the working class ladies.

The current society praises itself for being meritocratic and most individuals in the west claim that, to be in favor of an ideology that provides unbiased chances to both sexes. However, the fact is that, this is sometimes restricted to lip service. The opportunities to choose the way of resisting norms as well as guidelines for acting and being in gender and avoid sex roles, gender norms are currently better as compared to in the past. The chances of organizations taking a progressive and rational role, needed not to be excluded as though it has some limits like, it might give ladies better employment options and promotions as compared to male, but does not in any way deal with wider issues like goals and values along with interests that the organization’s life is based on (Murphy, 2001).

Gender perspective will also mean dealing with ways in which both male and females are constructed as individuals, there formation plus reformation through social processes, their actions and life experience their support and discrimination. It will furthermore include broader views on organizations. Some of the ideals like profi8ts could be much related to masculine conceptions and gent rationality.

The limitations of interpretive powers of a gender point of view have been disputed by many, and as a result, it is not the best perspective for the study of all organizations and working life aspects. By being sensitive about the limitations of analytic and interpretive range of the perspective hardly mean that women need to adapt to their under-privileged in their working life, which previously had been influenced by very strong masculine dominance. A gender perspective din organizations also means the study of phenomena and concentrating on the basic questions that deals with rationality, like the aims and structures of the organization. The trick with this fact on the other hand is the interpretations of gendered meanings sensitively in non-obvious circumstances without generalizing organizational life through looking everything in terms of gender.

By considering the issue of gender out side organizations, it has been researched and the most argued facts are the typical and dominant trends and patterns that aim at a general image of gender in organizations, though diversity as well as multiplicity has received more attention in the recent past. However, diversity has been reduced to the consideration of gender, class plus ethnicity formula. In addition, it has been shown that, organizations differ much from historical and reproduced gender biases in social activities. It is just like how gendered meanings that have characterized different work fields, professions, functions and positions.

Many modern scholars have stopped looking at organizations and organizational theorization as being gender neutral, as an effect, they have abandoned any hypothesis suggesting that gender and organizational research are unconnected. Different authors as an effect have described the development of gendered organizations as an area of study, which needs to be taken as different from study from both organization researches along with gender studies. Fragmentation and distinction in these disciplines, composition and practices of gender, applied methods along with institutionalized academic professional practices on top of social networks, have encouraged divergence as compared to integration of organizational and gendered studies. Gendered organization field has included national, gender along with disciplinary inclusiveness, methodological and theoretical innovations.

Gender Studies

The issue of gender has been has been understood changed and developed differently in different cultural times and contexts. Gents, ladies and gendered practices have been dynamic since time immemorial. It is just in the modern world, that social science has been part of, and contributes towards, culture and thus impact on how gender understanding plus practices will be in the future times to come. On the other hand, Social science does not only deal with gender, but has been actively contributing to the construction of gender in organizations (Werhane, 1987). It has been argued that, it is cultural practices as well as social practices rather than genes accounts for the ratio of male to female or the reverse, in terms of full-time, part-time, wage labor, along with the unpaid homework, and in various occupations and hierarchical levels din different organizations. Social science on its part, fusses with cultural ideas to contribute to their developments.

It is true that all statements and reasoning concerning gender issues are informed by value judgments in organizations are never neutral politically. For instance, the study of gender is one of the political choices, as is of course none-choice. It has been found on the other hand that, refusing to divide up human beings into two sexes is much problematic. This is based on the fact that, by looking at the importance of the distinction as much troublesome in social science, this is because; it obscures the variations and misleadingly indicates that the male and female categories are homogeneous and universal.

It is one thing to assert that feminist organizations do not ride the coattails of larger critical ventures; as a result, it renders both independent of and integral to radical organization studies. The feminism organization scholarship has in a unique way contributed to individuals’ understanding of the relations amongst gender, power identity, discourse as well as organization in a company. According to different studies have shown that in an organization, discourse has been given at least four meanings, each having special attentions to micro and macro dimensions, namely; first, it means engrained habits of personal communication; secondly, it refers to the process of mundane interactions; thirdly, it also refers to the organizational form. Last but not least, discourse; means societal narratives. Scholars have come up with four ways of framing the relations among the discourse, gender as well as the organization. The first frame treats gender as a defining factor of human identity, and explains how it plays a role in [shaping interact ional tendencies. Frame two on its part, highlights the organization of gender identities around difference. The third frame pulls organizations out of the shadows explaining major pictures that frame 1 and 2 minimized, and at the end concentrates on individual entity. Last but not least, looks beyond actual locations of work and connected agencies, with the aim of paralleling discursive fields that interlace gender and labor. However, there have been little or no efforts that are underdeveloped within these frames, which can aid in unpacking the dielectric that exist between micro-and macro-level discursive processes.

It has been argued that, gender perspective assumes that, the domination of male or patriarchy in organizations is just a mechanism that forms the foundation of all sorts of miserable phenomena that legitimize in discriminatory critique. There are authors who have been criticized because of overstretching of gender perspective. Of course, it has been argued that, there is no single discrimination in human society is much more crucial as compared to male and female; hence, there is no area in an organization that is gender neutral. Due to this argument, everything bears reasonable gender meaning and reflects gender biasness, especially to the advantage of men (Stewart, 1981). Though this reasoning has been accepted, there are these who still insist on the problems with gender over-sensitivity in organizations (Ellis, Et al 1988). This is based on that fact that, everything can be perceived as having some gendered meanings or matters that are perfectly gender-balanced , or gender-neutral, does not mean in any way a gender aspect is worthy reiterating at all times. As a matter of fact, there are other aspects that might include some ‘grains’ of truth might be overstressed. Any perspective in an organization runs a risk of being used in one-eye fashion to, to reduce all phenomenon to issues of male and female.

There have been various reasons on the other hand that have stated the significance of paying much attention to gender over-sensitivity. It has been shown that, it is much important to become aware of the problems of overusing a certain perspective. The insensitivity to gender issues has been well documented and strongly reiterated by most literature dealing with gender. Gender over-sensitivity implies that, not to quickly disregard other concepts or possible interpretations. This means the, privileging gender over other factors in an organization, makes it the only decisive factor hence understanding gender becomes generalizing.

Minimization of Gender Over-Sensitivity

The different themes concerning gender over-sensitivity includes the connection of political function of gender studies, it might seem to be propaganda if political is stressed so much. The recognition and reiteration of equality tendency signs among women in an organization in an organization might end up weakening the case for female politicians, academics, along with risks of impoverishing the base for one’s career. Another aspect of gender over-sensitivity in an organization deals with seductive gender concepts and ideas. They might be used when accounting for or illuminating all types of phenomena. The ideas of about femininities along with masculinities might blinker the researcher, other than putting them under use for self-criticality and with open minded. This is based on the fact that, issues of gender involve much more of the researcher as an individual as compared to other subjects. There are also some terms which have much little to do with what is called true, or false, hence much impossible to ascertain the appropriate degree of gender sensitivity.

Even though there are differences between female and male, which are associated to things like sexuality, class among other factors, it will be good if research can add other forms of oppression. The meaning of gender needs not to focus mainly on gender issues and neglect issues and themes that are conceptualized din other forms. If individuals need to take the problem of over-sensitivity seriously, organizations need not to practice monologue, other than co-constructed dialogues. This is based on the fact that in many organizations, lack of communication has been linked to negativism among the coworkers, which might result to gender over-sensitivity. On the other hand, in dealing with organizational gender problems, organizations need to create a culture which in one way or the other assists its workers in managing emotions (Louis, 1980). This is based on the fact that, this needs to be a precondition of client employee relation, which enhances adequate service and product delivery. For instance, it needs to set proactive socialization culture, which leads to the uncertainty reduction for organizational learning.

Synthesis of the Readings

Organizations can be termed as containers, empirical objects, having rigid boundaries and actual levels and departments that are stationary and different from organizational members. Though, it has been criticized that little work has been done on impact of communication on benefit utilization, but the results can be reliable to in linking benefits accrued from it, provided that the right procedure and data collection procedure and practices were done accurately, because, if the research is reliable, then similar results will be reproduced in case of another study. In many organizations, lack of communication has been linked to negativism among the coworkers; this has been attributed to about the reasoning behind employee policies, and the programs that are entailed.

In most cases, organization performance is never monologue, other than co-constructed dialogues. Though co-constructed, political, relative and situational are all four traits in the firms performance, but they do not all influence emergent performance at the same time, why? It has been observed that, the possibilities of emergent quality performance are vested in the interplay between communicative resources, participant goals and personal competence. The issue of sense-making then is as a result of individual reflection degree on the elements interplay. The creation of supportive environment, it is climate for the implementation of policies, apart from putting it on paper. It is beneficial Communication has been seen as a very significant due to the fact that work-family benefits are being realized due to interactions.

