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In Nancy Chodorows Family Structure, and Feminine Personality it is argued that care, development and socialization of children and females is largely rested upon women, and therefore provides the basis on gender personality development within males and females; but from the perspective of Margret Mead and her book “Sex and Temperament” this fails to account for separating the European views of male dominance, and also the role of the male in early development of the children, and the socialization of females. In the conclusion of Mead’s book she entered the idea that children school yard teasing, and their taught early gender roles were partially to blame for boys to perpetuate male dominated roles, and even the young girls themselves were to blame for furthering this ideology. Chodorow continues on mentioning mother/daughter relationships, and of double identification, but fails to account for “malleability” as well. In these mother/daughter relationships Chodorow continues to link this relationship as paramount to the gender socialization of the sexes. It is my belief that Mead would be superior in ultimately and authoritatively speaking on the basics of gender development in the sexes, due to her studies of different cultures. With Chodorow she continually speaks from the perspective of her native western “nuclear” socialite development, and only academically mentions other cultures which so happen to be possibly more developed towards the ways of the western world.

The ability of being able to draft from a larger pool of culture that Margret Mead did made it possible to draw conclusions, form a basis and gave the ability leave out the Western world perspective allows the reader to conclude to similar opinions as Mead had. When Chodorow speak in large part of the Western, or nuclear families, she was able to draw the reader to make conclusions out of familiarity or even to have close access to ask the opposite sex questions to meet the similar opinions. The problem with Chodorow’s formatting of her short article and conclusions rested far too great of weight on the mother perpetuating of the male dominated society, and that the absent father added to further influence on the development of young boys and girls. Mead was able to present to the reader that in three different and distinct cultures that gender identity was not based on Freudian sexual needs but social conditioning. Chodorow even suggests that the mother/daughter relationship promotes the mother’s own challenges within her own social development was transgressed onto the daughter, forming the daughter’s basis of womanly gendered behaviors known in the western world was feminine behaviors. This was contrasted by Mead when she wrote about the Mundugumor, in which children of either sex were considered a hassle and needed to survive by their own means, therefore both male and female were only differentiated based on physiologic differences, and both sexes displayed “Masculine” and “Feminine” attributes. Mead presented terms such as social conditioning in which the society provided the bonds, or lack of, for gender identity. Chodorow’s accounts were formed of the western perspective, and therefore drew from a shallow pool of cultural intelligence. Chodorow left the reader to believe that male dominance was something inherent and passed from generation to generation, and that naturally passed on due to the dynamics of the heterosexual relationship of men and woman the development of young children. Mead was able to counter this believe in the 1935’s when she talked about the Tchambuli peoples, in where the women were dominant, and the providers of the family; much like the opposite of the western world’s common beliefs.

With Chodorow leaving the inference that gender identity were based on the Freudian model of sexual development, continued because it is also passed generation to generation based on the mother’s upbringing discredits that there is malleability in society. The western perspective on gender identities, and roles had to of evolved from somewhere. With Mead’s views of the different and primitive societies, we the readers are able to draw conclusions that societies are based on their surroundings and passed down. Cultural borders or other borders allow differences to the Western perspective of male dominance. Mead was able to smash the ideals, that women, because of physiological differences with man created masculine/feminine roles. But in fact made the roles subjective in context to what the rest of that society views are masculine/feminine roles. Chodorow alleges that because women have such hard and limited lives of child rearing, lack of career choices, and dominated by men mothers pass this down to their daughters perpetuating the male dominance.

With male dominance Chodorow had to contort her theory of male being dominant and women perpetuating this practice by conveniently including the absent father. The absent father image was what Chodorow presented; child males must transition from the role of son-mother connection and more towards their remote father and take on a positional role. I believe from after reading the context of Mead’s book and how its present’s different cultures proves Chodorow’s claims as false. If the absent father is absent, then how can his role be influenced onto the child whose father is in fact, absent. In this case, this bolster’s Chodorow’s initial claim that mother’s determine the gender roles of both sons and daughters. But according to Mead and the Mundugumor people, children were seen as a liability to the men, and therefore already sent in motion the social conditioning that followed. The Mundugumor men viewed the children as liabilities, could potential beat their wives, and their society in response forced the framing an anti-children society. So in this one culture Chodorow’s claim is disproven because Mead directly illustrated men do have an active role, and even went on further explaining this point with just this one Papua New Guinea tribe.

Mead in her conclusion of “Sex and Temperament” noted that in the western world, child gender development was continued in the school yard. Chodorow’s view was more limited in that she was attempting to bolster her view that women gender identities developed as based on the mother/daughter relationship. Chodorow did acknowledge that some external events could influence gender role/identities development. Mead noted very powerful school yard bullying in two examples of feminine behavior being “taught” or “reinforced” on females in particular. One example was the usages of the word “tomboy”. Mead went on to note that the term formerly encompassed “acting like a boy, dress like a boy and things like that.” “Nowadays all girls have to do is act like boys quite quietly.”

At the core of Chodorow’s argue of gender development is that the mother/daughter relationship forges the ideals of femininity. This is also entirely of the Western gender perspective. But Chodorow states that the formation of female gender identity is through the socialization of her mother, in which is socialized in groups of women, and therefore has no need to reject this perspective unlike the males. With girls and women there is not fanaticising of roles, but direct identity and therefore easily transitions these “feminine” identities. Chodorow leaves the reader to infer that there could be biological reasons for gender identities, with the theory of the mother/daughter. This maybe the way how gender identity is perpetuating in the western world, but in terms of evolutionary, it isn’t the methods these are roles based. Mead concluded with her studies that the social conditioning defined the roles of male and females, she also further concluded that what is masculine and feminine is relative and not based to sexual identity. Mead with her “cross cultural research” noted three different societies, one where men has the traditional to the western world feminine attributes (Tchambuli), another culture were the women were as aggressive as the western world men (Mundugumor), and a third culture were men and women were exact complete equals (Arapesh). With these findings Mead was able to conclude that the individual society dictated the society structure and the gender roles, and what was masculine or feminine. The reader could also infer that both the genders were responsible for advancing the sociality gender identities onto the youth further progressing their gender models.

Gender identities have been researched by both Margret Mead, and Nancy Chodorow, and both have presented excellent ideas to the sociology of genders. Margret Mead was able to present views from three cultures unlike our own. Chodorow mainly presented on a culture like ours, with references to other modern developed cultures. Chodorow was able to speak extensively for the female perspective of how feminine behaviors are passed from mother to daughter, and gave some examples on the male gender development. Mead was able to present that genders were malleable, and therefore changed based on what that culture demanded the roles of males and females be. Mead illustrated that women were not born feminine, and men not masculine. But that those qualities had to be taught onto the different sexes and outside of physical differences that man and women were essentially the same. Chodorow illustrated that gender behaviors were forged based on the relationships of the children to the parents, and if the children could assimilate based of their sexual identity. But Chodorow failed to present how these roles were started and only talked about how that are perpetuated. Chodorow also failed to give some explanation as to how these role behaviors either evolved. This is why I still believe that Mead’s writings are a little more comprehensive on the discussion of the roles of genders, and the relativity of masculine/feminine behaviors.

In the article “Patriarchy, the System”, Allan Johnson defines patriarchy, and in doing so addresses the common misconceptions and stereotypes that people inaccurately identify with the term. He argues that people tend to generalize and attach the term patriarchy with men, and therefore come to the conclusion that all men are oppressive people. [1] Johnson recognizes a pattern in which women feel free to blame men for oppressing them and therefore men take it personally and become defensive. He argues that women will blame men for patriarchy “simply because they’re men.” [2] Johnson also considers the possibility that perhaps people are simply confused, that they cannot distinguish the difference between patriarchy as a system and the individual. He argues that people have to recognize this, and examine larger contexts, in order to solve social problems. Johnson suggests that race, gender and class oppression are not actually oppression, but rather “the sum of individual failings”. [3] Johnson argues that in order to solve social problems, these misconceptions must be cleared up. “If we’re ever going to work toward real change, it’s a confusion we’ll have to clear up.” [4] Johnson effectively identifies common misconceptions about patriarchy, and convincingly argues that this ignorance and individualist perspective is contributing to problems within society.

Allan Johnson goes on to argue that patriarchy is organized around relationships and shared understandings, and he argues that this can limit you to some degree. [5] Johnson provides an interesting perspective on how we participate in our social lives. He makes a very good point when he suggests that patriarchy can exist without men being portrayed as the villains. People tend to follow along with what society deems is the norm. This is significant; as it explains why individuals make the decisions that they do, in a larger social context. Johnson further analyzes what patriarchy really means, and explains that it is simply part of our culture, and the symbols and ideas within it. He argues that “the make up of patriarchal culture” is important to understand because it “affects the structure of social life.” [6] He discusses the possibility that culture enforces gender roles and power positions, therefore shaping and influencing our values.

Allan Johnson goes on to say that everyone contributes to patriarchy, the system, whether they’re aware of it or not. We are all involved in patriarchy, but it does not necessarily mean that women are the victims, and men are the oppressors. He explains that who we think we are is closely related to who others think we should be and where we fit in social systems. He sums up his ideas by stating that all men and women are involved in patriarchy because we occupy “social positions.” [7] This further proves his point, that patriarchy cannot be constrained to individuals themselves, as patriarchy is beyond the individual experience.

This article studies the concept of patriarchy as a framework. It provides a sociological perspective on social inequalities and attempts to explain why they exist. Johnson convincingly argues that people don’t truly understand the origins of patriarchy. He has taken the term patriarchy and uses a sociological approach to uncover what it really is, a social construction or framework. He defines patriarchy in broader social terms and effectively proves that there may be oppressive individuals in society but patriarchy is not the result of all men being oppressive people, it is the result of individuals collectively possessing power. The sociological approach that Johnson uses helps to examine and analyze society as a whole, a structure in which everyone participates in and contributes to. This approach can help to explain why individuals act out certain behaviors in their own social lives. Perhaps people behave in such patriarchal ways because “the system” has influenced us in such ways. Maybe gender oppression has nothing to do with men being patriarchal, but more to do with how our society has been constructed and how our culture and our ideas about men and women have been shaped within it. Johnson helps us to use our sociological imagination to better understand the problems society currently faces.

To conclude, Allan Johnson’s article “Patriarchy, the System” can help us to analyze society in broader social terms in order to understand systems like patriarchy and our participation within these larger systems. Johnson’s article helps us to use a sociological perspective to better understand the individual and why things like gender oppression occur. This article is useful, as Johnson’s argument could be applied to other social contexts as well. This article allows us to further our knowledge of social constructions and how we participate in them, and therefore how we can change them to improve equality and eliminate the ideas present in our culture that limit us.

In Rosemarie Putnam Tong’s book, Feminist Thought: A More Comprehensive Introduction, she describes the perspective of radical feminism. By splitting radical feminism into two different parts, the radical-libertarian feminists and the radical-cultural feminists, Tong shows how two parties that have the same basic theory and goal can have significant differences.

In the beginning of the chapter, Tong points out that “a feminist must insist the sex/gender system is the fundamental cause of women’s oppression” (Tong, p. 46). This differs from the liberal view of feminism because the radical feminists want an entirely new system opposed to working with the system for change.

Tong illustrates two very different methods for achieving a solution to women’s oppression, the radical-libertarian and the radical-cultural feminists. The radical-libertarian feminists oppose the concept of femininity and all things including reproductive, mothering and sexual roles. They believed in an androgynous society which combines both masculine and feminine characteristics exemplified by society. “This expressed radical feminists’ original desire to transcend the limits of the sex/gender system by daring women to be masculine as well as feminine” (Tong, p. 47). The radical-cultural feminists differs from radical-libertarian because it rejects masculinity and encourages women to be more like women and emphasizes the values and virtues associated with women (Tong, p. 47).

Both methods have conflicting ideas about sex, reproduction, and mothering. The radical-libertarians believe in all forms of sexual expression and freedom as long as pleasure is achieved for both parties. Any form of sexual restriction is looked at as cruel (Tong, p. 62). Pornography is looked at as a way to control sexuality (p. 68). On the other hand, the radical-cultural feminists see male sexuality as flawed (Tong, p.62).

When looking at reproduction and mothering, radical-libertarian feminists look at reproduction as a weakness. They are also against biological motherhood and prefer reproduction to be done artificially. Radical-cultural feminists see reproduction as a woman’s source of power, hence men always trying to control it. The best choice is for women to be mothers on their own terms (Tong, p. 80-81).

Planned Parenthood founder, Margaret Sanger was one of the cornerstone representatives of radical feminist movement of the twentieth century. In her book, Woman and the New Race, Sanger discusses birth control and women’s rights to her own body. As she states clearly in the beginning of the section, “no woman can call herself free who does not own and control her body. No woman can call herself free until she can choose consciously whether she will or will not be a mother” (Sanger, 138). Sanger compares both man and woman and the effects of pregnancy on both of them. Though men do suffer from the consequences of the situation, Sanger feels women suffer much more. The woman is the one who has to face the physical difficulty of bearing and rearing the unwanted children” (Sanger, p. 139).

Like many liberal feminists, Sanger touches on the fact that a change needs to be made. Unlike other feminists though, Sanger took action. Regardless of what is right, the fact is that women will never gain freedom until women take it for themselves. Women should not accept but challenge as pointed out by Sanger. Instead of looking into the past like most of society would, look at what should be. Before it is a man’s problem, it is a women and she should therefore be able to decide for herself (Sanger, p. 139).

“Birth control is woman’s problem. The quicker she accepts it as hers alone, the quicker will society respect motherhood” (Sanger, p. 139). Sanger brings up an important fact about motherhood. No one can enjoy something they never really wanted in the first place. By giving women the right to choose, society is making it more likely for woman to be satisfied and enjoy motherhood. By just giving woman the choice is a satisfying enough step for Sanger. This relates to radical feminism in that as Tong stated earlier, Sanger wanted a completely new system of women’s right to her own body rather than just fixing what society saw as acceptable (Sanger, p.139).

Kate Millett’s Theory of Sexual Politics relates to radical feminism by showing how thoroughly culture and society are dominated by men. The central thesis to this theory of sexual politics is that when one group rules another, the relationship between the two is political. When this is carried out over a long period of time it develops into a belief. She defined sex as a status category that contained political implications. Such areas in society like the military, industry, technology, universities, science, political office, finance, and police force are all powered by males (Millett, p. 219). Politics equals power and according to Millet, males dominate female and elder males dominate younger (Millett, p. 220).

