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Have Gun, Will Travel . . . to Work

Do you have a moral, not only a legal, right to own a gun? Assume that either the Second Amendment or state law gives you a legal right to keep a gun in your car when you drive. Do you also have a moral right to do this? Do you have either a moral or a legal right to park a car with a loaded gun in a privately owned public parking lot regard-less of what the lot’s owner wants?

I as a citizen am of the opinion that I do have a moral right to own a gun. I earn a right to protect myself from any danger or threat, legally. Therefore It is morally acceptable too if somebody wants to own a gun without hurting the innocent. When the state law allows a person legally to keep the gun, it is morally correct to have the gun in the car or anywhere else until and unless the owner of the place does not have any problem with it. But in conditions where the owner of the parking-lot doesn’t support the decision, it is legally and morally incorrect to practice your own will in somebody else’s property.

. In your view, do employees have either a moral or a legal right to park cars with guns in them in the company parking lot? If so, what about the property rights and safety concerns of employers? If employees don’t have this right, would it be good policy for companies to allow them to stow guns in their cars anyway? Do companies have good grounds for being concerned about weapons in their parking lots?

In my opinion, employees have the moral and legal right to park cars with guns in the company parking lot if the company allows. If the company I concerned about the property rights and safety issues of the employers and stops the employees to stow the guns in the cars, it is legally incorrect and the employees would be charged of practicing illegal acts without the consent of the owner. Companies have grounds for being concerned about the issues as any kind of mishap can take place in the parking area if the place would be loaded with guns and therefore the company would be held responsible for the issue. In order to avoid that, companies have all the right to stop the employees from stowing guns without their permission.

3. Do you agree with the NRA that if companies ban guns from their parking lots, this restriction would take “a wrecking ball to the Second Amendment” or nullify the right of people to have weapons for self- defense? Explain why or why not. In your view, have gun advocates been guilty of politicizing this issue? Do you think state legislatures are right to get involved, or should the matter be left to companies and employees to settle?

I agree with NRA that if the companies ban guns from their parking lots, this would nullify the right of the people to have weapons for self-defense, because even though the second Amendment allows the use of guns foe the self-defense, it does not allow to practice something without permission of the owner on a private property. Therefore In my view, the gun advocates should have been guilty because there is no second thought about it. If the owner does not allow the guns, they cannot be forced. Rules are defined by the owner of the property. State legislatures should not get involved in the matter as the legislature allows the keeping of guns and also to abide the rules of the owner. Therefore it is a matter of the employee and the companies to handle the issue.

Because the workplace is the company’s private property, the company could choose, if it wished, to allow employ-ees to bring guns not only into the parking lot but also into the workplace itself. Are there ever circumstances in which doing so might be reasonable? Or would the presence of guns automatically violate the rights of other employees to be guaranteed a safe working environment?

If the company does not allow the employees to bring guns into the parking lot, there is no condition that it might be reasonable to bring in the guns until and unless the company allows the particular employee or all the employees to stow in their guns on a given day. Otherwise it will be against the law and would be illegal. It would violate the laws and the rights of the other employees. Rule defined by the companies is that do not put guns in the cars, then keeping them would be considered a violation of the rule.

What would a libertarian say about this issue? What considerations would a utilitarian have to take into account? What conclusion might he or she draw?

The libertarian would be against the ban on having guns in the cars of the parking lots of the companies as their basic concern would be the employee’s right to keep whatever the state has allowed him to. He will be of the opinion that the employees can keep anything they want to keep themselves safe from any sort of danger on their way from home and office. They have a right to protect themselves on their own. He would conclude that the companies are irrational in putting such demands and they are being self-centered by not giving a thought to the employee’s security. The state should be involved in the matter as if the state allows the legal right to keep the guns, the companies should not prohibit it.

If you were on a company’s board of directors, what policy would you recommend regarding handguns, rifles, or other weapons in employees’ cars? In making your recommendation, what factors would you take into account? Would it make a difference how large the company was, the nature of its workforce, or where it was located? If you support banning firearms from the parking lot, what steps, if any, do you think the company should take to enforce that policy?

If I were on the company’s board of directors, I would make a policy to partially ban the stowing of guns and rifles in the cars. I would suggest to make a safe place where every day my employees who wish to keep their guns with them can deposit them and can claim those on their way back to home. Keeping the guns in the parking lot is not safe, therefore they can be kept in a well-guarded place. This would please the employees that their issues are taken care of and thus wont effect the company’s policies as well. The nature of workforce and the location would not make a difference as the policies are same everywhere.

Explain whether (and why) you agree or disagree with the following argument: “ If employees have a right to keep guns in the parking lot, then they also have a right to bring them into workplace. After all, we’re only talking about licensed, responsible owners, and the same rationale applies: An employee might need a weapon for self- protection. What if a lunatic starts shooting up the company?” No I do not agree with the argument mentioned above as that is totally based on the owners will that what does he/she permits its employee’s and to what extent. If the company allows the employee’s to bring in the guns in the parking lot and does not allow the guns in the company, the employees cannot practice that. No body earns a right to practice something on other’s property without the permission of the owner. The safety concerns of the company are justified and I support the decision of the company. It is the responsibility of the company to take care of its employees.