On the other hand, in dealing with organizational problems, organizations need to create a culture which in one way or the other helps its workers in managing emotions. This is because this needs to be a precondition of client employee relation, which enhances adequate service and product delivery. For instance, it needs to set proactive socialization culture, which leads to the uncertainty reduction for organizational learning. However, the big question that mangers need to ask themselves is; what are the socialization processes that are facilitating emotion labor practices that are disturbing the turnover rates that often accompany working in human service occupations? In that connection, it is good for the company to lay down procedures under which new employees pass through during orientation.

Research has shown that that Gender and organizations are interdisciplinary studies that entail complicated arrays of theoretical and empirical projects. It has been observed feminist organizations renders independence of and integral to radical organization studies. Feminism organization studies have assisted in giving the relations among the following frames; identity, gender, power, disclosure and organization. It is true frames when combined normally elucidate environmental factors which are much helpful in shaping socialization, economic and institutional changes. On the other hand, there are no efforts within the discussed frames to reveal the dialectic between macro-and micro-degree discursive processes. Though the discussed frame fissures might be the key ones, but aren’t there any other fissures across the frames that can be identified that might be exclusive to gender.

There are many framing techniques that have been developed by researchers. Some of them like these basing on Giddens, have been developed by subjugated groups particularly. According to Clair, (2003) research has shown that women are unable to frame their experience just as simple misunderstanding, nor do they wholly embrace reification, the fact remains that researchers are just using subjugated group, hence the results cant be generalized on the whole group. In addition, it is good to identify, the research has identified the homorganic relations at the individual levels, but what are the relations at different levels of the society? Like interaction of women to co-workers.

Feminist argue that women are still facing great inequality gaps between males today around the world in the workplace. Women were not treated like a person with dignity that deserved respect from laws and institutions. People viewed and treated women as mere instruments, producers, caregivers, sexual outlets or agents of a family’s general prosperity (Nussbaum, 2000). Women in today’s society have achieved a lot since the 1950’s, where now women have been accepted into society. Since the early dates of civilisation, women have played a second class role in which they were and still are viewed as less than a man. The 1960’s and 1970’s were the essential decades for women in western society as it had led to the positive outcomes of women’s quality of life. For generations women in society have been repressed by the men in society, however over the past few decades women have been starting to create great social and economic changes and as well as at home. Creating changes in the social and economic sector created job opportunities and a better life. Women’s right activist (Roosevelt, 1913) had declared that the law had the ability to put women at equal foots to men, giving them the right to vote, work and hold property.

Though are many more women that now have access to their desired career paths; that had been previously denied in the past they are still being deprived of job opportunities. Males have started to take a turn on household duties in the past few years with some men becoming ‘house husbands’, yet majority of the household chores such as cooking and cleaning are presently still being done by the female in the household as it is still generalised as the woman’s responsibility. This leaves women with less time to focus on their work and advance to a higher position. In the case of a being a mother they have less opportunities of advancing in their workplace because managers or bosses are familiar that women will need more time off work and maternity leave to take care of their child, in some occupations giving maternity leave to women requires the employer to hire a replacement for the woman on leave, making the company spend more money. As a consequence of this; employers tend to hire more males over females.

On June 24 2010 marked a historical event for Australia because it marked the day that a Julia Gillard had become the first female prime minister of Australia. The gender gap is much wider than it was believed to be, because of the lack of educational opportunities in countries such as Canada contain 35% of Canadian women have not completed high school and 72% of the women had a median after tax income under $13 786 and earned 29% less than men, despite years of trying to close the gap between men and female, females are still deprived of equal employment opportunities (Hadley, 2001). Women in certain parts of the world lack fundamental support from their loved ones. They lack technical education, as they enter the workforce they face greater difficulties from their families. Females are prone to sexual harassment and or abuse in the workplace, and in many nations women are still not equal under the laws eyes (Nussbaum, 2000).

Females are still being undervalued in the workplace despite many years of struggle by advocates for gender equality both within the workplace and beyond it. In Australia and New Zealand 2011, the gender wage gap difference between men’s and women’s earnings for full-time hours sat at 18 and 15%. Federal industrial relations jurisdictions have raised hopes that there might be progress in attempts to remedy one aspect of pay inequality. (Cooper, Parker, 2012) Nussbaum’s capabilities approach suggests that in order to be a just society everyone is entitled to the fundamental requirements of life with dignity, as she specified in her ten central human capabilities. Nussbaum (frontiers of justice, 2006) suggests that “a society that does not guarantee these to all citizens, at some appropriate threshold level, falls short of being a fully just society”. This is seen when females have less opportunities than men to live free. With full responsibility for housework and child care, females lack opportunities for the cultivation of their imaginative and cognitive faculties. These factors take their toll on emotional well-being. Unequal social and political circumstances give women unequal human rights (Nussbaum, 2000)

Cooper (2013) argues that senior leadership positions are far from being feminised due to men dominating majority of the higher positions in the workplace. By utilising Rawls theory of justice as fairness into act it could create equal opportunities. The term “human rights” Rawls uses it that of internationally enforceable basic human rights, understood as important rights that all individual persons may validly claim, which he calls ‘the law of the people’. Rawls takes initial course towards deciding where a just system of international law would set the limits of states’ rights of self-determination and non-intervention creating a socially just society. Women in Australian society can benefit from Rawls’ distribution of primary goods as females will be able to gain the freedom and support that that deserve.

The struggle for pay equity is first and foremost a struggle to have the value of women’s waged labour formally recognised. Rosewarne (2010) redresses the disadvantage of women in labour markets is but one element in the larger process of challenging the institutionalisation of discrimination and of its effects in terms of economic, cultural and political disadvantage. Rawls argues that by implementing the principles of creating an internationally enforceable law which all decent societies can endorse as constituting the moral basis of international law and as applying to international relations among all societies can bring towards the idea of fair social cooperation amongst individuals, and citizens of equal political status.

CONCLUSION

Nussbaum (2000) categorises gender inequality to be strongly correlated with poverty. When poverty combines with gender inequality, the result is acute failure of central human capabilities for both men and women in society. Nussbaum’s capabilities approach lacks and needs a better developed account of a certain proper set of human rights, those that are internationally enforceable. The issue of inequality in the workplace can be approached by utilising Rawls theory of ‘Justice as fairness’ because it distributes the goods and services to not only the people who earned it but to the people who need it, it is a distribution of fairness. Rawls theory could be able to close the distance between men and women, by mutual cooperation’s and accepting the basic structure of society as it institutionalises equality in value. Closing the gap of inequality between women and men will not happen overnight, it will still take a few years’ maybe even decades to formally close the gap. It will not be easy, but women have been fighting for decades for equal rights and will not stop until there is not more inequality.

Rhodes in the article “Speaking of sex: The denial of gender equality” asserts that gender has been used as the basis of all in equalities towards females. She explains the originality of gender differences and how they affect work force. The roles and characteristics associated to males and females vary according to culture and time. Biology is however not highly associated with the determination of female and male identities because societies are different in terms of the traits and tasks associated with each sex. Biologists believe that feminine and masculine traits are physiological in nature and it is therefore the duty of the society to transform these false ideologies which bring about social disadvantages to the society. The 1995 ABC TV documentary shows that many Americans perceive biology as the main vehicle in the creation of masculine and feminine characteristics. Sex-based inequalities are founded on reproductive capacity, hormonal drives, brain structure and physical strength and size. The creditability of biology in the definition of masculinity and femininity is highly questioned since well adjusted people have dual sexual characteristics.

According to Rhodes (23), most of the sex based inequalities is highly based on the sex based differences in reproductive physiology. The sociobiologists have explained that gender roles are biological because in the early years pregnant and breastfeeding women, used to depend on their husbands for food and other amenities while the husbands were the hunters. Anthropologists have however refuted this claim. They argue that men were not the only major providers and child rearing roles where carried out by all sexes. Rhodes says that hormones should not be accounted for the lack of aggression in females. This is because most of the aggression varies according to cultures. For example rape is not allowed in most societies and it should therefore not be an aggression driven by hormones. Most females were not assigned some highly physical roles for example like in the military for they were said to be weak. Rhode concludes that our culture concludes the social differences between both sexes.

According to Cotter, Hermsen and Vanneman (1) in the article “Gender equality at work”, work roles (men’s and women’s) are changing with the changing cultural, economic, social and technological changes during the last half of the twentieth century. They mainly explain how the labor force participates, the kind of segregations and how they come about and also how the issue of earnings is prevailing in the work force. They have also explained the major causes of the gender inequalities in the workforce and they include attitudes, education, politics, economic structure and families (37). The gender inequality in the labor market is seen to be very persistence. This is characterized by low earnings for women workers who compared to men and discriminatory promotions. This is despite the rising number of women in the labor force. But again it seems like the trends are changing because the difference between the workingmen and women seems to be narrowing.