Millet also touches point on democracies, aristocracy, and patriarchy. In a democracy, females have not held office except in small areas. This differs from an aristocracy in that women are permitted to hold power and the elder male rule is not present either. In a patriarchy, men hold power over women, children, and most areas of society (Millett, p. 220).

Millett’s beliefs of sexual politics can be related to Tong’s original theory of radical feminism. Millet wished to destroy the sex/gender system and create a new society where men and women are equal throughout society. Millett also believed in the idea of androgyny and that it was only valid if feminine and masculine qualities are worthy enough separately (Tong, p. 51). This androgynous person must combine the balance of the best masculine and feminine characteristics (Tong, p.53).

Tong ends chapter two with a critique of radical feminism. This theory of women is shown to be fascinated by roles and stereotypes that ignore the flaws of women. It is also described as being a historical by social feminists. Radical Feminism is the root to women’s oppression. Women realize their strength and power and want society to acknowledge that. Women are given few choices in a male dominated society. Sanger and Millett focus on the lack of choices when dealing with birth control and political power. Both want a change and an entirely new system.

This essay will explore the concept of the family, and how it has changed over time. The family is an enduring institution over time and within different cultural settings such as nomadic, tribal, agrarian, industrial and post- industrial. The history of man is essentially linked to that of the family; for instance, the most powerful narrative of the western world is arguably the bible, and it gives the defining genealogy of mankind. A central theme of the bible is family history which links the main players from Adam and Eve through to Jesus himself, for instance; who doesn’t know Jesus was from the line of David? It is, amongst other things, an extensive documentation of family.

It is said that in pre-industrial Britain, the family had different a different social agenda and a different focus than that of the family in the industrial revolution that followed. Before industrialisation Britain was an agricultural country with most of its population working on the land. It is widely believed that the extended family was prevalent in these times. Social historian Philippe Aries (1962) suggested that children of this time were regarded as ‘little adults’ who took part in the work place and were thought of as an economic asset. He argued that as their death rate was so high, there were difficulties in investing emotionally in children. ‘In medieval society the idea of childhood did not exist’; www.google.com/www.ehs.org.uk/society/pdfs/Hendrick%2015a.pdf

On the other hand, Peter Laslett (1972-77), studied pre industrial family structures and suggested that neither kinship, nor the classic extended families were typical family structures in pre industrial Britain or America, he suggested the figures showed these families made up less than 10% of the family population in. After extensive research on family sizes in Britain he reversed the argument that the nuclear family came about in reaction to industrialisation, stating that the nuclear family was to be found in pre industrial Britain, and that there was evidence of the same in much of Europe, the nuclear family had economic, political and social consequences that prepared Britain and Europe for early industrialisation. He called the nuclear family of this time ‘the western family’. His studies also led him to conclude that the classic extended family was found more widely in Eastern Europe and in countries such as Russia and Japan.

Anderson (1980) argued that there was a greater variety of family structure than Laslett implied in his research, implying pre industrial Europe was characterised by family diversity. Anderson used data from the 1851 census of Preston and concluded that 23% of the households of the working classes contained kin beyond that of the nuclear family, a much larger figure than that of Laslett’s findings. Preston was largely reliant on the cotton trade in these times, and he concluded that in these times of hardship, resulting from spells of high unemployment, low wages, high death rates and overcrowded housing, large kinship networks would be beneficial to all parties. For example, the parents of spouses would often live in the same household, providing them with child care whilst they were out at work. In turn the grandparents were cared for. Anderson’s studies led him to conclude that the working class family of the mid nineteenth century acted as a mutual aid organisation. Anderson argued that industrialisation increased rather than decreased extensions of working class nuclear families.

In1949 functionalist George Murdock published his studies on the institution of the family, looking at a wide range of societies (250) from large scale industrial, to small hunter gatherer societies. He concluded that a form of the family existed in every society. Murdock defined the family (1949) “It includes adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved relationship, and one or more children, own or adopted, of sexually cohabiting adults.”; Haralambos & Holborn, Sociology Themes and perspectives Seventh edition, pg 460. Murdock defined the family as living together, pooling its resources, working together, and producing offspring. He also thought of the family as functioning with at least two of its adult members conducting a sexual relationship, depending on the norms of its society. For example in Muslim countries it is allowed for the male to have up to four wives. Murdock defined the family as being ‘a universal social institution.’

Functionalist views are often referred to as conservative thinking, preserving or maintaining the status quo. Arguments opposing functionalist theories emerge from Marxist and feminist ideology, as often in their fundamental nature, they will challenge or change existing perceived oppression and exploitation, with feminists exposing, or trying to change oppression of women, and in Marxist ideology, exposing and theorizing on the exploitation and oppression of the working classes.

(1884) Engles studied the evolution of the family with a Marxist outlook. Engles argued that the monogamous nuclear family developed as the state passed laws to protect private property, and to enforce monogamous marriage. The nuclear monogamous family solved the problem of the inheritance of property, and gave men certainty as to the legitimacy of their heirs. Engels stated that the monogamous family asserted male supremacy; “the express purpose being to produce children of undisputed paternity, such paternity is demanded because these children are later to come into their fathers property” Engles (1972) first published (1884), Haralambos & Holborn, Sociology Themes and perspectives Seventh edition pg464.

Marxist feminists see women as being unequal in society and in the family; they assert the inequality of patriarchal systems in society such as the family. This group of feminist psychologists see the problems facing women in society as being capitalist, but unlike Marxists, who concentrate on capitalism and its effects on the family, the Marxist feminist would focus on its effects on women. Speaking of housewives Benston commented (1972) “The amount of unpaid labour performed by women is very large and profitable to those who own the means of production” pg466. She would assert that the male member of the family pays for the running of a future work force (his children) and the financial care of his wife, and as a result, he is trapped in the cogs of capitalism.

Talcot Parsons (1959-65b) was an influential Functionalist sociologist who asserted that the American family had, by this point in the evolution of the American society, been reduced to two main functions; the stabilisation of children, and the stabilisation of the adult personalities. Parsons identified the typical family in modern industrial society as the isolated nuclear family, and argued; as the society evolves and becomes engaged in “processes of structural differentiation,” the functions of the family are diminished. Parsons thought that as institutions develop within society, there would be a ‘transfer of a variety of functions from the nuclear family to other structures of society,’ Haralambos & Holborn, Sociology Themes and perspectives Seventh edition pg47. The Education system, Health and Welfare systems were all seen as examples of this transference of functions. He argued that the isolated nuclear family helps to maintain and perpetuate the wider society. He continued that ascribed status that is given to its members within the family, directly contrasts with status that has to be achieved in society at large. It is because it is isolated it can manage this discrepancy; if it was not, extended tensions could arise. An example of this is the position Parsons gives to the male within the family, head of the family, which may contradict with a lower economic status outside the family, but it is managed within the isolated nuclear family. In an extended family, another male in the household who was on more pay than the spouse, would reduce that male’s status within his family. The family had become structurally isolated and family relationships were more of a matter of choice than blinding obligations. Parsons saw these existing functions of the nuclear family as being vital functions in maintaining the American way of life. (1976)

Zaretsky gave a Marxist outlook; in researching the developments of the family in industrialised societies he asserted “the family props up capitalism” Haralambos & Holborn, Sociology Themes and perspectives Seventh edition p465. Zaretsky (1976) asserted that only with industrialisation, work and family life separated. He noted that the family was seen as a refuge in a ‘terrible anonymous world of commerce and industry.’ But unlike Parsons, who was pro capitalism, he would say that the family perpetuates capitalism and inequality; in the unpaid labour of women, creating new labour forces, and in the family being a unit of consumption that allowed the bourgeoisie too prosper. Zaretsky saw socialism as the family’s answer to the evils of capitalism.

Marxist feminist Fran Ansley echoed the Marxist view point when she asserted “wives play their traditional role as takers of shit, they often absorb their husbands’ legitimate anger and frustration at their own powerlessness and oppression.” Hers was the view that married working class women cushion their husband’s ill feelings at their powerlessness within the work place.

There are three periods in the development of feminism; the first being political, mainly campaigning for women’s rights to vote. The second period of feminist development was in the 1960s depicting the rise of the woman’s liberation movement which dealt with social and economic discrimination, with feminists of the time campaigning for women’s rights and to change legislation. The third period is said to have continued from the second, but also in reaction to what had already been achieved by feminists through legislation. This period is said to have started in the 1990s and has continued to present times. There are different groups of feminists, who have differing opinions concerning women’s issues and what is the best way forward for womankind. It is said that in modern times feminism has splintered into different groups, reflecting the needs of a multi cultural society. Addressing, for example, feminism from a cultural point of view; such as honour killings, and arranged marriages, which pose considerable problems for the agents of a host society. Different groups of feminist sociologists include liberal feminism; which is a less extreme form of feminism than others. Commenting on liberal feminism Susan Wendel remarks, “one of the modern political goals most closely associated with liberal feminism is equality of opportunity which would undoubtedly require and lead to both”; www.google.com /en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal feminism. They see women as having equality, but would look at a women’s ability to show or uphold her equality in the decisions and actions she makes. A liberal feminist would say that a woman needs to mould herself to fit citizenship in a social structure constructed in the interests of men. They also believe that socialisation needs to be addressed, as in its current form, it can often perpetuate the inequalities that women face in society; an example of this would be girl’s toys like dolls and prams conditioning them into their future role as house wives and mothers. Liberal feminist Jennifer Somerville (2000) sees our society as being much more equal in recent years. She believes that laws need to be passed to make heterosexual marriages more equal in order to address the family breakdown.

Radical Feminists believe women are unequal in society. Women are exploited in patriarchal society. Some radical feminists believe the answer is separatism; meaning that men and women should live apart. Radical feminist Germaine Greer (2000) remarks on high profile family couples; “her eyes should be fixed on him but he should do his best never to be caught looking at her. The relationship must be seen to be unequal” Haralambos & Holborn, Sociology Themes and perspectives Seventh edition pg 468. She argues that women seem oblivious to the misgivings of marriage but the inequalities soon become apparent, and that ‘male sexuality requires the added stimulus of novelty’. She points to the fact that three quarters of divorces in Britain are instigated by women, as evidence that women will no longer suffer in silence for the illusion of a stable family life. She sees this as a good thing for women.

Difference feminist, Calhoun (1997) states that heterosexual relationships exploit women, and that gay and lesbian relationships reduce that exploitation. She remarks that gays and lesbians have historically been depicted as “family outlaws.” Calhoun sees another type of family outlaw; the ‘unwed welfare mother.’ Calhoun thinks that these family outlaws have been blamed for the breakdown of the traditional family, and of a moral decline within society. Difference feminism has been influenced by liberal, Marxist and radical feminism and has connotations with post modern theories. But where Marxist, and radical feminist movements are insensitive to family variation. Difference feminists focus on these family variations and there effects.

American Difference Feminist Linda Nicholson (1977) states that women can benefit from living in an alternative family, that other theorists and sociologists have over idealised the nuclear family and undermined the alternative family. Examples of alternative families are; families with a stay at home father, heterosexual families living outside marriage, step families and homosexual families to name a few. She points out that the nuclear family had only been the norm since the fifties, and that even then it was uncommon for groups such as the African American working classes. Nicholson says that changes in society such as “Increased participation of married women in the labour force, and the growth of female-headed households were making this way of life increasingly atypical”; Nicholson (1997) pg471. She sees benefits for women living in an alternative family; black women benefiting from mother centred families, as with no male presents, the women often group together forming strong support networks. Also in times of financial hardship, friends and kin act as a social insurance system, helping financially. Nicholson saw disadvantages for women in an alternative family as being; if the family did come into money, they would then be expected to, in turn, help their network of close friends and family financially, another disadvantage of this type of alternative family would be that children had no father figure, unlike in many middle class households. Nicholson also looked at the advantages and disadvantages of the nuclear family. Disadvantages are that with both parents having to work, the children’s upbringing can be negatively affected, and with such a structure, abused children often had nowhere to turn within a nuclear family. Nicholson would assert that an advantage of being in a nuclear family would be that there is a much greater chance of being economically successful as often, both parents are working, and that the nuclear family doesn’t have to redistribute its wealth. Nicholson would argue that different families and households should be acknowledged because they suit women in differing circumstances.

Examine the changing and diverse nature of the family in modern society; the modern family has become increasingly diverse in structure in today’s modern western world. The nuclear family is no longer seen as the norm by many sociologists, and other family structures such as: lone parent families, matriarchal families, reconstructed families (step families), Homosexual families, mixed race families, and ethnic minority families, have become more common place in modern western societies. One form of family which has attracted criticism in recent years is the lone parent family. This type of family structure is now much more prevalent in the western world, in Britain alone, it is said that there has been a thirty per cent increase in lone parent families in the last ten years. Around a quarter of all families are headed by one parent in Britain today. The new right (modern functionalists) believe that the nuclear family is the ideal family structure, and view lone parent families and same sex families as harmful to society. From a new right perspective, lone parent families mostly have no father figure to financially provide for the family, making it financially dependent on the state. Also they would argue that the lack of a male role model is a negative force in the socialization process of children. Other criticisms of lone parent families and their financial reliance upon the state, it is argued, is that they have eroded the responsibilities of fathers, who are much more likely to be involved in antisocial behaviour. New right thinkers believe that single parent families have helped to create an underclass in Britain’s society: who see no need to work, who often live in poverty, whose children are more likely to under achieve in school, and are more likely to be involved in a wide range of social problems. The new right would go so far as to say that there is a generation of a young ‘underclass’ of females who regard pregnancy as a ticket to receiving housing, and financial support from the state, but others would say that this is a simplistic outlook and that it is unfair to stigmatise single parent families, or to blame them for the problems within society. Mary McIntosh (1996) pointed out that “over recent years, the media in the United Kingdom have been reflecting a concern about lone mothers that amounts to a moral panic” pg478. Also, it is mostly not the case that these, mostly teenage girls, get pregnant to be housed and supported by the state, as in most cases, they see a future with their partner’s, but the relationship breaks down. E.E Ceshmore (1985) speaking of the ‘darker side family life’ and how it serves male interests asserted that “the idea of breaking free of marriage and raising children single handed has its appeals” pg488. She continued that it must be preferable for a child to grow up with one caring parent, than live with two warring parents.

