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Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) was the greatest French philosopher and sociologist and is recognized today as the father of the Sociology. Durkheim did various investigations in different fields such as labor, suicide, religion, etc. Four of his major books: “De la Division du Travail Social (The Division of Labor in Society), “Les Formes Elementaires de la vie Religieuse” (The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life), “Les Regles de la Method Sociologie” (The Rules of Sociological Method) and “Le Suicide: Etude de Sociologie” (Suicide: A Study in Sociology) are regarded as a the foundation of further sociological studies. Randall (1975) suggested that Durkheim was the first one who used empirical method correctly in scientific field (Randall, 1975).

Durkheim’s third major work, the book of “Suicide” was first published in 1897, which aimed to explain suicide rates. Taylor (1982) suggested that prior to Durkheim’s study , suicide act was regarded as individualistic, which rose of individual psychological tendencies (Taylor, 1982) Durkheim’s “Suicide” challenged the popular academic views and claimed that suicide is a social phenomena, which depended on social causes and it is collective in nature. In his book Durkheim (1951) also rejected statistical data as a source of suicidal rates explanation and argued that official statistics only represented the notion of officials opinions of phenomena’s motives and concluded that suicide occurred due to imbalance of social integration and moral regulation, either being too high or too low (Durkheim,1951 ). According to Durkheim (1951) suicide” in all death cases results directly or indirectly from negative or positive act of the victim, knowing that the suicide act will produce this result” (Durkheim, 1951:44).

In his book “Suicide” Book One Durkheim first analyzed extra social factors: psychopathic states, normal psychological states, cosmic factors and imitation. Durkheim (1951) examined suicides of the insane suggested by Jousset and Moreau de Tours such as maniac suicide, caused by delirium and hallucinations, where an individual killed himself to escape from imaginary danger; melancholic suicide, caused by extreme depression and sadness, where a person committed suicide due to loss of reality of relationship to others and environment; obsessive suicide, caused by obsessive desire to kill himself, where an individual’s suicide occurred without any real cause; impulsive or automatic suicide, caused impulsive death wish and statistical evidence and concluded that there was no link between suicide and mental illness. To back up his findings he proposed, for example, that women were more likely to be mentally ill compare to men, 54-55 and 46-45 respectively, while suicide data showed that men were among the first to commit a suicide; mental illness among Jews was highest compare to other religions such as Protestantism and Catholicism, however suicide rates showed the opposite in relation to Jews (Durkheim, 1951). According to Hassard (1995), Durkheim eliminated insanity as a cause of suicide because French philosopher claimed that insane individuals had no motive for such acts (Hassard, 1995). Durkheim (1951) also rejected alcohol consumption from suicides and stated that substance abuse had no correlation to suicide rates. He further placed an example of alcohol consumption and suggested that in France substance consumption was low, however suicide rates were high and therefore substance abuse had no link to suicidal tendencies. Philosopher postulated that heritage also, had no connection in vital role for suicide and questioned the fact if it was, it should then affected both sexes, while his research findings suggested that suicide rate was rare among children compare to parents (Durkheim, 1951). Durkheim (1951) stated that there was no correlation between suicide and geographical area or time of year. In his findings he highlighted that suicide rates, for example: varied- in the beginning of 19 century rates were highest in the north of Italy, while by the end in the south of Italy.; during the warm periods were higher compare to the cold months; more suicides were committed during the day compare to the night time, however, claimed that day length had no correlation to suicide rates. Finally, he eliminated imitation and pointed out that the term of imitation associated unexplained repetitions of the actions which occurred in individual’s presence and stated that if suicide could become epidemic, it should have been then reflect statistical data of suicide on geographical basis (Durkheim, 1951).

Having rejected the above ideas Durkheim turned, in the following chapter of the book, to explain social causes and social types of suicide. The father of sociology proposed four main types of suicide.

Egoistic suicides, he claimed ,occurred as a result of low social integration, which resulted due to excessive individualization and suggested that individuals with weak social bonds had little social support and guidance, and therefore suicide continued on increased basis. Durkheim (1951) compared suicide rates among Protestants, Jews and Catholics and founded that protestant suicide rates were higher compare to other religion representatives. As an explanation, he suggested that the cause of suicide rates could be founded within the nature of religious confession itself. For example, Jews lower suicide rates accounted to the response of the hostility towards them and therefore their minority status forced them to achieve greater unity and social integration, which eliminated individual differences. While Protestants suicide rates were related to its spirit of free inquiry, in other words, Protestants were allowed a greater freedom of thought and had fewer commonly accepted traditional values and practices. Durkheim (1951) argued that once these commonly accepted beliefs and practices were declined, they could not be re-established. Durkheim (1951) concluded that religion protected individuals from self destruction, because it was considered as society itself; the existence of common practices resulted into stronger integration, which eliminated suicide tendencies. Family and political societies had the same effect, as philosopher claimed. Data examined by Durkheim showed that married couples had lower suicide rates compare to unmarried ones, because the role of the family integrated individuals in collectivity, which especially was true to those who also had children, because larger families provided immunity to suicide. Similarly, during social disturbances such as war or revolutions, suicide rates declined due to increased of collective sentiments such as patriotism, national faith, which encouraged stronger social integration for the single cause. According to Durkheim (1951), suicide rates varied inversely with the degree of integration, where suicide act was seen as a result of egoistic detachment from society itself, where individual recognized no common rules, just private interests (Durkheim, 1951).

Altruistic suicides occurred in societies with high integration, where individuals needs compare to communities was less important. Durkheim (1951) claimed that here collective consciousness was too strong which forced individuals into suicide. Author further acknowledged that such suicides mainly occurred in primitive societies such as native Americans, Indians and grouped such suicides in following subcategories: obligatory suicide, occurred due to feeling of duty, mainly by men who were old or ill, women after husband’s death, servants and followers after masters death; optional suicide, which occurred out of sense of honor or prestige, where even minor offence or jealousy leaded someone to suicide; and acute suicide, which was based upon spiritual and mystical beliefs (Durkheim, 1951). Durkheim (1951) placed an example that altruistic suicides occurred in civilized societies. He insisted that suicide rates in army reached an epidemic level when solders killed themselves due to unjust punishment, honor, jealousy, refusal to leave, or just because of other suicides which they have witnessed in their presence. However, researcher also acknowledged us that suicide rates depended on the rang: non commissioned officers and officers suicide rates were much higher compare to private ones cause, the mentioned above, had to give up much more of their individuality in order to adapt to requirements of military life and therefore made them more vulnerable to such acts (Durkheim, 1951).

Anomic suicides, author claimed, were related to low degree of regulation by society. Such suicides occurred during the periods of economic depression or economic expansion because of disturbances of the collective order. During such events, individuals were mis leaded with their role and place in society, and such state of dysfunction, as Durkheim (1951) highlighted, resulted into acts of destruction, including suicidal killings. Dysfunctions in regulative powers of society resulted in individuals’ disappointments because they had little control over their own passions and desires. However, poverty on other hand, as Durkheim claimed, protected individuals in a way, because such state was a restrain in itself because human’s desires depended on the resources, while wealth made individuals suggest that they could depend more on themselves (Durkheim, 1951). Durkheim (1951) also argued that anomie also rose from a disruption of marriage. Philosopher saw marriage as a social regulation both of physical and moral instinct. Divorce, on other hand, was seen as a source of weakening of matrimonial regulations. As an example, he illustrated men suicide rates of widowhood and divorce and suggested that the rates were higher due to individuals’ inability to adapt to sudden changes of a loved one loss or a lack of regulation which marriage provided. However, he claimed that this was not true in a women’s case and highlighted that any regulation for them was a constrain, and therefore divorce only freed them (Durkheim, 1951).

The fourth type of suicide, fatalistic, was only briefly mentioned by Durkheim, because he considered it as rare. He proposed that such type of suicide resulted in case of excessive regulation, which related to oppressive discipline. The examples of fatalistic suicide were included slavery and childless wives (Durkheim, 1951).

In his study Durkheim (1951) claimed that different social conditions could affect individual at the same time producing combined suicidal effects. For example, egoistic and anomic suicide may have some resemblance because both victims of suicide were unregulated by society. Similarly, anomie may also be related to altruism (internal despair), and egoism and altruism could combine their influence (Durkheim, 1951).

Suicide phenomena, as Durkheim (1951) noted in his last chapter of the book, is socially constructed, which independent of individual. He claimed that collective tendencies, which determine suicide, have their own social and moral mind, so therefore they were external to the individual. Author argued that for example, murder and suicide, which might seemed to be alike were therefore not related, because murder felt into different type compare to suicide, because it rose from different causes. He argued that social regulation and integration were vital in society, and suggested that if society over regulates or under regulates individuals; suicides would result from such states. French sociologist claimed that the true solution to this problem was to create greater moral closeness within individuals (Durkheim, 1951).

However, Durkheim’s book of Suicide was a subject of criticism. Douglas (1970) claimed that Durkheim’s explanations of suicide were very confusing, unsystematic, and difficult in interpretation and included contradictory theoretical arguments. He further suggested that many of Durkheim’s vital statements have different meanings to many sociologists today. He highlighted that the greatest weakness in Durkheim’s work was his fundamental ideas, which he had before hand and argued that he, used these ideas to adjust within statistical facts and to demonstrate their validity. Firstly, researcher claimed that his ideas of egoistic and anomic suicide could be seen in works of the romantics and statisticians at that time, with which French philosopher was associated. Secondly, postulated that Durkheim purposely rejected the current approach of testing data theories in order to establish his morphology of data and causes. Thirdly, it was argued that Durkheim’s observations of suicide were insufficiently objective and inconclusive in nature (Douglas, 1970). Harris (2003) argued that Durkheim’s analysis missed the influence of alcohol abuse among suicidal individuals. Researcher suggested that substance abuse was an is a vital problem of the society in relation to suicide rates because such suicides mainly occur and occurred due to loss of close relationships and because of the addiction itself (Harris, 2003). Van Tubergen et al (2005) argued that today community norms are not the primary source of suicide prevention between believers and non-believers and highlighted the tendency that Durkheim analysis of religion impact on suicide decreased and suggested that risk of suicide should not be based on differences between Protestants and Catholics ( Van Tubergen et al, 2005). Researchers further questioned Durkheim’s thesis how religious societies control individual’s behavior in relation to suicide and argued that every individual is unique with his/her feelings, motives and intentions and therefore human’s behavior cannot be totally predictable (Van Tubergen et al, 2005 ). Taylor (1982) also expressed concern about the accuracy of suicide rates and suggested that for example, due to lack of evidence, the statistical data of suicide rates is unreliable and therefore cannot be accurate and valid (Taylor, 1982). Douglas (1970) highlighted the fact that Durkheim positivistic approach, in relation to suicide rates, changed to idealistic one during his research mainly because, as researcher proposed, to reaction of his methodical incompetence to accurately examine empirical evidence (Douglas, 1970).

