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The numbers of people who smoke have increase over the years. Although they are equipped with the knowledge of how unhealthy smoking can be, people still choose to smoke. It is a personal choice and a highly addictive habit. Smokers choose to subject themselves to the health risks of smoking. It is not for the government or any third party to dictate whether or not a person should be allowed to smoke. However, smoking does not only affect the smoker negatively. It also affects all the people around those who smoke because when people smoke in pubic the smoke travels everywhere through the air, and the negative effects of this smoke affects all living, breathing creatures. Therefore smoking should be banned in all public places.

People who smoke in public portray a bad example. Children are easily influenced in their growing stages. They imitate the people around them because they cannot differentiate between right and wrong. Therefore they perceive the actions they see around them as the way things should be. Besides that, teenagers who see people smoke in public take it as precedent to start smoking as well. There is a saying that goes “monkey see monkey do,” which tells us that people imitate the actions of others as they see it in their daily lives. Teenagers happen to think that smoking makes a person “cool.” When they see adults doing it on the streets it strengthens their belief in the “coolness” of smoking. Some teenagers think that smoking marks their transition into adulthood and maturity. Hence, more teenagers start smoking due to the influence of seeing other people smoke in public places.

If smoking is banned in public areas, it will promote a healthier lifestyle for everyone. People will see it as a government endorsement for a healthier lifestyle of everybody. This is because by banning smoking in public areas the government sends the message that the government cares about the health of the citizens and that the government discourages people from smoking. Thus, when smoking is not allowed in public areas it reminds people that health care is very important. It reminds each and every person that the government is seriously concerned for the well being of its citizens. Therefore, people would be reminded to live a healthy lifestyle.

If smoking is banned in public places it safeguards the life of the smoker as well as that of the public. Studies have shown that second hand smoke kills. Second hand smoke causes sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), respiratory infections and asthma attacks in children. Besides that, second hand smoke causes heart diseases and lung cancer in smoking and non-smoking adults. According to the Center for Disease Control (CDC), secondhand smoke contains at least 250 chemicals known to be toxic, including more than 50 that can cause cancer” (CDC, 2009). These studies have proven that second hand smoke can cause cancer and is extremely bad for both the smokers and non-smokers’ health. In addition, the CDC also states that, “The California Environmental Protection Agency estimates that secondhand smoke exposure causes approximately 3,400 lung cancer deaths and 22,700-69,600 heart disease deaths annually among adult nonsmokers in theUnited States” (CDC, 2009). This means that just by being near people who are smoking, innocent people are dying of diseases that are caused by second hand smoke. This violates a non-smokers’ right to live a healthy lifestyle because just by being in public places where other people smoke they are subjected to breathing in toxic fumes. Consequently, the health of innocent non-smokers who are in public places are being jeopardized against their will.

By disallowing people who smoke from smoking in public, it will cause smokers to smoke less. Because smoking is not allowed in public, people are only allowed to smoke in their homes. This would mean that as long as they are out of their homes: at work, when they eat out, at the movies or even at the parks, they cannot smoke.A‚ Smokers will have to wait until they get home to light up a cigarette. As a result, their cigarette consumption reduces and they smoke less. This in turn will benefit the smokers who have been trying to quit smoking but are unable to because they have more reason to stop. The law prohibits them from smoking in public areas, so cigarette consumption is reduced. Also, should they have an urge to smoke in public they will put in extra effort to quash the craving because it is punishable by law. In addition, there is less temptation for smokers who want to quit smoking if the ban is enforced because no one will offer them cigarettes. Therefore, this allows them to abstain from smoking. This theory is proven in a report published in The Daily Mail (2008), stating, “At least 400,000 people inEngland have quit smoking as a result of the ban on lighting up in public places that was introduced last July.” Smokers will benefit from this ban because it will help them reduce the amount as well as the frequency of smoking and it could also help them break their addiction to cigarettes. In the long run it could help them quit, and also help them develop healthier lifestyles.

If smoking is not allowed in public areas it discourages non-smokers from starting to smoke at all. People will not be tempted to start smoking because they know that smoking is addictive, and if smoking is not allowed in public they will suffer from withdrawal from their addiction to the nicotine from cigarettes. The Wiltshire Times (2007) postulates, “New research shows that one in ten smokers claim to have quit and over half of south west smokers have thought about quitting since the nationwide ban was introduced on July 1.” If smokers choose to quit or even think of quitting because of the inconvenience of not being able to smoke in public, would it not, more so, prevent a non-smoker from smoking? Surely one would not intentionally subject themselves to an addiction knowing that they will suffer withdrawal symptoms due to that addiction. By banning smoking in all public areas, the government shows support for the fact that smoking is bad, and it helps to set changes to the mind set in people reminding them that smoking is not a healthy habit. Furthermore, smoking will no longer be an issue when it comes to the influence of peers because nobody is allowed to smoke in public, so peers cannot pressure a person to start smoking.

Some may argue that by preventing smokers from smoking in public, it infringes upon their rights. It is true that smokers have rights and these rights should not be infringed upon. However, a non-smoker’s right to breathe clean air should be taken into consideration as well. When people smoke in public areas the toxic fumes travel through the air and into the lungs of others. Many non-smokers breathe in the second hand smoke and as a result their health is compromised. Should non-smokers be subjected to these unhealthy and vile smelling fumes every time a smoker chooses to light up a cigarette? Certainly not! Smoking is a personal choice and people can choose to smoke but others should not be subjected to the health risks that come from inhaling second hand smoke. People’s rights to breathe fresh and clean air should be protected, and along with that their right to maintain a healthy lifestyle without breathing in second hand smoke should be protected too.

If people are prohibited form smoking in public it would be safer for the environment. When smokers smoke in public they tend to throw their cigarettes on the ground wherever they are. These cigarette buds are detrimental to the environment because they take a long time to decompose. According to McLaren (2005) “Traditional butts are made of synthetic polymer cellulose acetate’ and never degrade, only breaking apart after roughly 12 years.” Because the cigarette butts are not biodegradable they pollute the land. Most of the cigarette butts that are littered all over the place end up the rivers, and in the bellies of fishes and other aquatic creatures. McLaren (2005) also postulates that, “within an hour of contact with water, cigarette butts can begin leaching chemicals such as cadmium, lead and arsenic into the marine environment.’ This pollutes the water supply that will inevitably end up in the stomachs of all living creatures. If the smoking ban is enforced the littering of these buds will no longer be an issue and the environment will be cleaner and healthier for everyone.

If the current situation continues, the health of many people will remain in danger.

The death toll for heart and lung diseases as well as the death toll for cancer will continue to gradually increase if the current smoking situation is not corrected. By putting forth a ban of smoking in public places the government promotes a healthier lifestyle for everybody and it protects every citizen from many diseases and health risks such as cancer and other deadly diseases. Besides that, the ban will eliminate the bad example set fort by people smoking in the public. Children and teenagers will then have a mindset implemented by the government that smoking is bad. The ban will discourage non-smokers from starting to smoke, thus preventing them from getting addicted to cigarettes. Also, it will encourage smokers to quit, and aid them on the difficult journey to be freed from the bounds of addiction. Consequently there will be no cigarette buttes littered all over the place affecting the environment negatively.A‚ By prohibiting people from smoking in public the government is protecting the God given rights of its people to live a full and healthy life. It encourages people to take steps to better their quality of life and to take care of themselves as well as the people around them. Therefore, smoking should be banned in all public places.

References

McLaren, W. (2005). Cigarette Butts: One Huge Problem, Two Solutions. Treehugger.

Retrieved December 7, 2009 from

http://www.treehugger.com/files/2005/10/cigarette_butts.php

One in Ten Quit Smoking Since Ban (2007). Wiltshire Times. Retrieved December 5,

2009 from http://www.wiltshiretimes.co.uk/news/1706214.one_in_ten_quit_smoking_since_ban/

Secondhand Smoke (2009). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved

December 5, 2009 from http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/secondhand_smoke/general_facts/index.htm

Smoking ban spurs 400,000 people to quit the habit (2008). Mail Online. Retrieved

December 5, 2009 from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-1030575/Smoking-ban-spurs-400-000-people-quit-habit.html

The development of slavery in the Chesapeake was due solely to the economic needs of white settlers. Do you agree?

History can never adequately provide answers regarding the motives of men and women throughout recorded history; what it can do, however, is to provide a prism through which to gauge the consequences of their actions. With regards to slavery, the consequences of the Southern United States’ intrinsic involvement in the practice of slavery were truly seismic, resulting in the American Civil War and the cementation of the world’s most powerful economic and military force. The role of the Chesapeake in this tumultuous domestic conflict should not be underestimated – such was the deep seated nature of the region’s association with slavery. Certainly, economic necessity appears to be at the forefront of this historical fact with the rich tobacco and other grain industries flourishing in the South as a direct result of the burgeoning slave trade. Indeed, as Fogel (2003) underscores, even the slaves themselves could be traded amongst white settlers for economic profit.

For the purpose of perspective, the following analysis into the development of slavery in the Chesapeake region must adopt a critical stance attempting to show that economic reasons were indeed the dominant paradigm in the region’s development of a sophisticated slave trade while also underscoring the complex and diverse nature of the early American slave trade. First, however, a conceptualisation of the issue must be attempted. It is important to note that Chesapeake differed markedly from the slave trades operating in the Georgia Low Country after the first arrival of enslaved African workers in the early seventeenth century (transported by Dutch merchants to replace a dwindling European labour force in the North American colonies). Unlike in other English colonies, the Chesapeake was a locale that was only colonised for economic reasons with a sparse colonial population in the days immediately prior to the introduction of slavery. Likewise, the differences within the Chesapeake itself highlight the way in which the values of trade, profit, production and the economy were central to the genesis of slavery in the region, as Philip Morgan (1998:9) details.

“By the late seventeenth century, Virginia had a plantation economy in search of a labour force, whereas South Carolina had a labour force in search of plantation economy.”

From the very beginning, therefore, a symbiosis began to form between the determining economic factors of the white settler communities and the introduction of large numbers of slaves into the colonies, with the number of African workers increasing from 13000 to 250000 in the Chesapeake Bay area between 1700 and 1770. The fact that this unprecedented level of African recruitment was accompanied by a drive to attract more female slaves to the colonies so as to increase the plantation population is testimony to the economic imperative at the heart of slave development in the Chesapeake. If slavery were a temporary measure to increase population levels in the area then the imposition of female slaves would not have occurred; only because of the permanence of the economic necessity for slaves did this phenomenon occur.

Furthermore, the sheer expanse of the New World landscape required the development of slaves to even begin to cultivate the land for economic production. After the introduction of rice crops in the 1680’s, Boyer (2003:85) estimates that a farmer planting 130 acres of the crop would require at least 65 slaves to do so. With the rapid reduction of the white indentured slaves after the turn of the eighteenth century, the absolute economic need for African slaves in the Chesapeake further increased so that the white plantation owners were utterly dependent on slave manpower in order to function as viable enterprises, competing with highly productive colonies such as the West Indies. Without the slave trade, the Chesapeake region of America – particularly the states of Virginia and North Carolina – could never have emerged as a major player in the expanding trans?Atlantic trade system.