Another new form of family structure in today’s Western society is same sex families. Recent changes in attitudes towards gays and lesbian behaviours and in the law (the UK’s Civil Partnership Act of 2004) have enabled this new form of family. Often same sex households will define their households as chosen families, with more choices available than traditional heterosexual families, these families adopt their offspring in most cases, but there is the option of producing a child in a laboratory using donated sperm for some women. It has also been known for homosexuals to conceive children, and for gay couples to use a surrogate mother in order to start a family. Geffery Weeks (1999) stated; “they choose whom to include in their family and negotiate what are often fairly egalitarian relationships” pg484. Weeks goes on to argue that this type of family is based on individual freedoms, and participation within this family is a matter of bargaining instead of merely adopting the traditional roles within the traditional heterosexual family. Arguments against same sex couples come from the new right and religious groups who argue that the socialisation process of children within these families is undermined by the lack of an adult of the other sex in a same sex family. Generally it is seen as a threat to the traditional models of the heterosexual family.

There have been different ethnic groups immigrating to the UK throughout the 20th century. These families have brought with them different norms and values, and different ways of bringing up their offspring. For example, Black Afro Caribbean families, whose structure is often fundamentally matriarchal (single Mothers rearing the children) provide economically for the unit. It is often the case that families originating from Southern Asia often contain extended families. Studies on British Asian families, Muslim: Pakistani, Bangladeshi, and Indian: Hindu and Sikh, found that there was a continued emphasis on family loyalty and an effort to maintain traditional marriage practices such as arranged marriages. Ballard commented that this was because upon arriving in Britain, many Asians saw British culture as placing little emphasis on family traditions, or on maintaining kinship ties. These observations resulted in a strong desire to uphold their traditional family ways and try to insure that their children upheld these traditions also. British Asian families often have members of a third generation living in a household, mostly the parents of the mother or father. A Sikh tradition is that when the eldest son marries, his wife moves into the household to help care for the spouse’s parents. This tradition of collective responsibility can be beneficial to members of the family, and the wider society. For instance, the caring of elderly relatives and child care arrangement of the children are traditionally provided for within the family unit, therefore these families have no need to rely on the state financially. On the other hand it could be argued that women in these families are closely monitored and there is the potential for their exploitation, and their abuse in some cases. Honour killings for example, can be seen as an extreme cultural behaviour, which pose a serious problem in modern society.

Different sociological groups have differing opinions regarding the changes in family structures, in changing attitudes towards what is the norm regarding the concept of the family, and the consequences these shifts have incurred. Some point to changes in the law in the sixties and 1970, The Sex Discrimination Act 1975, and changes in legislation that made it easier to divorce. Some sociologists see these changes in legislation as a turning point which saw the start of the decline of the nuclear family as the norm. Germaine Greer’s book, The Female Eunuch, published in 1970, helped to bring women’s liberation to a wide audience of young women. In it, Greer commented that opponents of the liberation of women ‘were more clear sighted’ than those who believed that equality for women would not upset anything. She went on to say that, “when we reap the harvest, which the unwitting suffragettes sowed, we will see that the anti-feminists were after all right.” M Abbott/ Family Affairs/ pg121. Other sociologists believe that the breakdown of the nuclear family is not down to just these changes in legislation, but point to changes in norms, values and in attitudes in modern times. They point to the numbers of divorces, and assert that most people still believe in marriage as the ideal way in which to bring up a family, but greater freedom and expectations for women have led to the divorce rate rising. Sociologists such as Abbot and Wallice recognise increasing family diversity but view the decline of the nuclear family and of marriages as having been exaggerated by the New Right for political reasons. They assert that, “seven out of eight children are born to parents living together, three quarters of whom are legally married. Only one in five children will experience parental divorce by the time he or she is 16.” Pg508

There are obvious outgrowing numbers of gays and lesbians communities in our country and all over the world. People become increasingly engaged into homosexual affiliations. Many variables influence the emergence of sexuality in all young people. These variables are changes in biological processes, relationships and community interactions.

The level of acceptance between gays and lesbians has changed over the years. The researchers would like to determine the level of acceptance of the society between gays and lesbians.

This study was conducted with the purpose of analyzing the factors that lead to the acceptance of society between gays and lesbians. This study identified the variables and factors influencing and may affect the society’s level of acceptance between gays and lesbians.

Statement of the Problem

The study aimed to determine the factors that lead to the acceptance of the society between gays and lesbians.

Specifically, it sought to determine the following:

What is the demographic profile of the respondents in terms of:

age?
sex?
civil status?
religion?
educational attainment?

What are the attitudes and behaviours of gays and lesbians which contributes to the level of acceptance of the society?

What are the factors that influence the emergence of being homosexual individual?

What are the challenges faced by lesbians and gays on the acceptance of the society?

How the respondents are reacting to communities of gays and lesbians?

Significance of the Study

The study has significance to gays and lesbians, as they will be aware of the level of acceptance of the society to them and the factors that contribute to the willingness of the society towards them.

To the parents, that they will be aware of the condition of their children, as the findings were presented to them, they will be encouraged to improve their views and beliefs regarding homosexuality.

To the society, that they will be aware of the happenings to the homosexual based on their opinions, beliefs, and views, as they give it in relation to their acceptance and may find ways to improve the level of acceptance between gays and lesbians.

Scope, Delimitations & Limitations of the Study

The respondents of this study include 25 lesbians, 25 gays, 25 parents of either lesbian or gay, and 25 individuals who have gay/ lesbian friends. They will be asked regarding attitudes and behaviours of homosexuals which contribute to their level of acceptance in the society. They will be given chances to give their opinions, views and beliefs regarding homosexuality.

Definition of Terms

The terms included in the research paper will be defined to facilitate understanding of the study.

Lesbian. Homosexual woman; the condition in which a woman is sexually attracted to, or engages in sexual behaviour with another woman.

Gay. Homosexual man; the condition in which man is sexually attracted to, or engages in sexual behaviour with another man.

Homosexuality. The condition of being sexually attracted, covertly, or overtly, by members of one’s own sex.

Society. Organized and interdependent community.

Morality. Degree of conformity to moral principles.

Acceptance. Willingness to accept.

CHAPTER 2

Review of Related Literature and Studies

This chapter includes discussion on related literature and studies both foreign and local, which provides relevant facts about the society’s level of acceptance between gays and lesbians. It also aims to determine the level of acceptance from past to present.

Foreign Studies

On the study conducted by the researchers at the Kaiser Family Foundation entitled “Inside- out : A report on the Experience’s of Lesbians, Gays and Bisexuals in America and the Public’s Views on Issues and Advices Related to Sexual Orientation”. The are two national public opinion surveys: one, to gather information on the experiences of seslf-identified lesbians, gays and bisexuals: and the second to gauge the general public’s attitudes towards this group and their views on key policy issues related to sexual orientation. They did it to determine where the public really stands. Researchers found out that large majority of self-identified lesbians, gays, and bisexuals believe that there is more acceptance today compared to a few years ago. One third from their respondents say that their family or a family member has refused to accept them. According to the research, lesbians are more likely to report not having been accepted by their families.

It was found out that majority of the general public reports knowing someone who is gay, lesbian or bisexual believes that there is more acceptance of lesbians and gays today compared to a few years ago. Most say that greater acceptance is either good for the country or does not matter one way or the other. The majority also believes that homosexual behavior is a normal part of some people’s sexuality. Individuals age 65 and older those with a high school education or less and those who do not have lesbian and gay co-workers, friends or family members are least likely to have accepting attitudes towards lesbians, gays, and bisexuals. Religious affiliation also has significant effect on attitudes and level of acceptance. Overall, the public is increasing accepting gays and lesbians in the society.

On the study conducted by Elizabeth Mehren entitled “Homosexuals finding more Acceptance. Poll says” states that gays and lesbians have experienced a dramatic rise in acceptance over the last two decades, according to a new Los Angeles Times Poll-2004. In ltwo Los Angeles Times polls in the mid- 1980s and other data from the same era, the level of sympathy toward gays and lesbians was half what it is today. Researchers found out that gay people in general are feeling more comfortable in society and society is feeling more comfortable with gay people. The study revealed that 62 percent say their community accepts gays and lesbians.

Based on the survey conducted by the members of the Public Agenda Organization entitled “Ambivalence and Mixed Messages”, acceptance of gays and lesbians has risen significantly, and currently about half of Americans say homosexuality should be an acceptable lifestyle. Survey questions about whether American society should accept homosexuality often draw different responses depending on the examples mentioned which is an indication of public ambivalence. Questions that raise the issue of fair treatment typically draw much higher levels of public support. For instance, substantial majorities of Americans say they support equal protection for homosexuals against hate crimes and equal rights in terms of housing and jobs. surveys show that slight majorities say a gay person could be a good role model and as good a parent as anyone, yet they are divided on whether they would allow a homosexual to baby-sit their child and half say they oppose allowing gay couples to adopt.

The survey conducted by the faculty & staff of The University of Arizona entitled “Equity’s 1992 Campus Climate Report” was aimed to investigate the climate for gays, lesbians, and bisexuals on campus. Majority of their sample comprised of heterosexuals. They allow their respondents to rate in the scale of 1-10 on every question. As a result, majority placed 8 to 10 range on the level of acceptance with the women expressing high level of acceptance than men. Respondents’ employment status had no significant impact on the acceptance scale, with no major differences surfacing among faculty, staff, and graduate students. They also asked if their religion influences their views on homosexuality; seventeen percent of the respondents marked “yes.” But not only religion appeared to influence people toward negative views. A series of items asked respondents to characterize the level of respect shown for gays, lesbians, and bisexuals by others in their department, specifically their immediate supervisor, co-workers, department head, and students. All in all, the responses to questions about respect levels in departments reveal that the immediate environment for gay, lesbian, and bisexual members of the University is not a particularly good one, but that department heads and supervisors show generally higher levels of respect than co-workers and students.

Justin J. Jagosh, in his thesis entitled “Moving toward understanding and acceptance: Parents’ experiences after finding out their children are gay, lesbian, and bisexual” aimed to explore how the parents will accept their child’s sexuality. Through qualitative inquiry, 12 Canadian parents (7 mothers and 5 fathers) were interviewed to develop an in-depth analysis of their thoughts, feelings, and actions in relation to having gay, lesbian, and bisexual children. He found out that parents went through a process of understanding and acceptance, in which they made sense of past experiences they had with their children, reacted emotionally to finding out, changed their perspectives on issues, and shared their experiences with others. There are still hindering factors but with the strategies suggested in which researchers, educators, health professionals, media personnel, parent support groups, and parents themselves can use like some mentioned above, it will not be difficult for parents to understand and accept their gay, lesbian, and bisexual children.

Foreign studies

On the book overview of Lesbian, Gay and bisexual identities and youth by Anthony R. O’Angelli, Charlotte Patterson explore the psychological dimentions of lesbian, gay and bisexual identities from puberty to adulthood. There are changes in biological processes, relationship and community interactions influence the emergence of sexuality in all young people.

The article, Chasing the Rainbow; Is a Gay Population an Engine of Urban Revival? Cities are beginning to think so by Richard Florida sees that openness to the gay community is a good indication of the low entry barriers to human capital that are so important to spurring creativity and generating high-tech growth. The homosexuality represents the last last frontier of diversity in our society, and thus a place that welcomes the gay community welcomes all kinds of people.

Also an article in New Zealand by the LGBT organization on that country which is entitled “A Civil Union Ceremony in Wellington” last December 20006 states that New Zealand society is generally fairly relaxed in acceptance of gays and lesbians. The gay-friendly is epitomized by the fact that there are several Member if Parliament who belong to the LGBT community, gay rights are protected by the New Zealand Human Rights Act. And New Zealand is relatively small population. The LGBT community is small, but still visible, with Pride festivals and LGBT events held around the country throughout the year.

Local Literature

J. Neil C. Garcia in his book “Philippine Gay Culture: The Last Thirty Years, Binabae to Bakla, Silahis to MSM” tackles the perception of Filipinos to gays and lesbians from the last thirty years. The anxiety of Western civilization toward its many different genders- not just masculine and feminine-finds its fecund expression in the varieties of camp (butch/femme) and transvestisms (macho, queer, transvestophilic, transgenderist, etc.) which, over the last century, have come to be institutionalized as legitimate self-expressions within the gay and lesbian cultures of the United States, Europe and Australia, This anxiety is deeply rooted in the Judeo-Christian metaphysical tradition which, until recently, was a rather inexorable force in the Western subject’s life. On the other hand, this study has argued that the Philippines has its own dualist tradition in respect of sexual identity, and although it would seem that the effeminate bakla and the mannish tomboy attest to the fluidity of gender concepts and roles in our culture, at the level of desire they merely reinforce the babae and the lalake, whose pale reflections they are. Rafael cannot be farther from the truth when he ascribes to kabaklaan the parodic and self-reflexive character which it doesn’t (yet) possess.

As things stand, the dominant conception of the bakla identity strictly confines the bakla to an agonistic effeminacy (a poor copy of femininity). In fact, the masculine bakla is simply unthinkable. He therefore must be a closet case, or a double-dealing fraud (silahis). Suffice it to say, then, that at the core of the social construction of the bakla is “coreness” itself. As a recent ethnography reiterates, the bakla is a “man with a woman’s heart” who, like a real woman, deeply desires a real man to be happy.

The “silence” of local psychological institutions in the early sixties about homosexuality and homosexual counseling seems strange, given that globally, the problems of adolescent homosexuals never fail to make it in the agenda of any conference on juvenile mental health (for only obvious reasons). By the rest of the 1960s, as well as the early seventies, however, this situation had palpably changed, and homosexuality was made to belong under the aegis of psychological science, as may be proven by the existence of positivist works on it which were written around this time. (A partial listing of the sundry academic studies on homosexuality in the Philippines is included in the last section of this book). The consequence of this is the renewed and intensified medical psychopathologization of the bakla as inversion’s homosexual: a man whose psychological being does not coincide with his anatomic sex. Only this time, his sexuality has become the central defining feature of his by now “psychosexually inverted” identity.