Durkheim’s study of suicide rates also made an impact on criminology discipline. Bryant (2003) highlighted that Durkheim’s method of collection and comparison of suicide rates laid a foundation for future analysis of crime statistics. Author further argued that sociologist developed concept of anomie, which occurred due to lack of sense of social regulation, laid foundation of Merton’s anomie theory. Researcher suggested that Durkheim’s study of suicide questioned a lot of historical misconceptions which involved suicide. He further stressed the fact that historically suicides were considered as criminal acts and the dead bodies were subject to “tortures” in order to stop anyone from copying the act (Bryant, 2003). Bryant (2003) argued that Durkheim showed that suicides were not all in criminal nature, as well as not individual phenomena but insisted that instead it was a problem concerned the whole society (Bryant, 2003). According to researcher, Durkheim’s findings not only simplified the people’s understanding towards suicide but also advanced the study of sociology to a greater level of acceptability.

After more that hundred years, “Suicide: A Study in Sociology”, still remains the most well received book in sociology. Durkheim’s pioneering work, on statistical calculation and comparison of suicide rates and realization of effects on some variables which had to be controlled, contributed to emerging new body in sociology. A point of interest to note is that the causes of suicides still remain more or less the same in the modern times. People continue to commit suicide for a similar reasons such as: wars are still fought in the modern days and the solders march ahead to the war fields to commit altruistic suicides; terrorists willingly commit altruistic suicides for their community and religion; similarly, modern depression sees a number of people committing anomic suicides; the 21st century is seeing also an increase in divorce rates leading to suicides as people feel troubled after the breakup; the race to beat everyone in the game of materialistic affluence also results in disconnection of relationships with the close ones leading to an increase of anomic suicides. As Bryant (2003) pointed out that ” thus, for those individuals committed to reason, suicide may indeed be a matter of pragmatic thinking rather than a moral issue, in some instances, suicide may be a reasonable alternative to living” (Bryant, 2003 :317).

For decades it has been debated that humans’ intelligence, behavior, and socioeconomic status are determined by the surrounding environment a human grows up in rather than the genealogical history they are born with. While humans may inherit physical traits from their biological parents, there is no reason genes should affect intelligence or behavior. It can be argued that human intelligence and behavior is passed down generations through genes, but there is evidence countering such theories. I firmly believe that humans come into this world as a blank slate and that behavior is formed as well as influenced by the surrounding environment in which they are raised. I will present both sides of this argument and provide both scientific and personal evidence. While both sides hold valid claims and possess good supporting evidence, the nurture simply more logical. This commonly known argument is known as the debate between nature and nurture.

In this debate, nature argues that behavior and intelligence are affected genetically and that a person is able to maintain their mind’s ability solely through what they are born with. Those backing this belief in this case are known as nativists. Nativists in one way or another assume that human characteristics as a whole are a product of evolution. This debate only began over a century ago when Charles Darwin brought up this theory between the environmentalists and nativists. Darwin’s cousin, famous English scientist Francis Galton (1822 -1911), believed that intelligent families brought up intelligent children. Galton was the most famous explorer of human intelligence and made important contributions to criminology, physical anthropology, and meteorology. He made the most significant contributions to both psychology and genetics. Galton was convinced that intelligent humans came from families which possessed other intelligent family members. Professions of art, science, and politics often ran in those families that he observed. Galton theorized that people had the potential to produce a highly gifted race of men by “judicious marriages during several consecutive generations” (Neill, “Nature vs Nurture in Intelligence”). He called this eugenics. He also argued that intelligence was bred and not trained, siding with nature. Though arguably, Galton was raised through means of great wealth as his father Samuel Tertius Galton was a prominent banker. His family contained rich bankers and gunsmiths. There is no doubt that his family had easy access to high education. In his time, good education and the idea of attending a great college usually happened to wealthier folks. So it could instead be said that intelligent humans actually came from families who possessed great wealth and were actually able to afford a quality education.

After World War I, several psychologists started to reconsider their nativist views and sought intelligence to be influenced through environment rather than through genealogical history. At the time African Americans were given IQ tests to compare with that of whites for a mass study. The end results showed that African Americans from Illinois scored higher on IQ tests than whites from nine other southern states. Through this analysis some scientists found it difficult to make peace with the basic idea that whites were intellectually superior to blacks. Evidence soon seemed to support a closer link between intelligence and social class, rather than race and intelligence.

Following in the 1960s, the focus of an individual pertaining to hereditary studies began to shift towards social determinants. The idea started to move away from the nature and genetic outlet to the environmental and nurture end. In this case, nurture refers to the surrounding environment. Environment plays a huge factor as it may be the air we breathe, water we drink, food we eat, people we speak to, people we see, etc. Parents aren’t the only aspect of environment. There is also the surrounding culture. After this general idea began to be widespread, America reformed its public education and improved poor living conditions with welfare in order to better the environment. Talk of nature playing a role in contributing to any individual differences, especially intelligence, became minimalized through the present political stance. However, evidence of the differences in intelligence between racial and socioeconomic groups did not dissipate.

In 1994, the Bell Curve controversy began. Richard J. Herrnstein’s and Charles Murray’s “The Bell Curve” swung the idea of nature back into the minds of the general public. This 800+ page book re-ignited the nature vs. nurture debate and generated massive controversy in sociology, education, psychology, and politics. It implied that an individual’s intelligence, which was partially inherited from both biological parents, would determine that individual’s socioeconomic background and future life experiences. So it claimed that your IQ could determine your job, annual income, education, criminality, relationships, and socioeconomic status. Now this is where the debate gets really heated. Readers from the left viewed the authors as racist scientists, un-American, and the book as a complete joke. Then you have the readers on the right seeing the authors at brave, powerful and respectable scholars.

The nurture end of this debate claims that the behavioral differences and psychological characteristics that emerge from infancy to childhood are the simple result of learning. It leans towards the idea of how a human raised and nurtured affects solely the psychological aspect of childhood development. The only thing that biology here has to do with this is with the physical maturation of the human. Those with strong views on nurture in this debate are known as environmentalists. Environmentalists believe that the human mind at birth arrives into this world as a blank slate and that future actions along with personality and intelligence are gradually nurtured as a result from experience. Intelligence is very important to this debate. Nativists say that differences in intelligence are determined through means of certain “smart genes” that are being passed down generations -wealthy ones at that, if anything.

Some environmentalists believe that differences in intellectual ability are a result of certain social inequalities relating in access to opportunities and material resources. For example, if a child is raised in a ghetto neighborhood, the likelihood that they will earn a good score on an IQ test is rather low because they were denied the exact same life chances that other more privileged members of society had. This is why the nature vs. nurture debate gets heated, and it’s understandable too, because what starts as an attempt to understand how the neighborhood that a child is raised in or the public school that they attend is able to determine the causes of behavioral differences can sometimes get into a politically motivated dispute about distributive power and justice in society. Thankfully I was raised in a nice neighborhood that consisted of friendly neighbors and calm locals. I had a good friend who lived two houses down and we would go to the same school together almost every day. His parents had college degrees and earned a good average living. I always thought he would turn out to be something big since he was very bright. Later I guess he moved in with his aunt in some other town because his mom and dad were fighting and arguing a lot. They ended up getting a divorce I figured, as the home he used to live in began to welcome moving trucks at the garage door. Last I saw him, we were both 12. The next time I saw him was when I turned 17 and it was on the local county news. He had assaulted a liquor store clerk and attempted to rob the place for a gang initiation. I wasn’t so sure it was the same person because of the generic name until it was later confirmed through Facebook that evening. I looked through at his location, friends, and education and not surprisingly, he had moved to a very low income neighborhood that held a bad reputation that was located nearby downtown. So how could it have been that such an environmental shift affected his lifestyle so drastically? He befriended gangsters and he lost interest at the public school that he attended nearby. When we were younger we went to the exact same school and lived in the exact same neighborhood. I surely did not turn out that way. I can’t think of any one of my neighbors who had such a tragic change like that happen to them and affect them harshly. I always said that it was merely his environment.

If parents talk, read, and listen to their kids, then they tend to do well academically and are very bright. If parents provide firm and flexible rules, then their children tend be to be well behaved. If parents treat their kids harshly then they tend to be anxious, aggressive and stressed out. A child can also acquire bad habits from their surrounding environment. Today in society, our environment isn’t just about our families and friends. We have cellphones, television, music, and social networking which influence us in different ways. Today’s youth is just a button away from sending a text message, searching the internet, or turning on the television.

To conclude, the debate between nature and nurture consists of two ideas, both with much supportive evidence and criticism. The belief that nature is responsible for human intelligence, behavior and socioeconomic status is interesting, but does not convince me that those characteristics can be inherited. All I can see inherited are merely physical traits that appear through maturity. Nurture seems more plausible as it brings up the idea that a human’s surrounding environment affects not only its intelligence and behavior, but its social life as well. This debate is still very current today as scientists battle over how much human intelligence and other behavior are determined by genes and how much by the environment.

The aim of this research proposal is to put forward a review of sexual harassment at workplace. Sexual harassment is a form of sex discrimination that violates Human Rights to equality in workplace. It is indeed very unfortunate to know that such an issue is still happening in an unrestrained manner today.

In this section, sexual harassment will be first defined. Moreover, emphasis will be laid on the main issue of this research, that is, sexual harassment at work. Finally, we will examine how and why harassment occurs and the possible solutions to combat this issue at the workplace. We are targeting better understanding on how to provide a holistic perspective to sexual harassment.

Sexual harassment is a wrongful conduct. It should not be tolerated in the workplace. Sexual harassment refers to unwelcoming sexual behaviour. It includes physical, verbal or non-verbal conduct of sexual nature, unwanted sexual advances, sexist remarks, demands or requests for sexual favours and showing pornography. It is true that every individual has the right to life, liberty and equality. This is guaranteed by the country’s Constitution, which is considered to be the supreme law of that country. In the Mauritian Constitution for example, sections 3-19 highlight the protection of human fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual. Section 16 precisely protects individuals against discrimination. It is extremely important for employers as well as other responsible persons or institutions to observe certain guidelines to ensure the prevention of sexual harassment at work. Indeed, to live with dignity is a human right guaranteed by our Constitution.It is the duty of the employer in work places to prevent or deter the Commission of acts of sexual harassment and to provide the procedure for the resolution, settlement or prosecution of acts of sexual harassment by taking all steps required.

Studies show that mostly women are victims of sexual harassment and unfortunately very few seek redress and little has received encouraging actions (Chaudhuri P. 2006). For instance, there has been a case in India. In 1985 where a woman, named Shehnaz Sani had been dismissed from her job because of wilful negligence. In fact she had complained of sexual harassment from her employers. She was surely granted legal protection and she was also given her previous job. On the other side, however, her harassers which in this case revealed to be her employers, appealed to the Bombay High Court. Consequently, they were granted a stay as well (Chaudhuri P. 2006 adapted from Staff reporter, Tribune, 7 December, 1998; Namita Devidayal,Times of India, 29 November 1998).