It was not just for economic reasons that slaves were seen as integral to the rise of the Chesapeake. Health imperatives likewise played a part in the development of slavery during the early years of the colonial era. The African workers were immunised against the malaria that came with the imported rice and grain crops – a disease that rendered white workers obsolete during the formative years of the Chesapeake’s economic development. Moreover, the hot and humid climate of the Chesapeake was wholly alien to the white settlers from the colder European climate while the African workers imported to work on the plantations were much better equipped to cope with the working conditions in the New World, though Oscar and Mary Hadlin (1950:199-222) refute this claiming that it is unjust to blame nature for barbaric human institutions.

It is also important to recognise, as Edmund Morgan (2003:314-344) points out, that the slaves were important for sociological and cultural reasons, helping to underpin the rigid class structure that flourished in the southern American states. By taking away the need for a white working class, the slaves of the Chesapeake performed the task of cultural underdogs, which was an integral part of the economic rise of the region as a world exporter.

Despite the diverse range of cultural and sociological factors prevalent in the development of slavery in the Chesapeake there is no escaping the pre?eminence of economic imperatives. Indeed, the manufacturing of the term ‘slave trade’ implies the significance of economic issues in all parts of America that indulged in slavery with the transaction of human beings working in tandem with the production of profits garnered from the rich plantations. As Winthrop Jordan (1976:110-115) details, the underlying prejudice of the white settlers – incorporating a profound sense of racial and ethnic superiority – facilitated the evolution of slavery as a comprehensive way of life in the Chesapeake. The fact that the Chesapeake was willing to go to war with the Yankees for the perpetuation of the profits generated by the slave trade proves beyond doubt that economic reasons were the catalyst behind the development of slavery in the region.

References

Boyer, P.S. et al (2003) Enduring Vision: a History of the American People: Fifth Edition New York: Houghton Mifflin

Breen, T.H. (Ed.) (1976) Shaping Southern Society: the Colonial Experience Oxford: Oxford University Press

Fogel, R.W. (2003) The Slavery Debates, 1952-1990: a Retrospective Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press

Morgan, E.S. (2003) American Slavery, American Freedom London: W.W. Norton & Co.

Morgan, P.D. (1998) Slave Counterpoint: Black Culture in the Eighteenth Century Chesapeake and Low Country Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press

Selected Articles

Jordan, W. (1976) Unthinking Decision: Enslavement of Negroes in America to 1700, quoted in, Breen, T.H. (Ed.) Shaping Southern Society: the Colonial Experience Oxford: Oxford University Press

Journals

Hadlin, M.F. and Hadlin, O. (April 1950) Origins of the Southern Labour System, quoted in, William and Mary Quarterly, Volume 7, Number 2

Definition

The issue of lone parenting is quite clearly one that is of significant importance and impact in the modern social context. It is also one that has different viewpoints, which are important to recognise in the context of this report. While the actual term of ‘lone parenting’ is a given, it is important to understand the various views which are taken in order to address this problem. For example, ‘New Labour’s’ social policy towards lone parents is generally governed by the attitudes epitomised in the mantras “reforming welfare around the work ethic” and funding a system that “believes in empowerment not dependency” (Millar and Rowlingson, 2001, p xv). This quite obviously conflicts with the view which was held by previous governments, which is said to maintain the view that poverty is “relieved by cash handouts” (DSS, 1998, p 19). It is also said that the differences between these two viewpoints epitomises the differing views of ‘old Labour’ and ‘new Labour’ (Millar and Rowlingson, 2001, p xv), and also highlights the shift between the welfare state policy to a more capitalist approach to addressing the lone parenting issue.

Main Issues

Given the discussion of the United Kingdom’s approach to lone parenting, it might be relevant to compare these provisions with those of other jurisdictions. Take, for example, New Zealand which categorises ‘solo parents’ as:

(a) A woman who is the mother of one or more dependent children and who is living apart from, and has lost the support of, or is being inadequately maintained by, her husband:

(b) An unmarried woman who is the mother of one or more dependent children:

(c) A woman whose marriage has been dissolved by divorce and who is the mother of one or more dependent children:…

(e) A woman who is the mother of one or more dependent children and who has lost the regular support of her husband because he is subject to a sentence of imprisonment and is-

(i) serving the sentence in a penal institution; or

(ii) subject to release conditions or detention conditions (as those terms are defined in section 4(1) of the Parole Act 2002) that prevent him undertaking employment:

(f) A man who is the father of one or more dependent children whose mother is dead or who for any other reason are not being cared for by their mother (Social Security Act 1964 (NZ), s 27B(1)).

Arguably, in consideration of the above, it is clear that the New Zealand social security system is geared more towards caring for a woman who may be a lone parent, as opposed to a father. It might also be noted, however, that social security benefits are only paid to lone parents in New Zealand if the parent is of the minimum age of sixteen (16) years, unless emergency circumstances exist (Social Security Act 1964 (NZ), s 27B(2)).

Compare this situation to that across the Tasman Sea in Australia, where the Australian Bureau of Statistics has recorded a three-fold increase in lone parenting families in the last thirty (30) years, from 7.1% in 1969 to 21.4% in 1999 (ABS census). However given this increase, it might also be worthwhile to note that lone parenting in Australia remains at lower levels than other English-speaking countries, but still higher than some countries in continental Europe (Millar and Rowlingson, 2001, p 61). Further to this, it has generally been the attitude of Australian governments to extend social security benefits to all classes of lone parenting families, irrespective of the cause of the lone parenting situation (Millar and Rowlingson, 2001, p 65). Around 47% of lone mothers were employed in 1999 and around 63% of lone fathers, and approximately 9% of both lone mothers and lone fathers were unemployed (ABS, June 1999). This perhaps symbolises a non-dependency on the welfare system, and that lone parents in Australia generally try to work at least part-time to supplement their welfare incomes and provide for their family.

Key Dilemmas

The key dilemma that has been the recurring theme throughout this paper is the need to balance income support and welfare with the need for non-dependence on the welfare system. There is a conscientious push by governments in the above countries to not encourage reliance upon welfare handouts and to push these people to seek active employment, but also recognises the various situations of lone parents who may be unable to work full time for any number of reasons. The United Kingdom obviously recognises this problem in a social context, and took steps to address it though social policy reform. Some say that this was a more ‘heavy handed’ approach to the social problem, and this argument may have some merit given the approaches of other countries. New Zealand prescribes certain circumstances where welfare can be paid, and Australia has a more liberal approach to the welfare system, however all of these approaches seem to function appropriately in their individual contexts.

Conclusion

In consideration of the above points, it is quite clear that lone parents are a significant social problem. However, the more prominent problem is that of how to address the issue. It is quite clear that the United Kingdom has a more recent history of reforming social policy on this issue and limiting the distribution of welfare benefits. Is this the most appropriate course of action? Some would suggest no, given the experience of other countries. However, regard needs to be had for the statistics: approximately one in four of Britain’s seven million families are headed by a lone parent, and less than four in ten lone parents in Britain work full time (which is a piecemeal 16 hours a week statistically) (Millar and Rowlingson, 2001, p 11). This only serves to fuel the debate further, and one needs to consider the legislative and policy-based approach of the United Kingdom in context before judgement on this issue can be passed.

Bibliography
Books
Millar, J., and Rowlingson, K. (eds), Lone Parents, Employment and Social Policy (2001), Bristol: The Policy Press
Journal Articles
Hughes, J., ‘Lone Parents and Social Security’ (2005) 36 Victoria University Wellington Law Review 1
Soley, C., ‘Lessons of the Lone Parenting Battle’ (1997) 126 New Statesman.
Legislation
Social Security Act 1965 (NZ)
Social Security Act 1991 (AU, Cth)
Other Sources
Australian Bureau of Statistics, June 1999
Australian Bureau of Statistics, census 1969 and 1999
DPI, census 1999

Introduction

The debate on the legality of homosexual marriages has been considered both as an unwarranted feat and as belated act of liberty worth celebrating yet this status ruins the institution of marriage. This paper is written in a thesis-antithesis-synthesis pattern, addressing the issues raised by opponents of homosexual unions as well as the reasoning of its advocates. Finally, it is gives the writer’s opinion – a synthesis of the two opposing arguments – guided by reasoned insights.

Part I: The Legal Marriage of Homosexuals is not warranted

Many criticisms have been piled on the prospects of homosexuals’ lawful sanctification of their union. Somehow the basis of these anti-homosexual’s legal marriage is not far-fetched. Here are some reasons that have been used to buttress the attitude.

The legalization of same-sex unions grossly undermines the institution of marriage. A marriage that comprises of persons of the same gender is in itself a self-contradiction. When these unions are legally allowed to thrive, the institution will suffer irreparable damage. The reason being, marriage is perceived as sacred especially from the religious quarters, an institution sanctified by God between a man and a woman for mutual companionship. Children are the fruits of such holy matrimonies (Maccio, 2010). Homosexuals contradict it, allowing their passions to override the holy decree. Furthermore, same-sex unions are always considered ‘open relationships’ meaning that partners involved do not necessarily have to be committed to each other sexually, psychologically, emotionally and socially. This translates into a blow to the monogamous unions and by extension holy matrimony.

Same-sex unions are conventionally considered unnatural and it does not take an apt mind a second to think otherwise. So, how can an unnatural union be naturally unionable? Heterosexual relationships are the norm, both in society and in nature. Why has man, as rational as he is, been passionately driven by sexual pleasure to the heights of finding it from the same gender? Brutes in their irrationality do not indulge in this! The greatest favor that should be done them is tolerance, nothing more. They should not be validated by the state nor recognized as a form of marriage because of their abnormality and unnaturality.

The legal status of this union encourages many of the same and therefore the human species is destined to extinction. It is a self evident fact that the sexual intercourse between homosexuals of whatever ilk does not procreate life. Lesbians and gays, alike have sex primarily for pleasure and therefore no human conception can arise. If say three-quarters of the human population goes homosexual, there will not be any human being left walking on the surface of this planet with at least a couple of centuries (Hollowell, 2010).

Homosexuals themselves, together with their sympathizers argue that they can become good parents. To whom can they parent? Adopted children, they say. Granted, they can be even excellent parents as they claim, but the psychological development of the child or children that they are parenting is at stake. Naturally, human beings have the orientation towards the two sexes and that is precisely the reason that a female parent is referred by the child as mother, and the male parent father. So in a legal family that comprises of two fathers – gays; or two mothers – lesbians; how does the child under their custody expected to grow normally? Are they not putting the welfare of the child at the expense of their pleasurable adventures? Is the legal body that authorizes this abnormal family doing any justice to the child? Besides, this is a horribly repugnant precedence that the ‘homocouples’ are setting to the children under their parentage. Most likely, when such children come of age, they will copy the lifestyle of their parents and there by continue perpetuating the ignoble idiosyncrasy to subsequent generations (Kuyper, 1993).

Marriage is a symbol that represents cultural ideals about sex, sexuality, and human relationships. These ideals define an individual’s self identity and therefore, when the traditional nature of marriage is interfered with by sneaking in homosexual tendencies, people’s basic identities are challenged (Dankmeijer, 1993).

Part II: Legalization of Same-sex Unions is long overdue

Quite a number of homosexuals and their supporters have been waiting with abated breath for the landmark ruling that accord same-sex unions a legal marriage status. It has been hailed as a gesture that reinstates sexual liberty to individuals who hitherto had suffered silently when this right was trampled upon.