He concluded that the bakla is the only kind of (male) homosexual Philippine culture has, relatively speaking, known; and therefore also the only (male) homosexual Philippine culture has discriminated against and/or dismissed as sick, deviant and sinful-as bakla, precisely. Any local text proclaiming itself gay or homosexual cannot help but relate itself to and to situate itself within kabaklaan, hence.

CHAPTER 3

Methods and Procedure

Research Methodology

The researcher used descriptive method in the study. Descriptive method of research is a fact finding study with sufficient and accurate interpretation of the findings. It describes what is. It describes with emphasis what actually exist such as current condition, situation practices, or any phenomena. Since the study is concerned in the Analysis on the acceptance of the society between gays/lesbians.

Subjects of the Study

The researchers chose 100 respondents divided into four categories. These composed of 25 gays, 25 lesbians,25 parents of gays or lesbians and 25 individuals who have gays or lesbians friends.

The Sampling Technique

The researchers used simple random sampling and the size of the population is 200 and the study of population is people who have known a friend or any related of gay and lesbians also the respondents and the parents.

Sample:

25 respondents

25 gays

25 lesbians

25 parents

Those 25 to sum up of 100 is from the population of 200 and was chosen by simple random sampling.

Procedure of Data Gathering

The researchers used in the method of collecting data is normative survey, researchers used this for its very effective and looking for the commonalities of the said subject. This would be the best and most appropriate method to use in data gathering.

Statistical Treatment of Data

The role of the statistical treatment of data in research. The researchers is considering much in the age and gender also their state of consciousness and the rationality and also the emotion are being needed through the research.

Why Beach Vacations Are Better Than Mountain Vacations

Many people are always mesmerized by any upcoming vacations. Due to this, they make early plans on how to use their vacation time by choosing some of the areas where they can visit. There are always many places where many people can choose for their vacation period but most of them end up choosing the two most common places namely; the mountain and the beaches. Many people assert there is more fun in the beaches and mountains than when they visit other areas such as game parks, reserves and circuses. The two places are however very much different because they offer a variety of fun activities which are totally diverse .This essay is going to focus on the various factors which make people prefer to spend their vacations in the beaches rather than on the mountains and vice versa. Some of the factors to be considered will include the geographical location, climatic conditions and the fun activities of both the beach and the mountains.

Based on climatic conditions, we are all aware that mountains are colder because of the higher altitude just as the adage “goes that the higher you go the cooler it becomes”. On the mountains you will find that the weather conditions change dramatically time after time (hourly). For example there can be a perfect clear sky at 12pm but after a few minutes a huge thunderstorm can come rolling. A few hours later may be at 3pm the temperatures can rise to extremely hot temperatures and then just after a few hours the temperature can drop to below the freezing point. Due to this sudden temperature changes, one has to have some layers of cover over the body so that they may not fall sick after the vacation.

I think the changes in temperatures plays a very significant role in making people prefer their vacation in beaches than on the mountains. For example you will find that beaches are warm because the temperature are high or at the sea level compared to the low temperatures experienced on the mountains. Many beaches experience warm breezes from the sea compared to when in the mountains. Majority will choose beaches for their vacations because they only carry swimming costumes, a few clothes and eatables but while going to the mountains one has to be well prepared (a packed lunch, tinned water, heavy jackets because as the temperature changes one will require either the warm clothes or the temperature might rise thus make one very thirsty.

Another factor is the geographical location of the beaches or mountains. Naturally, most of the mountains are found in the hilly or high altitude areas. As a result, it becomes difficult for many people to access them especially at the top because it requires a lot of courage, energy, food, and water areas for one to get at the mountain peak. This limits the number of tourists visiting these areas compared to the number of visitors in other places such as national parks, game reserves and beaches. Most of the mountains are also found in the forests or they can even be covered by a thick forest. It is natural for the wild animals to encroach areas which are covered by huge forest cover. This means that there might be conflict between people and the wild animals when people decide to have their vacation on the mountains. Again, some countries have very thick forest cover which sometimes catch fire on its own (forest fires). These fires also stretch to the mountains where these vacations take place. We are all aware of the fact that many of the evil doers in the society especially armed gangs stay in the forest and even in the mountains. This means that it is risky for people to go to the mountains without the backing of the security.

On the other hand many beaches are located at the lower altitudes or in almost flat grounds. This happens to be one of the reasons as to why many people will prefer to spend their vacations in the beaches rather than on the mountains. This is propelled by the fact that to access the mountain tops one will require a lot of energy due to the upward mobility but to access the beaches its easy and less energy will be used. Most of the beaches are not covered by forests and they are also located in very open places. This means that there is no habitation of the wild animals such as guerillas which are a threat to the security of the humans. This prompts many people to prefer beaches for the vacation to the mountains. Beaches are also very secure than forest because there is the beach patrol police to maintain security therefore making it difficult for the armed gangs to hide there unlike in the mountains where the security of the humans is threatened by the armed gangs. The beaches are also secure because they are located in far from forest and therefore they cannot be affected by the forest fire which always threatens the lives of the visitors who go to have fun on the mountains.

The other factor which is to be considered is the types of activities which take place both on the mountain and the beaches. It is very clear that these two places offer different kinds of fun activities due to the different climatic changes which are experienced. For example you will find that in the mountain the climatic conditions are characterized by changes in either cool or hot temperature which are either accompanied by snow or rains respectively. Some of the vacation activities which take place in the mountains include snowboarding, mountain biking, mountain climbing, hiking, and skiing. More often you will find that children cannot engage in some of these mountain activities simply because of the heights of the mountains or because of the lack of experience and also due to fear of wild animals such as bears. Statistics have shown that these mountain activities mainly involve people who are aged between 15-45 years thus eliminating many older and young people.

On the other hand, the sea and the warm climates determine the activities which take place in the beach. Many activities that take place in the sea tend to favor all people young and old inclusive because they are simple. Again, it entails what people do at home. This is unlike the mountain activities where one has to go to the mountains in order to practice and even learn them. Some of the activities in the beaches include swimming, volley ball games, soccer games and even the riding of the water bikes. Many people will prefer to have a vacation on the beaches because they will (young and the adults) have some enjoyable activities which they are familiar with unlike on the mountains were activities are technical and require a lot of experience. Again beaches have discos and restaurants were people can enjoy their fun until morning without worrying about the colds and insecurities either from wild animals or intruders. This is unlike the mountain activities where by there are no entertainment areas and if they exists they located a bit far from the mountains. Again many beaches tend have many visitors all the time but the number of visitors is not as high on the mountains thus making everything very boring and dull.

Beach vacations are always better that the mountain vacations because many people hate cold areas and the beaches are always warm. Beaches are also easily accessible compared to the mountains thus making them more marketable. Beaches also tend to have a wide variety of activities for both the young and the old thus making it easy for families to come in their wholes. Beaches are also very secure due to the presence of the beach patrol police thus making it easier for many people to choose the beaches because they are not afraid of any insecurity issues.

At its very core, this paper is interested in Aboriginal identity in Australia; the principle concern is to analyse in-depth, the relationships between their cultural identity and the land. One of the main issues that face Aboriginal people in contemporary Australia has indisputably been the arrival of white settlers in the 18th Century. The events that have followed over the past 200 years have led to generations of disputes, degradation and ultimately the loss of land by the Indigenous people. Thousands of Indigenous people were killed and the survivors were simply put in reserves; their homeland have been exploited and resources taken without consent.

First and foremost, it must be made clear that the literature review here is as much about defining and understanding what Aboriginal geography is as much as providing a rigorous demonstration of the current issues of Aboriginal land rights and identity through views of both Aboriginal and non Aboriginal peoples. The aim therefore, is wholly about ensuring that the background of indigenous Australians is understood which will then put into perspective the context of the research project that follows, in Chapter 4. This review will geographically encompass the cultural issues and differences Aboriginals and non-Aboriginals have faced in recent history with reference to the effect of Aboriginal land rights on identity; a discussion of key texts from Gumbert and Maddock will allow a solid focus and reference point for the research. This will not only ensure that seemingly broad generalisations are eliminated but will also allow an in-depth understanding of why such research is necessary for a successful future regarding these issues. By this, the paper refers to the reconciliation of the Aboriginal race from the apparent generations of wrong doing by the colonisers.

The great importance in assessing the impacts on identity of such events in the modern day means there must be a level of understanding for the political and historical background of white settlement in Australia, meaning the nature of Australian colonisation and the struggles that have been part of the defining nature of the Aboriginal culture today will be thoroughly explored. The review and investigation that follow explores the difference in Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal values, knowledge systems and attitudes towards each other and the contested landscape.

There is of course, a further need to examine these issues in more than one context to ensure that the argument does not simply generalise and stereotype Aboriginal communities across Australia. Therefore, the review will not only discuss the history of land issues and identity creation but also discuss them in relation to the two knowledge systems involved in this process: that is, the separate concerns of the Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people of Australia. Clearly, over the country’s history, there has been a phenomenal difference in the way that the two groups view land and the link between the two is paramount to future development for an understanding between the two groups of people.

Academic Context

In light of the papers aims, the predominant classification that must be addressed is the very definition of an ‘Aboriginal’ person. Lenzerini (2008, p.75) notes that the term Aboriginal ‘encompasses an infinite variety of diverse realities that sometimes greatly differ with each other’. A definition must be made despite this; a commonly accepted definition of Aboriginal people is written by Cobo (1986). It states that Aboriginal:

‘communities, people and nations are those which, having a historical continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories, consider themselves distinct from the other sectors of the societies now prevailing on those territories , or parts of them. They form at present non-dominant sectors of society and are determined to preserve, develop and transmit to the future generations their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity , as a basis of their continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their own cultural patterns, social institutions and legal system’.

This definition broadly contains the meaning of what it means to claim Aboriginal identity in Australia and interestingly notes the negative connotations of colonialism. For a true understanding of Aboriginal identity and its relation to land rights, the study must look to the roots of the issue. At its very simplest then, as Gumbert (1984, p.xiii) notes, ‘the founding of an English colony in 1788 led to the Aborigines losing their rights to their land. The loss of their land led to many generations of Aborigines losing their identity and their land’. The suggestion here is that when Aboriginal people lost their land to the British in the 20th Century, they also lost their identity. This is because their own cultural knowledge shows a strong understanding that each of them is attached to the country that they are at one with each other. As Sarra (2010) notes, this is ‘qualitatively different from the relationship to land that prevails in mainstream Australia’. It can be instantly recognised then that the knowledge systems that the two groups demonstrate are undeniably different at their core, suggesting why there is such complex controversy surrounding the compatibility of Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people in the same vicinity. For the indigenous people, the land is part of them and they are part of the land, making their dispossession even more offensive and disrespectful. Anderson and Gale (1992, p.220) discuss the inextricable binding that the Aboriginal people have with the land, explaining that it is not an external physical object but has mythical significance to their culture. The colonial vision however demonstrated a significantly different view of land. Heathcote (1972, p.27) recognises three stages in which Western cultures had entirely different knowledge systems in relation to land: The first stage was the increased level of industrial machinery used to exploit the land and its resources in an unregulated fashion, the second stage encompassed the same exploitative framework but in a more technical, strategic fashion. The third stage has been influenced in recent years by an ecological vision that recognises the limited resources used and is becoming rebranded under the framework of sustainable development. While this framework is of great use in recognising an economic colonial knowledge system, the author fails to consider the socioeconomic uses of the land, limiting its vision. This does however, successfully show the exploitative system that was brought by the colonisers. This enhances the divide between Aboriginals and non-Aboriginal.

It was then, in retrospect, seemingly inevitable that the struggle for land would always be fought by the indigenous people of Australia. There are undoubtedly a number of important events that have permeated this struggle and deserve recognition; however, rather than to generalise and dilute an examination of a range of different land claims and events over the course of history, the more significant examples will be discussed in detail to give a solid understanding of the issues. For example, one of the most significant movements that started Aboriginal land claims began in the 1960’s with the Gurindji people, who in an effort to reclaim what they believed to be their land, left the areas which had been selected for them by the white people and instead moved back into an area which was legally owned by a British company (Gumbert, 1984, p.1). This powerful act demonstrated to the white people not only that they wanted their land back, but truly believed that the land belonged to them, and had done since to Dreamtime (which refers to the beginning of time for the Aboriginal people, an era in which spirits created the Earth (Flood, 1995, p.5)) . This movement became widely recognised as the Aboriginal land rights movement. It can be argued that this marked the beginning of the legal and political struggle for land and in effect, also demonstrates the real struggle that Aboriginal people have in showing white people what the land means to them. This strongly links to the Aboriginal knowledge systems and beliefs and again, their identity.

To be Aboriginal is significantly different to what it means to be British or European. At the heart of each culture is a considerably different approach to many of the values of life, not least to the land. As has been demonstrated, from a whiteman’s perspective land is a commodity, a legal product to be bought and sold to each other whereas the indigenous people of Australia have a spiritual attachment to the land from the moment they are born (Morphy, 1983, p.110). It is these different knowledge systems that the research in Chapter 4 is interested in, as this has clearly been the issue for many generations between the two cultures. The fact that the term ‘Aboriginal’ did not exist until European settlement is testimony to this (Brush, 1996, p.1). The issues faced by the indigenous communities are more often than not quantified into economic terms which is an entirely Westernised view of looking at issues. The argument here is that the current issues surrounding Aboriginal people are seen through a biased, Western perspective and do not therefore consider what is significant to the Aboriginal people themselves. In this sense, the cultural significance that they uphold regarding the land was ignored and in its place laws of displacement were put forth (Myers 1991, p.127). Through a cultural understanding of the land and its people, the environment can be significantly affected (Saggers and Gray, 1991, p.16) yet as demonstrated, the arrival of Europeans brought different customs that upset the Aboriginal traditions; political power and laws being a significant driving force for the dispossession of land. It is argued then that Aboriginal land rights would never come about through settlers learning about the land tenure systems of Aborigines and a constant declaration of their attachment to the land (Morphy, 1978 p, 39).