Scholars have noted occupational segregation whereby only a small percentage of female can work in the male occupation while a higher percentage of working men always occupy more than 75 percent of female jobs. Integration is perceived to be the only solution to the narrowing of this gap. Occupational segregation is perceived in terms of age, cohort, race, ethnicity, class, and education. There is noticeable integration of men’s and women’s work although substantial amounts of segregation are still persistent. Females earn less even though the men’s earnings are also changing due to the changing ratio of the work force. It is however reported that women have had increased earnings. Amid these incredible changes, traces of gender inequality are still evident today. Men are more active than women in the labor force (Cotter, Hermsen and Vanneman 52). Again, inequitable earnings even for the same kind of jobs with women getting less than men clearly reflect. According to Male (2), men have a higher probability of accessing paid employment, better jobs and pay compared to women. Apparently, gender equality in the workplace is still a mirage in today’s work environment.

Works cited

Cotter, David, Hermsen, Joan and Vanneman, Reeve. Gender Inequality at Work Force, 2004. Retrieved from http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/vanneman/papers/Cotter_etal.pdf

Male, f. Women in the Workplace: factors affecting the European situation and envisaged policy options. Retrieved from http://www.qec-eran.org/qec/publications/Women%20in%20the%20workplace.doc.

Rhode, Deborah. Speaking of sex: The denial of gender inequality, 1997. Retrieved from http://crl.ucsd.edu/HDP1/LectureNotes/rhode.pdf

Over the past ten years, the profession of nursing has seen an increase to the number of male nurses (Cite). Despite this fact, men still comprise the minority within the nursing profession both in Canada and the United States, in fact, nursing remains one of the most female-dominated occupations. To most individuals, this seems an appropriate if not a natural occurrence as women are more “naturally suited” to the profession (Cite). Many factors contribute to this bias however, a review of the history of this phenomenon has shown that the first nurses were actually men as opposed to women (Cite). Ironically, women have made enormous strides into previously male-dominated professions, while the movement of men in nursing has been quite the opposite (MacPhail, 1996). Ideas of appropriate behavior according to gender vary among cultures and eras largely due to what society deems appropriate. In the recent past we have seen this concept adapt to the changing needs of our communities through the support of the movement of women into male-dominated professions. While this remains a laudable achievement, virtually no support has been given to men to break into professions dominated by women, such as nursing (Cite).

Theoretical Perspectives

Historically, nursing is considered a single-sex occupation, identified as a role that is inherently natural to the female gender. Thus, it has become identified as a profession deeply embedded in the gender-based power relations of society. Nursing is an occupation established by women; it supports the stereotypical “feminine” image with traits of nurturing, caring, and gentleness in contrast to masculine characteristics of strength, aggression, and dominance (Evans, 2002). For this reason, occupations requiring these qualities have been considered exclusively suited to women, and labeled “women’s work.”

However, the art and science of nursing has not always been a predominantly female profession (Evans, 2004). Men have played a dominant role in organized nursing dating back to 330 A.D. in the Byzantine Empire. During this era, hospitals were one of the major institutions where nursing emerged as a separate occupation, primarily for men. Moreover, military, religious, and lay orders of men known as nurses have a long history of caring for the sick and injured during the Crusades in the llth century (MacPhail, 1996). In the United States, men served as nurses during the Civil War. John Simon, the lesser-known rival of Florence Nightingale, was the founder of an experimental field hospital in Germany during the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). Male nurses were hired to staff the hospital, and mortality rates among the troops were kept abnormally low (Evans, 2004). Unfortunately, men were not accepted readily in nursing schools for many years. Interestingly, in 1888, Darius Odgen Mills established the first male nursing school in America, based at Bellevue Hospital in New York City. This school of nursing provided education and training for nurses to care for psychiatric patients. However, it appears that this men’s contribution to nursing has been forgotten. This nonrecognition has likewise perpetuated the feminine image of nursing in society and the perception of the male nurse as an anomaly

Generally, nursing as we know it today came to be regarded as a woman’s profession through the efforts initiated and developed by Florence Nightingale during the 19th century. She saw nursing as suitable for women because it was an extension of their domestic role. It was assumed that it was natural for women to become nurses because of their innate caregiving and healing traits; nursing was not a place for men. At that time, more and more women entered the profession of nursing. Nightingale’s image of the nurse as subordinate, nurturing, domestic, humble, and self-sacrificing, as well as not too educated, became prevalent in society. The ostracization of men in nursing was established.

Factors Contributing to Gender Inequality in the Nursing Profession

According to several authors, one major barrier that may deter men from entering the profession is nursing’s traditional image. Nursing’s image perpetuates cultural understandings and societal attitudes about occupations appropriate for men and women. As such, nursing remains stereotyped as a female occupation. After all, gender-role socialization patterns in society provide examples of ways in which boys and girls are exposed to different role models and different me sages about what is appropriate to each gender. Society has presented men with strong stereotypical boundaries concerning masculine or feminine behavior. Men who choose nursing as a career risk challenging traditional gender-defined roles and stereotypes (Evans, 2002; Nelson & Belcher, 2006).

These stereotypes-enhanced by social, political, and economic systems-often lead to discrimination for men choosing careers outside their gender. Males appear to encounter more negative criticism from the public on entering female-identified occupations. For example, they are “held suspect” and penalized for role violation. Furthermore, these traditionally female jobs are perceived by society as a step down in status (Williams, 1992). Accordingly, these beliefs deter men from pursuing nontraditional careers.

It is troublesome for some to accept the image of men as caring, compassionate, and gentle. Men wanting to enter the female-identified occupation challenge society’s stereotypical image of nursing. Some scholars have argued that caring and nurturing traits are not exclusive to women.

These traits, however, are not inherent in the biological and social nature of the sexes, but are cultural constructs reinforced by the social activities associated with being male or female. Evans (2004) maintains that gender and politics have influenced how the responsibility for caring activities has been settled exclusively on women. Actually, this appropriation has influenced how the division of labor is postulated along gender lines, meaning that occupations are socially or culturally defined through constructions of gender.

Thus, because one’s identity is linked to the sex/gender system in society, it is difficult to rethink the concept of masculinity. As such, men in or aspiring to female-dominated professions are evaluated less positively by society than their female colleagues in male-dominated occupations (Williams, 1992). These views restrict career choice and sustain societal stereotypes, inhibiting men from entering the nursing profession.

Nursing Images

The traditional image of the nurse has been supported through the use of symbols such as the angel, battle-ax, sex symbol, or doctor’s handmaiden, and, most notably, nurses as women. These images, based on female attributes and values, have been used by interpersonal and mass communication, reinforcing the stereotypes of nurses as women. These behaviors and attitudes are further strengthened by the exclusion of men in any recruitment and promotional materials depicting the profession of nursing.

Evans (2004) argues for a shift away from the womanly traits associated with the “old” Nightingale image of the nurse, the basis for the feminine stereotype of nursing that is still evident today. When the nurse is a man, societal images of the caregiver role are not associated with the gender. For example, Williams (1995) conducted in-depth interviews with 32 men employed in nursing. One nurse reported that a teacher at a day-care center told his daughter that her father could not be a nurse, and insisted that he must be a doctor. Thus, nursing has been socially constructed as an occupation requiring gender traits that are associated with “feminine,” regardless of the sex of its individual members.

In a study of 126 male high school students using a career questionnaire, Barkley and Kohler (1992) investigated opinions about nursing. The teenagers surveyed held a positive view of men in nursing. Seventy-three percent rejected the idea that only women should be nurses, and 77% thought that male nurses are not wimps. Evans (2002) surveyed 25 male nurses to investigate the perceptions of being a male nurse. The most prevalent negative factor identified was sex stereotyping resulting from the general perception that nursing is a female profession. According to Kleinman (2004), language and images are dominant forces, which may have the effect of marginalizing any group. Subsequently, for centuries men in nursing have been excluded from the language and image of nursing, therefore from its history. As such, he believes nursing practice has been sexualized. It could be argued that the label of nursing as women’s work is a significant deterrent that inhibits recruitment of men into the profession and aids promotion of the sex imbalance in the nursing workforce. Because of their gender, male nurses have been prohibited from working in specific clinical areas, such as maternal/infant child care. These beliefs have been supported by court decisions; however, there are no restrictions on the practice of female nurses with male patients. These attitudes tend to succor sexism in the profession, affecting the recruitment of men.