The anti-homosexuals argue that legal marriage is strictly between a man and a woman. Defining marriage on the basis of sex does beg the question of how sexes are defined. Though the traditional categories of male and female appear separate, there are indeterminate cases in reality which do not match these categories. Therefore the assumption made here is that the clarity of biological concepts corresponds to social concepts. Take for example, Daniel was born female but changed his sex and became male; and now he wants to marry his partner Chloe. By accepting the above reason, Daniel can only marry a male even though by outward appearance he is male. Put differently, if a woman changes her sex and acquires physical traits of a man, would not it be legal for this person to marry a woman? (Maccio, 2010)

The consideration of marriages as a religious rite is missing the mark since exclusive religious tenets are used to define it. Consequently, legalizing homosexual marriages is a mortal sin that beckons the wrath of God to a state. It is an indubitable fact that the nature of marriage has varied in every era and from every society. Therefore, it has been difficult to find a conventional definition of marriage. Marriage has never been a creation of religion, if anything the state has always treated it as a private contract with public implications. Thus the basis of marriage was on the wishes of free, consenting adults (Cott, 2002).

The claim that homosexual marriage is not a home for protection and procreation of children; hence a threat to human extinction is refutable. This claim is anchored in the assumption that sex as the natural end of marriage is for procreation. It can be argued that, following this premise, a couple whose sexual intercourse cannot bring forth a child should not be allowed to marry, all the more homosexuals. The implications of this reason would mean that heterosexual marriages with infertile couple due to various reasons are outlawed as well. Similarly, couples who voluntarily resolved to be childless should not be allowed to marry legally. The impulsion for marriage is love not children (Senreich, 2010).

Opponents of homosexual marriages argue that such relationships are unnatural and abnormal and therefore should only be tolerated not legalized. Here, heterosexual relationship is taken as natural because that is what is found in nature. Since nature does not provide for homosexual relationship it is unnatural and ought to be abhorred by the society (Senreich, 2010). Well, are not human a part of nature? If yes, then homosexual relationships are also a part of this nature. Brutes which are part of this nature do not engage in legal marital contracts, does it as consequence mean that the legal marriage as an institution is unnatural and should be outlawed?

The argument that legalizing homosexual marriage undermines the institution of marriage does not hold water. It baffles the minds of proponents how a legal marriage between homosexuals damage the heterosexual marriage. Consideration should be made here that the opponents use religion to smoothen their disapproval. Marriage is governed by the civil/secular law. Period (Geest, 1993).

Part III: Homosexual Marriages do not merit Legal Status

Having painstakingly considered the arguments from both sides of the debate on the legalization of same-sex marriages, the writer hereof opposes according legal status to such unions.

To begin with, marriage as an institution derives its sanctity from interplay between instinct and reason. Considering that the sexual instinct is primarily for procreation, man ought to use his rationality to direct this force appropriately. The pleasurable part of the act is secondary and therefore should not be allowed to define a person. The reason is, if man becomes myopic with the secondary end of sexual instinct; and remains consistently so, then human species’ destiny is at stake. It may sound religious but thoughtful reflection reveals so. Marriage is therefore an institution where under natural circumstances male and female partners are freely allowed to procreate (Geest, 1993). However, if the primary end cannot be realized due to illnesses or old age, the intent warrants its sanctity.

The proponents of homosexual marriages are largely silent on the parentage of children of homosexuals, adopted or otherwise. They secretly recognize the psychological as well as sociological damage that they wrought to the development of these children (Paul, 1993). It’s not disputable that they can have the custody of children either through adoption, surrogate motherhood, artificial insemination, or previous heterosexual relationships. What is paramount here is the welfare of these little children in regard to their development into adults of sound minds. In this consideration homosexual parentage of children is looked at vis-a-vis heterosexual. If for instance, Kathleen is being raised by two mothers, she is being deprived of the experience of being with a father. Recent research as well as the common experience suggests that a father and a mother together provide by far the best surrounding in which a child may be raised. The reason being men and women contribute different gender-connected strengths and attributes to their children’s development. Erik Erikson differentiates the kinds of love to children: “fathers love more dangerously because their love is more expectant and instrumental than that of mothers” (Wardle n.d. p. 846). Children from homosexual families will are likely to exhibit the homosexual tendencies of the parents and become one of such in adulthood (Kuyper, 1993).

The homosexual marriage remains unnatural not because it cannot be found existing among natural brutes which constitute nature, but because the act itself is solely for pleasure. If anything there are creatures which show tendencies akin to homosexuals. Man is endowed with incredible intellect and he should use it to discern what underlies some of his cravings before allowing himself to be held hostage by them.

Conclusion

To surmise, the debate on the legality of homosexual marriages has been considered both as an unwarranted feat and as belated act of liberty worth celebrating yet this status ruins the institution of marriage. As it can be seen from the text, the arguments of pro-homosexual marriages are aimed at winning rather than analyzing the facts that belie the orientation.

References

Cott, N. (2002). Public Vow: A History of Marriage and the Nation. New York, NY: Harvard University Press

Dankmeijer, P. (1993). Journal of Homosexuality: The Construction of Identities as a Means of Survival. 24(3), pp. 95-105.

Geest, H. (1993). Journal of Homosexuality: Homosexuality and Marriage. 24(3), pp.115-123.

Hollowell, K. (2010). World Net Daily: Homosexuality: Evolution of the human race. Retrieved on March 24^th, 2010, from:

Kuyper, E. (1993). Journal of Homosexuality: The Freudian Construction of Sexuality. 24(4), pp 137-144.

Maccio, E. (2010). Journal of Homosexual: Influence of Family, Religion, and Social Conformity on Client Participation in Sexual Reorientation Therapy. 57(3), pp. 441-458.

Paul, J. (1993). Journal of Homosexuality: Childhood Cross-Gender Behavior and Adulthood Homosexuality. 24(3), pp. 41-54.

Senreich, E. (2010). Journal of Homosexuality: The Effects of Honesty and Openness About Sexual Orientation on Gay and Bisexual Clients in Substance Abuse Programs.57(3), pp 364-383.

Wardle, L. (n.d.) Website of Family Action: The Potential Impact of Homosexual Parenting on Children. Retrieved on March 24^th, 2010, from:

Community Service: Serving Each Other in Today’s Society

There are many young adults out there who lack self-esteem, confidence, a sense of

accomplishment or purpose, or simply a reason to get away from TV, computers, and video

games. They often don’t understand the value of community and the importance of team work.

Most teens also don’t realize how much lending a helping hand to others can also benefit them.

What could be done to teach teens the importance of helping others and build a sense of self-

confidence and worth? Community service is quick to remind anyone the importance of offering

help, working as a team and simply getting outside and active. These teens shouldn’t be assigned

to just anything. All of the participants in community service should have a voice in the activities

in which they are participating. Otherwise, it could make the whole experience a miserable one

and do just the opposite of what it is intended to do. There is a lot of stigma around mandatory

community service, but with flexible community service programs, positive promotion, and

choices, teens will be put on the right track.

A lot of stigma surrounds mandatory community service. Most people see it only as a

means of corrective punishment. There are many people who think community service should be

left to prisoners, and not to the youth of today. This poor attitude needs to be reversed by

education. Many teens believe what they hear from their parents, teachers, and mentors. With

this poor attitude on the matter, it’s no wonder teens may despise the idea of serving in the

community. Proper education and promotion is the key to a successful program. For example,

teens should see the results of community service. They should be able to see workers having a

good time and enjoying what they do. Young adults should also see that they would benefit from

serving in the community. This could all be done by providing introductory programs, attractive

pamphlets, peer communication, and so on. Once teens are educated about community services

and its benefits, the stigma will fade and they will be more willing to participate.

It’s important to remember the power of choice. There are numerous activities the teens

could participate in. Blood drives, children activity clubs, clean-ups, and mentoring are just a few

of the many things to choose from in community service. One who has a choice in what he or she

does as an extra activity will be happier while participating. Delgado states, “[…] a summary of

the literature on youth activities, found that youth benefit the most when they have an

opportunity to actively plan community-service projects that contribute to the welfare of

others[…]”.(127) When community service workers plan activities, a sense of ownership is built.

Since the ideas were their own, the activity belongs to the workers and they will likely work

much harder than they would if they were forced into the activity. Choosing an activity is just as

powerful as planning one. The ability to choose an activity will also encourage teens to

participate in multiple activities, which will broaden their horizons and abilities.

A lot of young people lack a good sense of self-esteem. It can be caused by criticism, the

media, the lack of activity, and so on. Many times all a teen needs to boost his or her self esteem

is a sense of purpose and direction. Studies have shown that productive individuals generally

have a higher self-esteem. (Joseph 1) Using community service as a way for teens to stay active

is a great way for them to see the fruits of their efforts. When young adults see how much the

work they are putting forth really matters, it will boast their confidence. For example, if a small

town had grass growing in the sidewalk, trash lying about, and dirt everywhere, a group of teens

could plan a cleaning project. Such a project would beautify the town and would likely give the

group a sense of pride. The town would benefit by the work and maybe even be educated by the

teens actions. If there were a huge turn-around in appearance, then perhaps the rest of the

townspeople would help maintain the new condition of the small town. This would boost morale

even higher for the group and make all the work seem very worthwhile.

Another good point to mention is the fact teens would be busy. A lot of teens spend a ton

of time in from of their computers, televisions, or video games systems. A study conducted in

2003 concluded that an alarming 34% of teens were clinically obese. (Nichols and Good 169)

The sedentary lifestyle most Americans have adopted is devastating to overall well-being. When

teens are over-weight, they suffer in numerous ways. They are persecuted by their peers, which

results in a low self-esteem, depression, and anxiety. They lack the energy or drive to pursue an

activity because they lack physical fitness. Any kind of activity is good for someone’s health. If

teens get actively involved in community service, they will be on the go. If teens get moving and

realize how out of shape they are, then it may motivate them to do something about it. This will

promote exercise and proper diet, thus resulting in a healthier lifestyle.

Schools have been trying to incorporate teamwork into the classrooms, but it often

doesn’t work out as well as hoped. There have been numerous studies conducted on the matter

and only a small portion of teamwork exercises have worked in schools. (Thomas 1) When a

teamwork activity is academically based, it is difficult to pursue and most times it is difficult to

see any results. Actual physical labor shows more of an effect of one’s efforts. Therefore, some

type of community service where one is physically involved in an activity with a group of people

would teach teens how positive teamwork is. Then, they would later incorporate the idea into

other activities, thus making them well rounded and willing to work with others.

There are many young adults who leave high school and have no idea what the real world

is all about. Most teenagers only know a life where everything is structured, and there is no

question about what step to take next. Teens receive a schedule with their classes, books, a time

for lunch period, and often their extra activities are planned for them. Community service would

be a great place for teens to learn the importance of self-reliance. When a teen is provided a

choice in what he or she may do as an activity, this would be the first step in that lesson. The

second would be finding a way to transport themselves to the place of work. Then, they would

have to make sure they are on time. Decision making, responsibility and initiative all fit into the

lesson of self-reliance and define some of the basic things they would go through in adulthood.

As it has already been said, with self-reliance comes a sense of responsibility. Anyone

participating in community service is still held to a standard. These standards typically aren’t as

high standards in a paid environment; however, there is still something to be gained. The

Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development states, “[…] by age 15, millions of young people

risk reaching adulthood unable to assume the responsibilities of informed, active citizenship in a

pluralistic society. (Radest 30) This same report also says, “Early adolescence offers a superb

opportunity to learn values, skills, and a sense of social responsibility”. (30) With teens being

held to a standard, they must assume responsibility for their successes and failures. This is

something everyone goes through as an adult. It is better to learn these lessons earlier in life so

teens can make their mistakes, learn from them, and grow from the entire experience.