Moreover, there is another case where a female employee in a company in Hyderabad. She complained that she was being repeatedly sexually harassed by her supervisor. Her case was being followed by a woman representative from the Head Office of the company (based in the US). Indeed, the harassment was proved but unfortunately, the female employee was seen as a trouble maker. Consequently, she was compelled to resigned and she didi not even benefit from any monetary compensation. In fact, the harasser had great power, authority and influence and hence he was immune to all types of disciplinary committees. He continued to work in the same organisation (Chaudhuri P., 2006 adapted from Kumar, 2003). Moreover, it has been seen that complaints of harassment are very often dismissed as a “trivial matter” and not officially recorded (Chaudhuri P., 2006 Adapted from Sanhita, 2006).

As we can see, these cases prove the fact that among the few cases that women report, there is very less chance of obtaining positive support against sexual harassment. Moreover, the already existing committees have not been able to prove their efficiency- relevant actions are, most of time, not taken against the harasser, especially if he is influential.

In this context, it is not wrong to say that laws should be designed against sexual harassment to protect the employee from the boss, from co-workers or even customers at work. In 2001, Mauritius had taken a step to combat sexual harassment. Indeed, on the 21 March, the Mauritian Minister, who was at the head of the Ministry of women’s affairs and child development and family welfare had publicly promulgated a legislation to impose limitation against female sexual harassment. The aim was to break the silence on subjects which prevented the woman from enjoying her rights. The women were encouraged to denounce such acts. It is true that sex discrimination laws are very effective and efficient in curbing sexual harassment at the workplace.

Sexual harassment can either be Qui Pro Quo or Hostile environment (Hunt C.M et al, 2008). Qui Pro Quo highlights the fact that the harasser explicitly or implicitly make sexual request in exchange for some desired results. However, on the other side, hostile environment explains that sexual harassment occurs when the victim is faced with unwelcome conduct based on his or her sex. Such behaviour can be verbal, non-verbal, visual, or physical. This creates an uncomfortable, intimidating, hostile, or offensive work or learning environment.

Prevention is the most effective way to deal with sexual harassment (Sung, 2008). Preventive measures include adopting sexual harassment policies; provide training and establishing complaints processes. All these together help to curb the occurrence of sexual harassment at workplace. A company can also prevent sexual harassment by sponsoring trainings (Sung, 2008 adapted from Bordeaux 2002; Raphan &Heeman, 1997). These training may help employees in dealing with sexual harassment and its consequences. Furthermore, the channel for complaints encourages victims to complain and report and consequently, this will discourage harassers from continuing with their unwanted behaviours.

Problem statement

It is true that no occupation or profession is safe from sexual harassment (Kim and Kleiner, 1999). Sexual harassment continues to be a prevalent issue in workplaces. The frequency shows the seriousness of the problem and also the urgent need to eliminate it.

Studies have shown that women are more prone to sexual harassment (Mathis et al., 1981). There might be several explanations in relation to this statement. Long ago, women were seen as second class citizens. They were victims of gender disparities and female subordination at all levels. They were seen as poor, burdened and loaded with difficulties in the male dominated societies. They were uneducated; hence they were not eligible for white collar jobs. They were able to occupy positions like market women or tea sellers ( Abdel Hamid et al, 2009). Furthermore they were unaware of their rights to equality. Consequently, they were sexually harassed in ways like dirty language and jokes imposed on them while doing work. They had to face sexual harassment mostly every day from noisy customers. The lack of education compels the women to bear these harassments without being able to do anything. They did not know about their rights and the relevant laws.

Another factor which triggers sexual harassment is the values and customs which arise from cultural beliefs. Some cultures support the fact that men occupy superior position than women. The latter, hence, find it normal and accept that men hold condescending entitlements. This highlights gender disparity which in turn, encourages sexual harassment of women. In such situations, female victims choose to remain silent because they know that they will never get justice.

However, even today, despite the fact that there has been emancipation of women, where the latter have become educated, self expressive and aware of laws, there is still sexual exploitation of women. . However we cannot turn a blind eye also to the fact that although less frequent, men can also be victims of sexual harassment. Several studies have revealed that women are also sexually harassing men. Furthermore, nowadays we also find the same sex harassing each other, men harassing men and women harassing women respectively. The majority of cases on sexual harassment which have been reported and brought before the Courts in different countries still show that sexual harassment happens when a person who is in a very powerful position uses his particular position to harass others who are in a vulnerable position. In other words, this would imply that someone who is at the top of the ladder uses his power to continuously trouble another person who is at the bottom of the hierarchical ladder of the organisation. Various international organizations, trade unions, women’s associations and other pressure groups have revealed that sexual harassment is becoming an alarming situation, especially in the field of employment (Crucet et al, 2010).

On the whole sexual harassment affects an individual’s employment, interferes and disturbs the performance. Consequently, an intimidated, offensive and hostile environment come into play. There is a negative impact on productivity as there will be more absenteeism and loss of valuable staff as a result of dissatisfaction at work, low self esteem, frustration and loss of trust. Studies show that apart from causing economic harm, sexual harassment can also have a negative effect on the human psychology. Victims may suffer from various complications like insomnia, depression and loss of interest in the family (Kim and Kleiner, 1999). Whether public or private sector, sexual harassment can be very humiliating and this may lead to health and safety problem. (Chaudhuri P., 2006)

Aims and objectives

The research proposal seeks to investigate the actual situation of sexual harassment at workplace. There are myths relating that sexual harassment occurs mostly to older people because of their economic vulnerability (Kim and Kleiner, 1999). It is also true that sexual harassment is not necessarily limited to sexual desire and physical attractiveness because sexual harassment is used to bully and intimidate the victims. Hence, we can see that no one is safe from this issue. Consequently, the aim of the research is to make people, whether young or old, experienced or inexperienced, new or old to have a better understanding of this issue so that they will be able to combat it effectively if ever they are found in a difficult situation.

We are also aiming to show the reasons, how and why sexual harassment occurs. We are also investigating in the possible consequences and solutions available to combat this issue. It is true that sexual harassment will not halt by simply ignoring it. On the contrary, this ignorance will encourage harassers to continue and even excel in their wrongdoing. We will even try to highlight the fact that when sexual harassment occurs, it is the duty of the employer to protect and support the victims. Studies and journals show that more women are prone to sexual harassment than men. Our study is also aiming to know whether this finding is correct or not.

Moreover, through this study we are trying to know about the company’s policy against sexual harassment and to know whether laws are strict enough to curb sexual harassment. Organisations should reinforce laws for the prohibition of sexual harassment. The latter should be regarded as an offence in workplaces and raise awareness of appropriate disciplinary measures that will be taken against the offender. Indeed, many public and private organisations have not even set up complaints committees. Impartiality in these committees is highly recommended to halt sexual harassment. For example, a third party representative from anti sexual harassment organisations can sit in the committee.

Furthermore, the purpose of our study is to highlight the fact that companies need to have disciplinary measures which will help in reducing sexual harassment and avoid future incidents of this nature in the work place. Discipline should act as a catalyst in the prevention and gradual elimination of sexual harassment. It should be clear to workers that this type of unethical behaviour will not be tolerated at work. There should be different rules to deal with different situations. For example, where minor cases of sexual harassment are concerned, the harasser can be reprimanded and warned. However, in extreme cases, severe disciplinary actions like termination, demotion, reduction of wages, suspension, transfer or reassignment should be taken without any hesitation (The U.S Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 1999).

Methods

Everyone uses information to make decisions about the future. If the information is accurate, there is a high probability of making a good decision. However, if the information is inaccurate, our ability to make a correct decision is diminished. It is true that better information leads to better decision.

Information can be either primary or secondary. Primary data refers to information collected for the specific purpose at hand. On the other hand, secondary data refers to information that already exists to be used for another purpose. In the course of our research, we have made use of both primary and secondary data. Secondary data has been in the form of books, journals and articles from the internet. Our measuring instrument to assess primary data is a written questionnaire.

There are different ways to get primary information. Some of them are: personal questionnaires, talking with people, telephone surveys, E-mail and internet surveys, experiments, focus groups, observation among others.

Research approach- Questionnaire

For the purpose of our research we have opted for personal questionnaires. Indeed the questionnaire is the most efficient way for getting comprehensive information for the study. This method involves interviewing other persons for personal or detailed information. Typically respondents will be required to voluntarily participate by answering questions on the written questionnaire which is simply a list of topics that the research wants to discuss on a certain specific issue. Here, the working people will be asked to determine the factors that influence sexual harassment at the workplace, its nature, how and why it occurs and the possible solutions to this problem.

It is true that internet surveys are the fastest method to carry out surveys. However they might be biased because the results might not be representative of the whole population. Moreover, talking with people is also another way of collecting information but it is more appropriate for business purposes where customers and clients interact with each other for business transactions. Telephone surveys are a bit like questionnaires but the only difference is that it occurs orally. However, we did not consider this option as we know, the working population are very busy with their work loads and they will not bother to give importance to surveys carried out on the telephone. A written questionnaire has a greater impact than the telephone surveys and people will be able to express themselves better.

At the end of the questionnaire, there was another part which was included to gather demographic information of each respondent. It is good to note that their confidentiality and anonymity will be assured. However, if they will refuse to participate, they will be free to do so.

Research Approach- Interview

Apart from gathering quantitative data from the questionnaire, we are also looking forward to collecting qualitative data by interviewing some Human Resource Professionals within both the public and private sectors to know about the actual state of sexual harassment in the workplace. Interview has been chosen as a research method because it is very reliable as we as researchers will be physically in front of the respondents and we will be able to guide them about how to better fill in the questionnaires. However, the disadvantage of this approach is that it might be quite time consuming.

Sampling

In order to draw conclusions about large groups of individuals, researchers normally study a small sample of the total population. A sample is a limited number of units that closely represents the characteristics of a total population. The purpose of the study is to select representatives of that population.

Samples may be chosen by two different methods:

Probability- including simple random, stratified, cluster and systematic sampling.

Non probability- including convenience, judgmental, quota and snowball.

For the purpose of our study, we have opted for probability sampling. we find that stratified sampling best suits the needs of our research. We will first of all, divide the working population into 2 stratum, that is, private and public sectors. From a total of 22 public ministries and 10 public companies, we will then use simple random sampling to choose 6 ministries and 6 public companies. We are expecting responses from 60 employers and employees, 30 being from the public and 30 from the private. Our survey is targeting workers at all levels and all departments (management, administration, operational, IT). Such a sample is very convenient to satisfy the mission of the research.

Moreover, we will also use convenience sampling for the sake of conducting our interviews. We will select a total of 12 people to interview, 6 being from the public sector and 6 from the private.

Benefits of the research

Indeed, this research is going to be beneficial for a large segment of people. First of all, it will be highly relevant to the working population, both from the public and private sectors. As we have seen earlier, we are targeting employees from both public and private companies. They will be given a broader view of what sexual harassment actually is, how and why it occurs and also how to combat it effectively.