It should be noted that as Australia became a colony of Britain it meant that it fell under British law instantly, unquestioned. Government policies brought to Australia instantly reduced Aboriginal people to ‘aliens’, giving them no legal stand point. This occurred to the extent that even their physical liberties were taken away from them. (Scholtz 2006, p.87). As Aboriginal people were increasingly displaced and ’rounded up’ into small, controllable areas, there was a clear sign that the white people were trying to convert the indigenous people to their own societal values and began to lose what was their own culture and practices, particularly in more urbanised areas (Gale, 1972, p62). The Queensland Act number 17 of 1987 permitted this rounding up of Aboriginals which allowed Parliaments to put them into reserves which gave great power over the indigenous people. Further to this in the Northern Territory in 1910, the Aborigines Act and, in New South Wales the Aborigines Protection Amending Act 1915 was passed which gave the Chief Protector of the land legal powers and guardian status over Aboriginal children above and beyond the legal powers of the parent (Morphy 1991, p.32). This was obviously devastating to the Aboriginal community, yet was seen as a management scheme for white people against the Aboriginal ‘problem’. It was hoped by the white that by legally confining Aboriginal people to institutions it would decrease the risk of miscegenation and the black people would eventually die out. These political laws led to what is referred to as the ‘Stolen Generation’ (Young, 2009, p.36) whereby children were taken from their parents and put into institutions. It was a way for white people to try and assimilate the blacks into their own customs. Robin argues that communities are still recovering from this attempt at assimilation, however this does not place more emphasis on the family attachments rather than the significance this has to land which is a slight weakness in the argument. Rather than understand the cultural difference, it has clearly been demonstrated that European settlers attempted to force their own laws upon the indigenous people of Australia, forcing them to lose their own culture and identity that had been with them for thousands of years (Broom and Jones, 1973, p.1). The argument for the ‘stealing’ of the children was that it was to integrate the indigenous people to the rest of society yet for the most part the Aboriginals who were removed from their parents were in reality more displaced than the rest of their community. It meant that they were not brought up in the same community as people from their own cultural heritage, and were instead taught the customs of the Westernised world, leading only to further loss of culture and identity.

As Maddock (1983. p.5) discusses, ‘Aborigines can be seen as disadvantaged Australians in need of assistance if they are to step into the mainstream of life in this country’. There was a severe lack of help for the indigenous community in terms of the law. They could also be viewed as a minority, distinctly different culturally from the rest of the country and maintained as best they could. This distinction was an attempt to retain what British law was trying to wipe out. Whichever view was taken, it was clear that legally, either would make a significant impact on laws and policies of the future for Aboriginals in Australia. It was extremely clear that Aboriginals wished to claim their land back whichever way it was viewed; however in 1970, Peter Nixon, Minister of the Interior, presented a speech that shook the Aboriginal community, creating a deep sense that something must be done (Dagmar, 1978, p.134). Nixon stated that Aboriginals should not be encouraged to demand ownership of land simply because previous generations from their families had an attachment to the land. They would then, have to claim land in a similar way to other Australians.

Undoubtedly then, if the Aboriginal people wished not only to simply survive but to create a fairer livelihood for themselves then something ultimately had to be done. As the Europeans had entirely stuck to their own customs and laws then the Aboriginals realised the only way to create a lasting and permanent change was to bring the case to the courts. In June 1992, the High Court of Australia ruled in favour of the Mabo and Others v Queensland (No.2) case (or as it will be simply referred to, the Mabo case). This is undeniably one of the greatest achievements in recent history for Aboriginal communities all over Australia as it rejected the previous law of terra nullius that in essence was a term used to describe the land in a manner that allowed Britain to colonise the country; it did this by stating that the land had never been owned by a sovereignty, therefore nobody owned it (Kidd 2005, p.310). The case also agreed that there was such a notion of native title which meant Aboriginal people were free to oppose the white people who had dispossessed them from their lands previously.

This, of course, did not end Aboriginal plight overnight. There were still issues of validity surrounding whether the Aboriginals really did own the land previously and this is the issue further embedded in the Land Rights Act (Northern Territory) 1976. In the present day, existing property rights are based upon the written European law as opposed to oral traditions; can traditional land relationships to be a valid cause for ownership? There is no shortage of petitions from Aboriginal sources demonstrating a strong view that they are more than just legal, rightful owners of the land. As discussed, Aboriginal people believe they have more than simply a physical connection to the land but also a spiritual one. They believe that ‘their relationship to it is part of divine history , and [he] loses sense when considered apart from his spiritual beliefs’ (Woodward, 1974 p.38). This meant that the opportunity to gain their land back was a way of preserving this spiritual link with the land, giving back their sense of identity. These petitions demonstrate a view that they were invaded as the land was used without their permission. For example, the Gurindji (QUOTE) petition stated that the Aboriginal people have lived in these lands further back than memory serves and their cultures and sacred places have evolved in the lands. (Maddock, 1983 p.35) The important message here is that not only should the Aborigines legally own the land but it is also a moral right that it is theirs. The same can be said for the Yirrkala tribe who petitioned that the land taken from them was taken with disrespect as they had hunted for food there for thousands of years (Maddock, 1983, p.37).

Even though Aboriginal Australians have been dispossessed from their lands for over two hundred years, they would still have no difficulty in knowing where the lands of their ancestors were which gives more depth to the argument that land rights should be based upon tradition (Bell 1993, p.115). As aforementioned, the meaning of property, as aforementioned, to the Aboriginal people is much different to them and has legally been extremely difficult to put into terms in English law as their view of country is one of identification rather than ownership. A land claim hearing then, is based upon ‘history, dreaming sites and actions, continued use of and care and concern for the country… Evidence is oral’ (Rose, 1991 p. 249). It would give an opportunity for the Aborigines to explain who they are, and why they believe they are right to claim the land back. This is referred to as traditional evidence and allows Land Commissioners to gain further knowledge from the Aboriginal communities; it also allows multiple systems of knowledge to be engaged without eradicating each other (Broome, 1996, p.52). To elaborate, the land rights Acts (Central Land Council, 2012) that have been lawfully submitted in Australia, are fairly open in the sense that they do specify any anthropological models that Aboriginal people must conform to in order to demonstrate their Aboriginality to the Land Commissioner and courts. This is a valid argument but Broome fails to note the irony in that the Aboriginal community must present themselves in a Westernised court of law. There is then, a paradoxically produced system. The post-Mabo era of land claims could become a ‘cannon of authenticity for proof of land’ (Broome, 1996, p.53) yet this expectation to prove authentic Aboriginality could in other cases reduce Aboriginal communities even further should legal recognition of native title become rejected. It can be argued that the Acts have become paradoxical in that rather than giving freedom to Aboriginals, they actually give Westernised cultures in Australia the opportunity to silence the claims forever through a knowledge system produced by their own practices.

Now that it has clearly been established that there is an opportunity for Aboriginal land rights to be discussed, we must look forward from the theoretical context. The following chapters discuss in a variety of ways how identity issues in relation to land rights have moved on in contemporary Australia, through a political, socioeconomic and cultural lens. There are clear themes of reconciliation and thorough discussions concerning the different types of knowledge systems presented in Australia today.

Methodology

As part of my degree, I had the amazing opportunity to study abroad for a year and I was lucky enough to study at Sydney University in Australia. Upon arrival I was blissfully unaware of the scale of the Aboriginal issues that permeate the everyday lives of the people around me in Sydney. I didn’t think much more of it until quite early on in my year abroad three Aboriginals attempted to mug me in the street one night. When I spoke to my Australian friends about it nearly everybody replied ‘Yeah, they’re a problem’. Nobody however seemed willing to talk about the matter anymore, choosing rather to give a strangely vague answer and move on. Naturally I was shocked by the responses I received, provoking me to look further into the issue. I soon discovered that Aboriginal issues were deeply rooted in Australian history and most of it was bitter. I realised there were a wide range of contentious topics from education to heath and from the standard of living to outright racism. What struck me most however was the displacement most of the Aboriginals had faced over the past 200 years. With the Mabo case (Attwood, 1996, p.45) having just passed its 20th year since inception, I felt a strong desire to continue with this line of research to see what the impacts have been on both Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people. Surpassing this however, it became clear that the main issue for Aboriginal people was that the strong relationship they felt with the land had been taken from them when there was no permission granted for such dispossession of land, leaving them with a sense of identity loss. With this in mind I continued my research with a strong idea of the issues surrounding land rights and identity for Aboriginal people in Australia.

1. Aims

There is a vital need to understand the relationship between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people and the relationships each of these groups has with the land when concerning identity. While there is a focus on the relationships with non-Aboriginals, the research must gain a complete understanding of what it is to be an Aboriginal in contemporary Australia. The following research questions have therefore been devised :

1. What are the dominant impacts of land rights on both Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people?

2. What are the differences and similarities in the views of Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal knowledge systems concerning land rights and identity?

3. What are the future factors of change for Aboriginal people?

2. Methods

The following methods have been chosen as the most effective way of documenting this construction of Aboriginality:

Interviews

Surveys

Secondary data

Photographs

3. Interviews

After much consideration, it was decided that the best form of interview would be a semi-structured interview. This way it would allow me to ask questions in the style of an structured interview but also vary the questions should the interviewee seem to wish to talk more about one area than another (Silverman 2007, p.43). While there is this flexibility, the structure also allows me to bring the interview back to any particular matter I find more important should the interview go off topic slightly. While the questions are more general in their frame of reference from that typically found in a structured interview schedule (Bryman, 2008 p.196). When choosing whom to interview, it was clear that I must be very careful in the way that I approached the interviewee. This came to my attention when I was aggressively turned away from an Aboriginal land rights office by one of the members inside. In hindsight, it was naive of me to think that Aboriginal people would be so open to an interview by a white (and British) student after they are under such pressure in society already. After this incident I approached the matter much more carefully, instead choosing to find contacts through members of staff at the University of Sydney.

The following research from my interviews is based upon interviews with:

Warwick Hawkins- A lecturer at Sydney University who teaches about Indigenous sport, education and culture. An Aboriginal himself, Warwick was a good choice from whom to get an academics viewpoint while also having vast knowledge on Aboriginal life.

Darryl French- Head Community Development teacher at the Tranby Aboriginal College- An Aboriginal who’s dream it is to get more Aboriginal students into Universities

Mowan Garri- A groundsman at Komay Botany Bay National Park in Cronulla

It is interesting to note that Mowan Garri, despite meeting prior to the interview, was still unwilling to take the interview face to face. This created some positives and negatives. Firstly, it meant that the interview had to be taken over the phone which initially worried me as I would not be able to engage in non-lexical observation during the interview. Shuy (2002) suggests that this may make the telephone interview inferior as interviewees do not fare as well when asked about sensitive issues. However, the interviewee chose the setting so I feel it was the correct decision as they felt most comfortable talking over the phone. I asked if I could record the conversation and permission was granted. There are of course many more advantages and disadvantages to telephone interviews; for example Frey (2004) believes that a telephone interview is not likely to be any longer than 25 minutes which may not be long enough to gather enough data yet a positive is that by not being in the same room, the respondents feel less inclined to respond to the interviewer’s non-lexical gestures and facial expressions, making them feel more at ease. It was having this in mind that made me believe that in order to make all the interviews fair, I would then have to do all the interviews over the telephone despite most other interviewees suggesting they were willing to have an interview face to face. I believe rapport was upheld well with all respondents and each were given a full briefing of the research proposal before hand so they were comfortable in the knowledge that their answers were not going to be taken out of context and used in a negative light. This, as Bechhofer and Paterson (2000, p.70) state, is extremely important in the interview process to minimise any manipulation. It was made clear from the outset that the research aim is to try to find a positive perspective on Aboriginal land rights and identity issues.

It is necessary to address the reason for the respondents being the perfect candidates for this research. By choosing a lecturer from an Aboriginal background who has been through the tough Aboriginal education process, answers can be answered effectively on both a personal anecdotal manner and an academic framework. Warwick demonstrates a great influences on contemporary ideas, giving the answers depth and meaning in relation to future work. Darryl French is the head community development teacher at Tranby College in Sydney that takes up to 28 Aboriginal students a year, all of whom come from a struggling background as a consequence of the belligerent conditions they have been put under by the colonising British. This therefore has given me the opportunity to directly address research question 3 about what he believes the future concerns are for his students and local Aboriginal people. Mowan Garri was also an ideal candidate to interview as the Komay Botany Bay National Park employs all Aboriginal workers which provides interesting thought for discussion and, despite not owning the land, demonstrated a clear connection to the park and its protection.

4. Surveys

Surveys were further used to back up the initial interviews taken out. The survey was taken out in three parts, the first of which was given to a University class studying Indigenous Sport, Education and Culture. Survey one was taken in week one before any teaching had commenced and survey two was taken towards the end of the semester when the class was near the end of the teaching period. This was done in order to gain an understanding of the students knowledge of Aboriginal land right issues and identity problems both before and after the classes were taken. It will also give insight into whether this provides a positive or a negative impact on the views of those learning about the issues. As Blaikie (2000, p.29) states, a ‘critical stage in any research is the process of selecting the people, events or items from which about the data will be collected’. This is precisely why a great deal of thought was given to who should be the respondents of the surveys to give the best results. The other chosen group for the third survey were the students of Tranby Aboriginal College. This, much like the interviews, was excellent for providing a compare and contrast view of knowledge systems between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people. The surveys themselves, varied slightly with each setting but the core research questions were all asked in one form or another. Some questions were deemed inappropriate to ask both groups as they would provoke biased answers. Bias is always at the centre of surveys (Collier et al. 2004, p.101) and many precautionary measures were taken when phrasing certain questions correctly to ensure nobody was offended. The majority of the questions were open ended as the nature of the research asks for opinions and thoughts; simple yes or no questions were seen as unsuitable and they would not provide an in-depth account of the knowledge systems that were required. Despite the questions being open ended, the surveys were kept relatively short to avoid respondent fatigue. Without an interviewer present also, it allows the respondent to write more freely than if they were the subject of an interview. Furthermore, it reduces the researchers imposing ability on the participant (Stoecker 2005, p.39). Naturally, there are downsides to using a survey, for example the respondent can read the survey as a whole meaning that the answers are not truly answered independently of each other and they may find it difficult to answer a lot of questions. Of course there is also the risk of a low response rate. However, taking this into consideration a survey was seen as the most effective method as time restrictions did not allow for individual interviews and many of the Tranby College students were either unwilling to or could not attend a focus group session.