Resilience is a lesson which shouldn’t be taken lightly and should be learned early in life.

Adults often rush to the rescue when problems arise, not allowing young people to think it

through and find a solution on their own. A problem arises and some teens may panic, have no

idea what to do, or stand around waiting for someone else to take care of it. While going through

community service, teens will likely meet with a few setbacks and will need to take action. Since

these setbacks would likely only be minor, it would be a great place to start learning resilience.

Resilient children are proactive rather than reactive and have a good sense of “coherence”. That

is to say they understand things happen in life but we still have some control over it all. (Joseph

29) Adults have to practice resilience a lot through life, so learning this early will help teens

become well rounded adults.

Since community service is a team effort, teens will be able to build professional social

skills. Social skills are built throughout childhood, but in a more professional setting where the

use of language is different, these skills will be refined. These teens would be working with

adults who know how to properly communicate in order to achieve a goal. If young adults

observe the behaviors of the adults around them, take note of what happened, and try their best to

act the same, they would begin building the stepping stones to success. They would learn a range

of thing from avoiding confrontation and generating solutions, to active and proper listening

skills.(Joseph 255) All of these are needed in a professional atmosphere and will help them

throughout college and the working environment.

The benefits teens would receive from community service experience have been

thoroughly discussed thus far, but not how the community would benefit. It all, of course,

depends on the activities the teens participate in. If there were a community clean-up, then a

town would be beautified. If the teens helped deliver groceries to those who can’t get around,

then people wouldn’t have to go hungry or worry about how to get their food. When teens

mentor younger kids, the children would have the benefit of someone relatively close to their age

teaching them. The people living in these communities and seeing the difference teens are

making with all of their work may adopt a more volunteer attitude. The ways a community

benefits from those who serve are endless, and shouldn’t be forgotten.

There a so many things a young adult can take from community service that will benefit

him or her immediately, as well as in the future. Teens can build a healthy self-esteem by gaining

a sense of purpose and seeing how much of a difference they can make in the world. They could

come to understand the importance of living a healthier life. Young adults would gain the ability

to think through problems, work with others as a team, and make important decisions.

Professional conduct and language will be learned, which will help them in their work

endeavors. They will also learn resilience and self-reliance, which will help them bounce back

quickly from setbacks and take a more proactive approach to life. There is a quote from Andrew

Shue that says, “Community service has taught me all kinds of skills and increased my

confidence. You go out there and think on your feet, work with others and create something from

nothing. That’s what life’s all about.” (Shue brainyquotes.com) This is a great way to sum up

what teens would gain and what community service is about. It’s about helping others, but also

helping yourself in the process. Once teens get out there and start working in our communities,

they will see what a difference they can make. They would remember these lessons through their

lives and likely continue to act in a positive way because of what they learned. This entire

process could help change the way people behave now and in the future in a very positive way.

When everyone gives just a little, it can go a long way and there has to be a beginning

somewhere. Why not make that beginning start with today youth and expand into the generations

to come?

Works Cited

Melvin Delgado, New Frontiers for Youth Development in the Twenty-First Century: Revitalizing & Broadening Youth Development (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002) 127

Joanne M. Joseph, The Resilient Child: Preparing Today’s Youth for Tomorrow’s World (New York: Insight Books, 1994) 1,29,255

Sharon L. Nichols, and Thomas L. Good, America’s Teenagers–Myths and Realities: Media Images, Schooling, and the Social Costs of Careless Indifference (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004) 169

Howard B. Radest, Community Service: Encounter with Strangers (Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1993) ,30

Andrew Shue, n.p., Community Service, brainyquotes.com, n.d., August 20, 2009, http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/quotes/a/andrewshue214132.html

Gary Thomas, Effective Classroom Teamwork: Support or Intrusion? (New York: Routledge, 1992) 1

“Friends. How many of us have them? Friends. Ones that we can depend on.” This question about friendships was asked in the 1984 song “Friends” by Whodini. Humans have the need for social interaction and one of the ways that human beings fill this need is by forming friendships. From an early age, we form bonds with our peers. Initially these bonds start as surface friendships in childhood and as people grow older, the friendships they have take on a more profound meaning. Many different kinds of friendships can be found depicted in the media. From television shows like “Friends”, “Girlfriends”, and “Seinfeld” to movies that depict the ups and downs of friendships.

People typically have more same-sex than cross-sex friendships (Booth & Hess 1974; Ross, 1985). In this paper, I will discuss the differences and similarities of female-female and male-male friendships and use examples from two movies to show how the values and characteristics of these friendships differ and are alike. I will also be discussing cross-sex friendships (CSFs). There hasn’t been as much research or theory on cross-sex friendships because for a long time, theorists and researchers viewed cross-sex friendships as potential romantic relationships (Bleske-Recheck & Buss, 2001). This view has changed and there is now emerging research and study of difficulties and advantage of having and maintaining cross-sex friendships. I will also be discussing a movie that demonstrates the positive and negative features of cross-sex friendships.

Male-Male Friendships

Although there has been a rising popularity of depicting “bromances” (a term used to describe close male friendships) in the media, Traustadottir found that “research has found that males have significantly fewer friends than women, especially close friendships or best friends.” (2008 p.1) There are three main barriers that have been attributed to the lack of close friendships in men; competition between men, traditional masculine stereotypes about “real men”, and fear of homosexuality (Fasteau, 1991; McGill, 1985; Miller, 1983).

The movie The Wood, is about three male friends from Inglewood, California who have grown apart and reunite back in their hometown during one of their weddings. The movie shows present-day and also flashback scenes to their childhood to show how their friendship developed. One of the flash-back scenes gives an example of the three barriers attributed to lack of closeness. The three main characters; Mike, Roland, and Slim in a pizza parlor discussing how their luck with the women is going during their junior year of high school. All three are talking about their frustration at still being virgins as sophomores (traditional masculine stereotypes), they begin to argue about who will lose their virginity first (fear of homosexuality) and decide to make it a competition by making a “pot”. Every week, they add a dollar to the pot and whoever loses their virginity first will receive the money (competition).

Male friendships tend to emphasize activities and companionship and expressions of closeness felt between friends comes in the form of friendly teasing. Although male friendships are formed and maintained in ways that differ from female friendships, there are still some similarities that can be seen. Male friendships provide a release of stress and reduce depression in the same manner that women friendships do.

Female-Female Friendships

The differences in female friendships and male friendships is not in what is strived for in their close relationships i.e. intimacy, empathy, and trust; but in the means in which their friendship goals are accomplished. Women are naturally more apt to show emotions and this translates into the friendships they form as well.

Traustadottir (2009) examination of female friendships found:

Women typically describe their friendships in terms of closeness and emotional

attachment. What characterizes friendships between women is the willingness to

share important feelings, thoughts, experiences, and support. Women devote a good

deal of time and intensity of involvement to friends. (p.1)

Women are more open with affection and more likely to sincerely complimenting each other. While men use communication to accomplish things, communication is seen as a way to build and maintain intimacy and closeness in female friendships. This is why women are more likely to discuss personal thoughts, feelings, and problems with their friends (Greif 2009). In a survey done by Greif (2009) 71% of women stated that being understood (communication, sharing, caring, not being judged, and receiving feedback) to describe what friendship means. Only 51% of men surveyed answered the same. Demonstrating friendships with concrete acts (example. helping move, giving loan) was a choice that men responded to in the survey was not shown on the women’s responses.

In the movie, Waiting To Exhale, it depicts four female friends providing support and advice to each other through their dealing with men, families, and careers. This movie shows how female relationships are built on communication and emotional intimacy.

Cross-Sex Friendships

Because male and female same-sex friendships have different characteristic, it has been speculated that men and women cannot become and maintain strictly platonic friendships. Although much more difficult, successful cross-sex relationships are possible. There are at least four unique challenges facing individuals in cross-sex relationships: defining the relationship, managing sexual attraction, establishing equality, and managing interference of others (O’Meara, 1989).

The movie Brown Sugar is the story of two friends Dre and Sidney that met as children and have maintained their cross-sex friendship throughout their adulthood. In the movie, Dre starts dating a woman and they become engaged. This sparks questions and thoughts about Sidney and Dre’s own friendship and if there was any romantic feelings between them. One scene in the movie after Dre has become engaged, shows Sidney prepping and beautifying herself when Dre calls to say he’s coming to visit. As she looks at herself in the mirror and fixes her hair and make-up, she pauses and asks herself “What am I doing? It’s just him.” This scene shows how managing sexual attraction and clearly defining the relationship are concerns that come up even in long-term cross-sex friendships.

Although difficult, there are benefits from cross-sex friendships that cannot be seen in same-sex friendships. Those benefits include, an increase of the understanding about beliefs and values of the other sex (Canary, Emmers-Sommers, & Faulkner, 1997), verifying out attractiveness to the other sex (Rubin, 1985), protection, short-term sexual opportunities, self-expression, and intimacy (Bleske-Rechek and Buss 2000).

Conclusion

Developing and maintaining friendships is key in developing interpersonal skills. Although some friendships may be more easy to maintain than others, there are benefits to all types friendships and they are attainable if the parties involved value the relationship enough to put in the hard work and effort.

References

Alison P. LentonLaura Webber. (2006). Cross-sex Friendships: Who has More? Sex Roles, 54(11-12), 809-820. Retrieved April 12, 2010, from Psychology Module. (Document ID: 1175830101).

Diane H Felmlee. (1999). Social norms in same- and cross-gender friendships. Social Psychology Quarterly, 62(1), 53-67. Retrieved April 12, 2010, from Research Library Core. (Document ID: 40396565).

Greif, G. L. (2009). Buddy system: understanding male friendships. New york: Oxford Universtiy Press.

Matthijs Kalmijn. (2002). Sex Segregation of Friendship Networks. Individual and Structural Determinants of Having Cross-Sex Friends. European Sociological Review, 18(1), 101. Retrieved April 12, 2010, from Social Science Module. (Document ID: 323673221).

Traustadottir, R. (2008, April). Gender patterns in friendships. Retrieved from http://thechp.syr.edu/genpat.htm

Critically consider the relationship between culture and economy. To what extent is it true to suggest that decline of community and the growth of competitive individualism are produced by the shifting needs of the capitalist economy?
INDIVIDUALISM
independent self reliance
a doctrine that bases morality on the interests of the individual
a social theory maintaining the political and economic independence of the individual and stressing individual initiative (Penguin English Dictionary, 2001)
an economic system characterized by the profit motive and by private ownership and control of the means of production, distribution and exchange (Penguin English Dictionary, 2001)

The 15^th century saw the rise of humanism and the re-evaluation of the human condition in relation to his or her world. This was viewed as a journey from the dark ages of fear and oppression to the enlightened visions of individuality and hope. In reality, it was a journey that very few were privileged enough to afford. One arena for the exercise of this alternative approach was equating classical Greek and Roman cultures with what was then the rigours of contemporary religion. Already, the image of the individual is looking to another stereotype for definition. Yet how surprised these early scholars would be to find that with this individuality came loss of community spirit, apathy and destruction of the extended family in supposedly advanced societies. They would probably be less surprised to find that economics and politics are two of the tools which have been used to carve out and colour these new societies.