Furthermore, it is also going to be very relevant to future working populations, that is, to university students who will soon be graduating and eventually having their first steps in employment. Indeed, being new and inexperienced, these fresh graduates normally take some time to adapt to the working environment. Additionally, if they have problems relating to sexual harassment, the first option that they will consider is to resign from their jobs. But this is surely not the best solution. Instead, if they should be taught to better understand the issue and how to curb it within the working environment.

Budget Analysis
List of expenditures
Equivalent Cost (Rs)

Stationery- Paper, paper clips, pens, cover page

100.00

Travel expenses

180.00

Questionnaires (61)

244.00

Black printing

20.00

Coloured printing for cover page

20.00

Binding

35.00

Electricity and Internet costs

155.00

In the social sciences, a detailed analysis (or case study report) is a distinct, exploratory or illustrative dissection of an individual, assembly or occasion. An informative research endeavor is utilized to investigate causation so as to discover underlying standards. Careful investigations may be probable (in which criteria are created and cases appropriate the principles are incorporated as one get accessible) or review (in which criteria are made for selecting cases from chronicled records for consideration in the study).the research endeavor methodology displayed is an observational analysis that explores a contemporary issue inside its genuine connection. Comprehending the issue and its answer obliges incorporating a heap of commonly subordinate variables or bits of proof that are liable to be assembled in any event incompletely by particular perception. In spite of the fact that a normal meaning of careful investigations exists, one may experience different sorts of detailed analyses. Keeping in mind the end goal to make clear to which sort of careful investigation the presented strategies for learning reconciliation ought to be connected, we will quickly portray distinctive sorts of research endeavors. A definite survey of research endeavors is given by Yin (1989). A critical refinement must be made between all-encompassing and implanted detailed analyses (Yin, 1994:291). A comprehensive careful investigation is formed by a completely qualitative approach that depends on account, phenomenological depictions. Subjects and speculations may be imperative however ought to remain subordinate. This paper focuses on the instrumental case research methodinvolving ADHD and management of the obesity. The instrumental case research method looks at a particular situation with the aim of understanding the situation.

As a research method, instrumental research focuses on providing insight into issues or help to redefine a theory. According to Yin(1994: 285), it offers secondary interest that plays a supportive role

The case is of auxiliary investment; it assumes a steady part, encouraging our comprehension of something else. The case is frequently taken a gander at in profundity; its connections examined, its normal exercises definite, what’s more on the grounds that it helps the analyst seek after the outer investment(Bennett and Elman, 2006: 250). The case might be seen as commonplace of different cases. The capacity to take a gander at sub-units that are arranged inside a bigger case is effective when you consider that information might be investigated inside the subunits independently (inside case dissection), between the distinctive subunits (between case investigation), alternately over the sum of the subunits (cross-case investigation) (Chetty, 1996:73). The capacity to participate in such rich investigation just serves to better enlighten the case. The entanglement that learner analysts fall into is that one break down at the singular subunit level and neglect to come back to the worldwide issue that one at first set out to address (Yin, 2003).

As a review of the instrumental case study method, the paper focuses on the Attention Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder and the Clinical Management of obesity (Pagoto& Curtin et al 2012: 83)

The study adopted the following abstract:

‘Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) has been associated with increased risk for obesity and obesity treatment failure. The present paper discusses how features of ADHD, including inattention, reward sensitivity and impulsivity, may impact obesity risk and have implications for the management of obesity. In addition, we review emerging research on how obesity may contribute to brain changes that are associated with ADHD-like symptoms. Finally, suggestions for improving the clinical management of obesity in patients with ADHD are discussed, including pharmacological treatment, exercise and cognitive behavior therapy. ADHD is a barrier to the clinical management of obesity and more research is needed to further understand the link between ADHD and obesity. Effective treatment approaches are needed given the significant difficulty patients with ADHD encounter in their attempts to regulate their weight in the contestof obesogenic environments.’(Pagoto& Curtin et al 2012: 83)

The research offers a summary of the effects of ADHD on the management of obesity. The research seeks to identify the management of the weight and food habits of the patients. The barrier of the management of the obesity is a fertile ground for further studies. The research question of the study is:

Do Attention Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder raise the risks on the management of obesity thus increasing the risk of obesity?

The research methods embraced in the study incorporate the utilization of medicinal records which incorporate a dissection. The agenda of mediation typologies which distinguishes the later rules with respect to administration of corpulence in ADHD children. A rundown of essential intercession is recognized in the careful investigation zone that accommodated the concurred foundation. The information on the distinguished intercession is gathered through work area based research and meetings of the stakeholders in the industry. The intercession dada from both meetings and work area based data and a snowballing procedure are utilized to populate the mediation system that backings the dissection and guaranteed the consistency of data gathered in the careful investigation.

The findings of the study incorporate the danger variable of ADHD for both heftiness and stoutness medication disappointment. The study found that obliviousness, reward affectability and impulsivity are characteristics of ADHD that help of indulging consuming pathology, poor adherence to structures endeavors to get more fit and expanded powerlessness to obesogenic situations. Clinical intercessions are offered where the clinician is relied upon to note that the experience above normal trouble in association, observing toward oneself, arranging, and individuals with ADHD is higher. This makes the individuals endure poor observing in the safety of sustenance allurements and consistency.

The normal, or common, case (above) is regularly not the wealthiest in data. In illuminating lines of account and connection it is more functional to select issues that offer an intriguing, uncommon or especially uncovering set of circumstances(Johansson, 2003). A case determination that is dependent upon representativeness will sometimes have the ability to transform these sorts of experiences. The point when selecting a subject for a research endeavor, specialists will subsequently utilize data arranged testing, instead of arbitrary examining. Outlier cases,which are amazing, degenerate or atypical, uncover more data than the conceivably illustrative case(Gruber and Wallace, 1999:115). Then again, a case may be chosen as a key case, picked due to the characteristic investment of the case or the circumstances encompassing it. Then again it may be picked as a result of scientists’ in-profundity nearby information; where analysts have this neighborhood learning one are in a position to “douse and jab”, and along these lines to offer contemplated lines of demonstration dependent upon this rich information of setting and circumstances (Stake, 1978:8).

Whatever the casing of reference for the decision of the subject of the careful investigation (key, outlier, nearby learning), there is a qualification to be made between the subjestorical solidarity through which the hypothetical center of the study is continuously seen. The item is that hypothetical center – the logical casing (Stake, 1978:8). Past choices about case choice and the subject and object of the study, choices requirement areto be made about reason, approach and process in the detailed analysis(Young, 1939). It is therefore proposes a typology for the careful investigation wherein reasons for existing are initially recognized (evaluative or exploratory), then methodologies are outlined (hypothesis testing, hypothesis building or illustrative), then methods are settled on, with a vital decision being between if the study is to be single or numerous, and decisions additionally about if the study is to be review, depiction or diachronic, and if it is settled, parallel or consecutive. It is consequently conceivable to take numerous courses through this typology, with, for instance, an exploratory, hypothesis building, different, settled study, or an evaluative, hypothesis testing, single, review study. The typology hence offers numerous stages for research endeavor structure(Yin, 1994:290). A nearly related study in drug is the situation report, which distinguishes a particular case as treated or inspected by the creators as exhibited in a novel structure. These are, to a differentiable degree, like the careful investigation in that numerous hold audits of the important written works of the subject talked about in the intensive examination of a cluster of cases distributed to fit the rule of the report being exhibited(Yin, 1989). These case reports could be considered satchel studies with a central exchange of the new, introduced case within reach that introduces a novel investment.

Bibliography

Bennett, A. and Elman, C. 2006. Complex causal relations and case study methods: the example of path dependence.Political Analysis, 14 (3), pp. 250–267.

Chetty, S. 1996. The case study method for research in small-and medium-sized firms.International small business journal, 15 (1), pp. 73–85.

Gruber, H. E. and Wallace, D. B. 1999. The case study method and evolving systems approach for understanding unique creative people at work.Handbook of creativity, 93 p. 115.

Johansson, R. 2003. Case study methodology.

Pagoto, S., Curtin, C., Appelhans, B. M. and Alonso-Alonso, M. 2012. Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and the Clinical Management of Obesity.Current Obesity Reports, 1 (2), pp. 80–86.

Stake, R. E. 1978.The case study method in social inquiry.Educational researcher, pp. 5–8.

Yin, R. K. 1992.The case study method as a tool for doing evaluation.Current Sociology, 40 (1), pp. 121–137.

Yin, R. K. 1994.Discovering the future of the case study method in evaluation research.Evaluation Practice, 15 (3), pp. 283–290.

Yin, R. K. 1989. Case Study Research: Design And Methods (Applied Social Research Methods) Author: Robert K. Yin, Publisher: Sage Publicat.Sage Publications, Inc.

Young, P. V. 1939. The Case-Study Method.Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Racism and Ethnicity are two well known subjects in the academic world. Although not a popular choice of study Racism and Ethnicity can be found in Multicultural education, Sociology, Economics, to name just a few. Although used in the same way, Racism and Ethnicity are very different. The purpose of this essay is to define and provide examples of racism, institutional racism, and individual racism. I will also focus on the impacts that these forms of racism have on those who are on the receiving end of racism.

The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines racism in two meanings: One, “the belief that there are characteristics, abilities, or qualities specific to each race” and two, “discrimination against or antagonism towards other races”. Ethnicity on the other hand has three meanings: One, “relating to a group of people having a common national or cultural tradition” two, “referring to origin by birth than by present nationality: ethnic Albanians 3. “relating to a non-Western cultural tradition: ethnic music. (Oxford Dictionary: rev 2009). The word “race” has been around for several hundreds of years. At first it was used to describe an extended family through the generations, then as times passed it referred to large groups of people that were not family yet shared the same cultural practices and traditions, values and demographic location. When the Europeans made contact with people outside their homeland (America, Asia and Oceania) they would put people into categories that would show differences between their culture and those who were “new” to them. These categories according to Pearson were what Banton (a writer on Evolution) called “Selectionist theories of evolution”. (Pearson:1990). Banton argued that a person’s “physical appearance (phenotype) and/or inbuilt genetic makeup (genotype) explained human thought and action’ (Pearson: 1990) and it was then acceptable for people to define people on a “scale of attributes, from inferior to superior, from primitive to superior” (Pearson: 1990) all of which has made many a scientist question the world and how it is breaking up people into different races.

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries a hierarchy was formed where those who were black (dark skinned) would be at the bottom and those who were white (fair skinned) wee at the top. Those who had dark skin were considered less educated or uneducated, simple people who were best suited to jobs that involved physical and manual labour. A white person, notably a white male middle class male, had intelligence, held down a job in managerial role and was financially far better of than those of dark skin. This was known as “racial essence, to determine the abilities of a person or a group” (Study Guide: Unit 6). By the mid twentieth century, the study of genetics was becoming a turning point in humanity. Rather than focussing on a person’s skin colour, it became more acceptable that having good access to food, education, clean water, and healthcare contributed to the development in human beings. Pearson (1990), argued ethnicity is “what people do” (Study Guide: Unit 6) and demonstrated this by quoting a set of definitions by Anthony Smith with reference to ethnic communities.