5. Secondary data

To support the ideas expressed further, an extensive range of reliable secondary data will be drawn upon in order to express and reiterate the ideas and views shown by the interviewees and respondents to the surveys. Dale et al. (1988) argue that this form of data analysis is paramount to a research project as it provides high-quality data and allows opportunity to give views real depth and understanding in the context of Aboriginal issues in the wider community. By using this in tandem with primary research, I believe it gives the project as a whole a great anchor for any concluding arguments that are put forth. Government statistics are paramount to the research as clearly time and money constraints would not allow for my own research into Aboriginal demographics. It further gives opportunity to analyse unbiased data whereas all other primary research is subject to unavoidable bias, no matter how small. While the data may not address my research questions directly there will undoubtedly be statistics that are useful for the research.

6. Photographs

Pictures can demonstrate many different emotions and encompass a vast amount of what an identity involves, therefore a range of photographs were taken and one in particular powerful photograph has been included to help exhibit the need for Aboriginal title and identity to be recognised in the wider community. The messages behind this particular photograph will be discussed in the Analysis chapter.

Analysis of Research
1.Providing Background Knowledge

Thus far, it has been necessary to provide an analytical background to the histories of Aboriginal land rights and cultural identities. Therefore in order to contextualise the analysis, there must initially be a base knowledge of the Aboriginal population to gain a true understanding of the qualitative size of their race in relation to the rest of the Australian population; it has been noted previously that the indigenous population of Australia is very small in comparison to the non-indigenou

The word culture is generated from Latin word of cultura which means care, or cultus that means civilization. (Harper 2010) It can be defined as complicated system of behaviors that share and practice by a given group of people or society. This includes beliefs, values, knowledge, laws, habits and material objects. (Andersen and Taylor 2007) Cultural and society are intertwined and they cannot be separated from each other. Society refers to groups of people who stays in the same region and follows the same laws executed by their countries. (Kendall 2010) Hence, people in the same region will normally perform the same culture. (Brinkerhoff et al 2008)

Some socialists view culture as ‘a way of life’ (Mohanthy 2005) regards to people ways of thinking and behaving. (Macionis 2005) Culture also refers to activities or symbols that created and adopted by people to deal with certain issues in order to survive in their environments and accepted by their society. (Brym and Lie 2007) Further, it can also be a tool to unite the society so that everyone can rally together by having the same culture, same direction. (Andersen and Taylor 2007) For example, Malaysia is famous as rich cultural heritage because of having different races with diverse cultures that bring people together (Boey 2007) especially through the latest One Malaysia concept. (Bernama 2009)

Culture is shared and transmitted from generation to generation for future guidance. (Kendall 2010) Different cultures will be shared when there are various races and ethics groups. (Andersen and Taylor 2007) This can be explained further by the culture of distributing red packets during Chinese New Year by Chinese. This culture of giving red packets does not only share by Chinese in fact it has been adopted by Malays in distributing green packets during Hari Raya celebration. (Faroukaperu 2010) Thus, culture is learned and not born instinctively. (Andersen and Taylor 2007)

Next, culture is changing all the times and different across to places. People nowadays tend to change their cultures based on their preferences. For example, people nowadays will wear black apparels during Chinese New Year even it is prohibited by their traditional cultures. People in US will kiss and hug as their way of greetings which is totally different from Malaysia where there will be no intimate actions in greetings. This shows that even the same actions can bring different meanings when it applied in different countries because of their distinguish cultures. (ibid)

Contents of Culture
Part Two

There are two different types of culture, which are material and non-material cultures. Material culture refers to crudely (Ferrante 2008) or human made items that can be seen, wield, and share by society. (Kendall 2010) They are important as evidences to prove the existing of previous, current and oncoming society. (Epitacio and Palispis 1996) Contrarily, non-material culture can be defined as intangible concepts that will affect on how people behave. (Kendall 2010) This consists of symbols, language, values, beliefs and norms that created and followed by particular group of people in society which I will discuss below. (Epitacio and Palispis 1996)

Symbols

The presence of culture is because of human capability to invent and access symbols. (Popenoe 1989) Symbols are type of tangible objects or ideas that people appoint them with denominations or purports. (Ferrante 2008) Symbols permit people to categorize their experience and extrapolate from it. This can be shown by the symbols of “daddy” and “mummy” that cannot be simply address to anyone. As the baby often heard the words, thus he knows who he should address these phrases to. (Brym and Lie 2007)

Symbols can also create patriotism, likeable or hatred because they are represented by certain tangible items. For example, national songs can stand for nationalism, roses represent likable and weapons represent hatred. Next, white colour of gown and garments are usually worn by bride and bridegroom because white stands for pureness. People might also use symbols to show their status in the society, for example the car BMW is a symbol of affluent and wealthy. Hence, whenever we see someone driving BMW, we will automatically categorize that people as rich. (Kendall 2010)

In addition, symbols of gestures that seem sinless can sometimes offend people with different cultures. The thumbs up gesture that usually express excellent can be troublesome in Australia as it means “up yours”. They have to remember that there are different symbolic meanings in different society and new symbols can be created anytime. (Macionis 2005)

Language

Language is a type of symbols that permit people to share their concepts, allow them to consider wisely before interact with people. (Anderson and Taylor 2007) There are verbal and nonverbal languages. (Kendall 2010) Language is considered to be the most important symbol in expressing our past, sentiment and lore because it is straight forward and easy to understand. (Popenoe 1989)

Some socialists alleged that language can be used to differentiate human from animals. (Epitacio and Palispis 2007) Scientist Steven Pinker has claimed that language is what naturally born by human beings. (Brym and Lie 2007) Although animals do not communicate with each other by language, they do have the ability to learn but with limitations. For instance, parrot that will follow on what the trainers train it to be. But yet, their memories are definite and they do not have the capability to understand the meaning of its. Therefore, animals cannot pass the messages to their progeny unlike human. (Kendall 2010)

Language and culture are inseparable. As children learn their language, they will understand more about their culture and participate fully into it. The sense of belongings to their own culture can be created and through language they can share the bygone and world after tomorrow. (Ferrante 2008) Through language people can realize others’ experiences and mistakes to ensure no repetition on the same failure. (Epitacio and Palispis 2007)

Each language has their own vocabulary, pronunciation and ways of constructing sentences. (Anderson and Taylor 2007) For example, English language people will construct a sentence in the “subject-verb-objects” (The girls are playing Barbie dolls) which is different compare to Korean “subject-object-verb” (The girls Barbie dolls are playing). Korean and Chinese will first address their family surname but western people will only address their family name after mentioned their own name. (Ferrante 2008) Sometimes the same words can also pronounce differently by using American or British slang. Further, vocabulary for tomatoes is known as pomodoro in Luigi and agvabiya in Shoshanna. These clearly show the using of languages can categorize the society people are in (Brym and Lie 2007) and to shape unity within the groups. (Brinkerhoff et al 2008)

Nevertheless, Sapir-Whorf Thesis was proposed in 1930s by linguists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf regard to the relationships between experiences, concepts and language. (Brym and Lie 2007) This hypothesis claimed that the language people use will shape their perspective of actuality about how they look the world (Anderson and Taylor 2007) and no languages will have the same thoughts of actuality. (Popenoe 1989) However, many scientists found this thesis exaggerated the relationship between language and people concept, ways of behaving. They do agree that the language could affect their behavior and perception but will not ascertain it. (Kendall 2010)

Language also being used to differentiate gender and this can be shown by example of word “masculine” used to describe he as strong while “feminine” is used to represent she as coward. (Brym and Lie 2007) However, as time passes, many vocabularies that previously only refer to men has changed as many women nowadays are highly educated. For example, the word “chairman” in the past has amended to either “chair” or “chairperson” in organizations. (Kendall 2010)

Values and Beliefs

Values represent the perfect manners to decide the desirability regard to justice, correct versus wrong and good verse bad. (Anderson and Taylor 2007) Values are intangible notions that could form the perfectionism of society. (Popenoe 1989) Meanwhile, values also shape a person’s behavior (Anderson and Taylor 2007) and people will use their values as models to evaluate the attitude of someone. (Kendall 2010) As claimed by Talcott Parsons (1951), values are imbibed by people since they are small through their parents or environmental factors. (Popenoe 1989) Thus by evaluating the attitudes of someone, people can determine the fundamental values on what they learnt in the former. (Epitacio and Palispis 1996)

Values are reciprocal with culture. (Macionis 2005) Some cultures will value more on individualism whereas some will value more on group. Seen in this light, we can realize people in US value more on individualism as they more focus on their personal achievement rather than sharing it with others. This is totally different with Korean that is ready to share their joyful with others and they tend to be more unity. (Ferrante 2008)

Furthermore, values have mutual relationships with beliefs. Beliefs are notions and concepts that bind people together and what they perceive it should be. Some socialists claimed that beliefs are the fundamental for values and guiding people to pass through their lives even though sometimes it might be wrong or sinful. (Anderson and Taylor 2007) Cultural beliefs and values do not only influence people viewpoints but could shape their ways of behaving. (Macionis 2005)

Another example to prove that beliefs and values affect the attitude of people can be seen from Kwakiutl group who have the habit of distributing their wealthy to their people or even to their competitors. (Anderson and Taylor 2007) They believe by doing such a way their people will stay loyalty and offer them helps whenever they are in troubles. (Brinkerhoff et al 2008)

However, values contradictions always occur due to the conflicts of ideal and real culture. Ideal culture refers to the culture that someone should practice in society while real culture is what eventually adopted by people. (Kendall 2010) This can be seen by the example of China tainted milk powder by Sanlu Group that happened previously. Their only concern in making profits and ignored customers’ safety has shown the contrast of ideal and real cultures adopted by business. (BBC News 2008) (Refer to Attachment 1 page 15 to 16)

Norms

Norms refer to cultural expectations regard on what actions to be carried out when facing issues. (Anderson and Taylor 2007) Norms also act as standards to provide guideline about what are right and wrong, what should be done or forbidden by society. Even though it almost the same as values, but norms clarify how people should behave while values only provide ideas and concepts regard to behaviors. (Kendall 2010) Thus, norms can also form people attitude and decide the stability of society. (Anderson and Taylor 2007)

There are formal and informal norms. (Ferrante 2008) Formal norms are rules that have recorded and must be obeyed while informal norms refer to situations that will happen everyday. (Anderson and Taylor 2007) For instance, the compendium given to high school student is a type of formal norms and student ought to follow the rules stated. Informal norms can be seen by normal routines such as brush your teeth early in the morning and before you sleep without the necessity to remind. (Ferrante 2008) Norms also consist of prescriptive and proscriptive norms in which the former declare what actions are correct and the latter record conducts of wrongdoings. (Kendall 2010)

US sociologist William Graham Sumner (1906) has introduced norms of folkways and mores. According to him, it is informal norm that will give us discipline (Ferrante 2008) and will not have any serious circumstances even if someone breaks it. (Popenoe 1989) For example, someone is violating the folkways when he dyes his hair into green. Even though other people might view him as insane or mad, but his act never intrude anyone’s life and will not affect the society. (Brinkerhoff et al 2008)

Next, mores are important to govern the ethically of behaviors (Brym and Lie 2007) that could influence the stability of society if someone breach it. (Kendall 2010) Unlike folkways, people who commit mores will be punished more seriously, such as imprisonment or even sentence to death. This normally applies to criminal cases such as murder that against by laws. (Ferrante 2008) Incent taboo is an example of crucial mores that prohibit from having any sexual desire and intimate relationships with person that have the same kinship. (Kendall 2010) The violation of this taboo can bring unexpected shameful and punishments such as imprisonment, whipping or both can be executed at the same time. (Anderson and Taylor 2007) To sum up, folkways will determine either polite or impolite while mores will differentiate correct or evildoings. (Macionis 2005)

Laws have implemented for modulating and governing people’ attitudes and actions. (Epitacio and Palispis 1996) Laws are part of formal norms that compile and sanction by state government. (Brinkerhoff et al 2008) Most of the mores are laid under criminal laws with more serious penalties (Epitacio and Palispis 1996) while civil laws are basically for handling cases about arguments. (Kendall 2010) However, laws are sometimes flexible and pamper to certain acts which might seen as illegal. This can be shown by the example where most Chinese will have the habit of gambling during Chinese New Year. Even though gambling is an illegal behavior but many polices will just close one eye because they refer this as a way on how Chinese society share their joyful during their festival. (The Star 2006) (Refer to Attachment 2 page 17 to 18)

Lastly, sanction can also be applied for the intention to compel norms and it can either be positive or negative. (Popenoe 1989) Positive sanction refer as recompenses that someone will receive by doing adequate conducts whereas negative sanctions will be administered when someone did something guilty. (Kendall 2010) The degree of sanctions will rely on how strong the norm is being concerned. (Anderson and Taylor 2007)

However, there are formal and informal sanctions. (Popenoe 1989) Formal sanction only occur when someone in the high status with power involve in decision making process. An example of formal sanction can be viewed by the Muslim Malay model that has to receive sanction of canning because of her violation in drinking alcoholics drinks. (Mail Online 2009) (Refer to Attachment 3 page 19 to 20) Nonetheless, informal sanction is a control to assure the compliance of people or society to certain norms. For example, society in Aguaruna adopts custom of reciprocity. If someone does not interact with others, the individual will be isolated and no one will assist them whenever they need helps. (Gutierrez 2002)

Material Culture

Besides only referring to physical and tangible items, material culture also covers the process of utilizing skills for producing items (Brym and Lie 2007) using ingredients such as raw materials, or even invent through existing objects. (Kendall 2010) This clearly shows that material culture cannot not be isolated from technology that refer to the literacy and wisdom to invent, introduce, alter and convert something to maximize its usage. (Macionis 2005) Sociologists also called material culture as artifacts due to its “breeding” and usage by human. (Popenoe 1989)

Material culture plays a significance role because it shows the advancement of technology in enriching people’ life. In fact, material cultures are interdependence with non-material cultures because archaeologists can only analyze and identify the non-material cultures through the dig up artifacts left by former society. (ibid)

However, sociologist William F. Ogbum claimed sometimes cultural lag can occur due to the inability of non-material cultures to pursue with the progress of material culture. (Kendall 2010) Example of cultural lag can be shown through the technology of cloning (material culture) that is possible to clone human with the same genes, characteristics, shared values and norms. However, many people banned this technology because it is differs from their religion beliefs (non-material culture) that everyone has to pass through the process of death. (BBC News 2006) (Refer Attachment 4 page 21 to 22)