Union Discrimination:

Assuming the Foundation’s description of the case is accurate, was Paul Robertson treated unfairly? Was this a case of discrimination? If Robertson was an “at- will” employee, does he have any legitimate grounds for complaint?

Considering the given issue and assuming that the description is accurate, I am of the opinion that yes Paul Robertson was treated unfairly. No state rules that if the employee does not join a union or pay union dues, he or she cannot work. It is the basic human right that he can work without any external policies. It is up to the employee if he/she wants to get associated with a union or not. Companies cannot force or make a deal with the union that they will hire only employees that will deal with union. It was a strong case of discrimination as Paul Robertson was deprived of his basic rights without any legal reason. If Robertson was an “at-will” employees he might not have any legitimate grounds for the complaint as he won’t be treated differently and unjustly and would to be able to complain.

Does it make a difference to your assessment of the case whether someone like Robertson knows, when he accepts a job, that he must join the union or that non- union employees will be the first to be laid off?

No, this might not make any difference to my assessment as any company cannot put such allegations on the employees. It is on the free will of the employees that they could join or do not join the union. The employees are hired on the basis of their skills and aptitude regardless of the fact that they will join the union or not. This an extreme case of discrimination as the future employees are judged on the basis of their willingness to join the union or not despite of their skills and hard work. My assessment that this is a case of discrimination would remain intact even in the given scenario.

If union employees negotiate a contract with management, part of which specifies that management will not hire non- union employees, does this violate anyone’s rights? Would a libertarian agree that the resulting union shop was perfectly acceptable?

Libertarian would never agree on this company and union setup. Every person should be hired for a job he is eligible of and fills in the criteria. Keeping such restrictions would be a biased decision and the violation of human rights. Every person has the freedom to choose what they want. This is not an acceptable scenario. A person should be rejected from a job if he doesn’t have the skills to fulfill the job not on the basis of tagging them as union or non-union employees.

Presumably Paul Robertson could have joined the union, but he chose not to. What principle, if any, do you think he was fighting for? Assess the union charge that people like Paul Robertson are “free riders” who want the benefits and wages that unionization has brought but try to avoid paying the dues that make those benefits and wages possible.

Paul Robertson could have joined the union but he did not because he was fighting against the discrimination policy that the company had utilized. His basic fight was for the rights that he possess even if he does not join the union. The Union’s charge of Paul Robertson as a “free rider” is inacceptable ad vague. The wages and the benefits that employees like Paul Robertson enjoy are the benefits they get because of their hard work and their job. They do not need to be associated with any union to get tat. Those are the benefits they earn it through hard work.

What do you see as the likely motivations of Bechtel Power and the union? How would they justify their conduct?

The Bechtel Power and the union wished to hire the employees that would join the union and pay the union in order to earn money and increase the union employees. They would justify their conduct that they offered Paul Robertson to join the union if the employee cannot meet the demands of the organization, the company bears the right to fire him/her. The company would justify by implying that meeting the criteria of the company is the basic need of the company and Paul or employees who do not join the union are not meeting the criteria so it is not a discrimination case if they do not hire such individuals.

Why did the Foundation run this ad? Is the ad anti- union propaganda? Do you think the Foundation is sincerely interested in the rights of individual workers? Or is it simply interested in weakening unions vis- a- vis management?

In my opinion, the foundation run this ad to help the people and to aware those individuals that actions are taken against the discrimination. It is not an anti- union propaganda but an effort to help the individual workers who are deprived of their basic rights. The foundation is boosting the people to speak up for their rights and building a trust that they are there to help them in such circumstances and they should fight for their basic rights. The aim of the ad is not to target the union or to propagate against the union. It was to highlight the issues of the individuals.

Assess union shops from the moral point of view. What ­conflicting rights, interests, and ideals are at stake? What are the positive and negative consequences of permitting union shops?

Morally, the union shops are incorrect. The rights of individuals are at stake. The right to work without any restriction is sacrifices. Even form the company’s point of view it might lose hardworking individuals because they might not be willing to join the unions. The company could be at stake too with such restrictions. The positives of permitting union shops is that the company could bloom with the employees paying the union charges but keeping in account the negatives, it might lose skilled employees and only those will be hired that would be willing to accept the union and pay charges.

Migrant Workers and the Development of Dubai.
Introduction

Dubai is part of the United Arab Emirates (UAE), one of the seven emirates that make up the UAE. Dubai attracts millions of visitors for both business and pleasure each year. Dubai is a relatively new city. The last 30 years have seen mass construction as can clearly be seen from the pictures of Sheikh Zayed Road at Annex 1 and from the NASA pictures at Annex 2. As in any developing city numerous construction cranes dot the horizon. Dubai is very much a tale of two cities… the stunning modern city and the workers subject to labour conditions of those in the dark ages. Dubai has achieved economic success due to both its abundance of natural resource and because of its tax free shopping but at whose expense and with what future potential problems has this stunning modern city emerged? While Dubai has emerged as a global city, hosting sporting events and conferences and attracting both media attention and the attention of the rich and famous for its beautiful buildings, villas and apartment, criticism of their treatment of immigrant workers and of human rights violations have also emerged.