Williams (1992) claims that cultural barriers are more pronounced in the media’s representation of men’s occupations. She contends that women in traditionally male professions have achieved acceptance on popular television programs. Today, women are portrayed as doctors, lawyers, and architects, but where are the male nurses, teachers, and secretaries? These beliefs are reinforced by language used in nursing. Women in nursing are simply nurses, not “female nurses”; however, men in nursing are frequently identified as “male nurses.” These images, perceptions, and language influence societal views of the nurse. This, too, leads to the marginalization of men nurses and fortification of negative stereotypes.

Kleinman (2004) stated that the work belongs to neither sex. By excluding males, such messages constitute a critical barrier to men considering nursing as a career. This fact is reflected in the invisibility of men in the profession. This is demonstrated in the example of a 1997 photo feature called ‘Nurses at the Bedside” in the American Journal of Nursing. Of the 15 pictures of the nurse caring and working with clients, none shows a man. This assessment substantiates the invisibility of men’s contributions and visibility in the profession. Moreover, such findings nourish society’s stereotypical image of nursing as a feminine occupation, negatively affecting recruitment of men into the profession. According to Evans (2002), “The hope for change lies in challenging and transforming hegemonic notions of masculinity and femininity” (p. 230).

Sex-Related Stereotypes

Another commonly held stereotype concerning men who choose nursing as a career is that they are effeminate or gay (Williams, 1995). According to Williams, it is assumed by society that in order to be a nurse, female attributes such as a capacity to serve, empathize, and nurture are required. Hence, men who nurse must be “feminine” and are regarded as gay. Although there are a number of gay men in the profession, this stereotype forms a major obstacle to many heterosexual men who might otherwise consider pursuing a career in nursing (Nelson & Belcher, 2006; Trossman, 2003).

Williams (1992) also suggests that the stigma associated with homosexuality leads some men to enhance or magnify their “masculine” qualities. Using focus groups, Williams (1995) investigated the experience of being a male student nurse. All participants reported that nursing is viewed as a women’s profession, and several stated a fear of being perceived as unmanly by their peers or by clients. These beliefs fostered among the men a view that the profession is a threat to their masculinity. Subsequently, these men felt a need to show their wedding ring or to mention their wife and children in order to acknowledge their heterosexuality. In addition, the labeling of male nurses as effeminate or homosexual can be interpreted as a social control mechanism that redefines nursing as woman’s work. This signifies that male nurses are different from other men. Consequently, as a result of these attitudes and perceptions, one can understand why nursing remains an occupation low on career choice for males.

Economic Factors

Another factor suggested as contributing to men’s underrepresentation in nursing is the low economic status, pay, and value given to nursing in comparison to male occupations (Kleinman, 2004). Overall, social and economic inducements for women to enter male-dominated professions are lacking for men who may contemplate careers in female-dominated areas. Moreover, he believes that current cutbacks in healthcare funding may deter some men who might otherwise have considered a nursing career.

Historically, nursing is considered to be a natural extension of a woman’s role in society. As a result of this notion, it is considered a low-value occupation (Williams, 1992). It is well known that the average income of men is well above that of women. Accordingly, these findings support the view that jobs customarily held by women are devalued. Williams (1995) argues that the economic value of other major disciplines and that of nurses reinforces the limited value attached to the role of the nurse. Consequently, the separation, isolation, and labeling of certain roles as women’s or men’s roles in both traditional and modern society reflect the patriarchal social structure.

Barkley and Kohler (1992) administered a career questionnaire to 126 male high school students, grades 9 to 12. Findings indicated that most rejected nursing as a future career because of their beliefs about nurs& economic status. Sixty-two percent of the subjects surveyed did not think that nurses made high salaries, and 46% believed that nurses do not get paid well. These researchers concluded that in order for nursing to compete financially with other male-dominated professions, salary discrepancies need to be changed. In spite of changes in nursing education today, in practice, social attitudes valuing men’s work over women’s work are still apparent (Kleinman, 2004). Traditionally, the female role has a lower value in society, thus the importance of a nurses value is not reflected by economic rewards. These resilient attitudes have been reinforced through gender socialization, leading to less status and power for nurses within society.

In a similar study, using in-depth interviews, Williams (1992) examined the barriers to men’s entry into three female-dominated professions: social work, nursing, and teaching. Participants felt they were all underpaid relative to comparable “male” occupations. Moreover, several of the respondents suggested that instituting a comparable-worth policy might attract more men to these professions. Even so, nursing is still recognized as a female profession, and, in general, women’s roles in society continue to be less valued as reflected in social status and financial compensation.

Strategies to Promote Equality

How would nursing look today if it had remained a male-dominated profession? Would nursing enjoy greater prestige, power and status than it receives today? How would nursing practice and education differ? Would there have been a revolution in the profession as more and more females entered nursing, as they have in other traditionally male-dominated professions?

Strategies to Recruit More Men to the Profession Currently, the realities of healthcare cutbacks have had a negative impact on the nursing profession. As a result, nursing education programs are attracting fewer students. Admission levels are now lower than they have been in decades (Trossman, 2003). These facts may provide an opportunity to recruit an available source of male applicants into the profession. Such recruitment efforts may lead to increasing support and enrollment of men in the profession. Undertaking these endeavors might help eliminate the societal barriers and perceptions of nursing as a sex-typed occupation.

Presently, several people in Canada and the United States are predicting that a nursing shortage is looming. Both countries could face a registered nursing shortage by the year 2011. Since the profession is still largely female dominated, it is recruiting almost exclusively from one half of the population. Likewise, because of falling birthrates, aging workforce, and shrinking recruitment pools, the nursing pool is not renewing itself at a sufficient rate. Furthermore, enrollment in baccalaureate programs has been declining for several years. It is suggested that this may be due to students’ reluctance to enroll because of hospital right-sizing and healthcare cutbacks.

Meanwhile, many women are not considering nursing as a career, opting to pursue nontraditional careers. Other professions such as medicine, dentistry, and pharmacy have seen a steady growth in gender equality; nursing has not been so fortunate. The tendency to consider nursing as a single-sex occupation has to end.

Active recruitment of young males in high schools and colleges may be a new means of addressing nursing shortages. They provide an untapped pool of nursing school applicants (Trossman, 2003). Because nurses enter a profession, which naturally maintains and reflects society’s sex stereotypes, it is important that strategies attack both the myths and barriers (Kleinman, 2004). Accordingly, general acceptance of nursing as a viable career for men requires input and promotion by nurse educators, administrators, professionals associations, unions, and government.

Marketing nursing to men requires a concentrated effort by all interested stakeholders to break down the socially constructed, stereotypical myths and barriers to help change the perception of nursing as a sex-typed occupation. Thus, nursing schools, professional associations, and governments must reach out to the schools in the community. Here they have an excellent opportunity to educate all students about nursing as a career choice. One endeavor to correct the public image is the development and promotion of career education materials that promote sex equity. This information can be supplied to children and adolescents in schools, providing them an opportunity to acquire a realistic understanding of the nursing profession.

School counsellors influence career choice; however, information provided by counselors to students about nursing is limited and often inaccurate. Research has found that counselors experience misconceptions about nursing (Barkley & Kohler, 1992). Thus, they are not likely to advise academically capable male and female students to pursue a career in nursing. For this reason, a re-education of high school counselors about the nursing profession is important in aiding recruitment of future nurses of both genders. Nursing associations could target school counselors individually, give presentations, and emphasize the positive aspects of the profession for both male and female students. Such attempts will produce a population of wellinformed high school counselors to aid recruitment of future nurses (Nelson & Belcher, 2006).

Studies have shown that nursing schools have shunned men by paying little attention to targeting and retaining men as a source of nursing school applicants (MacPhail, 1996). Consequently, campaigns to recruit male high school and college students into nursing programs must become a priority. Schools of nursing should employ higher numbers of male nursing faculty to be role models for male nursing students.

Nurses and nursing organizations must wage an effective public media campaign to correct the image and the public’s perception of the nurse. Furthermore, hospitals, nursing schools, and other health agencies need to portray men in the role of nurse in their publicity materials. Recruitment, promotional advertisement posters, and brochures should not portray only the female image of the nurse.

Another endeavor is the monitoring of the media for sexist images of the nurse, eliminating sexist language from nursing journals, texts, nursing conferences, and other personal communications (MacPhail, 1996; Kleinman, 2004). Elimination of sexist language and images of nurses might help change the deeply entrenched societal stereotypes about nursing.

Recruiters should emphasize the positive aspects of nursing in all media communications to the public. Most important, involving male nursing students in recruitment efforts and making them visible in recruitment materials and publications may increase men’s representation in the profession. However, the active recruitment of men into nursing should not be viewed as a panacea. Other recruiting strategies would be to encourage professional journals and other literature to portray men nurses in their advertising. Finally, an improvement of pay scales might help make nursing a more attractive occupation for both genders. This would involve the cooperation of nurses, government, and nursing unions through collective bargaining.