The following essay looks at how specific these factors operate within this changing framework of postmodern (Featherstone, 1991) society. It extends its scope beyond classical economic and political theory, which is due more consideration that given here. It considered some of the literature available on the subject of culture and economics, but, in order to get a balanced view, it also tries to see what other elements contribute to the decline of community.

To start with, it is necessary to understand the elements that go to make up contemporary society. To put it in Foucaultian (1983) terms, how are these discourses constructed and what are their requirements. How specific are they to each society?

“They [discourses] offer us social positions and statuses: the capitalist economy makes us into ‘workers’, ‘employers’ or ‘unemployed’”

(Burr, An Introduction to Social Constructivism, 1995, p.54)

Culture and economics have been much studied, investigated and written about but the relationship between the two has been a difficult one to define. Guiso, Sapienza, Zingales, (2005) argue for a “heterogeneity of preferences” as affecting peoples economic choices. If one agrees with this, then the roots of this heterogeneity have to include culture. However, each of these elements of human society have only the stability of the time in which they are created. They are shifting sands and manipulated by both internal and external factors. For example, in a democracy where politicians are elected by the people, it can be supposed that they are saying what the people like to hear and promising to do what the people who elect them want. It may be a cynical view, but once in power, it appears that one form of manipulation gives way to another. As Chomsky (1992) says, propaganda is to democracies what power is to dictatorships. Political ‘spin’ both reacts and leads. Yet, as the Frankfurt School of Philosophy shows, a depressingly negative conflict between applied reason and an ability for society to cope with, and adapt positively to, change. For example, the search for ‘panaceas’ (Horkheimer, 1987) disturbs explanations of society and economics. The panacea of the poor, as the saying goes, used to be religion. Theorists now point to consumerism as the new religion, yet it fails to provide the happiness it promises.

Horkheimer (1987) explores the roots from which these questions arise and examines the success of individuality and autonomy. Why, when advanced technological societies seem to provide such levels of individual choice, is there such discontent? Could it be that an undermining of certain values has rendered us instinctively insecure? Could it be that there is truth in the statement that “every aspect of culture is in the process of commodification and linkage to the sale of goods” (Herman, 1995)? If so, is individuality an illusion and humans purely commodities to be sold to whether through cultural conformity or adherence to contemporary ideals?

For the purpose of this essay, certain parameters need to be placed on the issues. For example, culture, as defined by the Penguin English Dictionary (2001), is a number of things. It is mental development, namely through education. It is the “intellectual and artistic enlightenment as distinguished from vocational and technical skills”. It is the customary beliefs and social forms of specific groups. Finally it is defined as “socially transmitted pattern of human behaviour that includes thought, speech, action, institutions and artefacts” (Penguin, 2001). This essay will mostly involve the last definition of culture. Economics seems simpler to define: “A social science concerned chiefly with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services” (Penguin, 2001). However, even in these general terms it is easy to see how culture and economy inter-depend. For the purpose of this essay, culture and economics will be put in the context of capitalist economies. It will start with questioning what the needs are of a capitalist economy according to theory and actuality. It will then examine how community has changed and whether both the past society and present individuality are ideals rather than realities. This will then be put in the context of contemporary society. Whilst this essay has a specific focus, it is understood that there are many other forms of political, social and economic systems and these can have different effects depending on their societies. For example, as Paecher, in agreement with Burr’s quotation above, points out;

“Different forms of discourse result in the prioritising of different forms of knowledge; change the power relations between discourses and the knowledge relations associated with them will change as well”

(Paechter, Educating the Other: gender, power and schooling, 2001)

This puts the issues within a cultural context. To do the same with regard to economics one could take the following example. Certain people who benefit from a technologically advanced capitalist economy would find survival extremely challenging in a subsistence economy. However, this is but one approach and one aspect of these issues. In order to see whether capitalism and the increase of individuality alone have been the reasons for a decline in the ideal of community, the ‘needs’ of all these elements of society have to be considered.

The ‘needs’ of a capitalist economy can perhaps both be guided and led by the society they are integrated with. A ‘need’ to understand and quantify the changes that occur within these economies has led to works such as that done by Webber and Rigby (in Albritton et al, 2001, pp. 246-262). To take a factual analysis as typical of the more classical economics, they study the slow down in world economy that took place in the 1970’s. They concluded that a lowering profitability in the advanced economies was to blame for the slow down. They took this overview and quantified the results of economic change in order to assess what the reasons were from an analytical perspective.

In reality, unemployment rose and wages, as Sennett shows, fell. He quotes a fall of 18% in American wages between 1973 and 1995 (Sennett, 1998, p.54). Whilst the division of rich and poor is as evident through history as today, the illusion that a capitalist society would benefit all individuals was dissolved. Discontent and disillusionment with political promises became part of the culture. It may be that the pressures felt by individuals to strive and survive through competitive application of business strategies has its roots in the depression and vulnerability of unemployment. Sennett talks about these changing pressures in terms of inequality within corporate structures. He has individuals required to out perform and increase skill diversity (p.55) in order to succeed. Work is therefore governed by economics on the one hand and culture on the other with politics as a mediator between desired forms of society and managed realities. In this light, the opposite of competitive individualism is unemployment and whilst fear of the latter keeps the former competitive, the cost of the latter encourages methods of achieving full employment. For example, Featherstone uses the actions of Seattle (1996) to develop its image as a “quality of life capital” (p.107). The aim was to reduce its mass unemployment by making itself attractive both within the cultural sphere above and as a thriving economic entity. This postmodernisation (Cooke, 1988; Zukin, 1988b cited in Featherstone, 1996) is, once again, a form of self-publicisation and image production – something that this essay will return to later.

To return to the UK situation. A percentage of the UK population became dependent on the Welfare State for survival and became known as the long-term unemployed. Politics and economics are at the forefront when it comes to paying for unemployment. Since the 70’s, politics has tried both a carrot and stick approach to reducing outgoings on the unemployed. Behind these initiatives is the Government budget and the premise that you can measure the success of a country by its National expenditure – this will be returned to later. Politics has continued to experiment with methods of cutting the costs of the Welfare State. Programs such as working for the dole were started. Limiting the time unemployment benefit is available for has been tried. Gradually, the programs and policies work there way back to education, the family and the community. For example the Back to Basics campaign could be seen as an attempt to introduce values that would apparently aid community cohesion. However, the ethics involved required a level of appreciation and agreement with the cultural capital (Bordieu, 1987, cited in Featherstone, 1991) of that discourse. Long-term unemployment undermined the expectation and value of educational cultural capital. Yet, “western governments [tended] to view education as a principal means for alleviating social disadvantage” (Webb, Schirato & Danaher, 2002, p.111). Therefore politics had to try and create the values to aid economics. For a section of society, there was no educational habitus, as Bordieu would put it, or familiarity with ‘mind sets’ that make education familiar. Again, politics needed to create these as ‘natural’ expectations. This is one demonstration of the links between economics, culture and individuality and already it shows how the elements are forced both to react and interact. It also shows a necessity for illusion, created ideals, stereotypes and manipulations.

A different approach looks at the ethics behind human society and puts parameters on the changes they incur. For example, market survival, success and failure through economic cycles brings in Sennett’s (1998) exploration of ‘flexibility’. Flexibility can take a global or local approach for businesses (and seems to be one of the manufactured ideals that consumerism needs to create within its target markets). When faced by falling profits in their domestic markets, the multi-nationals (cigarette firms, drinks etc) tend to expand into under-developed markets such as the third world, youth, specific racial groups (Herman, 1995). Other forms of flexibility worked on creating ‘needs’ in domestic markets (Sennett, 1998). They create niche markets and challenge the individual to be incomplete without compliance. These ‘needs’ may be defined as part of the basis of capitalist economies, but they also become part of the defining factors of their societies, part of their history and therefore their culture.

The next question is how is the actuality of ‘community’ affected by business. How do the ethics applied to financial success co-exist with a construction of community? A tendency to divide the community into constituent elements – business community, cultural community, class community etc has led to a range of definitions. Wenger (1998), for example, explains individual integration into business systems through the idea of a community of practise. The variables are at what level individuals are integrated into these systems and this is one way of viewing business and business community in contemporary society. It can also start to expose the isolation even within a workforce. For example an ITC worker can work from an office or home so long as the technology is in place. Although he or she is a member of this community of practise, they can be isolated from the control systems that lead it. Even if working from home, they are divided between which community they are contributing to.

To return to consumerism, it would seem that rather than focus on the destruction of the family as a form of power, consumerism and the business community uses it as an expression of individuality. Likewise, politics appears, when faced by a population that is demanding reform, to come up with an ideal that no longer exists and re-creates it in the form it requires – the Nuclear family becomes a unit of modernity, essential services become community actions.

The forms used to promote these needs range from local publicity to mass media, globalisation and spin politics. Herman (1995) looks at the affect of the market on culture. He identifies the tools of commercialisation on television, both in subliminal forms (brand placement) and straight-forward advertising. He looks at how commerce exploits certain pre-existing elements “which sell? (1995) (e.g. sex and violence). He suggests that the global popularity of American movies, music and escapisms “reflects the global decline in family and civil life, and loss of faith in politics.” (Herman, 1995, p.8) Whilst this has been a simplification of the intricacies of commercialisation, it agrees with those such as Slater who state that “culture as a whole has become consumer culture” (Slater, 1997, p121).

In the introductory section questions were raised as to why discontent should exist in an apparently free society. So far, the dichotomy of appearance and actuality in a capitalist society has been alluded to rather than explored. At the essence of this duality is perhaps the recognition that the “fundamental unit of meaning in capitalist and economic thought is the object,, that is, capitalism relies on the creation of a consumer culture” (Hooker, 1996). An object is controllable and manipulatable. However, if the object is a human being then it is that person’s individual choice that has to be appealed to. As the roots of commerce tend not be the same ethically as those applied to society, appealing to individual choice requires a certain degree of basic undermining of community values. This ethical difference is shown by the types of programs Governments use to support business, which they must in a market economy, as opposed to the types of programs used to re-construct community. Whilst the former takes a business community approach, the latter tends to work on the individual.

At one level, the individual is expected to rationalise, at the other to conform through consumerism and political acquiescence. Alexander (1997) explains that recognition of this duality of commerce and its society has existed for some time. In essence, he argues that an imbalance threatens society` when it becomes overly dominant and creates a “severed culture” (Alexander, 1997, p.209) and therefore artificially sustained. He quotes Disraeli and Snow as warning that a:

“similar gulf continues everywhere between the mind of commerce and industry on the one hand, and the mind of non-commercial people – most people – on the other.”

(Alexander, The Civilised Market, 1997, pp.208-209)

If this is the case, one of the needs of a capitalist economy from its community is complicity and another is apathy. When the USA and the UK became enamoured with the market, they did not fully comprehend that business is based on profits and that “present profits are offsets to future costs” (Alexander, 1997, p.124). Governments supported markets at the cost of small business, competitiveness and ultimately high unemployment. To support an artificial ethic, society must either be too powerless, and at worst apathetic, to demand change, or too comfortable believing the ideals of individuality. The price of this redefinition of ‘self’ has been loss of community cohesion. This brings us to the means of capitalist power and whether loss of community values are the price to be paid for individuality.