This essay looks at who is operating those cranes, the people who are building this new, ultra modern city and examines the Government’s policy towards them. The first section provides a demographic profile of the population of Dubai. The second section looks at the socio-economic stratifications that exist in Dubai and the potential here for conflict, particularly in relation to the migrant workers. The third section looks at some of the UAE Government policy towards migrants, in particular it looks at the issue of human rights examines the criticisms of human rights violations. In conclusion it is argued that if the Government of the United Arab Emirates does not act to support and protect and integrate the people that are building their leading city then there is potential for great repercussions.

The fast urban development that followed the 1971 federation completely changed the character of Dubai. The local citizens now represent only a minority of the population of which the great majority consists of immigrants from different societies with different planning ideologies (Haggag, 2003). The Table below clearly details this with 83.02% of the total population of Dubai being foreign born. The cultural and economic implications of this are discussed in the following section.

Dubai – Metropolitan Statistical Area – Foreign Born – 2005

(http://www.gstudynet.org/gum/UAE/Dubai2005.htm, 31/03/07)

Country of Birth

Population

% of Foreign Born

% of Total Population

India

538,560

51%

42.34%

Pakistan

168,960

16%

13.28%

Arab (from SW Asia and North Africa)

116,160

11%

9.13%

Bangladesh

95,040

9%

7.47%

Philippines

31,680

3%

2.49%

Sri Lanka

19,008

1.8%

1.49%

Europe

11,616

1.1%

0.91%

USA

3,168

0.3%

0.25%

Other Countries

71,808

6.8%

5.65%

Total Foreign Born

1,056,000

100%

83.02%

Total Population*

1,272,000

Source: Ministry of Labor (2005 Statistics)

* 2004 Estimate, UAE in Figures

(www.uae.gov.ae/mop?UAE_figure/UAE_%2004_files/sheet001.htm)

There are very distinct cultural (social) and economic stratifications in Dubai. Nicholson describes this as the ‘Dubai sandwich: at the bottom, cheap and exploited Asian labour; in the middle, white northern professional services, plus tourist hunger for glamour in the sun and… at the top, enormous quantities of invested oil money, combined with fearsome social and political control’ (Nicolson, 2006)

Although a Muslim emirate, Dubai has largely developed upon Western lines. large-scale projects have been imported and implemented by western professionals, using their own modern building technologies. Many practical decisions, which ultimately affect the structure of society, education and administration systems, and the shaping of the physical environment, are taken largely according to western ideologies. In many cases, major planning policies, development strategies, and even legal codes follow western models (Haggag, 2003). Arab cities are fundamentally laid out differently to western ones and the impact of western planning ideologies on the traditional pattern of Arab cities has been significant. There is a cultural dichotomy between western and Arabic. The complex pattern of architectural concept and style, the development of building processes, are all impacted by changes in socio-economic, political and cultural development (Haggag, 2003). As a result Dubai is a Westernised city in an Arabic state. This is true culturally as well as bars and restaurants serve alcohol, women are free to go out alone (not usual in most Arabic countries). There is concern over this but herein lies the crux of the issue for Dubai how can a minority ideology rule? Dubai has strict policy on public behaviour, it is an arrest able offence for a man and woman to kiss in public and it’s an offence do dress inappropriately during Ramadan. Recently there has been debate in Dubai about the problems associated with multiculturalism in Dubai. (Fattah 19/10/06) Western liberalism in terms of dress combined with the traditional Muslim beliefs in the Arab country does not sit well together. Indeed Dubai can be seen as the place where Huntington’s Clash of Civilisations is actually in one country (Huntingdon, 1993). How can Dubai balance the Arabic beliefs with what would become a cultural melting pot based on the multi-ethnic composition of it’s populace. Haggag gives an excellent account of this dichotomy explaining that the adoption of Western concepts and ideologies in the cultural domain contradict the traditional way of life and yet although a driving a concern in most modern Arabic societies, there has been little debate about the potential conflicts arising from this situation. Dubai is catering to the needs of the rich Western investor and needs to find a balance with the more traditional Arab way of life in order to prevent any future conflict.

There is a clear economic stratification in the ethnic groups in Dubai also. ‘Locals are typically owners, Westerners earn the top salaries and South Asians do the menial labor’. (Fattah, 19/10/06) Locals will remain owners, as non-locals cannot buy land in Dubai. The inequality in pay in itself has potential for conflict as the workers cannot be part of the city that they themselves are helping to create. ‘An army of some 250,000 men, largely from India and Pakistan, are labouring to create the new glimmer fantasy, earning on average ?150 a month, and living in camps, four to a room, 12ft by 12ft, hidden away in the industrial quarters of al Quoz. One night in one of the luxury hotels would cost six months’ wages of one of the men who built it.’(Nicolson, 2006)

Government Policy towards Migrant Workers

With regards to citizenship there are strict regulations, foreigners are ineligible for citizenship therefore preventing Dubai from becoming a cultural melting pot even though it has been built by non-residents. Given that there are no means of gaining permanent residency in Dubai (or any of the other Emirates) the UAE Government has ruled that anyone born in the UAE takes on the nationality as their father and not that of the UAE. So should all those currently in Dubai remain there the ethnic make up will not change and the Arabs will remain a minority group in their own country.