Although the literature has identified a long history of men in nursing, their contribution has not been recognized. Nursing is still seen as a role that is inherently natural to females. Many factors have deterred men from entering the profession, and one of the main barriers keeping them away is the well–entrenched societal stereotypes associated with nursing. Even though women and men are socialized differently, both genders have the caring and nurturing characteristics required for nursing. Societal attitudes have aligned these traits exclusively to the female gender. With the changes currently taking place in the healthcare system, nursing needs to recruit the best candidates, regardless of gender, who have the potential to develop their knowledge and skill in caring for individuals. To attract and retain more men will require a concentrated effort not only for those within nursing, but by other stakeholders as well. Nursing must be the forerunner in breaking and correcting the barriers that impede the entry of men into the profession. As these barriers are broken, career options and choices in nontraditional careers may increase for both sexes (Trossman, 2003).

Conclusion

Altogether one might believe that nursing is one of the most important jobs in the medical field based on the reputable history it has, its diversity, and its growing demand. One might also believe that nursing is a very important job due to the fact that people will always need health care. No matter whether it is female or male nursing is more than just caring for the sick, it is not only giving care to the patient but also caring about the patient and his or her well-being.

Mauritius is a remote small open island economy. In geological time, it is a very young island, which emerged from waves of volcanic eruptions in the Indian Ocean over the last eight million years. A high degree of concentration and interpenetration of finance, agro industrial and merchant characterizes the economic structure of the country. The structure of formal employment consists of deep gender imbalance against women.

The Economic and Social Indicators (ESI) on gender statistics represents women and men in the Republic of Mauritius. In 2011, Mauritius ranked 63rd out of 146 countries compared to 2008 it was ranked 46th out of 138 countries according to the Gender Inequality Index of the UN. The index reflects inequality in achievements between women and men in reproductive health, empowerment and labour market.

Before 1950’s it has been found that women were in fewer number than men in Mauritius. However, the female population has been growing rapidly such that in the 50’s there were almost equal numbers of men and women. As from 1990, women have been increasingly outnumbering men over the years. The sex ratio in the population, declined from 100.2 in 1972 to 97.3 in 2010 and it is expected to decrease further to reach 95.8 in 2050.

In 2011, it has been found that a lesser proportion of women than men of working age (16 years and above) were active, that is, in employment or looking for work. The economic activity rate for women was 43.7% against 75.5% for men. The active population stood at 582,800 with 363,600 men and 219,200 women compared to 2010, women was 43% compared to 76% for men, the active population stood at 581,300 with 362,400 men and 218,900 women.Men and women have a similar pattern of economic activity during their life that is less active at the younger and older age groups. The activity rates for both are highest in the age group 30 to 45 years.

Chart 13 – Activity rate (%) by age group and sex, 2011

Some 191,800 women held a job in 2011 and accounted for 35.7% of the Mauritian employed population. Working women were more qualified than their male counterparts, with 22% holding a tertiary qualification against 17% for men. There were an almost equal proportion of working men and women having a School Certificate but 7.4% women had a Higher School Certificate compared to 5% for men.

Chart 14 – Distribution of employed person by sector and sex, 2011

Both men and women had a high proportion of their working population in the tertiary sector (covering trade, hotels & restaurants, transport and other service industries), 68% for men and 57% for women. The secondary sector (covering manufacturing, electricity & water and construction) accounted for one third of the working men and one quarter of the working women. While women represented some 40% of the employment in the manufacturing sector, they comprised less than 1% of the construction industry.

Women were more likely than men to be employees, with 85% of the employed female in that employment status compared to 78% among the men. They were also much less likely than men to head their own business; while 21% of working men were employers or own accounts workers, only some 11% of women held that status.

On average an employed woman works 38 hours, 6 hours less than a man. However, women heading their own business and those contributing in the family business worked respectively 7.5 hours and 8.2 hours less than their male counterparts.

Both women and men worked fewer hours in the agricultural sector than in other sectors of the economy. However, women worked 10 hours less than men in that sector. Women worked 8 hours less in public administration, 5 hours less in hotels & restaurants and 3 hours less in manufacturing, trade & education sectors.

Women as well as men tend to work fewer hours at the older age. The difference in hours worked by women and men varies across ages; it increases with age to reach a peak of 8.3 hours at the age group 45 to 49 years, and decreases thereafter.

In spite of being fewer in the labour force, women are over represented among the unemployed. Unemployed women numbered 27,300 in 2011 compared to 18,800 men. Female unemployment rate stood at 12.5%, much higher than the rate of 5.2% for male.

Chart 16 – Unemployment rate (%) by age group and sex, 2011

Unemployment rate is higher among women than men at all ages, except for the elderly. The difference in unemployment rate is more pronounced at the very young age.Among unemployed women with previous work experience, 22% left their last job due to marriage, childbirth and household responsibilities. Another 13% women were unemployed following closure of establishment. The main sectors where the unemployed women worked previously are manufacturing (29%), trade (25%) and hotels and restaurants (10%).

On balance, there has been a dramatic change in the occupational and sectoral distribution of the labour market since, with the rising share in the manufacturing, and a declining share in agricultural and domestic service. Employer’s preference for women because of their natural and culturally defined attributes, as well as their adaptability, productivity and acceptance of lower wages in the past are some of the reasons accounting for the predominance of female labour mostly in the EPZ sector in Mauritius.

Despite increase in employment over the last couple decades, we can still see that there still exists gender disparity in the labour market. In addition, with increased occupational opportunities enjoyed by women, they are still faced with the burden of household responsibilities for example, as mentioned above, woman works 38 hours, 6 hours less than a man. This show woman career is still constrained with household occupations.

The factors which have promoted labour force are: fertility reduction, increased life expectancy, economic hardships and wider aspirations beyond the confines of family and home. However, the main factors constraining higher participation of female Mauritian in the labour market are resistance by own family members, inability to make arrangement for childcare, housework exigencies, nurturing within the household, reproductive responsibilities and difficulties in managing the interface between home and work.

Therefore, women hit a class ceiling as far as the management in concerned. Such is generally the case despite higher academic achievement than men. This secondary role is also reflected in their working conditions and their position in society and family. While the concept of equity and equality should be established in the world of work, women have to be provided with wide opportunities and can be further encouraged to develop their aptitude and potential optimally.

Globalization in Mauritius can also be considered as a threat for widening the gap between men and women in the labour market and further creating gender inequalities. Trade expansion has increased women’s access to labour market, however, it worth pointing out that the vast majority of these jobs are low salary and low-skilled. In the light of existing gender inequalities, a widening gap between men and women in terms of access to economic resources and benefits to be derived from globalization can be foreseen.

Mauritian Law protecting against discrimination in workplace

The Constitution of Mauritius is regarded as being the supreme Law which clearly protects this philosophy of equality at Chapter 2 Section (3) and (16) which imparts for non discrimination as follows:

Section 3

”It is hereby recognized and declared that Mauritius there have existed and shall continue to exist without discrimination by reason of race, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed or sex, but subject to respect for the rights and freedom of others and for the public interest each and all of the following human rights and fundamental freedoms”.

Section 16

Protection from discrimination

Subject to subsections (4), (5) and (7)-no law shall make any provision that discriminatory either of itself or in its effect.

Subject to subsections (6), (7) and (8)- no person shall be treated in a discriminatory manner by any person acting in the performance of any public function conferred by any law or otherwise in the performance of the functions of any public office or any public authority.

The Government of Mauritius has also passed law to eliminate all forms of Gender Discrimination and sexual harassment in certain areas of public activity under Sex Discrimination Act No. 43 of 2002. This act protects a worker from all forms of inequality in employment related to recruitment, selection, training, on grounds of gender, marital status and family responsibilities.

Gap in literature

It has thus been seen that gender inequalities is apparent in all societies and many research has been done with the aim of improving the condition of people at work. In Mauritius, however, gender inequality is relatively a concept which is ignored despite many laws exist to eliminate any sort of discrimination. The measures undertaken by the government still remain at initial stage. There exists little research concentrating in the field of gender inequalities in the workplace of Mauritius. The gap in the literature is little because it has focused on only one dimension of gender inequalities. In Mauritius, however, the concept of gender inequalities in the labour market is buried. As a matter of fact, research is urgently required to determine the all the factors leading to occupational gender segregation and also find ways to improve the conditions of employees at work.

Sex is what distinguishes men and women biologically, namely it describes the physical qualities which derive from variations in chromosomes, hormones and genitalia. Gender refers to a set of culturally defined characteristics which determine society’s view of people as ‘masculine’ or ‘feminine’. Sociologists have long debated over the causes of unfair sexual divisions of labour. Some have forwarded biological explanations, whereas others hold responsible the socialisation of gender roles. In this essay I will look at how the nineteenth century socialisation of gender roles is believed to have affected women’s position in the labour market. I will then consider the increasing feminisation of the labour market and seek to explain the persistent inequalities between men and women.