Slater examines how philosophies and theorists identify ‘alienation’ (Slater, 1997, p.104) of the individual where people become a commodity to be managed. For the majority, they no longer are integrated into a society within which they are part of the control system. It has been argued that there is the illusion of control maintained through choice (Slater, 1997). An idealistic example could be an individual in a self-sufficient but essentially subsistence economy such as a tribal village. Each person contributes to the survival of the whole village. Roles are understood. Culture is therefore a reflection of unity and survival. However, in the apparently ‘rich’, technologically advanced economies, the cult of the individual has placed specific values on success through materialism… and perhaps best supported this through the illusion of choice. Slater further examines this illusion of choice and its production through the media and suggests that:

“All consumption, but above all cultural consumption, has become compensatory, integrative and functional. It offers the illusions of freedom, choice and pleasure in exchange for the real loss of these qualities through alienated labour; it integrated people within the general system of exploitation by encouraging them to define their identities, desires and interests in terms of possessing commodities; and it is functional in that consumer culture offers experiences ideally designed to reproduce workers in the form of alienated labour.”

(Slater, Consumer Culture and Modernity, 1997, p121)

Slater comes to the above through his study of the development of political economics from Marx to Smith, the Frankfurt School to Soper (1981) and Doyal and Gough (1991). He uses the issue of modernity as his framework. In the above quote he talks of capitalism as essentially a cycle of loss. He also argues that culture produces the demand for this capitalism in the first place and that therefore if “all objects of consumption are meaningful [this] implicates them in the wider field of cultural reproduction” (Slater, 1997, p.5).

The following looks briefly at this social reproduction from the perspective of Bourdieu and education. It does this in order to see how individuality and community actually fit within contemporary society. This gives an opportunity to see how political mechanisms use social structures for the production of specific communities.

Bourdieu (1983, cited in Webb, Schirato & Donaher, 2000) argues that schools are mechanisms for social reproduction. In this example, they are mechanisms for reproducing social inequalities through their policies and practises. For example, Mercier and Harold (2003) demonstrate that the religiously and culturally generated westernised ideal of the heterosexual family unit finds expression in school documentation. This raises the question of discrimination. Whitton, Sinclair, Barker, Nanlohy and Nosworthy (2004) list the forms of discrimination likely to be met in teaching ranging from race to academic ability.

How each school accepts, rejects or translates these terms of reference seems to depend on its own cultural and educational version of Bourdieu’s habitus (Schirato & Yell, 2000). For example, schools that respect difference may act firmly to stamp out evidence of sexism under the banner or anti-bullying. Their reaction may be just as firm against the somewhat more recognised discriminatory forms of racism (Lareau & McNamara, 1999; Sandercock, 2003). In understanding the reactions to these issues, the values placed on social inclusion finds expression through applied social reproduction. For example, translation of another degree from another country into a qualification recognised abroad can take a renegotiation of Bourdieu’s cultural capital (Schirato & Yell, 2000). If the issue to be re-evaluated is race or sexuality, the space for it in the culture determines the procedures necessary to move from isolation to inclusion. This can be empowered or disabled by the values placed upon it.

To take this a step further would perhaps be to recognise this example as showing the vulnerability of individuality when it is beyond specific economic value systems. Social, economic and political discourses can perhaps be seen as reflecting and manipulating the value systems applied to educational institutions. As Robert Doherty (Journal of Educational Enquiry, 2003) puts it, social exclusion may be perpetuated through deliberate institutional, personal and political ambiguity. If there were an economic value to be placed on the people involved, the situation may be very different.

Berger asserts that “capitalism does operate by the principle of self-interest” (Religion and Liberty interview, 2004). However, he then goes on to divide the situations individuals occupy. For example, a business person may well be a parent and apply different ethics and attitudes to each area. Therefore, whilst successful businesses require an underlying self-interest, the same person may have a more altruistic approach in other areas. When Broom and Selznick (1979) explain culture from a framework of social organisation, they show how different underlying values affect the individual.

“Culture is the design and the prescription, the composite of guiding values and ideals”

(Broom & Selznick, Essentials of Sociology, 1979, p.57)

And

“Statements of need are by their very nature profoundly bound up with assumptions about how people would, could or should live in their society: needs are not only social but also political in that they involve statements about social interests and projects.”

(Slater, Consumer Culture and Modernity, 1997, introduction)

In this context, consumerism takes culture, re-designs or creates need and draws an illusion to create a contemporary image of individuality. The politics of a market economy apparently has to conform to support this in order to support its economy.

However, one way of assessing how individualism stands in relation to a balance of power between culture and economics is to look at some of the recent studies into ‘downsizing’. Whilst not new this is an individual choice and a reaction to discontent with contemporary society. In Hamilton’s (2003) examination of what he terms a sickness derived from affluence, he sees down shifters as the “standard bearers in the revolt against consumerism” (p.207). They represent a move away from humans as consumerist ‘objects’ and return to values based not on how much they own and earn, but on their value as people. However, this is still an expression of individuality and it is not a return to community or family values. In this book Hamilton tracks the changes from the classical economist’s view of economy where the aim was to quantify how to develop a society’s wealth. He takes in the voices of dissent such as Veblen (1925) and Galbraith (1958) that sought to warm against the growth of consumerism not as a panacea but more as a cultural poison. Other warnings came in the forms of nations approach to their pronunciations on economics. Where policy makers and politicians need seemingly factual tools to communicate with their electorate, economics can provide. However, Hamilton uses the example of Kuznets warnings regarding reducing a nation’s prosperity to a measurement based on national income (p.13). These provided something of a false floor above which consumerism and the individual continued to thrive but below which a widening gap was forming. It could be seen as a hollowing out, an undermining, of the values that had held people together, but perhaps that is too idealistic. When he comes to the unchallenged rise of ‘neo-liberalism’ (p.10) Hamilton uses the discontent within rich societies to demonstrate how wealth and consumerism have failed the individual. He points out the essential fact that individuals have to act in their own interests in order to support consumerism. From this point it is easy to make the jump to the illusion of the individual as some-one with free choice.

These illusory factors are perhaps products in themselves. For example, Lasch (1978) looks at the human condition as predisposed to narcissism. If this is so then illusions and ideals, as recognised by Bordieu (1990), are allowed to distance themselves from reality through altering systems of belief. For example, Bordieu uses the example of social roles such as monarchy to show how culture endows roles within specific structures (1990) and creates the person in that image. He recognises “social functions are social fictions” (p.195). Yet again, images are presented in place of realities. Applied to this is change. Lasch states that the ‘degeneration of politics in spectacle” (1978, p.81) has led to the transformations of “policy making into publicity” (1978, p.81). He continues with identification of this distance between image production and reality. He explains how disempowerment, and alienation, occurs due to these images becoming the focal points. Whilst these two points of view may diverge on other issues, they agree on idea that “images of power overshadow the reality” (Lasch, 1978, p.81). But where do these images and illusions find their genesis? In modernised reproduction of ideals? In the production of expected stereotypes? Is the notion of the family unit replaced not only by a unit of commercialism but by an image of itself and its role in social structures? Both Bordieu and Lasch recognise the impossibilities of endowing an illusion with responsibility.

Another method of judging how the community fits with politics is to look what happens with migration, such as with the Italian culture. This is historically strongly networked, in part due to the city state mentality and late unification of the country. Amici, vicini, parenti (friends, neighbours, relatives) as the saying goes are still a composite force in Italian society. The answers as to why community spirit should have resisted degradation better than in many other technologically advanced societies has been much explored. One answer stems from the weakness of the political bodies and lack of trust in the ability of a politics to support the nation. These seem to be one of the fundamental causes of continued community interdependence. If this is true, then the link between politics and a consumer society is evidently very strong. Whilst Italy does not in any way lack consumerist ideals, it maintains the community through a distrust of political spin and lack of longevity (although Berlusconi has succeeded where many have failed – perhaps aided by owning some of the television stations).

This can be taken further by looking at how Italian reacted to migration. For example, how did the Italians who migrated to America react? According to Gardaphe (undated), they were “constantly negotiating their relationship between the local cultures of their origin and of their land of immigration”. It is interesting to find that self-image of Italian American individuals is affected by whether they are integrated into the structures of power associated with that community:

Where the local identities are strong is where Italian Americans are an integral part of political and social infrastructure; it is weak where there is little or no connection to that community.

(Gardaphe, undated)

This would agree with the idea that competitive individualism plays two roles in society. It could be said that an egocentric, consumerist attitude where the self is important above all else plays into the hands of the illusion of modern society. However, the above Italian American example seems to show that community needs to involve all aspects of society in order to provide a strong, cohesive balance of powers.

To a degree, this essay has been broader in its approach than hoped. However, it has tried to substantiate the view that there are many elements responsible for community decline. It has looked at the rise of individuality from its roots as a part of historical community – the Enlightenment and Renaissance – to the extremes of alienation brought about by competitive individualism. The essay has looked briefly at education from the perspective of Bourdieu and his theories on social reproduction. It has also looked at migration to see what happens to a particular community then. In summary, the rise of competitive individualism seems to be more negative than positive. It has not provided the happiness that it promised, yet the illusion of freedom makes it worth while. Throughout the essay, illusion has been a focal point for both economy and culture. The essay has looked at propaganda and ‘spin’ as tools of the market place and politics and produces of illusion. This emphasises the division between reality and illusion. Whilst the essay agrees with Bourdieu that the reality of social institutions is that they do attempt to reproduce the societies and cultures they come from, it also agrees that politics and the market create the ideal for their own ends. Therefore, competitive individualism is just one part of the re-definition of community. However, where culture will change in accordance with society, individualism is a basic essential of a capitalist economy without which the market cannot operate in the form we now know it.

References

Achbar, M & Wintonick, P. (1992). Manufacturing Consent: Noem Chomsky and the Media. A feature documentary. Quebec, Canada: Necessary Illusions.

Albritton, R., Itoh, M., Westra, R. & Zeuge, A. (eds) (2001). Phases of Capitalist Development. Hampshire: Palgrave

Alexander, I. (1997) The Civilized Market: Corporations, Conviction and the Real Business of Capitalism. Oxford, UK: Capstone Publishing Ltd.

Allen, R. (consultant Ed) (2002). The Penguin Concise English Dictionary. London, UK: Penguin Books

Bourdieu, P. (1990). In Other Words: Essays Towards a Reflexive Sociology. Translated by M. Adamson. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press

Broom, L. & Selznick, P. (1979). Essentials of Sociology. (2^nd Ed) New York, NY: Harper and Row

Doherty, R. (2003). Social exclusion: licence through ambiguity Journal of Educational Enquiry, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2003. University of Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom

Carter, D. (Ed) (2004). The Ideas Market. Victoria, Australia: Melbourne University Press

Featherstone, M. (1991). Consumer Culture and Postmodernism. London, UK: Sage Publications

Foucault, M. (Oct-Nov. 1983). Discourse and Truth: The Problematiz

Alcohol is drinks such as beer and wine. It contains a substance that causes to loss of consciousness, which affect the thinking person. Drinking alcohol is one of the biggest problems facing the Australian community. The proportion of people at risk as a result of excessive drinking of alcohol 3200 people die and almost 81000 people admitted to hospital every year. The government is trying to reduce the risks that affect their health and their social situation because of it is impact on the public and especially minors. As a result, the government cares about its population and especially minors and believe that drinking alcohol has many threats to minors could lead to several problems and risks to lead of loss their lives and also because of its negative impact on health, mind and behaviour of minors. So, the government is trying to raise the drinking age to 21. This essay will discuss the positives and negatives for raising drinking age to 21.