In the period since 1971, public policy in Dubai has been characterised by a rush to construct. In order to do so it needed people to do the construction and so to sustain and enable the growth desired by the Government in Dubai thousands of migrant workers have come to the emirate. While the influx of people into Dubai and the construction has happened rapidly, there has been concern over the implementation of thought out and effective urban policy, or in other words policy development has not been in line with the development of the skyline of Dubai.

There have been some reforms introduced but they have been met with opposition from the construction and business communities. In 2005 the Government put limits on when workers could work during the hottest months of July and August after an increase in heat related injuries and fined companies who did not allow for an afternoon break between 12.30pm and 4.30pm. This resulted in a lot of companies just paying the fines. (Human Rights Watch Report, 2007 p. 45) A new draft labour law from the UAE has been criticised for failing to meet international standards, for example it does not protect the workers right to strike in fact it punishes those workers who do strike. If Dubai and the rest of the UAE do not act to improve the treatment and rights of migrant workers they face potential for conflict not only from workers revolting but also increased international pressure, for a developing first class world city they need to balance the needs of the development with the needs of the people who are helping to make the development dreams real.

Dubai is quite unique in that its indigenous population are a minority ethnic group. The Governments policy and desire of rapid urbanisation and a first class world city brought with it an influx of cheap migrant labour, thus changing the ethnic demographic of the emirate. As this essay has shown this has not come without problems and unless effective policies are put in place there is great potential for further clashes along the different, interlinked stratifications that exist in society in Dubai. One of the most pressing issues facing the Government and of course those affected is that of human rights violations. Although this essay has shown that the Government has taken some steps towards addressing human rights abuses, those steps have not been big enough nor have they covered enough ground. The Government needs to find a balance between their needs and those of the people who are building their vision.

Bibliography and references:

Fattah, H. M., (04/12/05) ‘Young Iranians Follow Dreams to Dubai’ The New York Times

Haggag, M.A. (2003) The western influence on traditional Arab cities: With particular reference to Dubai, UAE Sustainable Planning and Development, pp. 801-811

Nicolson A, (13/02/06) ‘Boom town’ The Guardian

United Nations (1990) International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families

Human Rights Watch Report (2006) Swept Under the Rug, Abuses against Domestic Workers Around the World ,Volume 18, Number 7(C)

Human Rights Watch Report (2006) Building Towers, Cheating Workers, United Nations Human Rights Commission

Human Rights Watch Report (2007) World Report UAE, United Nations Human Rights Commission

Huntingdon, S. (1993) The Clash of Civilizations? Foreign Affairs pp. 22-49

Websites

www.gstudynet.org/gum

Globalisation Urbanisation Migration

http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/01/18/uae12233.htm

Human Rights Watch

Marriage normally brings together men and women who complement each other in extraordinary ways (Willard and Harley, n. d.). However, there is an existence of another form of marriage which is a same-sex marriage. Same-sex marriage is legally and socially defined as marriage between two adults of the same gender identity or biological sex (Oxford Dictionaries, 2014). In the earlier century such as ancient Egypt, the marriage between two persons of same gender was encouraged (Altergott, 2012). At that time, attraction between two people with same sexuality is normal and it is considered as an action to express love. In late twentieth century, legalization of this form of marriage becomes a wide debated issue in many nations. However, there are around seventeen countries has approved the freedom to marry for same-sex couples nationwide such as Netherlands which is the first country to offer marriage equality (Pew Research Center, 2013). As of May 2014 in America, same-sex marriage has been legalized in the following states such as Massachusetts, New York, Washington and Delaware (Gay Marriage, 2014). In addition, both Vietnam and Thailand became the first Southeast Asian countries that allow and accept gay marriages but Malaysia is far from adopting the similar accepting attitude to this issue (Michelle, 2013). The issues on religious beliefs and adopted children are the common reason of opponents to affirm their stand. Despite there are some arguments that against gay marriage, there are some reasons that our country and nationwide should consider seriously on the issue of allowing gay couples the equal right of marriage.

People usually condemn same-sex marriage based on their religious beliefs. However, it is morally wrong to discriminate homosexual couples solely based on their sexual orientations. In fact, eliminating the right of homosexual couples to get marriage is meant to denying the healthy relationships among gay communities. Therefore, same-sex marriage should be allowed for protecting the right of same-sex couples although there are many arguments against it.