Material culture can be concluded as instruments to form human beings and vice versa. (Popenoe 1989) For example, iPhone has grabbed abundance attentions when it was first presented in the market and many people has buying it. Functions of this high end technology gadget (material culture) will be fully utilized and discovered by their buyers. Thus, material culture will form how human beings reacted meanwhile the desire of human beings to use high technology gadget nowadays have made many companies join in the fray to devise this kinds of material cultures. (Catanzariti 2009) Countless material cultures have also introduced through the advancements of technologies in the fields of Internet, telecommunication and transportation such as aeroplanes, computers. (Kendall 2010)

Part Three

Social Conflict perspective claimed culture as social item (Brinkerhoff et al 2008) because the inequality of privileged groups or society to govern social life and exploit others. (Kendall 2010) It is so called as “conflict” because it only benefits and focus on powerful groups. (Popenoe 1989) According to Karl Marx, ideas play an important role in society and thus the concept of ideology which is the shared culture beliefs emerged in order to remain their status and authority. (Kendall 2010) This can be supported by the example of ideology in ruling class where bourgeoisies, the upper class of Marxian culture have authority to exploit the lower class, proletarians either politically or economically. (Popenoe 1989)

Therefore, conflict theory asserted that culture is a type of authority in society because it is overrule by strong and wealthy groups of people or institutions. (Anderson and Taylor 2007) These groups of people could use non-material culture such as idea to influence and change people behaviors. (Kendall 2010) For example, the contents of the newspaper would filter before publish to society if it is financially supported by private organizations. They could also convert critical bad news into minor case so the reputation of the organizations will not be affected. Thus, the cultural items that produced are not necessary correct and mostly only meet the demands of this privileged group that willing to pay. (Anderson and Taylor 2007)

Conflict theory also construes culture as it will be slowly dominated by affluent big players in capitalist economic industry. These big players will gradually control and diversify their business for example by buying over other company to remain their biggest potion in the market and slowly insert their influences to society. It has been claimed that the more successful the business is, the more market the business is holding and the easier the business in affecting culture of others. Sociologist refers this as cultural hegemony, which is the only and biggest power in play. This cultural hegemony has the authority to rule everything because most culture beliefs made by these powerful people are known to be correct and perfect. (ibid)

Moreover, this theory analyze concept of cultural capital that define by French Sociologist Pierre Bourdieu (1984) as the lore and wisdom that own by upper class, such as the activities of playing golf and sailing that distinguish the standards of social class. (Brinkerhoff et al 2008) The reason is simple, upper class people will use their knowledge (cultural capital) to invest their money and gradually enhance their social and economic position. Therefore, the rich will becomes richer and the poor will becomes poorer. When they have more money, they will be more respected and people will start listening to them. (Anderson and Taylor 2007)

Some conflict theorists even conclude that former popular culture that originated from the public are slowly unadopted by people due to the creation of new popular culture. This can be shown by games of whirligigs and kites that were previously played by children have no longer been seen in today’s century. We will be noticed that city children nowadays only play games entertainments like PS2, Internet and mobile phones. This clearly showed that the advanced games (new popular culture) have superseded the former popular games and culture. (Kendall 2010)

Besides that, it also evokes the inequality in the term of gender and certain human rights. (ibid) For example, women will be described as weakness and timid whereas men will be defined as reverence. Gay and lesbian also addressed as deviance and absurd. All these inequalities have caused pressure that lead to right revolutions, a process of achieving victory in executing even rights under the legislation. Hence, women, gay, lesbian and many other rights have created in order to protect these vulnerable groups and maintain the stability of society. Examples of increasing women participation in workforce especially in Singapore have proven that women are changing and they can decide their own future. (Chang 2009) (Refer Attachment 5 page 23 to 24) Iowa is also the first state to legalize gays and lesbian marriage in order to enhance their pride in status. (The Associated Press 2009) (Refer Attachment 6 page 25 to 27) Nevertheless, many Muslim nations still unable to accept homosexuality and they are still being discriminated by people. (Brym and Lie 2007)

In a nutshell, this social conflict theory do not illustrate the equally distribution of human necessary but more emphasize on the relationship between culture and its disparity. (Macionis 2005)

Conclusion

Culture can be concluded as the characteristics of society. As the world becomes borderless, cultures easily transmit and share by people from different society. Every material and non-material culture also plays their roles in maintaining harmonization between one another and unites people together. (Kendall 2010) Thus, it is important to know and understand our own cultures (Newman 2008) and pass them to our next generations to ensure its long-lasting. (Brym and Lie 2007)

Word Count: 3283 words

Attachments

Attachment 1: China Sanlu Group tainted milk powder

Chinese baby milk scare ‘severe’

Published: 2008/09/13 11:36:43 GMT

© BBC MMX

The number of Chinese babies known to have fallen ill with kidney stones as a result of contaminated milk powder has risen to 432, officials have announced.

“This is a severe food safety accident,” health ministry official Gao Qiang, said. Those responsible would be “severely” punished, he added.

Later, it was announced that 19 people had been arrested.

Tests showed the milk powder contained the industrial chemical melamine. One infant has died.

The new scare revived memories of a fake baby milk formula scandal four years ago in which at least 13 babies died.

Vow to punish

“As of 12 September, there are 432 cases of kidney stones in the urinary systems of infants according to reports from health departments nationwide,” Gao Qiang said.

“None of the milk powder was exported to other countries or regions,” Mr Gao said.

“Only a fraction of the milk powder was sold to Taiwan for food processing,” he added.

Gao Qiang said the Sanlu Group had been ordered to halt production after its products were found to be responsible.

“We will severely punish and discipline those people and workers who have acted illegally,” Mr Gao said.

Melamine is a toxic chemical used in plastics, fertilisers and cleaning products.

New Zealand-based dairy product company Fonterra Cooperative Group Ltd, a part-owner of Sanlu, ordered a recall of about 700 tonnes of powder contaminated with melamine believed to be in circulation.

Melamine has been used by Chinese suppliers of animal feed components to make them appear to have more protein.

It was linked to the formation of kidney stones and kidney failure in pets in the United States last year, leading to thousands of deaths and illnesses.

A fake milk powder scandal in 2004 killed at least 13 babies in the eastern province of Anhui.

Investigators found that the milk given to these babies had no nutritional value, and the resulting scandal triggered widespread investigations into food safety.

Story from BBC NEWS:

Source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/asia-pacific/7614083.stm

The above news is used to show the differences between ideal culture and real culture in real business situation.

Attachment 2: Gambling

Saturday March 11, 2006

The adverse effects of gambling
Tel: (03)2260 1954/ 2134 or email
Information in this article is courtesy of the Malaysia Crime Prevention Foundation(MCPF)

Gambling is illegal in Malaysia unless it is being operated under a government licence or permit. Among the gambling activities that are considered illegal include:

Gambling in the house

Gambling in public places

Illegal lottery

Illegal bookmaking

Slot machines/ jackpot/ turfking/ fruit machine

Hawking lottery results

Gambling can easily develop into a compulsion for some of us. When this happens, it becomes a serious problem not only to the individual but also to society at large. The harm caused by those who are hooked on gambling usually spreads to the family and community.

Many problem gamblers often experience stress-related physical and psychological ill health. Problem gambling is like a disease to society and may bring these consequences to the individual who indulges in it:

Wastes time, which otherwise could be used for something more constructive.

Lose huge amounts of money, which leads to stress and disharmony in the family.

One could become a dishonest person who has to constantly worry about debts.

Gambling may be a cause of bribery.

Work becomes secondary or in some cases, totally neglected.

Health is also neglected by forgoing food and drink.

As a last resort, some may turn to criminal activities or illegal moneylenders to cover losses and continue gambling.

When a person becomes obsessed with gambling, s/he will do anything just as long as s/he can gamble.

There’s always the risk of getting caught and being charged in court.

Those who gamble will risk losing everything.

The consequences of problem gambling can be avoided by getting involved in other more beneficial activities. Among the suggestions to prevent one from gambling is to focus on spiritual development, take up sports or a hobby, or do some charity work.

Some of us resort to illegal moneylenders when we are strapped for cash, which is dangerous and unadvisable. Here are some suggested steps to take to avoid being victims of these loan sharks:

Do not be lured by promises of quick money

Do not be easily fooled into signing a form or contract by a “salesperson”

Victims should be bold enough to make a police report, revealing all information they have on schemes like these, to aid the authorities in catching the perpetrators.

Story from The Star Online.

Source: http://thestar.com.my/fightcrime/resources/story.asp?file=/2006/3/11/resources/20060316165242HYPERLINK “http://thestar.com.my/fightcrime/resources/story.asp?file=/2006/3/11/resources/20060316165242&sec=resources”&HYPERLINK “http://thestar.com.my/fightcrime/resources/story.asp?file=/2006/3/11/resources/20060316165242&sec=resources”sec=resources

The above news is being used to show that gambling is illegal in Malaysia even though it has became a norm or habit to Chinese society since ages ago.

Attachment 3: Punishment of Canning for breaking Sharia Law

Malaysia delays caning of Muslim model for drinking beer until after Ramadan

By Mail Foreign Service

Last updated at 9:25 PM on 24th August 2009

A Muslim model who is to be caned by Malaysian authorities after being caught drinking beer will have her punishment postponed until after the Islamic fasting month of Ramadan.

Kartika Sari Dewi Shukarno originally had been scheduled to enter a women’s prison today before being lashed six times with a rattan cane some time this week.

However, Mohamad Sahfri Abdul Aziz, a legislator in charge of religious affairs, says the caning will be carried out after the current Muslim fasting month of Ramadan.

It began Saturday and will end in mid-September.

He says the decision was made at the last minute for compassionate reasons on the advice of the Attorney General’s office but insisted that the punishment had not been cancelled.

Kartika Sari Dewi Shukarno, a 32-year-old mother of two, insisted she is ready to be lashed six times with a rattan cane next week for breaching the country’s Shariah law, which forbids Muslims to consume alcohol.

‘I want to respect the law,’ Kartika said.

‘Who am I to question the Islamic authorities’ laws? That is beyond me.

‘I never cried when I was sentenced by the judge. I told myself, all right then, let’s get on with it. But if you’re going to cane me, then do it in public.’

Miss Shukarno, 32, was sentenced to six lashes by an Islamic court after she was caught with alcohol in a raid on a hotel nightclub in eastern Pahang state last year.

Amnesty International had urged authorities to ‘immediately revoke the sentence to cane her and abolish the practice of caning altogether.’

‘Caning is a form of cruel, inhuman and degrading punishment and is prohibited under international human rights law,’ it said in a statement.

But Miss Shukarno has even asked for the caning to be carried out in public to send a clear message to Muslims that they should shun alcohol.

Prosecutor Saiful Idham Sahimi said: ‘It is a good punishment because under Islamic law a person who drinks commits a serious offence.’

He added that a rattan cane ‘lighter than the one for men’ would be used, and that its purpose was to ‘educate’ rather than punish.

Muslims, who make up two-thirds of Malaysia’s 28million population, are governed by sharia law. Although most alcohol offenders are fined, they can also be caned.

Women’s rights groups attacked the penalty as being ‘too harsh’.

Yesterday the court set a one-week period starting next Monday for the sentence to be carried out in a woman’s prison, Saiful said. Prison authorities will decide when to cane her during that period.

He said Kartika will remain in prison during that time and will be released ‘as soon as possible’ after the caning is carried out.

Caning, administered on the buttocks, breaks the skin and leaves permanent scars. Kartika said earlier that she wanted authorities to cane her as soon as possible so she can resume her life with her husband and children.

Most alcohol offenders are fined, but the crime also carries a three-year prison term and caning.

Non-Muslims are governed by civil courts, which also impose caning for offens

Meritocracy as an ideology

Meritocracy can refer to an idealised society where discrimination on the basis of race, nationality, gender, age, and other irrelevant characteristics is completely absent. Merit is the encompassing value, the basic and morally correct criterion for any and all social classifications, particularly in respect to socioeconomic standing and in public space. A notion, emphasising societal consensus on the means and processes of selection for particular roles through a system of sifting, sorting, and rewarding talent and ability, motivated by competition for qualifications that in turn structure access to wealth, prestige, and personal satisfaction. It is conceived as a repudiation of systems like aristocracy where individuals inherit their social status. A meritocracy resembles aristocracy in the classical sense of the term meaning “rule by the best.” What has happened over the centuries, however, is that aristocracy has become associated with hereditary privilege and a rigid class system. Instead of this, a meritocracy promotes worthy individuals regardless of which social strata they happen to be born in and each individual has good fortune in proportion to the individual’s deservingness (Rawls, 1999, Nozick 1974, Miller 1999).

IQ tests primarily tap analytical, logic-based reasoning; and surely that kind of cognitive ability is related to performance in many job settings. But other kinds of cognitive ability are also related to performance – and thus also represent merit. For instance: imagination, practical sense, and the ability to interpret others’ perspectives. By the same token, the effort component of Young’s formulation suggests that a number of personality factors may figure into a reasonable conception of merit. For example, being conscientious may enhance job performance. Of course, some individual traits and social skills may be rewarded because they reflect conformity to arbitrary group norms. “It is not clear why the term merit should be identified so closely with mental ability as distinct from many other conditions and traits that improve the chances of social and economic success” (Hauser et al’s, 2000, p. 203). David Miller (1996, 300) eluding on Walzer (1983) has indicated that a meritocracy is not only more stable but also more socially just if there are a number of socially recognised forms of merit: ‘economic contribution would be one kind of merit, education and scholarship another, artistic achievement a third, public service yet another, and so forth.’