Ethnic communities have:

– a “collective name

– a “common myth of decent”

– a “distinctive shared culture”

– “an association with a specific territory”

– and a “sense of solidarity”

This is defined in Pearson’s article as an ethnic community “as a named human population with shared ancestry, myths, histories, and cultures having an association with a specific terroritory and a sense of solidarity” (Pearson: 1990).

Institutional racism focuses on a group of people who are often more “dominant” than other groups and choose to criticise another group for being like second class citizens in particular “radically inferior” (Pearson:1990) that allow a more dominant group to dictate to the less off group “where they live, what language they speak, what school they attend, what job they acquire, how they are treated by the police and the courts, how they are portrayed by the media, and what form of political and legal representation they have to recourse to” (Pearson: 1990). Thus, those who are part of the more dominant group can dictate how the less dominant group can be used and have the racist beliefs and actions placed upon them. An example of instutional racism is prominent where there are often two or more different ethnicities. In South Africa for example, “judicial rules and regulations discriminating against black persons are a clear case point (Pearson: 1990). In New Zealand however, there is no such thing as discriminatory legislation and policies and practices are usually unintentional than discriminating towards one another.

Individual racism on the other hand is more personal and is targeted at individuals rather than a group of people. Also known as personal racism, Brislin identifies four types of individual racism:

1. Intense racism – “the belief that certain people are inferior, and hence are perceived as being of low worth.

2. Symbolic racism- Dominant groups “feel the the out group is interfering with important aspects of the culture- creating problems”.

3. Tokenism- Dominant groups prove that they have engaged in “token activities to prove that they have even handed the treatment of other races”.

4. Arm’s length- People engaging “in friendly positive behaviours towards out group members in some social settings but treat them the same out group members with noticeably less warmth and friendliness in other settings”.

Brislin(2000).

Kenan Malik argued that individual racism “imprisons those who are subjected to it while strengthening Western cultures”. Orientalism, which Malik quotes is a “dualism between the east and the west and the Orient and has helped to define ‘other’ “which people can see is different and excluded in race relationships.

In summary I have defined and provide some examples of racism and ethnicity and outlined the concepts of institutional racism and individual racism. By focussing on these examples we can be sure that racism affects people either as a nation or are subjects of individual attacks. By being aware of these prejudices, it is important to understand that we should not feel more superior to one another just because of the colour of someone else’s skin. Racism is in many parts of the world and although it appears for many reasons, it should be addressed so not to damage a particular culture or a person’s identity.

Peer Pressure can be a huge problem for some young adults. It can sometimes be positive, but most of the time its negative and destructive. Depending on the persons social group, peer pressure represents social influences that effect adolescents. The stress of wanting to belong can lead to reckless behavior.. Peer Pressure has been blamed for adolescent behaviors ranging from choice in clothing to drug usage. The need for parental guidance is at an all time high. Parents need to play a role in preparing their child for dealing with the pressures the face from their peers.

Peers influence your life, even if you don’t realize it, just by spending time with you. You learn from them, and they learn from you. It’s only human nature to listen to and learn from other people in your age group. Peer pressure is defined as the social pressure by members of one’s peer group to take a certain action, adopt certain values, or otherwise conform in order to be accepted. (peer pressure, 2009) Teenage is that phase of life when you are exposed to the world outside. These are the years when you spend most of your time with your friends. Teenage is the phase of beginning to become independent in life; the years of forming your ideals and principles, the years that shape your personality and the years that introduce you to your own self.

In order to understand peer pressure it is important to identify risk factors involved. Risk factors are any circumstances that may increase the likelihood of youths’ engaging in risky behaviors. Risk factors have been identified within individuals, family environments, schools, peer or social relationships and the community. Individual risk factors include anti-social behavior, anxiety or depression, rebelliousness. Family risk factors include divorce, uninvolved parents, negative communication, unclear rules and expectations. School risk factors include academic failure, school transitions, negative labeling, truancy, and low commitment to school. Peer risk factors include associating with those who use drugs, rejection, and gang involvement. Community risk factors include permissive laws, drug availability, lack of meaningful roles, and low socioeconomic status. It is also important to note that exposure to many risk factors has a cumulative effect and reckless behavior.

There should be a distinction between risk behavior and reckless behavior. According to Arnett, risk behaviors are socially approved, such as motorcycle riding and bungee jumping. In contrast, reckless behaviors are those that lack social approval. (1992) Young people who engage in one type of reckless behavior are likely to participate in others. (Arnett, 1991) Various reckless behaviors include reckless substance use, reckless sexual behavior and reckless driving.

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, there are plenty of high-risk behaviors your adolescent might feel pressured to engage in. Many adolescents are engaging in behaviors that place their health at risk — including cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, illegal drug use and sexual activity. And in all likelihood, their peers are pushing them to try these behaviors.

Emerging into adulthood is a time when conscious choices are made and individuals explore and have to choose between various possibilities. Researchers comparing the influence of parents and peers on emerging adult problem behavior have found peer influences to be stronger. (Clapper, 1994) Reckless behavior usually occurs in peer contexts. Reckless substance use is usually a group activity. Reckless driving occurs with multiple passengers. Reckless sexual risk taking requires someone else to participate. (Teese & Bradley, 2008)

Peer Pressure has negative effects that can lead to a variety of issues all of which can have devastating effects. From the social learning perspective, experimental smoking is primarily a function of peer role modeling and vicarious reinforcement that leads youth to expect positive physical and social consequences from smoking. From this perspective, it should be youth who spend the most time with peers and friends who smoke who are the most likely to perceive the positive social benefits of smoking and to experiment with smoking themselves. (Karcher &Finn, 2005)

Although students drink for a variety of reasons (Baer, 2002), peer pressure plays an important role in maintain these patterns. (Crawford & Novak, 2007) Binge drinking is a major health concern and the negative problems associated with it are well documented (Wechsler, Davenport, & Dowdall, 1994). A recent European study on the characteristics of binge drinkers concluded that males were more likely to binge drink and that peer pressure was one of the strongest influencing factors (Kuntsche, Rehm, & Gmel, 2004).

Early adolescence is generally regarded as the time when peers begin to exert a significant influence on child behavior (Steinberg & Silverberg, 1986). Peer pressure is one of the most dangerous aspects of adolescence to which teenagers are exposed. The difference between negative and positive peer pressure is the outcome. Consequently, parents should care more about their adolescents until they overcome this critical age. Connectedness to parents and teachers serve as controls against risk taking by encouraging conventional behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes. (Karcher & Finn, 2005)

Poor parental monitoring and inconsistent discipline have been shown to have direct relations with adolescent substance use. (Steinberg, Fletcher, & Darling, 1994) Parents must take an active role in their child’s life. They need to talk with their child about their friends and the influence they may have. Informing them about the cost of saying no can prepare a child for consequences they will face if they make poor choices. Parents can prepare them their children by discussing the different ways in which people experience peer pressure. They can role-play different scenarios with their children so they can practice saying no in difficult situations. It would also be valuable to share stories from the past about how they dealt with peer pressure. Empower your children by giving them excuses for getting out of tough situations. Most importantly make an effort to cultivate a positive personal identity and self-esteem in your child. There is a strong relationship between appearance and self-esteem during adolescence. Since adolescents pay more attention to others’ feedback and appearance is the link between the self and the others, each remark about appearance goes directly to the self (Morrison, Kalin, & Morrison, 2004).

Peers set plenty of good examples for each other. Having peers who are committed to doing well in school or to doing their best in a sport can influence you to be more goal-oriented, too. Peers who are kind and loyal influence you to build these qualities in yourself. Even peers you’ve never met can be role models! For example, watching someone your age compete in the Olympics, give a piano concert, or spearhead a community project might inspire you to go after a dream of your own.

Teens involved in sports, student politics, or even the chess club, are also being influenced by peer pressure. The desire to remain or become a part of any group will cause a teenager to strive to fit in, whether it means running the fastest mile, winning the spelling bee, or being the loudest cheerleader. The key to making peer pressure work in your favor as a parent is to stay involved in your child’s life. Know their friends, know where they go, and know what they do when they are gone. Don’t assume because your children are involved in positive religious or school groups that they are always doing the right thing. Parents need to set clear expectations for behavior, establish rules about communicating where and with whom their teenagers are spending their time, and should pre-set consequences for lying about activities or where they are going. By communicating your expectations, your adolescent cannot claim they “did not know” that you would be upset.

Parent-child relationships that at the beginning are powerful and fully nurturing can become undermined as our children move out into a world that no longer appreciates or reinforces the attachment bond. (Neufeld & Mate, 2005) Among young people, it is critical to understand that they are far more influenced by each other–their peers–than by parents, teachers, or other adults in their lives. (Gartner & Riessman, 1998) Peer pressure can lead to experimentation with drugs and alcohol, sex, skipping school, and various high-risk behaviors.

Parental involvement is at the core of dealing with peer pressure. According to Hansen and Dusenbury, parents should increase their parenting qualities including communication, supervision, and setting clear standards for behavior through positive parental attention. (2004) Strengthening parental skills and improving family strengths are key elements in preventing substance abuse and other behavior problems. Parents need to develop nurturing skills that support their children as well as discipline and guide them. Children need to gain an increased appreciation for parents and acquire skills for dealing with stress and the pressure they face from their peers.

It is critical to understand that they are far more influenced by each other–their peers–than by parents, teachers, or other adults in their lives. One of the best things that parents and teachers can do is instill self-confidence in their children. Self-confidence comes from being able to make a choice based on what you know is right and remain assertive in the face of peer adversity. Teach kids to think for themselves as well as help them how to consider consequences and weigh their decisions.

Protective factors are any circumstances that promote healthy youth behaviors and decrease the chance that youth will engage in risky behaviors. School protective factors include promoting a positive attitude towards school. High expectations in a high quality school with clear standards. Living in a stable community that promotes safe and healthy environments along with high community expectations.

A strong support from family, an ability to differentiate between the positive and the negative and a skill to choose friends from the peers – this three-pronged strategy is the best way to keep away from negative peer pressure.

According to Ennett, Bailey, & Federman, the quality and supportiveness of the relationships youth experience are another source of potentially risk-enhancing or risk-decreasing effects on behavior. (1999) According to social learning theories, youth who have role models for deviant behaviors and who perceive these behaviors as being sanctioned by significant others are more likely to engage in the behaviors than youth who do not have these role models and sanctions. (Bandura, 1977)

We have discovered that one of the most important reasons of teenage drug usage is peer pressure which has the devastating effect of depression. Some teens feel an enormous pressure to fit in. This may not seem like an important thing as adults, but to them it’s more important than a lot of things. Teens will do just about anything to fit in with the group they are seeking acceptance in. Loneliness is a feeling many teens go through. Teens sometimes abuse drugs to pass their time because they are lonely. For a parent with a child suffering with teen depression it is imperative that the parent becoming involved in their child’s life.

References

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Baer, J. S. (2002). Student Factors: Understanding Individual Variations in College Drinking. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, Vol. Supp. 14, 20-53.

Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Clapper, R. L., Martin, C. S., & Clifford, P. R. (1994). Personality, social environment, and past behavior as predictors of late adolescent alcohol use. Journal of Substance Abuse, 6, 305-313.

Elizabeth Madson Ankeny. (2007). Hold on to Your Kids: Why Parents Need to Matter More Than Peers. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 15(4), 249-251. Retrieved September 21, 2009, from Research Library. (Document ID: 1232468031).

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Karolyn Tyson, William Darity Jr, & Domini R Castellino. (2005). It’s Not “a Black Thing”: Understanding the Burden of Acting White and Other Dilemmas of High Achievement. American Sociological Review, 70(4), 582-605. Retrieved September 21, 2009, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 890542951).

Kuntsche E, Rehm J, Gmel G. (2004). Characteristics of binge drinkers in Europe. Soc Sci Med 59:113-27.

Lizabeth A Crawford, & Katherine B Novak. (2007). Resisting Peer Pressure: Characteristics Associated with Other-Self Discrepancies in College Students’ Levels of Alcohol Consumption. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 51(1), 35-62. Retrieved September 21, 2009, from ProQuest Nursing & Allied Health Source. (Document ID: 1261952451).

Michael J. Karcher, & Laurel Finn. (2005). How Connectedness Contributes to Experimental Smoking Among Rural Youth: Developmental and Ecological Analyses. Journal of Primary Prevention, 26(1), 25-36. Retrieved October 5, 2009, from ProQuest Health and Medical Complete. (Document ID: 790246111).

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Migration is worldwide phenomenon. Although it is occurred due to political, humanitarian, economic and environmental reasons, it is recognized as a part of economic development everywhere. Nowadays, more people are moving than ever before as part of such economic process. The gaps of socioeconomic development between rural and urban and countries of origin and destination are known as push and full factors of migration. Urban areas and countries of higher level of development are the attractive destinations for migrants. Previous studies have pointed out that in Asian countries the level of internal and international migration has increased. It is due to improvements in national and international transportation that facilitate human mobility easier and faster than ever before (Deshingkar, 2006; Guest, 2003; Sciortino & Punpuing, 2009; UnitedNations, 2003).

Therefore, many scholars have considerable paid attention on migration and health due to the fact that moving of people is not only across boundary but also across diseases zone. Thus, it has effect on health of both migrants and non-migrants. Migrants tend to move from relative poorer place to better social settings. Although some scholars have mentioned that migrants are not different from non-migrants in terms of biological factors for diseases susceptibilities, the social settings between place of origin and destination may be much more different (Adanu & Johnson, 2009; Carballo, 2007; Stilwell, et al., 2004).

It is believed that migrants are more likely to be more vulnerable when compare with host populations regarding diversity of biological and social reasons and changing lifestyles. Their patterns of health are associated with those new spatial and social interactions which may threaten physical and psychological health. In addition, migrants are segregated into low social position, indicating that they have higher risk of morbidity and premature mortality when compare to non-migrants, in particular those are at a high social position (Carballo, 2007; Sundquist, 2001; WHO, 2003).

The degree of migrants’ vulnerability depends on a wide variety of factors, including their legal status to their overall environment that can influence the health and well-being of migrants. One of the most important determining factors of whether migrants face barriers to accessing health services is the question of their legal status in the country (WHO, 2003). For this reason, we need to concern about migrants’ rights where laws and policies can prevent migrants from accessing social services, including health care services. At place of destination, migrants’ health is the responsibilities of the state. Therefore, it needs to prepare its staff to understand policies and strategies to work with mobile populations. It also needs to provide healthcare services that are consistent with migrants’ contexts such as culture, language, and living condition. In addition, health staff should understand related laws in order to provide appropriate health care along with moral support and concern for ethical implications(Duckett, 2001)

The International organization for Migration recommended that to achieve health equity for all should be providing prevention, disease control and healthcare services to all people living in the given country, regardless of race, nationality, religion, social identity, political beliefs, legal status, sexual orientation, age, or type of illness. Moreover, it should be the commitment to response emerging in the context of contemporary migration that calls for concerted action by all countries (IOM, 2009)

Reaching of health for all needs research results that can be translated into action at international, national and local levels, we need for more migration and health data, analysis of factors influencing health of migrants and its impact. In addition, a better understanding of the complex interrelationships between migration and health is also needed. Therefore, establishing a study center of migration and health with collaboration of interdisciplinary and international will be one of means for serving as basis for policy formulation/advocacy and prioritization of resources in this area to improve migrants’ well-being.

2. Objective

The overall objective of this study is to establish a study center of migration and health, focusing on internal and international migration and health. A focus of migrants’ health includes HIV/AIDS, malaria, dengue, tuberculosis, reproductive health, occupational health, children of migrants’ health and health care system. This study center is organized by the Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University in collaboration with several organizations and networks in the region and outside the region.

Specific objectives include:

1. To gather evidence from results of social science research that will serve as a basis for informed advocacy and the development of sustainable health policies, implementation and evaluation of migration-related health programs

2. To provide training appropriate to integration of social sciences into research and practice in the health sciences and health professions

3. To be interdisciplinary and international studies center by building regional and inter-regional collaboration and networks

3. Study Design

The process of the studies center will be conducted in six phases. The phases of this project are foreseen as follows:

• Phase One:

A preparation phase to establish a studies center. The study team will meet to discuss and then develop the proposal and strategy for the studies center.

• Phase Two:

Building collaboration and networks, including existing and new networks. During this time, study team will submit related papers to the conferences, such as Society for Applied Anthropology and Population Association of America. The studies center also needs to seek fund for organizing session on migration and health for a meeting f the Asia Pacific Population Association which will be held in Bangkok in 2012. The goal is to strengthen the collaboration and networks in the region and inter-region.

• Phase Three:

Reviewing existing literature and gathering evidence from results of social science research that will serve as a basis for informed advocacy and the development of health policies, implementation and evaluation of migration-related health programs. A team meeting will be held to review the analysis, develop the recommendations and strategy for sustainable of studies center.

• Phase Four:

Preparation training course for appropriate to integration of social sciences into research and practice in the health sciences and health professions. A team will meet and develop training course and continuously review the training module.

• Phase Five:

Providing training course to targeted groups. During this time monitoring and evaluation will be conducted in order to develop training course

• Phase Six:

Implement the strategy for dissemination making the information more accessible to policy and program decision-makers as well as other stakeholders.

4. Study Team

The study team is interdisciplinary and international, potentially including anthropologists, economists, demographers, geographers, social scientists, epidemiologists and specialists in diseases known to be associated with migration and health.

5. Support Proposed

The Institute of Population and Social Research (IPSR) at Mahidol University will oversee the management the studies center. Funding for the first two phases of this study will be provided by the extension of project from Rockefeller Foundation. Financial support for the remaining four phases will be requested from the funders who are interested in migration and health (e.g., for instance, International organization for Migration, Global Fund, Gate Foundation, etc…)

References

Adanu, R. M. K., & Johnson, T. R. B. (2009). Migration and women’s health. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 106, 179-181.

Carballo, M. (2007). The Challenge of Migration and Health. Vernier, Switzerland: International Centre for Migration and Health.

Deshingkar, P. (2006). Internal Migration, Poverty and Development in Asia: Including the Excluded. IDS Bulletin, 37(3), 88-100.

Duckett, M. (2001). Migrants’ rights to health. Geneva: UNAIDS.

Guest, P. (2003). Bridging the Gap: Internal Migration in Asia. Paper presented at the Conference on African Migration in Comparative Perspective.

IOM (2009). Healthy Migrants, Healthy Thailand: A migrants Health Program Model. Bangkok: International Organization for Migration.

Sciortino, R., & Punpuing, S. (2009). INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN THAILAND 2009. Bangkok: International Organization for Migration.

Stilwell, B., Diallo, K., Zurn, P., Vujicic, M., Adams, O., & Poz, M. D. (2004). Migration of health-care workers from developing countries: strategic approaches to its management. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 82(8), 595-600.

Sundquist, J. (2001). Migration, equality and access to health care services. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 55, 691-692.

United Nations (2003). Levels and Trends of International Migration to Selected Countries in Asia. New York: United Nations

WHO (2003). International Migration, Health and Human Rights (No. 4). Geneva: World Health Organization.

Anorexia is seen as deviant because it defined as an illness. People literally starve themselves at times. It is a world known behaviors especially in women. Many women become victims to anorexia due to society and the media creating the “perfect” body for people. (deviance sociology) this is mentioned in the functionalist theory which looks at society.

Obesity people are seen as deviant because people stereotype them as lazy, slobs and ugly. Medically overweight people are those who are 20 percent over their ideal weight. (deviance)

The media is one of the most influential cultures; it can impact individuals and cause society issues. It can impact society negatively due people relying on media for information. (Wright 1986).

How does society define the right weight? If there was no gym or healthy table how would you know if you had the right weight? American Company Metropolitan established the first table of the right weights and height in 1942; it was based on the measurements and life spans of a large number of their clients. (Deviance and social control p. 129).

Healthy people find it easier to get insurance, somebody suffering from obesity or anorexia will struggle to get health insurance.

Women have been stereotyped there image since history could remember. In ninetieth century to be thin signaled nervous exhaustion and lack of fitness to fulfill the ideals of wife and motherhood (Ewen 1988). Only in the 1920’s did the image of women start to change.

Anorexia can be seen as a form of rebellion

A Sociologist’s looks at issues from a different perspective, they focus their attention on social factors. They look at regularities as with all social behavior, it is socially patterned.

Emile Durkheim

Deviance has to do with going against the norms of a particular society. For years it has been discussed how celebrities and their super slim bodies have tainted the self-image of the very impressionable youths. We have reached a point where eating disorders have saturated the adolescent population and as such society has expressed their disgust. Previously it was a topic that was avoided as much as possible but the realization has come forth that the only way to attack this problem is head-on. As such, a very negative stigma has been placed on eating disorders especially anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. This stigma has caused those affiliated with the act to be viewed as deviants and treated as such. They are institutionalized so that they can be rehabilitated and released back into society when it is thought that they can function normally.

The Interactionist Perspective emphasizes things such as peer pressure, the influence of role models, and the role of peer groups on an individual (Adler and Adler 49). Because people often associate with others who are similar to themselves, the obese person’s peer group becomes many other obese people. Often, these people reinforce each other’s eating and exercise habits, as well as beliefs concerning obesity. It becomes an acceptable practice to eat often and poorly as well as not exercise. These peer groups perform the function of support and acceptance, making the obese person feel better about him/herself. The group even allows its members to feel a sense of normalcy about themselves. Outside of this peer group, however, these people are seen as deviant.

According to McLorg and Taub, as a part of developing the deviant identity, people experience both primary and secondary deviance (Adler and Adler 247-250). Between these stages is societal reaction. In primary deviance, the person violates norms that do not affect self-concept or social role performance. In this stage, the person overeats, but has not yet begun showing signs of being overweight or obese. They do not feel differently about themselves. Between stages, the person begins to be visibly deviant, and is labeled obese by society. In secondary deviance, the person deviates in response to society’s having labeled them. Once this has occurred, the obese person internalizes that identity and begins to interact with others in such a fashion. It affects his or her self-concept and social roles. One begins to associate with others like him/herself. At this point, the deviant has achieved a new status that defines him/her. Additionally, the people surrounding the deviant often expect the person to fulfill the deviant role.