Legally allowing gay marriage in our society is able to give basic human right as well as freedom for those who have same-sex orientation based on their behavior preference. The equality principle of human rights is meant by the availability of civil marriage without discrimination to all couple (Australian Human Rights Commission, 2012). Therefore, the right to marriage should be given to everyone as long as that kind of marriage does not hurt anyone. One of the civil right is pursuing the happiness but happiness unable to be chased by homosexual communities when people denying gay marriage (Delano, 2013). In this situation, couples with same gender have no right to marry with the person they love and this is obvious that unequal right of marriage may violate their freedom. In fact, no one should have the right to choose the partner for marriage of other people because this is also morally wrong to eliminate the right of marriage for two people who feel affection for one another.

Furthermore, allowing gay couples the right to marry in a legal way is able to foster true freedom of religion (Corner, 2014). Many people are not willing to accept gay marriage as they believe that this form of marriage is morally wrong in their religious belief. However, this is a violation of the true freedom that should be deserved by everyone. In the view of religion, everyone should have the right to get married with the one they love regardless of gender, race or other social category (Faith in America, n.d.). However, banning the gay marriage is actually against the natural and original principles of religious belief. People should be given the right to stay together with another one by concerning on the condition that they will contribute their true love to each other, regardless of sexuality. Therefore, it is no reason to ban the gay marriage based on the religion beliefs.

Also, giving the right of marriage for same-sex couples can promote social equality. When gay marriage or same-sex union is in force, this can directly eliminate the minority discrimination towards gay and lesbian. So, this will automatically increase the societal acceptance towards this form of marriage. Based on the statistics, public support to same-sex marriage has risen 8% from the year which gay marriage was first legalized in United States (Saad, 2012). By allowing gay marriage, people will learn to accept and understand the real nature of homosexuality. Therefore, this will able to help in reducing social misunderstanding over the definition of same-gender relationship. Also, permitting gay communities the right to marriage is meant to allow them the right to deserve their dignity and respect. Since everyone has their own dignity, people should not treat gay couples unfairly but respect should be shown to them anytime to prevent them to believe that they are inferior and not worthy to be treated equally. So, this will directly reduce the social stress faced by the gay couples by showing true equality to gay couples in society.

In addition, marriage equality will allow gay couples to enjoy benefits and protection legally. Everyone should be treated equal regardless sexuality. By allowing them the right of marriage, gay couples are able to access government benefits and protections of the law which is same with the heterosexual communities (Nolo Law, 2014). Additionally, marriage equality may integrate homosexual individuals into the community. This allows government to provide well protection and benefits to them in an easier way to prevent this community to be treated unfairly in society such the housing benefits and insurance protections to their partner. A strong sense of belonging of gay and lesbian to community can be built with the benefits and support given by government. This is will lead the homosexual couples to be more motivated to make contribution to the society. This is also a cornerstone to create a stable society.

Allowing same-sex marriage also can reduce social misunderstanding towards this form of marriage by insisting the right concept on this issue to the people. The ideas of society which think that gay relationships are shallow and uncommitted are inaccurate. Therefore, allowing gay marriage is able to reduce such form of harm to the gay and lesbian. In fact, the unstable relationship is just like in the straight society, where such relationships will also exists but this is merely occupied the minority part within gay communities and exist primarily among the young people (Bidstrup, n.d.). As we know, the relationship will last longer and become more stable as people getting aged and becoming more mature. This natural scenario not only exists within heterosexual communities but also the homosexual communities. So, gay couples should not be denied to marry with the reason of they build shallow and uncommitted relationships all the time.

Other than that, allowing gay marriage is able to overcome the problem of misunderstanding over the nature of homosexual relationship. Over the years, people always consider homosexuality as a form of deviant sexual behavior (Messerli, 2009). However, there is a statement about homosexual relationships have existed for around 600 years according to the historical evidence (Bryner, 2007). Also, people always misunderstand that sexual orientation is a choice so that gay and lesbian are able to reform their same-sex orientation to be an opposite-sex anytime they want. However, many researches were being done for proving that there is a biological causation for homosexuality. Scientists stated that the sexual orientation is congenital and unable to be altered (Law Teacher, n. d.). That means if an individual is born to be gay, they cannot made any changes on their sexual orientation. So, it is not fair to treat them in a different way as this is not their choice to be different.

Permitting same-sex marriage in a legal way can also improve the health of gay, lesbian and bisexual community. In contrast, banning the same-sex marriage is able to damage the health of those who are identified as sexual minority (Schwecherl, 2013). This decrease both physical and mental related health risk in gay communities. In term of physical health, allowing gay marriage in a legal way may reduce sexually transmitted diseases by discouraging the promiscuous sex. According to the research of scientists, there is an obvious improvement of heath by legalizing same-sex marriage. This is because medical visits about physical problems among homosexual individuals has significantly decreased associated with the reduce in healthcare cost in the twelve months following the change in marriage law as compared to the twelve months before the changes made (Hatzenbuehler et.al., 2012).

In addition, allowing gay marriage in a legal way may bring a lot of health benefit regarding the mental health. Since marriage allow couples to become happier they can stay together with the one they love, marriage equality should be promoted to allow the same-gender couples to pursue their happiness (Anderson, n. d.). In addition, unwed people seems less mature in thought and less concern about their discipline. This leads them to be more likely to take some unnecessary risks. So, the homosexual marriage should be promoted to allow same-sex individuals to marry as married people often consider the feeling of their partner before taking risky actions since they are committed to take care of their partner. In addition, since allowing gay marriage is able to reduce or even eliminate the social discrimination, married individuals will less likely to deal with problems of psychological health includes depression (Hatzenbuehler, et. al., 2012). Mental health among sexual minority also can be reduced as they can share their problem to each other and they can solve the problem together.