There are several positives for raising drinking age to 21. Firstly, alcohol adversely affect their health. For example, alcohol is containing ethyl alcohol is the substance adversely affect the mind that affect thinking, mood, and emotion of the person. In addition, The mind of the person grows and develops from the age of 15 to 24. So, alcohol has a toxic effect on the brain of a minor. Secondly, reduce the fatality rate. For instance, Increase dose of drinking alcohol may cause death because their bodies and small brains do not bear it. Statistics show that half of the males and females aged 14 to 24 die each year from drinking alcohol. Moreover, many fatal accidents; such as traffic accidents while crossing the road as well as car accidents due to loss of concentration and awareness that caused by drinking alcohol. Also, may negatively affect a person life which may lead increased incidence of suicidal in minors. Thirdly, lift the legal drinking age to 21 has positive affects to their behaviour. An example of the affect a person life to increase in violence. The Government believes that raising the age of drinking to 21 is the best ways to address the problem of violence caused by drinking alcohol. Furthermore, for drinking alcohol affects the behaviour of the minors, such as aggression, anger and depression that caused by family problems and social. In fact, drinking alcohol negatively affects the lives of those people who under the legal age.

Raising drinking age to 21 has several negatives. First of all, raising the drinking age to the age of 21 deprives them of their rights as adults. some people believe the person who at 20 becoming an adult is entitled to vote, and live in private home away from their parents, and enter the military. For example, in the war withVietnamhas been reduced drinking to the age of 18 due to the death of many young people in the war to protect their country. So, they are considered adults and they can rely on themselves. In addition, raising the drinking age to 21 to prevent them from enjoying life and doing as adults. Many countries have the legal drinking age of 18 as well. Secondly, raising the legal age of drinking does not prevent a minor from drinking. For instance, a minor can find someone for brings the alcohol for him, many under the age of 17 drinking alcohol; even though, they are prevented from drinking. Also, raising the legal age of drinking that prevents them from drinking alcohol and can lead to minor went to the steals alcohol. In addition, raising the legal drinking age does not solve the problems resulting from underage drinking. For example, theUnited Statesthe legal age for drinking alcohol have the age of 21 but they have the same problems of countries with legal drinking age of 18. Indeed, raising the legal drinking age will creates many social problems instead solve the problems.

Raise the legal drinking age to 21 would not solve the problem of violence, suicide, car accidents and other problems. For example, can reduce loss of life and the risks resulting from drinking alcohol. placing limit for amount of drinking alcohol instead of changing the law at the age of drinking alcohol. Additionally, minors can learn how to drink alcohol responsibly and in an attempt to prevent addiction to alcohol instead of raising the legal drinking age to 21.

Inequality Essay

Racial inequality among blacks have long been a blatant circumstance of the American experience. Such circumstances range of from the horrible realities of African enslavement in the 1700s to the restrictions on human rights such asand unfair practices such as literacy tests before being permitted to housing and voting in the 1950s. Fast forward to modern day, and the progress that blacks have initiated in America is evident through legislation like the Voting Rights and Civil Rights Act. Both are pieces of legislation which stemmed from the Civil Rights Movement. Despite the advancement, the repercussions of such mistreatment of blacks by whites are still in effect today. The issue of “internalized racism” comes in part from the pressure of a majority white society and economy wanting blacks to be a “model minority,” while in fact the institution of a majority white society are the ones in “denial” of the ongoing problems that make blacks feel they should not be the “model.” All the terms have socioeconomic complexes pertaining to the inequality of backs in America. Each term will be defined in context of the paper as well as analyzed and interconnected with each other term through factual justification attained from a socioeconomic and historical basis.

The term internalized racism refers to the negative, condescending racial viewpoints that blacks have towards other blacks. Viewpoints such as seeing your own race as lesser than another race, not wanting to be of your own race, and wishing other people in your race were not associated with you are all forms of internalized racism. For hundreds of years, blacks were told that they were not equal to their white counterparts. They were told that having “dark skin was a mutation, and were made lower in society” (Smedley 59). These observations, as we know today, are completely absurd. However, such remarks were made and carried on for so long, and even acted on by white authority during periods of slavery where “lighter skinned Africans did not have to engage in harsher labor tasks as darker skinned Africans”(Colorism 1). Plus, majorities of American Congress agreed to the inequality of blacks with Jim Crow Laws and voting laws. Therefore, it is reasonable to see the internalized racism of blacks in previous generations where they would believe that they are not equal to whites or that their darker skin is a mistake. Furthermore, such ideologies from white society carried on in post-slavery eras such as the Industrial Revolution where blacks with lighter skin were more acceptable in society. Therefore, within black communities having fairer skin was seen as a positive physical attribute rather than having darker skin. This colorism among blacks was another form of internalized racism. Also, due to white supremacy, the “black” way of speaking which was primarily through ebonics was seen as uneducated. Therefore, in many Black communities internalized racism would arise when one spoke “white” because other members of the community would frown upon that and assume you were trying to be “white.”

Moreover, speaking “properly” refers to a way of speaking that does not comprise of ebonics or any other cultural dialect of English that does not derive form white colonialism. By doing this, whites would view blacks who spoke in such a matter as educated and reformed. With the notion of white supremacy which favors “whiteness” over “blackness,” the dialect more associated with whites would be what was deemed more acceptable and appropriate. Such viewpoints from model minority still have profound impact. I can recall my sister being teased by other blacks in middle school because she supposedly “talked white.” One of the black girls even went as far as to say, “you think you’re better than us?” With such a statement, it is apparent to see the internalized racism at work. Just because my sister spoke in a way in which was deemed by white society as “educated” and “pure,” other black girls actually believed that and saw that my sister’s “white” way of speaking was automatically better than their dialect even though my sister never made any statement or action of superiority over them. Furthermore, my sister’s way of speaking would be seen by whites as appropriate or the “model” way in which to speak. However, my sister was not trying to be something she was not. That was just the way she spoke. My sister has her own beliefs, culture, and influences that have all affected her dialect from birth. However, with white society forming an acceptable “norm” in which to speak; there is some vulnerability for instances internalized racism among blacks and other non-whites.

The socioeconomic implications from the experiences my sister has had as well as other African-Americans are evident as well. According to a poll conducted by Monster.com, one of the leading employment websites; it was concluded that employers are more likely to hire someone who has a similar dialect to themselves. Furthermore, with most employers being Caucasian, it is advantageous for African-Americans to develop a dialect that may not be natural to them. In my sister’s case it was natural since she is a first-generation American, therefore, her dialect can be easily derive from her life experiences. However, this can really be an issue to many African-Americans in the workforce because they feel they have to behave not authentically in order to just have a chance of being hired and contributing to the economy. In stating this, one could conclude why this could be one of the reasons why the highest rates of American unemployment are among African-Americans. This is crucial because that leaves a substantial vacancy for African-Americans in the workforce. Who knows the economic gains that could be derived if Americans tapped in to the potential human capital of all people rather than those they could most identify with? There has been legislation passed that makes some corporations meet a “quota” for minority employees, however, I believe corporations should really seek out to racially broaden their workforce rather than just meet a quota because you are forced to. Diversity promotes different perspectives, experiences, and knowledge that could all be beneficial to help a company grow. This is a circumstance that I believe more corporations should seriously look into.

The term model minority refers to the “proper” manner in which white society believes blacks should behave. Factors such as dialect, culture, and behavior are all effected under the model minority. The “proper” manner that white society believes blacks should engage in terms of this paper is a manner in which they “keep to themselves, don’t initiate any political change for the betterment of their race, speak without the use of ebonics, etc” (Model Minority). Basically the culture that derived from white colonialism is the culture white society wants blacks to take on. In addition, by white society wanting blacks to also keep to themselves and not try to initiate any political change; the notion of white supremacy will stay intact without their power being compromised. The term denial is a more refers to the ignorance of racial mistreatment that whites have towards blacks that the whites themselves fail to see. The inequality among blacks by whites has made substantial progress in modern-day from where it was even 50 years ago. Inequality based on race is illegal in nearly every facet of American life which allows blacks in America to succeed in ways unheard of in previous generations through affirmative action regulations set for universities, reformed voting laws, and more. However, despite the progression blacks have fought for, there is still a lot of inequality. The amount of blacks in prisons far “outnumber the number of whites although whites commit more crimes” (Weiser). Moreover, “blacks are the highest race targeted” with the Stop and Frisk laws placed in New York (Weiser). However, even with many racial inequalities that whites perform towards blacks; many whites believe that racism and prejudice is not alive, and that the lives of black people are just as equal and fair as whites when that is not true as evident through the preceding issues addressed. The issue of denial can be predicted for the following reasons: Since whites do not have to conform to the “model minority,” they don’t realize the struggle that many blacks go through with having to abandon who they really are as people in order to adopt model minority principles to be more accepted in society which could lead to their own personal, economic growth. Therefore, with blacks trying to be more accepted and play a part in a majority white economy, they have to deal with internalized racism stemming from condescendence among some blacks for abandoning their culture in order to “fit in.” Furthermore, since many whites are not really aware of this, it is easy to deny issues that many blacks face especially within their own cultural circles.

The socioeconomic impact of trying to be a “model minority” is prevalent among blacks as well. There is a renowned opportunity cost at stake when it comes to this issue. Should a black person act like “society” wants them to act in order to have a better shot at employment and advancement within the workforce, therefore forfeiting their cultural integrity to get ahead? Or should a black person stay true to themselves, and be looked at as “different,” therefore diminishing their opportunities for employment and career advancement? It’s a tough decision to make, and many blacks and minorities find themselves in a space where they have to balance the two worlds. Furthermore, having to work to find this “balance” takes away from the time that blacks could be using to be more efficient contributors of the economy. It brings an additional, psychological workload on top of what they already have to deal with in their respective economic situations.

Racial inequality among Blacks and Whites have long been a critical part of the American experience. The depiction of the model minority is a motivating factor behind some internalized racism within black communities and groups. Therefore, it can be easy for a white or non-white person who is not associated with any such group to deny some of the issues at hand. Furthermore, with the advancement of civil rights and privileges of modern-day that are somewhat due to blacks going against the model minority during the Civil Rights Movement; whites may believe that the fight for equality is over, and that blacks and whites are in fair, equal society. As we know by now, that is not the case, but with discussions such as the ones brought up in this paper even more progression can be made with race relations and inequalities in American society.