However, since the mid-twentieth century there has been an increasing feminisation of the workforce. According to Ulrich Beck, women are ‘setting the pace for change’ (Haralambos&Holborn, 2008, 647). In Beck’s view, we are moving into ‘the second modernity’ (as against post modernity). He argues that in our society, characterised by risk and uncertainty, women have realised the importance of self-reliance and have sought to widen their participation in the labour market and as a result have changed the social discourse. This has been made possible by a number of factors. The increased possibilities of an education, the development of domestic appliances, the growing tendency for smaller families, the Feminist Movement of the 1970s, the steady expansion of the service industry, the increase in living costs and the consequent need for two incomes are all factors which have generated a shift in traditional family patterns and significantly changed the gender division of labour. A UK Labour Force survey conducted in 2005 suggests that the rates of employment for women of working age have risen to 70% in 2004 compared to 56% in 1971. In contrast, employment rates for men have declined from 92% to 79% (Giddens, 2006, 755).

Despite women’s increased participation in the labour market, barriers to equality remain. Although 75% of women of working age are in employment in the UK, it has been shown that in high-earning, high-status professions they are severely under-represented (www.employment-studies.co.uk). 2005 demonstrated, in terms of vertical segregation, that 83% of chief executives, 71% of sales managers and 70% of management consultants were men, whilst 96% of dinner ladies, 95% of receptionists and 76% of cleaners were women (Haralambos&Holborn, 2008, 124). Different reasons are held responsible for such disproportion. One argument is that jobs are highly gendered, with a tendency for high-status, high-paid jobs to be male-dominated because they have traditionally been perceived as ‘masculine’. Radical feminist Sylvia Walby claims women are subjugated by patriarchal values that discriminate and confine them to specific areas of work (Haralambos&Holborn, 2008, 113).

Not only are women under-represented at the highest levels of the occupational structure, they have likewise not achieved equality of pay, despite liberal feminist’s success in campaigning for equal pay legislation. The wage gap was once thought to be narrowing, however, new figures suggest that the pay divide is still a matter of concern today. According to the Office for National Statistics, the pay gap between men and women in full-time work has increased to 17.1% since 2007 (The Guardian,15/11/08). The median full-time gross weekly earnings per week for men in 2007 were ?498, whilst for women they stood at ?395. In 2008 they stand at ?521 for men and ?412 for women. It has been calculated that over a lifetime, women working full-time will earn an average of ?369.000 less than their male colleagues. This result, according to the annual survey conducted by the World Economic Forum, places Britain 81st in the world ranking in terms of equal pay for men and women in similar jobs (The Guardian,15/11/08).

Part of the reason would appear to be because of horizontal segregation. Much of the female workforce is clustered into a range of semi-skilled, low-status and poorly paid occupations. Across the occupational structure, men predominate in such lines of work as manufacturing, construction, IT and business industries. Conversely, women are overwhelmingly represented in health and social work, teaching, catering and cleaning (Haralambos&Holborn, 2008, 123). Feminists, therefore, see this as a reflection of the ‘two spheres’ ideology. 2005 demonstrated, in terms of horizontal segregation, that 79% of social workers and 73% of teachers were women. In the same year, 90% of the construction industry and 76% of people working in transport were men (Haralambos&Holborn, 2008, 123). In addition, the fact that many women work in the part-time sector can be part of the reason for the poor levels of pay they are subject to.

Occupational segregation has been used to explain such high concentration of women in part-time work. Despite the disadvantages it involves, part-time work seems to remain a popular choice for women. In 2004, 5.2 million women in the UK were in part-time employment, compared to 1.2 million men (Giddens, 2006, 757). Social forces such as limited childcare assistance and gender discrimination have also been held responsible for such large numbers of women in part-time work. Many women seeking full-time employment often face unjust hurdles which men do not encounter: a Fawcett Society study (the leading liberal feminist organisation) reveals that 52% of employers consider the chances of a new member of staff becoming pregnant before employing them (www.fawcettsociety.org.uk). However, whilst it is possible that this may discourage many women who intend to have children from looking for full-time work, this is not on its own sufficient reason to explain such a heavy influx in the part-time sector.

Catherine Hakim’s ‘preference theory’ suggests that women’s position in the labour market depends entirely on the rational choices they make (Haralambos&Holborn, 2008, 125). Hakim identifies two types of women: those who commit themselves to full-time careers or those who prioritise their domestic responsibilities. According to Hakim, many women have different work orientations than men, leading them to choose part-time occupations which enable them to balance their domestic and professional lives. Rosemary Crompton and Fiona Harris agree that women’s position in the labour market is influenced by their decisions. They argue, however, that the choices women make are not always rational, but are the results of the practical challenges and cultural norms they may face. Crompton and Harris believe that women often start a career committed to the idea of full-time employment and the family sphere in equal measure, but in later life might have to compromise one or the other for a variety of reasons. There is, therefore, an important debate between feminists.

Additional theories have been advocated by sociologists to explain women’s continued limitations in the job-market. Talcott Parsons’ functionalist ‘human capital theory’ suggests that women’s natural role is that of childcare. The theory implies that women are likely not to commit to a career or gaining qualifications, preferring to dedicate themselves to their children (Haralambos&Holborn, 2008, 125). According to Parsons, this lack of commitment or skills renders women less valuable to the employer, and is ultimately the reason for women’s disadvantaged position in the labour market. However, critics of the theory point out that it does not account for the large number of women who dedicate themselves to a career and still end up in lower-paid, lower-status jobs (Haralambos&Holborn, 2008, 125).

Barron and Norris’s ‘dual labour market theory’ promotes the idea of two labour markets: a primary sector in which professionals and skilled workers belong, characterised by highly paid and secure jobs, and a secondary sector, consisting in lowly paid, less secure jobs mainly occupied by unskilled labourers. According to Barron and Norris, women are more likely than men to work in this sector because they are less interested in wages or status, a view which echoes that of Hakim. Transition from the secondary to the primary sector is rare, ending in confinement within a range of low-paid jobs for one’s entire working life. The theory is criticised by feminists for not being able to explain why skilled women often earn less than men in similar work, or why they get promoted less often than men in the same job (Haralambos&Holborn, 2008, 126).

In the past century, women have made a revolutionary ascent in the labour market even if many work in the part-time sector. However, the rate of improvement seems to have stalled rather than grown. Despite legislation such as the Equal Pay Act (1970) and the Sex Discrimination Act (1975), vast inequalities remain in Britain, especially in terms of pay and status. It might well be that more radical reforms need to be made. In Norway, for example, hundreds of women have benefitted from a new act, passed in 2003, which stipulates that companies must increase the number of women on their boards to 44.%. This now means that Norway heads the league table for gender equality, 12 places above the UK (The Guardian, 17/11/08). This suggests that post-feminists are mistaken in believing there is no more for feminists to do. A third wave of feminism, as suggested by Katherine Rake, or ‘new feminism’, to use Natasha Walter’s term, may be precisely what is needed.

Gender differences in labour market outcomes affect whether women enter the marketplace, care for children, or partake in other labour activities. In the developing world, gender differences in political access and wages can have large effects on the well-being of females and their families. Discuss gender differences that exist in the developing world, why they are important, and what role they play in shaping outcomes of females and children. Are there policy prescriptions that would increase societal welfare?

TABLE OF CONTENTS:

Introductionaˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦3

On Gender differences and well-beingaˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦…4

Gender Discrimination, Property Rights and Investment in Agricultureaˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦..6

Impact of Reservations in India on Policy Decisionsaˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦.8

Prevalence of adverse sex ratio aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦.11

Where are all the “Missing Women” aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦….12

Conclusionaˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦…..17

Referencesaˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦aˆ¦..aˆ¦19

INTRODUCTION:

For centuries, women have played the role of a homemaker, caring for her children. While men were the breadwinners of the family. This stereotypical image of men and women, though less profound is still to be found in many parts of the world. This is especially true of the developing countries. Biologically, women and men are different, beyond the obvious. Their brains function differently. Hormonal differences make them behave in different ways. However, the “sexist” attitude towards gender differences has been forced not only by the government, but also by almost all the institutions of public life.

In the developing world, we frequently find that women are discriminated against by men. In many countries, a girl-child is considered to be a burden, and may not receive the same care that a boy would. A woman is often forbidden to work outside the house as the society frowns upon such activities. And also women continually receive lower wages than men for the same work.

In the past decade, the governments of many countries have put into place many policies to help empower women. Some policies have been successful, while others have not done much to reduce this gender gap. Various studies have been conducted to see whether the policies were actually implemented, and if yes, what impact they had on women’s welfare.