On the other hand, there are opponents who argue that allowing same-sex marriage will destroy traditional family values in our society. They always affirm that marriage will only make sense when it happens between opposite-sex couples and allowing this form of marriage will merely alter the natural definition of marriage. Besides, opponents also have considerations about the right given for gay to marriage will directly reduce the normal rates of reproduction. They believe that gay couples are will directly affect the future reproduction level since they do not have the ability of having own children. Opponents argue that allowing same-sex marriage will increase the health risk of gay couples and the heterosexual communities as well. They think that allowing gay marriage will lead to highly promiscuous and bring many related diseases though same-sex couples demonstrate that homosexuality will not harm anyone by trying to segregate their behavior from such diseases (Slick, n.d.).

Allowing gay couple the right to marriage will also help in improving their family stability. This is able to promote children well-being in many aspects (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2013). Since children represent the future of the nation, their development should be supported by the society regardless of whom they are parented by. Nowadays, there are about six millions of children are being raised or adopted in households led by gay couples in America (Gates, 2013). However, there are many of them who adopt children are prohibited to get marry legally and this leads the children who are raised by gay couples to be disadvantaged. The lacking of support for gay families denies children within these families the same protections which are afforded by children in heterosexual families. Therefore, this will mislead the children within gay families to believe that their parents are inferior who are not worthy to be treated equally in society. Also, this can avoid the family members of gay community to be adversely affected. This is because lack of opportunity for gay couples to marry family will add family stress within it. Giving the right of marriage to gay couples can increase the social acceptance and prevent impacts caused on the health and welfare of all household members. Also, the close bond if kinship will be formed by people with a more committed relationship as they are interdependence to each other. So, this definitely will stabilize a family. Therefore, allowing gay marriage can help to support the family stability within gay communities by addressing this injustice.

With deeper understanding over gay marriage, it can be known that allowing gay marriage may also bring financial gain or income to government and the society. One of the benefits in term of financial that brought to government and society is the increasing in tax revenue on marriage licenses and tax revenue on sales of wedding items (Ramos et. al., 2009). Since everyone will spend money on their wedding ceremony, this will definitely boost the domestic economic within a gay marriage legalized state. Since permitting same-sex marriage may discourage promiscuous sexual activities and decrease the sexually transmitted illness, it may also reduce the costs of organizing healthy program and campaign. As the marriage equality is able to resolve the problem of psychological health within gay communities, this will also improve their abilities and performance of job which is good for any business and employers. As we know that married couples are happier and become more optimistic and energetic than singles, they will be more productive. Therefore, this allows them to be more concentrate in doing their works. By an indirectly way, this can improve the business competitiveness and economic conditions within our country.

It is also obvious that allowing same-sex marriage does not harm the opposite-sex marriages and communities as well as the traditional family values. This is because society will continue to function well with the existence of gay marriage. There is no proximity between implementation of same sex marriage laws and rates of opposite sex marriage (Ferro, 2013). There is a research of United States recognize that there is no significant changes in rates of opposite-sex marriage as compared the rates after and before the legalization of same-sex marriage (Diebold, 2013). This means same-sex marriage does not bringing down the venerated institution of marriage. Allowing this form of marriage will not alter any previous set legal framework of the marriage institution as gay couples will accept to the same duties that are currently imposed on married opposite-sex couples (Mormons for Marriage, 2014). Apart from that, people always condemn that gay marriage is exposed at high divorce rate as the relationship between gay couples is uncommitted. In fact, divorce rates do not correlate directly with gay marriage. This is because data shows that divorce rate in the states such as Massachusetts that allow marriage equality is lower than in states that gay marriage is not recognized (Aldridge, 2012). Also, decreasing reproduction rates which always condemn by heterosexual communities towards same-sex couples is not only caused by same-sex marriage but also infertile couples. Since infertile couples are still gaining the equal right of marriage, gay marriage should not be the exception.

In conclusion, same-sex marriage should be allowed and accepted by government and society since it is uncivilized and unmerited but it promotes the social equality in the way that it does not harm anyone. However, it must be controlled under strictly regulations to protect the equally welfare of both homosexual and heterosexual communities. Therefore, in order to allow the gay marriage by not affecting the other communities, governments should be take a more serious view on the legislation of this form of marriage to ensure the basic human right of everyone being protected. Educational programs should also be supported and developed to change the social view towards this issue.