Deviance is not the person who is being breaking the rules but the social groups who apply those rules. The deviant behavior is who labels the people (Becker 1963:9).

According to downs 1999 labelling theory has had a dramatic impact on social policy. It stresses the negative consequences of societal reactons to deviance that have more to do wth stigmatizing outsiders than attempting to prevent crime. Obesity can be considered deviant due to its societal reaction. Obesity is visibly deviant, therefore, making it easier for the labeling process to occur. Once the obese person has been labeled, he or she is deviant. besity has become statistically an average behavior in the United States. Nevertheless, it is still “abnormal.” The norm stands that thinness is attractive and worthy (Adler and Adler, 245). So long as this norm is upheld, obesity will be deviant and people will be labeled for their deviance and inability to conform.

Also, it has been noted in a study done by Hammarlund et al, that poor family functioning and parental control are risk factors contributing to childhood obesity. Adult obesity is often rooted in childhood obesity making it harder to lose weight later in life (Wardlaw 324).

Deviant behaviour is pathological in that it repents the viollateion of shared norkms

(Elliott et al. 1985) have shown thast young people behaviour needs to be understood in terms of immediate goals (such as doing well in school, being popular and being successful in sporot) as well as long term economic success ( Lawson snd heaton 1999:58).

Women are taught that image is their master status and that those who do not meet a lofty

standard will be branded as inferior or unfit (or in the words of Tepperman, citing Erving

Goffman, “stigmatized”. [Tepperman, 52])

Becker 1963:9:

What kinds people commit deviant acts (Roach Anleu 2006:26).

2500 words

defend argument

provide evidence

refer work to sociologists

sujpport claims

use the sociological models to organize the argument

atleasst 10 references

It further questions why, given those definitions, some people come to be defined as deviant, and what consequences this has for them (downes 1999:223).

Girls as young as six or seven years of age react to being labeled. This labeling often

originates when mothers pressure their young daughters into becoming aware of their

physical appearance. (ibid) This image pressure can range from nominally harmless activities

like encouraging children to play with make-up and dresses to overtly telling a “chubby” child

that she should lose weight. By enshrining image and appearance near the top of the child’s

list of cultural goals, mothers often render their daughters susceptible to further and perhaps

more harmful pressures from other sources in their adolescent years.

Mertonian Functionalism and Symbolic Interactionism are only two of the many

sociological perspectives that make substantial contributions to our understanding of eating

disorders

One particular example of research that an SI sociologist might perform would be an examination of the “intervention” process. Many individuals who are perceived to suffer from a psychological illness, including those related to body image such as obesity and anorexia, are subject to interventions and confrontations by their friends and family.

During an intervention, a wide variety of social sources attempt to get the subject to admit to having a problem. This strategy of confrontation is not unlike the way that psychiatric hospital staff treat patients who insist they are not actually ill, as developed David Rosenhan’s famous study that utilized SI paradigms. (Rosenhan)

Since the beginning of Human Rights until recent Human Rights issues, the interpretation and concept of Human Rights have been diversified significantly. Western construct have played a big role in the creation of Human Rights and in questioning the meaning of ‘universal’ rights. “The rights one has because one is human” is a clear and concise meaning of human rights, which is an appurtenance to an individual, where certain parts are not included, such as benefits. The western ideology of Human Rights have greatly inputted in Human Rights through various concepts that have been introduced to non western societies. These various concepts of western construct have influenced Universal Human Rights, where western politics have greatly altered the concept of Human Rights, also through colonisation which is particularly affected Indigenous communities, and by western cultures and societies. The western construct of Human Rights is eminently viewed in Human Rights, which are present in both western and non western societies.

Human Rights have gradually been altered and changed to insert western values and political thoughts into non-western states and societies. The western political emphasis for “the right to development and to freedom from hunger” is predominate in Africa as a rightYet, some of these rights do not correlate within societies in Africa. In result of this, many African leaders repudiated western political emphasis of Human Rights into their societies and designed their own Human Rights Charter, or also known as the “African (Banjul) Charter on Human Rights”, to suit their society.3 Even though the African Charter was created to suit the African society, western political influence is still clearly evident in the charter. “Individual freedoms and rights as values” has lost its significance in non western political thought, which is much of a variance, though non western societies have trouble determinating this significance that would be easier in western societies. Political influence is widely viewed in Human Rights and it influences the rights that are also used in non western societies.

The western concept was also brought through colonisation and it too affected the Human Rights significantly. It is how the western ideology was introduced in non western societies. Colonialism creates the basis and idea of Human Rights throughout history. The colonisation of certain states that have Indigenous People has influenced the Human Rights that are present in their societies. The fleet that arrived in countries with Indigenous People, particularly Australia, were asserted in the Indigenous Community without their permission, thus resulting in ascendancy in the communities. Bringing “civilisation” and “the religion of Christianity” was a priority for the fleet, to introduce them with their style of Human Rights. Though, this occurrence ended in a bloody way by killing and damaging many of the Indigenous People in order to universalise “universal moral values.” Indigenous People were greatly affected through colonisation all due to insertion of western construct of Human Rights, which resulted in many casualties questioning whether basic Human Rights have been breached just for introducing the western construct of Human Rights.

The post colonisation period, many Indigenous people have been ridiculed and degraded in society. Many rights, which are of western construct, are evident in the Indigenous society, where it lacked some rights or in some cases the rights did not fit in. Group rights, which are rights intended for a group of people, created problems in the Indigenous community. Group rights were mainly to do with economy and social class, rather than individual problems such as racism and ethnicity. Some speculate that if the existence of Group Rights was not evident, “ethnic integration” would not have been as difficult, and an end to “ethnic hostility” would have been seen.6 Indigenous People are seen to be excluded from the “social life” and “economic opportunity”, through practical questions such as “why are their health conditions worse?” et cetera. Only a handful of governments apologised to the Indigenous People, which brought them closer to the western society and the reconciliation process was starting to take effect.6 Colonisation was seen to affect Indigenous Communities and result in western rights implemented into their societies.

Through colonisation, western culture has been introduced and changed, through Human Rights, in non western societies and cultures. It differs greatly from the cultures evident in non western societies. Indigenous Rights, in Latin America, was seen to be the main priority. It focused on the state abusing the Indigenous people and pushing for Indigenous people to have rights to their land and culture The Spanish community and people in Latin America have been introducing western culture into the Indigenous community of Latin America, thus implementing the Human Rights as a western construct. It is evident that in Universal Human Rights, the “cultural imperialism” is dominant by the west. The argument brought by Fernando Teson is that domination of certain attitudes seen in cultures, are accordingly “appropriate” and “moral. Another point Teson argues is that “ethnocentrism” that relativists view are not supplying the same basic rights to “non western cultures” as opposed to the “western cultures” receiving those rights. Western culture has been a big influence in the non-western cultures and societies, it change the rights significantly in the non western society and adapted the western idea and thought but in the same time the western construct of rights was viewed differently in the non western cultures.

The western society has also greatly impacted on the non western society, with the influence of western life and living which altered the Human Rights, and thus impacting it on the non western society. Human Rights, to a certain extent, accepts the idea that they are “rights of the human in society”. In 1789 the French recognised and stated the fundamentals of Human Rights which are evident in society, suggests that society too is in power to deliberate those rights, stating that western society can change and dismantle any specific right in any society.Edmund Bourke creates one of the most protruding “historical criticism” of the notion that Universal Human Rights derives from western construct and western societies that are implemented into non western societies. He argues that the French revolution changed the rights of many individuals and groups in society into a western for of rights. Bourke’s “Reflections on the Revolution in France”, states a large argument of “traditional communities” and problems in “traditional values”, such as “religion and loyalty”, creates problems, disorder and integrity of western societies, thus the western societies alter many of the rights in order to suit their desires and to comply with the way they live Western society has changed many of the traditional concepts in non western society, thus the western society impacting greatly on non western societies with Human Rights.

It is evident that the western construct has greatly impacted and significantly changed and altered the idea of Human Rights. These Human Rights are being implemented into non western societies, and the eastern oriental community are having to follow these concepts and ideas. The ironic title of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is much seen as a western creation of Human Rights. The examples shown in this essay argues the idea of western construct in the universal human rights through various factors such as politics, culture, colonisation and society.

Sociology is the understanding of the human society, which this essay is forcing more towards the sociology among family members. Moving on into studies to explore the various solutions on how things around the context of a family can feed off each other. Things like spatial qualities that will affect the family’s social interaction. Exploring into different avenues in the design contexts like the balances between the private and public spaces within a home to solve the issue of bonding and interaction. An in-dept analysis of a few different case studies, local and international will to help understand and broaden the perspective of the various practical techniques on how this few designers explore the spatial quality to prove the point that spatiality do plays a part in the social interaction among family members. Therefore the main objective is to express the point that sociology is the aim and the dream of reviving once more the closeness, warmness and most harmonious type of socialization bond between family members.

The main definition of sociology is a series of development; structure and a functioning of understanding the human society. Therefore from the understanding of the word, looking into the various possibility of the definition, expanding into sub issues that will lead back to sociology. One of them is social problem, problems that occur in society around us no matter being in a big or small society. The reason for this problem to occur is due to the fact that each individual member of a society in this case focusing more into the family circle group, that lives close enough together will have conflicts. It is virtually impossible to avoid having conflicts among close family member who are staying together in the same house. They do not always get along seamlessly as each individual has their own unique character. From this sector it is important to acknowledge that social problems will affect the social interaction within the family society. Hence social interaction is another possibility section that will lead back to sociology. The in-depth studies of the importance of social interaction will be illustrated in the next part of this essay. But in the mean time from these two various possible issues in sociology, conclusion can be made that sociology is the aim and the dream of reviving once more the closeness, warmness and most harmonious type of socialization bond between family members. From this conclusion further studies will be made to explore the various solution on how other things around the context of a family can feed off each other. Things like spatial qualities that will affect the family’s social interaction. Exploring into different avenues in the design contexts like the balances between the private and public spaces within a home to solve the issue of bonding and interaction. Moving on further into the essay studies will be made on a few different case studies, local and international. These case studies will to help understand and broaden the perspective of the various practical techniques on how this few designers explore the spatial quality to prove the point that spatiality do plays a part in the social interaction among family members. Allowing the family to socialize without being intermitted. Theories will be presented to support the study of how spatiality is blend with sociology. Therefore this essay will elaborated the in-depth understanding of a few key points that will help achieve the main objective for a closeness, warmness and harmonious family lifestyle in a home.