Many studies have been conducted to measure the impact of these biases against women, on the welfare of their families, on their well-being, and their status in society.

On Gender differences & Well-being

One such study by Esther Duflo (2000) measures the impact of a cash transfer, specifically old age pension, on the nutritional status of a child, depending on the gender of the recipient.

Policies targeted towards improving women’s position relative to men’s are desired not only for equity basis, but also for the effects they may have on children’s welfare. Being malnourished can affect a child’s physical and mental health. Hence, receiving adequate nutrition at a young age is important for economic growth, distribution, and welfare. Thomas (1990, 1994) found evidence that income or assets in the hands of women are associated with larger improvements in child health, and larger expenditure shares on household nutrients, health and housing (Duflo, 2000; pg.1). Her paper investigates whether redistributing resources from men to women would increase investment in children.

With the end of the apartheid the benefits and coverage of the South African social pension program was expanded in the early 1990’s to include the black population. The program was successfully implemented with almost a universal coverage. This led to a permanent exogenous change in income, after household formation. Most families are extended households, and over a quarter of African children under the age of five live with a pension recipient. The paper takes into account the weight for height, and height for age of children below the age of five to see whether the pension recipients’ gender has any effect on these indicators.

The South African social pension was started in 1928, but it was only after 1993 that the same amount was paid to all racial groups. Women over 60 years, and men over 65 years are eligible for pension, subject to a means test. During the Apartheid era, the system was racially discriminatory in many respects. Firstly, different means tests were applied to each race. For Blacks benefits were withdrawn for incomes larger than R700, while for Whites the limit was at R2250. Secondly, benefits for Whites were 10 times higher than those for Blacks. Thirdly, Whites received pensions through postal offices, while Blacks had to collect their pension through mobile pay points that didn’t cover much area. Finally, officials often intentionally took people off the list, or limited access of legally eligible Blacks to save the cost of pensions.

The weight for height of children reflects short run nutrition and illnesses and recovers quickly once proper nutrition is resumed. The nutrition in turn is determined by individual preferences, non-labour income, the weights given to members of the household, and child specific variables. Before controlling for the presence of non-eligible members over 50, the coefficient for girls is positive but insignificant. However, when the controls are introduced it improves the weight for height of girls by 1.19 standard deviations, if pension is received by a woman. For boys, the coefficient is positive, but insignificant. However, a pension received by a man has a small, negative and insignificant effect on girls’ weight for height. Also it seems that there exists an all female link, as the pension seems to be most effective if received by the mothers’ mother. Some problems which may bias upward the estimates of the effect of pension on weight for height are discussed and are as follows; Firstly, being a three generation would mean that the household is relatively healthy. Secondly, the pension program might have led to a change in the composition of the household. For this Duflo examines the height for age of young children, as this reflects nutrition status over the life of the child.

Height for age is different from weight for height, in the sense that it depends on accumulated investments over the life of the child. Nutrition at a very early age has long lasting consequences on child height. And the possibility of catch-up skeletal growth after an episode of low growth in infancy is limited (Duflo, 2000; pg.13). Her basic idea is to compare the differences between height of children in eligible and non-eligible households and between children exposed to the program for a fraction of their lives and children exposed all their lives. Results show that pensions received by women led to an increase of 1.16 standard deviations in the height of girls, and had a much smaller effect on boys. While pensions received by men didn’t have any impact on the height of either girls or boys.

Duflo concludes that the nutritional status of a girl improves significantly if the pension receiver is a woman, and has an insignificant negative effect if the pension receiver is a man. She tests for these by measuring the weight for height, and height for age of children between 6 to 60 months of age. Also this result rejects the unitary model of the household and suggests that pensions received to women may increase efficiency more than pensions received by men.

Gender Discrimination, Property Rights and Investment in Agriculture

It is often the quality of the economic institutions of a society that determine its economic growth. This is especially true of property rights, as investment incentives depend upon expectations of rights over returns to that investment. Goldstein and Udry (2004) conduct a study in Akwapim, Ghana and examine the connection between property rights and agricultural investment, and in turn to agricultural productivity. In much of Africa the Western notions of private property doesn’t exist. Most of the land cultivated by farmers is controlled by the local leaders. It is allocated to individuals, and families based on their perceived need and political influence.

In many African societies, agricultural production is managed by individuals or households. Soil fertility primarily depends on an individuals’ decision regarding the span of the fallow period, i.e. when the land is left uncultivated to regain fertility. Rights over a plot can be lost while it is fallow, and induces shortening of the fallow period. There also exist opportunity costs and transition costs associated with fallowing.

They select four village clusters, and within each cluster they select 60 married couples. They measure productivity via returns to cassava/maize cultivation on similar plots of men and women within a household in a given year. Conditioning on plot characteristics and household fixed effects, they find women produce much less cassava/maize than their husbands. Hence, earn lower profits. They also find that education and age are not responsible for this difference in productivity. They do however find that duration of the last fallow period is strongly positively related to current profits. Gender of the cultivator has no effects on profits, once they condition for the duration of the last fallow.

Tenure security seems to be closely related to fallow decisions. Due to the complex and flexible property rights women often rely on allocated household land, given by their husbands. Men are more active on the land market. A primary reason for uncertainty of tenure, especially for women, is that leaving the land fallow might weaken future rights over the plot. Leaving the land fallow, might signal a lack of sufficient need by the village heads. A second model is based on the idea that tenure security varies with the political position and method of acquisition of land.

Their results reflect that tenure security depends highly on the individuals’ position in the political and social hierarchy. But even conditioning on the individuals position, it depends on the circumstances through which she obtained the particular plot. The complex and overlapping rights to land act as barriers to investment in land fertility. The difference in profits within a household, from similar plots can be attributed to the fact that women are generally not in a position of power. They tend to leave land fallow for a shorter duration, to maintain their rights over the plot.

Impact of Reservations in India on Policy Decisions

In a paper by Chattopadhyay & Duflo (2004) they study the impact of political reservations on women’s leadership and policy decisions. They show that reservation of seats for women impact the investment decisions on public goods and are biased towards the gender of the Pradhan.

In 1993 an amendment to the constitution of India made it mandatory for all village councils (GP’s) to reserve one-third of all positions of chief (Pradhan) to women. The paper focuses on two districts, Birbhum in West Bengal, and Udaipur in Rajastan, and compares investments made in reserved and unreserved GP’s. The major responsibilities of the GP are to administer local infrastructure, and identify targeted welfare recipients. The main source of funding is the state, and the money is allocated through four broad schemes: the Jwahar Rozgar Yojana for infrastructure, a small drinking water scheme, funds for welfare programs, and a grant for GP functioning. The GP has full flexibility in allocation of these funds.

The Panchayat is required to setup two meetings per year in which all voters may participate. Additionally, the Pradhan must setup regular office hours, where villagers can lodge complaints.

In both Rajastan, and West Bengal the policy was strictly implemented. And women elected once due to the reservation system were not re-elected. A rationale for reservations for women is that, the cost of running for office is higher for a woman than for a man. These high costs can prevent women from participating in the political process in the absence of reservations. So the two candidates must have an equal chance of winning. The outcome will then be symmetric around the median voter. Also, when women run because of the reservation, this can increase women’s utility and the median voter’s utility.

Some limitations of this model are: Firstly, when the Pradhan is a woman it might be easier for women to influence policy process ex-post, moving policy in a pro-woman direction. Secondly, after reservation, relatively weak women with strong pro-women views will be as likely to run as strong women with more moderate preferences. Thirdly, the model ignores the possibility of strategic behaviour on the part of the elected official, which would exist in case of future elections.

Chattopadhyay & Duflo (2004) use the data on formal requests and complaints that are brought to the Pradhan. Since complaining is costly (time consuming), the complaints reasonably measure preferences of individuals. Women are more likely to have a higher cost of complaining given the social norms that limit their mobility, and conditions under which they can speak to a man. Hence, women’s complaints will be more biased towards extreme preferences. In the model, allocations are made closer to women’s needs in reserved GP’s because of the selection of women candidates and possibly due to the reduced cost of speaking to a women, and not because women are more responsive to complaints of women.

Authors find that in West Bengal, drinking water and roads were the issues most frequently raised by women. Next were welfare programs, followed by housing and electricity. Issues of roads, irrigation, drinking water and education were raised by men. In Rajasthan, drinking water, roads, and welfare programs were the issues most frequently raised by women. This pattern reflects the activities of both men and women in these areas. Women are in charge of collecting drinking water, and benefit from the welfare programs. In West Bengal, they work on roads. In Rajasthan, both men and women work on roads, and so have a common motive. But, men travel frequently in search of jobs and so have a stronger need for good roads. In both Rajasthan and West Bengal the gender of the Pradhan affects the provision of public goods. Individual women are not particularly more responsive to the needs of women and men in their communities. Rather it is because their own preferences are more aligned to the preferences of women that they end up serving them better. These results are unaffected when controlled for the Pradhans characteristics ( like education, experience, social status etc). This suggests that the allocation of public goods can be largely attributed to the gender of the Pradhan, rather than on its other effects.