Managing the Aftermath of the London Bombings

Introduction

The Aftermath

European Union

Governmental Agencies in the United Kingdom

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The 7th of July 2005 will always be remembered as an infamous date representing the day when a coordinated attack was conducted by terrorists on the public transport system of the city of London during the heavily trafficked morning rush hour period (CNN.com, 2006). The series of attacks occurred aboard three underground trains all within a minute of each other starting at 8:50 a.m., with a fourth occurring on a bus that was traveling in Travistock Square at 9:47 a.m. (CNN.com, 2006). That day saw a death toll of fifty-two civilians, along with the four suicide bombers, and approximately seven hundred and seventy individuals injured (BBC.co.uk, 2006). The incident was reportedly motivated by the United Kingdom’s inclusion in the United States backed invasion and occupation of Iraq (Altermedia.info, 2005). The attack was highly reminiscent of the train bombings in Madrid, with both coming after Spain and the United Kingdom had reduced their troops stationed in Iraq (Dhimmi Watch, 2005).

The events preceding the attacks in London strongly suggested that a similar occurrence might happen in the United Kingdom. With the attacks taking place as the G8 Summit was being held in Scotland, the probability of an attack should have been higher on the British threat assessment scale than it was (World Socialist Web Site, 2005). In addition, London was also in the middle of celebrating the fact that it had made a successful bid for the hosting of the Olympics in 2012, thus the attacks were targeted to achieve maximum effect and exposure (Rasmussen, 2005). But, that view is open to conjecture as the target, timing and nature of the attack could have occurred in any number of possible ways, thus making the potential to suggest its prevention as a rather moot point. The nature of terrorist attacks is their surprise and use of individuals who purportedly can fly beneath the surveillance radar of the authorities seeking to uncover them.

Subsequent information and reports have linked the bombings to Al-Qaeda (Philpott, 2005). The developments resulting from the occupation of Iraq, Al-Qaeda and global terrorism have changed the manner in which governments view, react and prepare for potential occurances. What happened on that fateful day could have occurred in any country at any time, and that propensity is still open. This examination will look at the aftermath of the London bombings and the events that transpired as well as the larger implications and actions that it triggered. And while various plans where in place as a result of the events of 9-11, action after such an event can be subject to variables that even the most prepared plan could not make contingencies for. The following will chronicle those events as well as investigations, inquiries, changes, legislation and findings made in the aftermath from varied quarters.

The initial reports indicated that there were six explosions which was reported as a result of them occurring between stations, thus causing passengers to exit at points located to the front as well as rear of the train streaming them into two opposite directions thereby creating confusion as to the initial damage and explosion count. That development caused additional confusion for the various agencies responding to the attacks until the situation entailing three train attacks was revealed. After the initial confusion cleared it was determined that (CNN.com, 2006):

The first explosion took place on the eastbound Circle Line train traveling from Liverpool Street to Aldgate.
Explosion number two occurred on the westbound Circle Line train between Edgware Road and Paddington approximately.
The third explosion took place on the southbound Piccadilly Line between King’s Cross Street Pancras and Russell Square

The London Underground suspended service throughout the entire network after all trains were brought into the nearest stations thus causing massive displacement for individuals throughout the city. The Tavistock Square double decker bus explosion represented the final of the explosions, where it first passed by Euston as evacuees where exiting from the underground station. It had to divert its route and the final incident occurred (Rasmussen, 2005).

The investigation into the bombings uncovered that the bombs went off as another train was passing in the opposite direction, thus leading to the conclusion that the attacks were timed for maximum effect, however for some reason the bombers did not escape (Sky News, 2005). The investigation uncovered that there were possessions found on the bombers that aided in the identification of the attackers as they where carrying identification as well as other information that subsequently led to the discovery of their factory in Leeds where the explosive devices were made (Edwards, 2005). All of the attackers carried “… return rail tickets … and display car park tickets …” prior to their boarding the trains (Edwards, 2005). Further evidence to supported Edwards (2005) contention, which aligns with of the statements made by Tony Blair (2005) is illustrated by the fact that the explosive devices where contained in large sized rucksacks that could have easily been dumped, and personal effects such as drivers licences, banking cards and other items were found on their remains further supporting his theory that they were deceived by their superiors and the bombs were set to explode in advance as suicide bombers customarily remove all forms of identification and links. The importance of the discovery of the manner in which the events unfolded as well as the origin of the attackers was an outgrowth of the investigation into the affiliations of the attackers. The individuals involved were unknown to authorities by name, however they were caught by surveillance techniques that included a large sweep of activities thus relegating them to lesser status. Through re-tracing their steps based upon the receipts found on their remains it was clear that they traveled to Luton via vehicle, and then onto London by train (Campbell and Laville, 2005). They were captured on the King’s Cross CCTV system at 8:30 a.m..

The Aftermath

In a statement released by the Rt. Hon. Paul Murphy, the MP Chairman of the United Kingdom’s Intelligence and Security Committee, he commented as to whether there was any intelligence information that could have aided in the prevention of the attacks (Community Central, 2005). The official statement and position was if there had been prior suspicions or information, then the authorities would have intervened. In all probability the audacity of the attack, even after the events if September 11th in the United States and Madrid, caught authorities by surprise even though planning for the potential of such an occurrence had been undertaken. There were and are scores of reports commenting on the probability of advance knowledge as well as one of the bombers being spotted a full year prior to the event (officialconfusion.com, 2006a). In addition to the preceding, the government is purported to have had advance knowledge that such an attack would be carried out on London’s underground through information gathered by intelligence services (occificalconfusion.com 2006b). In hindsight it is easy to shift through mountains of information that had been gathered and or observed and put the pieces together after the fact, but the vagueness of data, the many sources and potential endings they suggest makes foresight more difficult.