However these other conditions and traits do not contribute to a “fair opportunity”. In Rawls view, the correlation between one’s social origins and one’s outcome in life is zero in a meritocracy and as long as some form of the family exists in society fair opportunity cannot be achieved as (Rawls 1971, 64). The social context within which individuals grow up influences the achievements of equally competent persons. Success in the labour market is transmitted from parents to children, and the advantages of the children of successful parents go considerably beyond the benefits of the best education, wealth and genetic cognitive ability. Many of the criteria associated with individual talent and effort do not measure the individual in isolation but rather parallel the phenomena associated with aristocracy; what is called individual talent is actually a function of that individual’s social position or opportunities gained by virtue of family and ancestry. Among these, for example, one might list ambition or drive, perseverance, responsibility, personal attractiveness, and physical or artistic skills or talents, along with access to social support and to favourable social and economic networks and resources. Access to education is partly defined by inheritance as much research has demonstrated (Bowles and Gintis, 2002; Bourdieu and Passeron 1990; Aschaffenburg and Maas 1997; Sacks, 2003; Ballantine 2001). Compiling evidence from other studies Herrnstein concludes that 80% of the differences in IQ among individuals is explained by inherited factors and 15% is explained by environmental factors (Herrnstein 1971, 171). Children from the upper class get upper class education, middle class children get middle class education, working class people get working class education, and poor people get poor education. Privileged young people can perceive reachable goals and develop lofty aspirations because they tend to benefit from high expectations and support networks from the family and social milieu, as well as extensive economic and educational resources. Those who have the resources, via their parental background, will move through higher education, get well paid jobs, and postpone family plans until they are well into their thirties, building their financial and cultural capital significantly prior to family formation. Inheritance may provide access to powerful forms of social capital (who you know) and cultural capital (what you know). Bourdieu & Passeron (1990) indicate that students who lack the required knowledge and skills with which to successfully navigate the parameters of middle class culture inevitably fail at school. It therefore seems that unequal educational opportunity is the driver of individual achievement. Research shows that as class rises so does the level of education. As a consequence, the expansion of higher education will broaden the gulf between rich and poor (Blanden et al. 2005). So achievement capacities are ascribed to social class. Thus, IQ tests measure intelligence as a reflection of inherent intellectual capacity combined with environmental influences. Thus parents can predispose their children to succeed or fail in life as they are a part of the environment that affect the abilities that children attain. Thus the first and foremost among non-merit factors is the effect of social class at birth on future life. Therefore truly equalizing children’s environments in an effort to create a system with equal opportunities for all would mean having to eliminate the family. Meritocracy thus could lead to a hereditary caste system that, far from promoting social mobility, actually makes social advancement nearly impossible for the lower orders. This could be the case if wealth and social position are or primarily distributed by unchangeable genetic characteristics of individuals. This argument can be reworked into the form of a Hernstein’s syllogism:

If differences in mental abilities are inherited, and
If success requires those abilities, and
If earnings and prestige depend on success,
Then social standing (which reflects earnings and prestige) will be based to some extent on inherited differences among people. (Herrnstein 1971, 197-8)

This implies that absolute equality of opportunity is an ideal that cannot be achieved. (Loury 1977, p. 176).

For John Rawls, the question of distributive justice is rather different. He is not content to say that any person begins at some point in the process of acquisition and then is merely constrained by a set of rules and procedures to ensure fairness. Rather, the socioeconomic position of the agent is also considered. Rawls bases his query on how the agent is presented with the distribution of talents and social position. His conclusion is that these distributions are accidental and arbitrary. It is an accident that someone is born with whatever natural traits he may possess.

The question is raised whether a meritocracy based on natural abilities is thus unfair. Some might contend, for example, that even if we do not deserve our natural abilities it is not unfair if we reap the rewards of those abilities because the system of reward is independent of the system of deserts. However, Rawls makes the case that social position is also random and arbitrary. The fact that natural abilities may or may not be rewarded in that society is an accident. To be rewarded based merely on an accident is not deserved. Thus, a meritocracy that is based on reward from undeserved social position is similarly unfair.

Therefore, both natural abilities and social position may not be the basis of distributive justice because they are unfair. The naturally advantaged are not to gain merely because they are more gifted. The individual cannot help how she begins life. Why make her “pay” for her positive talents and advantages? The rectification of these disparities in Rawls is his difference principle that makes all inequalities subject to the stipulation that the least advantaged will benefit from them.

Since China’s emergence as one of the greatest economic engines of the world, Beijing has seen a meteoric rise as one of the economic, political, social and cultural centers of the East Asian sector. Not only is Beijing the capital of China, and the seat of power of the Communist regime, it is also home to one of the largest and most dense populations on the planet. With almost 15 million residences residing in the city it is the 24^th largest city in the world and fourth in density. While Beijing has always held a position of importance as the residence of Chinese emperors and past political regimes, it has taken on numerous new responsibilities and roles as part of the globalized world. The growth of this region and specifically the shift within China’s furious economic growth has resulted in the escalation of urban development within Beijing. Beijing has had to become a “modern city” almost overnight, while still capturing the history and culture of China’s past. Stuck between two worlds, Beijing faces a unique challenge in its urban development. The following analysis will pursue an understanding of Beijing’s urban development strategies as well as the motivations behind them. Beijing has become a hub of urban infrastructure and development. Every aspect of the city has been transformed in the past decade. By 2003, Beijing’s overall infrastructure has reached a total fixed investment of 26.06 billion dollars, and continues to grow at more than 15 percent per annum (CDB, 2005). The city is beginning to develop complicated networks of transportation, communication, ventilation, sewage, etc. Before a detailed analysis of the actual implementation of urban development and its problems, an understanding of the underlying reasons behind Beijing’s reasons for rapid urban development must be reached. There are three key factors that are currently fueling Beijing’s rapid growth towards becoming an ultra modern urban center.

One of the primary reasons for the break neck speed of growth in Beijing has been the explosive population growth that has been occurring. Despite strong measures in place such as the “Five Year Plan” and the “One Child Policy”, Beijing has continued to experience strong growth due to both its urban population and underground migratory movements. Beijing grew from 13 million in 2000 to almost 15 million by 2005, growth is projected to increase to 18 million by 2010 (Beijing Review, 2005). These growth figures furthermore do not reflect accurately the current number of migrant workers living Beijing illegally. Analysts have projected the actual population of Beijing to be more than 17 million when counting all illegal and undocumented individuals living within the city (Beijing Review, 2005). Beyond local residence, there also has been a growth in immigration to Beijing as a result of its emergence as an international hub. Immigration per year has increased by over 25 percent since 2000, especially from other WTO nations (CDB, 2005). This population crunch is one of the motivating factors behind the need for urban development and infrastructural development.

Another catalyst for urban development has been the shifting economic situation within Beijing. As a result of globalization and heavy industrialization, the standard of living and general economic circumstance of Beijing residences have increased dramatically. In 2005, Beijing’s nominal GDP grew to 84 billion USD, a yearly growth rate of 11.1%, and its GDP per capita also grew by 8.1 percent. The combination of available technology and influx of wealth has meant that residence of Beijing are demanding higher quality of life, increases in standards and a general improvement in overall welfare of their city. The result has been both a public and private response to economic changes within Beijing by an expanding urban infrastructure as well as private investment in real estate development. At the same time, the government has realized the need to modernize the city to attract foreign direct investment (FDI), for this purpose they have begun reinventing business districts and constructing immense building projects to modernize the city (CDB, 2005). The combination of Beijing as the pride of China, its economic center, and socio-economic mobility has become one of the push catalysts for urban development. A final reason for urban development, especially in the past two years has been Beijing’s impending 2008 Summer Olympics. Termed by the Chinese government as the “coming out party” of the Chinese juggernaut, the city has moved at a fervent pace to construct new additions to stadiums, upgrades and renovations as well as providing the infrastructure, residential, and tourism needs of future visitors. The projected cost of the Beijing Olympics will exceed 54 billion Yuan, or more than 6 billion USD (Beijing Review, 2005). Beijing has taken on numerous urban development projects in order to improve their city before the Olympics begin. A new subway transportation system is being built uniquely for the Olympics, and transportation channels such as road improvements, highways and numerous other changes have been enacted as a result. New building and housing projects, including the construction of stadiums, hotels, and other accommodations from both public and private investments have transformed the city. The result of the impending Olympics is that it has led to a dramatic shift in the urban development strategy of Beijing.

Beijing’s urban development infrastructure has expanded tremendously in the past two decades. Beijing is divided into circular zones separated by “rings”, as the city expands more rings are built around the original center of the city, Tiananmen Square. At the inception of the People’s Republic, Beijing only had two such rings, the limits of its urban sprawl extended to the 2^nd Ring Road. With the expansion of business, population and economic necessity, Beijing has now extended itself beyond a fifth ring, and is currently constructing a sixth ring. In less than two decades, the scope of this city has increased by more than eight hundred percent. Much of the former countryside and rural regions have been annexed by the city and turned into urban sprawl. Former farmlands have been converted into industrial centers, electronic hubs and business districts.

Beijing has had to construct specific regions for the expansion of foreign businesses, the demands for incubation zones for Intel, IBM, Microsoft and other software and hardware giants have forced Beijing to construct a separate business sector away from its central city. The inevitable result of this expansion is that Beijing has been confronted with a myriad of problems including very poor traffic control, air pollution and the destruction of traditional and cultural landmarks. In order to confront this problem, Beijing has decided to stop infrastructural expansion in concentric rings and instead expand within circular bands outside of the city center. In order to combat the growing population and need to expand, Beijing has begun a policy of organized infrastructural improvement. It has committed over 20 billion USD to improving the interconnectivity of its road networks and expanding highways around the city. Beijing development officials have cited two specific goals for improving traffic, air quality and general congestions. Beijing will develop a state of the art public transportation system as well as expand its current system of roads and highways. It has also expanded the development of their 15 billion USD airport system on the outskirts of Beijing. The purpose of expanding their transportation infrastructure is to allow construction to accommodate growth to occur both vertically and horizontally (Lillian, 2007). Beijing wishes to follow an urban development much like Shanghai, Shenzhen and many other Western cities. The hope is that the city can divide itself into zones with vertical growth to limit city sprawl and increase centralization of institutional districts. For this purpose, Beijing has already begun building an incredible robust subway system. The Beijing government has invested 8 billion USD to the development of its subway infrastructure, adding ten different traffic lines crossing throughout the city (Tang, 2006). In an effort to vastly improve their public transportation, Beijing has even conceded to private investment to commission and build their transportation system.

The combination of construction, transportation expansion, and general growth has also lead to a challenging urban energy situation. Growth in population has outpaced projections on water, electricity and natural gas usage. Current water treatment plants are already working at over capacity with the anticipation of seeing almost 2.5 million more temporary residents within the city for the 2008 Olympics (Tang, 2006). Development plans to mitigate problem has been to pioneer a state of the art water treatment facility and system on the outskirts of Beijing along the Shanxi Province. Water will be brought from over 180 kilometers away through an underground pipeline and carefully processed before going into the city (Tang, 2006). This will alleviate the pressure of current water processing centers. In addition, Beijing is currently investing in sewage transportation networks that run along the infrastructure of this system, specifically linking it to the expansion of the city sprawl. Urban development in Beijing has raised numerous problems for the Beijing municipality, its government and populace. Air quality in Beijing is ranked as one of the five worst in the world (Tang, 2006). During the summer months, the majority of residence has to wear protective masks to prevent debris and air pollution to harm their lungs. The rise in population and the lack of a strong traffic control system has meant that air pollution has increased by more than 10 percent per annum. An attempt to solve this problem through road expansion and public transportation has been only marginally successful. Beijing is expected to have to halt the majority of traffic for up to two weeks in order to clear the air pollution for the Beijing Olympics. In addition, the massive urban development plans of the city have required significant man power. This has led to an even greater influx of undocumented migrant workers.

Illegal immigration and residence within Beijing has caused a further taxing of overworked sewage and water treatment plants as well as inhumane living conditions within the area. Millions of illegal residents flow in and out of the city looking for low end labor. Since they are basically unmonitored and unnoticed, their treatment is oftentimes cruel and abusive while receiving minimal compensation. Corruption is another major concern as a result of urban development, numerous officials have been investigated and prosecuted for receiving monetary incentive to give out lucrative government contracts, but with so much growth it is hard for the government to monitor all aspects of government. The most important and enduring problem however is the destruction of the rural countryside and culturally important regions. Beijing’s growth has already consumed thousands of hectares of farmland in the surrounding areas. Destruction of historically significant sites such as the protective rim of the Great Wall has become major concerns as the city continues to expand (Lillian, 2007). Numerous monasteries, cultural centers, traditional gardens, etc. have been destroyed as a result of urban development plans. Solutions to these problems are not immediately evident. Beijing’s current strategy follows the national one of “expansion first, reform later” (Lillian, 2007). As a result, pollution, environment damage, cultural deteriorates have almost all become secondary to the monumental growth of the nation’s economy and industry. Beijing has attempted to take some steps to prevent the further spread of urban development problems however. Their current road projects will reduce traffic congestions and it plans to limit the number of vehicles allowed within city limits once construction of public transportation has completed construction. Beijing already claims to have reduced air pollution by 1.9 percent in the past year and will continue to pursue a policy of pollution reduction in the future.

The establishment of immigration registration centers, and increase of police monitoring of migrant labor are positive steps towards documenting all migrant workers and ensuring that they meet basic standards of living (Tang, 2006). Already, a massive part of the current living standards reform centers on providing housing for migrant laborers within the Beijing area and specifically creating a worker’s code to formalize the process of hiring and caring for migrant laborers. In addition, Beijing has established a special commission to investigate and identify cultural and traditional regions, parks, buildings, etc. for special government protection and reconstruction. This project has already restored over fifty parks within the Beijing area as well as maintaining the famous Summer Palace. Restoration projects of Beijing’s most famous relics such as the Forbidden City has been in effect since 2005, and will prepare Beijing for the tourism boom of the 2008 Olympics. Urban development in Beijing has at times appeared sporadic and organic in nature. The population boom combined with the increased importance of the city as an international economic, political and social center has made its development inevitable and at times chaotic. Not only has Beijing urban expansion taking place horizontally and vertically, it has encompassed every level of its development at an infrastructural level. The construction of business and economic zones and incubators along with expansion of residence areas have increased the city limits eight fold. This has been accompanied by transportation infrastructure improvements, water treatment and waste disposal systems, and the improvement of the general urban conditions of all individuals within Beijing. The problems that Beijing faces with urban development are numerous; many of them are inevitable problems of expansion. However, Beijing has taken many positive steps to cautiously approach expansion and development in order to limit mistakes and encourage healthy growth. By the 2008 Olympics, Beijing will be one of the most modern cities in the world, by then its urban development will rival that of any western capital and become a stalwart of the East Asian region.

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TANG YUANKAI. (2006). Slaking an Olympic Thirst. Available: http://www.bjreview.com.cn/lianghui/txt/2006-12/12/content_57437.htm. Last accessed 21 July 2007.

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