Introduction

It goes without saying that education equality has always been one of the most important questions in Afro-American struggle for equality. It is essential that the Southern states has always been the stronghold of racial inequality and treatment to the Afro- Americans was worse than anyone else is one the most important places in the struggle for equal education. This paper would examine the endless struggle of the black minority in St. Louis for getting the equal education, as good as the white majority gets. The analysis of the struggle for the primary civil rights of the Afro-American nation would help to realize how important was reaching educational equality in the area where the blacks were always considered to be unequal members of the society, who does not have right for the equal jobs, rights and education as well. This struggle for the equal education would be the best illustration for the further generations and help them to understand what a difficult way. “What happens inside the classroom is only a small part of education. What, where, and how students learn is a function of the organization of the school system, prevailing theories about learning, local political pressures, and, of course, financial realities. The history of education in St. Louis is little different than that of most American cities, in that it forms another framework through which to view the community’s past” (St. Lois Government, 1996). The aim of this essay to reveal the difficulties the black minority met while fighting for the equality in the educational sphere

St. Louis. The beginning of the struggle for equal education of Afro-Americans

It is a well known fact that even in the 20th century it could be hardly spoken about equal rights for the backs and the whites in the educational sphere and Southern states of the U.S. The education of the black minorities, if it is was possible, was separated from the white children and it goes without saying there was no even slight mention about the equal educational facilities: “Schools were segregated by race. Churches operated the first schools for African-American children until 1847, when Missouri law forbade teaching African-Americans to read and write. First Baptist Church pastor John Berry Meachum responded by opening the “Freedom School” on a barge in the Mississippi River, which was federally owned, and thus beyond the reach of state law” (St. Lois Government, 1996). The segregated schools became legal in 1896 by the United States Supreme Court (Plessy v. Ferguson case). Back and white children in St. Louis studied separately for more than 50 years and only after the World War II the first steps towards the desegregation were made. The black children were mistreated at school as were as well their parents at work and what is the most poor in this case that it was legally supported over the whole country: “Giving the power of law to the separate-but-equal doctrine, school systems nationally kept black and white children apart. The problem was that separate wasn’t equal” (St. Lois Government, 1996). Hence after the war the civil rights movement was developing quite quickly. Afro-Americand understood that they could not live under the white oppression and the most burning area were Southern States of the United States. : “In its landmark Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka decision in 1954, the court reversed itself, saying that separate education was, by definition, unequal. Amidst a rising tide of social awareness about racial equality, Catholic schools in St. Louis had already figured this out, desegregating the Archdiocese system in 1948. The Brown decision did bring about one immediate change in St. Louis education” (St. Lois Government, 1996). The first step towards the changes which were so much needed was made. It goes without saying that the whole system needed desegregation as equality of education is one of the primary rights of the person. It is essential that representatives of the Afro-American nation were seeking for the equal education and equal work facilities with the whites. They were not intended to yield the places in public transport to the whites and were intended to provide for their children equal with the whites education. The schools were poorly equipped compared to the white communities’ schools: “East St. Louis Senior High School, whose biology lab has no laboratory tables or usable dissecting kits, with nearby suburban schools where children enjoy a computer hookup to Dow Jones to study stock transactions and science laboratories that rival those in some industries” (Linda Darling-Hammond, 2010). The primary equipment needs in the schools of racial minorities were still severely violated and it is not surprising that the educational level of the black children was significantly lower that the white ones and they could not get equal job and get equal income in future. The problem was really burning and it got to be solved, either by the local government or by Afro-American community itself. As it usually happens the problem solution was found by the the black themselves. It is a well known fact that one of the most significant problems in segregated schools was teaching. The white teachers did not appreciate teaching of the black children that the Afro-American community of St. Louis was eager to train black teachers themselves to raise the quality of the black teachers and the level of the black children education: “Stowe Teachers College evolved out of the Sumner High School program to train black school teachers since 1890. But Brown v. Topeka Board didn’t fully address the issue of de facto segregation brought on by housing patterns. Blacks were relegated to their own city neighborhoods, where their children attended neighborhood schools. When housing is segregated, so too are the schools. Funding, and therefore educational quality, receded during the 1950s and 1960s as well. What had once been one of the best public school systems in the United States had plummeted. Black students especially suffered as public schools declined in a core city with a disproportionately high African-American population. Three in four students in the St. Louis Public Schools were black in 1980, while more than two in five white youngsters attended school outside the system. Public education in St. Louis came under court supervision in 1980, with the goal of desegregating St. Louis Public Schools” (St. Lois Government, 1996). More than hundred years have passed after declining of slavery and starting of the fight for the equal rights of Afro-Americans with the white majority, when in St. Louis the desegregation program started. It is not surprising that being separated from the equal education from the very beginning the Black Minority did not chanced to protect themselves and seek for the better future. Low rating of the Afro-American schools and their segregation from the white children also had a significant impact on the crime rate in the region, the level of unemployment among the Afro-Americans and other significant factors that form the whole economical vision of the city. Such a poor treatment and late start of desegregation program negatively influenced St. Louis as resort area and economical center of the region as desegregation program was not started earlier, but only in the late 20th century. The following chapter would reveal how desegregation program was started and what were the results of it.

St. Lois. Desegregation program of primary and secondary educational systems in the area. Its beginning, results and decisions.

Desegregation plan was started in 1983 and since then it has a controlling eye of media, civil rights foundation and other on it. It is essential that development of the blacks segregation in the certain areas in the late 20th century, when the civil rights were not just an empty words, but people struggles for equality for more than hundred years and finally reached it. Then we see that desegregation was started to assimilate the white majority and black minority as the human rights should be observed and the Afro-American community could not stay aside the social life of the country: “Five years ago, St. Louis pioneered a metropolitan wide school desegregation plan that tried to fuse the predominantly black and poor inner city with 16 mostly white and wealthy suburbs. The plan, which resulted from a Federal District Court settlement that postponed threatened litigation for five years, involves no mandatory busing and became the largest voluntary school transfer program in the country, with 12,000 children attending schools outside of their designated districts each day. It has also met most of its goals for integrating blacks into suburban St. Louis County schools” (Amy Stuart Wells, 1988). It was the first attempt which was under the strict control and attention from the federal government. And it should be mentioned that even after just five years of this program operation in St. Louis the other areas took some significant parts of this particular program to solve the typical questions in their local place. It is not surprising that being the pioneer is very difficult task and St. Louis as the area of traditional confrontation between the black and the white communities had to overcome certain difficulties in order to reach the desired effect. The core idea of the program was the ability of parents to chose the schools for the their children studies outside the area of their dwelling: “Once hailed as “one of the most creative social experiments of our time” by William H. Hungate, the judge who oversaw its design, the plan has fostered many problems. Among them are what some parents and educators in the city call a brain drain of the city’s best black students, too few white students coming into the city system and high operating costs, financed mostly, and reluctantly, by the state. Concept’s National Appeal. Still, the main component of the plan, the concept of allowing parents to choose schools well outside their local districts, has gained national appeal as a way to extend to inner-city children the better educational opportunities often available in suburban districts” (Amy Stuart Wells, 1988). Different civil rights foundation often relate to the St. Louis desegration program as one of the most significant attempts of the past century and consider that it has incorporated the core elements of the school changes involving expansion of such an element as freedom of school choice and accountability. The researches consider that St. Louis desegregation program is one of the most significant achievements in the fight for the civil rights of Afro-American community and it was the largest school choice plan, which let with 13,000 to 15,000 to break through the boundaries of the suburb, the boundaries of inequality, and the boundaries of racial discrimination: “It permits parents of children in failing schools to send their children to more successful public schools. The St. Louis desegregation plan reconstitutes failing schools with new principals and educational programs-elements of the education reform program supported by President George W. Bush and Senator Edward M. Kennedy” (William H. Freivogel, 2002, p. 209).

The same time analytical investigation of the school reform in St. Louis provided by the investigator of the Century Foundation (Task Force on the Common School) William H. Freivogel came to the conclusion that even desegregation did not solve one of the most significant problems for American secondary system and the St. Louis reform has a number lessons to take for the further reforms all over the world: “the St. Louis desegregation plan has lessons to offer the rest of the nation. Neither school desegregation nor accountability magically creates a level playing field for African-American children. But an entire generation of students-black and white-has had an opportunity for a high-quality education in an integrated setting. African-American students, who took advantage of this opportunity, gained significant, if not dramatic, improvements in achievement, graduation rates, and college attendance” (William H. Freivogel, 2002, p. 210). The increasing of secondary education of drop out rate is probably one of the most significant problem for the white majority and the black minority of the area met. The data provided by the different educational establishment showed that the black minority used their advantage and actively participated within the desegregation. The following data give the compared results to the other cities of the U.S.: “Data from the 1990 census show that, in Florida and Texas, urban districts generally have a greater percentage of minority students as part of the total student body than rural districts. This is a national trend as well. It has been estimated that in the mid-1990s, for example, 53.8 percent of urban schools had predominantly African-American student populations. In some cities the number is higher: Milwaukee, 61 percent; Philadelphia, 64 percent; St. Louis, 80 percent; Atlanta, 92 percent; and Birmingham, 94 percent” (Matthew Ladner and Christopher Hammons, 2000, p. 94). We see that the drop out rate increasing is not just the problem of the St. Louis Area and it even yet it may have connection to the desegregation, It should be noted that the Black minority after the years of suffering from inequality and mistreating within the different educational establishment took their chance. The success of the desegregation should be undertaken as one the positive example of the racial struggle for equal right for the education and freedom of choice. Understanding the mistakes of the past the government developed the plan which corresponded to the needs of the racially discriminated African-Americans. The final edition of the plan included five main components. One of them was so called interdistrict transfer program it “required mostly white suburban districts to either increase the number of African-American students by fifteen percentage points, or to reach and maintain the plan goal of a student population that was 25 percent black” (William H. Freivogel, 2002, p 213). One of the core features of this plan was that the student would apply for the district she or he would like to study in. The same time the district should identify the children, who need special education and screen for any discipline problems, but it should be noted that they could not send the student off due the academic disorders. Another element of the program was creation of magnet schools in the city and their aim was to create balanced student bodies, which would be attended by the white students from the surburb: “After a decade of slow growth, the number of white students from the suburbs traveling to schools in the city climbed above 1,100, reaching a peak of 1,478 in 1997” (William H. Freivogel, 2002, p 214).. The third part of the plan was quality of educational component. The thing the black segregated schools always suffered its aim was “to make capital improvements in city schoolhouses and to improve the education of those students left behind in all-black schools-a number expected to be from 10,000 to 15,000 students” (William H. Freivogel, 2002, p 214). The forth element included financial part, which was aimed to make the first three components working. The prosperous areas received nearly $ 10, 000 per pupil for accommodation and less prosperous from $ 3,000 to 4,000. And the fifth element was to provide 5 year lasting stay of the interdistrict case. It would help to evaluate critically the effect and the results of the first step.

It is essential that each step of this plan contributed a lot to the unending struggle of the Black minority for its educational rights. It goes without saying that this desegregation plan was one of the most important decisions in the fight of Afro- American society for the equal educational facilities and it actually reached the aim. It goes without saying that it was the great victory in unending struggle for equality.

Conclusion

In the end it would be essential to make a stress on the fact that this desegregation program provided a significant impact on the whole country. The positive elements were undertaken in other areas, when they started their personal desegregation programs celebrating cultural diversity and racial equality. Personally I support the idea, that it was the great victory of Afro-American community in their fight for equal education and now not only in St. Louis but in many other cities all over the United States people could choose the school despite the district we live. The racial question is still one of the most important in the present day United Sates but such reforms help a number of Afro-American children to find their place and the white ones to understand the necessity of interracial equality and communication.

References:
William H. Freivogel. St Louis: Desegregation and School Choice. Century Foundation Press. 2002
Matthew Ladner and Christopher Hammons. Special but Unequal: Race and Special Education. Houston Baptist University. 2000
Linda Darling-Hammond. Unequal Opportunity: Race and Education. Education, Race. Education, Race. Spring 1998
St. Lois Government. 1996. St. Louis Historic Context. Education. 28. 04.2010. Official web site of St. Louis city.
Amy Stuart Wells. St. Louis Evaluates Its Pioneer Integration Plan. The New York Times. June 8, 1988