Sociology

The term social interaction refers to particular forms of externalities, in which the actions of the family members affect an individual’s preferences. Therefore, the observation of large differences in outcomes is the balance between the interpersonal dynamics and the home environment. It is critical to organize the effectiveness of interaction that happens among the family member. From this many of social interactions exhibit strategic complementarities, which occur when the marginal utility to one person of undertaking an action is increasing with the average amount of the action taken by one family member. Consequently, a change in fundamentals has a direct effect on behavior and an indirect effect of the same sign. The direct effect on behavior will change toward the direct change in fundamentals. Although the family is made up of a group of very like-mindful people, there are still certain ways to control the functionality of the family and the behaviors within them, which make individual family distinguishable from others. In the case the head of the family will of course be the father following with the mother second, as a partner they are to set a good example in their sociality among each other so that the children’s at home will also be influence by their action and behavior, sometime unknowingly. Therefore, the father as the head of the family is the one who keeps order by setting rules and enforcing on them. Hence if a family does not have the sociality quality in their values it will have a chain reaction in their behavior, leading the family to face more sociology problems causing their behavior to influence other society out there being in their working environment or their friends in schools. Social interaction can also seen in the way of which it is an action that will lead up to a reaction. It is not only a one-way traffic but it takes two parties to work holistically together to achieve the successful outcome. There are sustain hierarchy within the family society and each family member has his or her societal roles to play. There is some ideal issue that the family should study or know. They should distinguish between the understanding of a correlation of the individual characteristics within the family society, to the influences of the society that occur outside the boundaries of the home allow the family to recognize the key traits that from their own unique family society. Therefore, ” Bott (1957: 99) argues that the immediate social environment of urban families are best considered, ‘not as the local area in which they live, but rather as the network of actual social relational maintain, regardless of whether these are confined to the local area or run beyond its boundaries.” From this argument maintaining an active social interaction within the family help balance a healthy social relationship among individual family members. Hence is will also decrease the tension in the interaction of matters in their socialization bring together a number of elements such as solidarity, commitment, mutuality and trust. By having this healthy social relationship, no boundaries will be generated, allowing them to have the two-way traffic of interaction. Another point that will help maintain this healthy social relationship is the physical spatial environment.

Form the research that was made, physical spatial environment do play a part in determining the interaction with social space that will affect the human’s social behaviors and the ability of a social individual to influence others. These spatial elements such as the buffer zones between the private and general space, surveillance within the family and shares the common pathways that affect the social interaction in the house. These buffer zones are flexible to change over the physical function such, as it can be a formal social interaction area or an informal one. On the other hand segregation of spaces can also be a part of a family that from this separation they will function better as a whole. There are some activities that individuals will be far more comfortable performing them in their own space. As Schelling [1978] demonstrated that when an individual can chose the location and the presence of these interactions. Results in segregation across spaces may occur, even in situation where the typical individual would be content to live in integrated space, which in this solution are their own individual rooms. Therefore, to my opinion a statement can be made that spatial quality does influence the social behaviors unknowingly.

Design

Behavior comes to mind as a recurrent theme in our interests, overlapping concerns such as the architecture expression and their complexity of the relationship that capital and generational change. Hence, it is an attempt to understand the patterns and influence of the transformation of behavior over time. Behavior could also be the central to a hypothesis, which is the understanding of the correlations between the human life, nature and the built environment. Each individual building can be viewed as a sentient creature, endowed with their own unique intelligence and a defining set of living characteristics. Analyzing the input from research, physical design does influence social interaction in a static way by some of these factors.

Firstly, is the informal social factor, factor that focus on the social dynamic that is the relationship between individuals and individual in groups. Secondly, is the formal social factor, which is the management of communal spaces that allows interaction to occur. Thirdly, the personal factors that is the pro-community and the pro-socializing attitude with similar values and norms. Lastly, the physical design factors, which is the density of proximity. The division of spaces that has a buffering zone between the private and general spaces, the shared pathways is one for the factor that affects social interaction among family members. Another factor is the communal spaces that have the quality and accessibility to allow family member to come together as one to have common activities together with out feeling intimidated. Therefore, how the family members perceive and understand the physical environment can determine the frequency and quality of their social interaction.

The psychosocial ‘buffer zone’ between individuals and the physical environment plays an important role in determining how the interaction unfolds. The social interaction and the layout of space reciprocally influence each other. The plan is the generator that has order and willfulness; it also holds itself the essence of sensation. The mass and surfaces are elements by which architecture manifests itself. Therefore, the mass and surfaces are determined by the plan. The plan is at its basis. As Le Courbusier quote “Without plan there can be neither grandeur of aim and expression, nor rhythm, nor mass, nor coherence.” Therefore the plan is calls for the most active imagination and the critical discipline too. What determines everything is the plan as the among of interaction the family will achieve or the social problems that the family will face. Therefore, to make a plan is to determine the main objective and fix ideas. Looking at the Schroeder house for inspiration, it is a house that perfectly demonstrates how spaces could help bring family member together to share and have their social interaction bond. It is a house, which have the plan-less idea that has been a very powerful idea in the development of architecture since modernism. The transformable and plan-less idea allows a logical way of working whereby the members are either all having their private spaces of they are all gathered in to one common space. The study of the plan informed us that is can be achieved by simply having partitions, that can be moved in a manner such that the spaces could only make sense when every family member is having the same kind of privacy level. From this way of planning it will increase the social interaction among member in the family, as they are unknowingly focus to work and interact in a common space.

The balance between the common spaces that is open incorporates the focus point of the main house. The expression of ‘openness’ and ‘closeness’ can also be achieved through the careful alignment of furniture with the help of openings and walls. Furniture acts as a jig, positioning the human body to react, while sharing the same space together. It supports and encourages social interaction by the arrangement in space to remove barriers between family members. It is also good to have the design element such as blurring the boundaries between the human life, nature and the built environment.

Case Studies

Local

Looking all the back into history on the planning of the traditional kampong houses in Singapore, how they are layout as a community to maximum the social interaction among families living there. The kampong were layout in the way where they will have a common areas in which people gathered, mixed around and spend time with each other. Spaces flow into each other freely with few boundaries or obstructions. The kampong with no physical barriers allows a flexibility in accommodate two or more needs of extending when needed, which is not available in our modern housing estate today. Studying in-depth for the interior layout of a kampong enable us to see that the architecture plays with a lot of voids, opening and have an open plan with minimum partition.

This self-drawn diagram is my analysis of a kampong house. The house can be broken down into three sectors. First sector acts as a transition space between the open public and private sectors. It is also the sector where the family will entertain their guests. The second sector will be the private area where all the private family activities happen. The living area is a common open area where family members are able to see the movement of each other. Lastly will the kitchen, the reason of having a bridge that separate the living area and the kitchen is because the kitchen is often used by the woman’s community as a space where they can chat and socialize therefore the bridge is there to set the boundaries for the public. The kitchen is also a semi-private area because there is a second entrance from the back to access to the house. From this analysis, we can see that the layout of a typical kampong house has a clear hierarchy system that segregates the public zone and the private living area. We can adapt a few key points from this study, the hierarchy system and the open plan that they have.

Moving on to the study of our modern HDB flats. HDB was first development to replace the kampong living style in February 1960. The reason for doing so was Singapore was facing an acute housing shortage at that period of time. Therefore, the government decided to build HDB units for the low-income group of people. Through the years residences had to adapt to the emphasis of the housing program, the shifted from quantity of housing to quantity of life. Studying the typical interior layout of a modern HDB allows me to understand better why family now a day space lesser social interaction time with each other. The reason is that the spaces within a house layout is clearly defined by solid walls which break the visual connect that is an important part that allows social interaction to happen. The percentage of the common area in the house is always lower than the percentage compared to the individual private space. But however, common corridor does exist in some HDB units but the function of it seems to just be a connector to the private spaces rather then a space where family members interact. Is there a problem with the size of the corridors, giving the prescription as just a path for walkway and not a space to interact?

Comparing this two local case studies, the traditional kampong house to our modern HDB flats we can see that the quantity of living is different. As for the modern house, we have family members that are all separated from one another by walls, which discourage interaction and by not interacting family member will lose the healthy socialization values. Compared to the traditional kampong layout where they have an open living and common space where visualization are not broken among family members.

International Case Studies

The project for a brick country house done by Mies Van de Rohe in 1923 demonstrates the idea of using walls to divide the space but does not go as far as to divide them off into rooms. By doing this it suggests spatial divisions by setting up relationship with the site from within. On the other hand, his Barcelona Pavilion of 1929, uses walls as the element to set up views and suggest spaces but they are not dividing the space as the whole pavilion is open-air. Compared to the Schroder House that as built in 1924, by Gerrit Rietvield. Different method has been used to demonstrate the plan-less theory. In this case, all the main services are positioned on the perimeter of the house and next to them are retracted sliding partitions, which can be pulled out to divide the spaces into rooms. Such as the space acquires more possibilities, compared to when the screens are close, there is no one name to label the spaces. However, these walls provide only a certain amount of prescribed flexibility. If these walls are completely independent of the structure, the moveable walls will become screens, which is essentially furniture. Therefore, western architecture has various ways and method to tackle the issue of social interaction. The freedom within the layout of the interior allows ways to alter to one’s needs hence it is adaptable to the engender bonding between the occupants and the building through continuous physical involvement. By doing this the interaction level within the family can be adjustable to the function that is formed at anytime opening up the partition to allow each family member to remain the visual connect that will allow social interaction to happen. Not knowing focusing them to start a conversation as there is isn’t any physical wall.

Interestingly enough in Japan, the Japanese traditional house takes on an entirely different attitude to spatial division and living pattern. While planned as the same meaning as the Western architecture, walls do not. In a typical Japanese screened house, the rooms other than the service rooms have on one purpose. Within these the functions takes on the meaning of the activity that is performed and their functions can be changeable with the activities. Quoted from Nishihara explanation of the difference of the Western thinking compared to the Japanese thinking is “the Western thinks in terms of function and makes his rooms accordingly, whereas the Japanese simply set up zones.” In Japan, when it is time for dining, a portable table and food will be brought out; when it’s working time a writing desk will be taken out; and when it is time for bed, bedding that are typically stored in the cupboard will be unrolled and rolled back to be stored in the morning. Leaving the space to be purposeless and multi-purpose at once.

From these two case studies, we can see the how two different cultures approach the understanding of an open-less plan concept. Here is an illustration of the comparison diagram between the Japanese concept and the western concept.

Image taken from,

Works Cited & Bibliography

Work Cited

http://www.helium.com/items/629105-family-values-the-importance-of-strong-family-bonds

http://www.doccentre.org/docsweb/urban-issues/hawkers/hawkers13.htm

http://www.sacred-texts.com/asia/sby/sby02.htm

http://www.sageofasheville.com/primary_prevention.html

http://www.fashioncentral.pk/living-lifestyle/home-garden/story-25-home-interior-decoration/

http://scienceblogs.com/framing-science/2007/11/au_students_debate_the_interne.php

http://www.malaysiasite.nl/kampong.htm

http://www.infed.org/community/community.htm

http://www.sjsu.edu/people/thomas.leddy/courses/c2/s1/Le_Courbusier.doc