Prevalence of adverse sex ratio

The aim of the paper by Khanna et al (2003) is to determine whether the skewed sex ratio in India can be explained by less favourable treatment of girls in infancy. They measure deaths from all causes in infants aged less than one year, in a community health project undertaken in urban India.

According to the 2001 census in India, the sex ratio was at 933 females per 1000 males. Ordinarily, females outnumber males, possibly because the extra X chromosome makes them less susceptible to infectious diseases. However, the skewed sex ratio in India suggests the existence of sex discrimination. Despite the banning of sex determination tests, the practise of female infanticide has continued. Even after birth, mortality remains higher in females, and girls are more than 30%-50% more likely to die between their 1st and 5th birthdays. Various studies have shown that compared to boys, girls are often brought to health centres at a more advanced stage of illness, are taken to less qualified doctors, and have less money spent on them.

The basis of their study is the record of deaths maintained by midwives working in St. Stephens Hospital in Delhi. The hospital caters mostly to the poor, who have an average per capita income of Rs. 600 per month. The combined population of the area is about 64000 people.

The results find a significant difference in mortality between girls and boys for diarrhoea and unexplained deaths. But there was no significant difference between deaths from less preventable and less treatable diseases. For diarrhoea, the mortality for girls was twice that of boys. In the case of unexplained deaths, the parents weren’t able to give a satisfactory explanation for the cause of death. Most deaths were of females in this group, and were thrice as much as those in boys. Although the cause of these deaths is unexplained, improvement in access of health care, and education of health professionals to pay more attention to girls could be beneficial.

Where are all the “Missing Women”

In her paper “Gender equality in Development” Ester Duflo (2005) addresses the interrelationship between economic development and gender empowerment – particularly in the spheres of education, health, employment opportunities and political power. Empowerment can accelerate development. It is estimated that there are between 60 to 100 million “missing women” in developing countries. The term “missing women” was coined by Amartya Sen to describe the observation that the proportion of women is lower than what would be expected, if women in the developing countries were not discriminated against.

Economic development leads to a reduction in poverty, by relaxing the constraints faced by poor households. This suggests that economic growth, by increase opportunity and alleviating poverty, can lead to more equity between women and men.

Studies find that women are most likely to be discriminated against when ill or when the household faces a crisis, such as food scarcity. Here, an improvement in health services, or free medical insurance for the poor would disproportionately help the women. Also increasing the ability of poor households when they face a crisis would improve the condition of women more. Hence, economic development reduces poverty. It insures the poorest against sickness and hunger. Thus, economic development, though reducing the vulnerability of the poor, helps women disproportionately.

Similarly, the increase in opportunities in the labour market has led to change in households, moving it towards greater gender equality. Earlier, it was perceived that since women don’t work outside the house, they don’t need to as strong and health, and don’t require formal education. Many parents believed that girls don’t need formal education as they’re expected to only marry and take care of the house. The rise in employment opportunities for women has led to favourable outcomes for women in terms of equity.

Duflo finds evidence that economic development isn’t enough to improve the condition of women. The skewed sex ratio favouring boys has persisted and even worsened in China, despite rapid economic growth and reforms. This illustrates the fact that economic growth, and availability of technology, can have perverse effects on gender equality, if it reduces the cost of discrimination against girls.

Another aspect is the disparity in earnings at all levels of qualification. There is a widespread “implicit” bias, shared by both men and women, associating men with career and sciences, and women with family and liberal arts. And this “stereotype” has persisted despite increased women participation in these disciplines. This bias reduces rewards for women participation in the labour market, or for higher education, by persuading them that they aren’t as good as men. As long as these biases exist, gender equality will not be achieved.

Similarly, while various factors hinder the representation of women in politics, one of the strongest barriers to greater participation of women in politics is the notion that women are not competent leaders. This bias is most pronounced when the leadership role is typically considered a male role. And although many studies confirm that women are better policymakers, and are less corrupt, it seems there’s a significant cultural barrier to recognizing women as competent policymakers.

Evidence such as those above, support the idea of “reservations” or quotas for women in policymaking positions, as perceptions are biased and women’s achievements aren’t recognised by the electorate. To achieve a balanced gender representation in politics it seems that policy action need to be taken.

Yet, the gains from policies targeted towards women, come at an expense for men. This is evident in politics. The reservation of seats for women means that a man doesn’t get the seat. The gains are less explicit in the measures taken to improve access of girls to schools, through say, scholarships, or proper bathrooms in schools. These are expensive, and in developing countries these transfers to girls come, at the direct expense of boys. This transfer spent on scholarships could have alternatively been used to hire more teachers, which would’ve benefited both boys and girls.

Thus, policies which favour women need to be justified, not only to bring about gender equality, but also their desirability taking in account their costs. In the second part of the paper, the author (Duflo, 2005; p.10) examines the justification that the trade-off between various people in the short run is transitory; in the long run there is no trade-off between helping women more and helping everyone, because increasing the share of resources going to women will increase the amount of resources so much that everyone will be better off.

The basic arguments that support active policies to support women are; Firstly, women are currently worse-off than men, and this inequality is offensive in itself. Secondly, women play a fundamental role in development. The gender gap in education, politics, and employment should therefore be reduced not only for equity, but also to increase efficiency.

The argument that empowerment raises efficiency has shaped economic policies the world over. Micro-credit schemes, welfare programs, transfers conditioned on school enrolment, reservations in politics have all been directed towards women.

The argument for efficiency proposes that sending girls to school, or improving their employment opportunities is good because the development outcome is higher for a given increase in the education and earnings of women than from an equal increase in the education and earnings of men.

Although substantial studies find a correlation between a woman’s’ education and earnings with child welfare, she (Duflo, 2005; p.11) points out that there are two fundamental problems with interpretation of these results. Firstly, a woman’s education, earnings, and political participation may be correlated with unobserved dimensions of her ability, family, and community background. Secondly, the comparison between the coefficient of husbands’ and wives’ education or earnings might be obscured by a correlation between wives’ education or earnings and unobserved characteristics of husbands.

To get around these problems, researchers analysed specific circumstances that changed the distribution of power, education, or earnings between husbands and wives and had nothing to do with their individual choices.

Duflo concludes that women’s empowerment and economic development are closely interrelated. While development brings about women empowerment, empowering women changes decision making, which directly impacts development. She suggests that in order to bring about gender equality, it might be necessary to continue taking policy actions that favour women at the expense of men for a very long time. And while this might bring about some benefits, the costs associated with such redistribution might not always be sufficient to compensate for the distortions.

CONCLUSION

It can be concluded from the above literature that in the developing world, gender differences exist, and discriminate against women. All spheres of a woman’s life, from the time she is in the womb to the time she dies, are affected by this bias against women. The study conducted in South Africa (Duflo, 2000) finds that a non-contributory cash transfer to an eligible female pensioner actually significantly increases a girls’ welfare, measure by weight for height, and height for age. And that given to a male pensioner has a small insignificant negative effect on girls’ welfare. Similarly when it comes to property rights, women have almost no power and have to depend on their husbands to secure land for them to cultivate (Goldstein & Udry, 2004). In Ghana, property rights are complex, flexible and overlapping. There is no notion of private property. Women also have almost no security of tenure as they are not in a position of power in the political or social hierarchy. This leads to a shorter fallow duration, which means lower productivity and hence, lower profits than their male counterparts working a similar plot. This leads to inefficiency and lower economic growth. In the political sphere, women are under-represented, which has adverse impacts on women’s utility (Chattopadhyay & Duflo, 2004). Reservations however have changed the picture, but is not due to women being more responsive to women’s needs, but rather depends on the gender of the leader. The study concludes that the reserved GP’s invest more in public goods important for women than the un-reserved GP’s. This helps to improve women’s utility, even if indirectly. Another aspect is the skewed sex ratio observed in India, and many other developing countries. This is due to the perception that girls are a burden on their parents (Khanna et. al. 2003). This can be blamed on the lack of access for women to health, education, politics, employments, and biased societal norms.

Finally, it can be conclude that policies that benefit women such as reservations in politics, scholarships for girls etc. are necessary, even if they come at the expense of men. Not only because they lead to efficiency gains and economic development, but also because the discrimination between men and women is not acceptable in itself. The stereotypical image of women has continued, despite the fact that more and more women have forayed into supposedly male dominated areas and excelled. This discrimination is present not only in the developing world, but also in the developed countries, like USA where the wage-gap between men and women exists till today.