In one report, the London Metropolitan Police had contracted the private company of Visor Consultants to look into planning a simulated drill concerning the potential of multiple explosive attacks being made upon the London underground system (Chossudovsky, 2005). Interestingly enough a drill simulating such an attack was being conducted at 9:30 that very morning with the participants having to switch in mid drill to an active status. These drills represented crisis management on the part of the London Metropolitan Police (Chossudovsky, 2005). The preceding indicates that the varied reports as documented by Officalconfusion.com (2006a&b) and other web sites in the aftermath had some validity. As the inquiry into this aspect of the London bombings represents as important an area in crisis management procedures either planned or in place prior to the attacks and hence, further investigation is warranted.

A Report to Parliament by Prime Minister Blair concerning the “Government Response to the Intelligence and Security Committee’s Report into the London Terrorist Attacks on 7 July 2005” was presented on May 2006 (Prime Minister’s Office, 2006). The Report stated that the existence of Siddeque Khan was known to authorities, however his identity was not. It, the Report, also stated that Shazad Tanweer was also unknown by name, and that surveillance did pick him up through routine activity, however, since the activity was routine, no special significance was made. Said Report did indicate that the outcome of the 7 July attacks might have been prevented if the Security Service had come to different conclusions concerning the intelligence it gathered before the event.

Blair’s Report also covered the subject of the reduction of the threat level and alert systems which was reduced from severe general to substantial (Prime Minister’s Office, 2006). The Report stated that the intelligence gathered prior to and up to the event did not indicate the likelihood of such an occurrence, and that a high alert level reflects a substantial indicator which did not affect the security aspects being lowered concerning transport systems. With regard to police systems the Report recommended their merging information and operative systems to provide increased communication regarding strategic and national issues as represented by terrorism, with more information passed down to lower levels (Prime Minister’s Office, 2006). The foregoing also indicated an increase in police community support officers from 6,300 to 16,000, with further increases through 2008 to heighten the ability to cover more intelligence areas and retrieve information. In conjunction with the preceding, the Security Service along with Special Forces units have embarked on expansion putting more regional offices in place along with increased fiscal and resource support (Prime Minister’s Office, 2006). Resources from the Home Office were increased by ?30 million, with the level of increase rising to ?60 million for the budget period 2007 through 2008 (Prime Minister’s Office, 2006).

European Union

On a broader plane, the European Union implemented measures representing key priorities as a response to the bombings in London via the Council of the European Union’s Counter Terrorism Coordinator issued a special report concerning the “Implementation of the Action Plan to Combat Terrorism” (European Union Counter Terrorism Coordinator, 2005). While the Report was one of a regular series issued every six months as the result of an adoption by the Council of the European Union, it made special reference to the London Bombings and that this Report contained a response to that event. The European Union, as the governing body for its member states and the center resource in implementing plans and planning of their behalf that takes into consideration past, present and future considerations, the Declaration of March 2004 to combat terrorism was set forth to be a priority for the European Union. As a direct outgrowth of the London bombing the ‘Money Laundering Directive’ was issued and put into action, along with the ‘Directive on Enhancing Port Security’ ” (European Union Counter Terrorism Coordinator, 2005). Additionally, Europol, Frontex and Eurotrust increased their support to the national law enforcement authorities of member nations as well as increased cooperation with national governmental agencies of other non-member nations. Specifically, the Report gave priority and urgency to the London bombings and various measures as a result of it.

The vulnerability exposed by the successful terrorist attacks in London heightened the Council’s sense of urgency to identify, arrest and prevent such occurances. The use of the Internet as a communications medium by terrorists was highlighted, along with their ability to obtain weapons and employ non-conventional explosive devices” (European Union Counter Terrorism Coordinator, 2005). Such developments indicated that additional measures, techniques and strategies were needed in the face of the preceding. New directives included the information exchange program to provide criminal record data to appropriate agencies as well as the improvement of mechanisms in consort with the preceding. The directive made it mandatory that information and cooperation be exchanged between member states along with Europol and Eurojust for all pending investigations as well as prosecutions ” (European Union Counter Terrorism Coordinator, 2005).

Important to the preceding is the access to databases under the Schengen Information System which is to be made fully operational by 2007. Present implementations included the Visa Information System and its consolidation to permit faster detection, information, investigation and prevention by virtue of cross data access and matching ” (European Union Counter Terrorism Coordinator, 2005). A direct implementation coming out of the London bombings was the adoption of biometric identifiers for residence permits along with national identity cards. The implementation of enhanced measures for security regarding explosives, equipment to make bombs and firearms was also put into place (European Union Counter Terrorism Coordinator, 2005). Heightened training for police departments in terrorism, and Customs protocols were also adopted. The areas of Port security along with Airport security were increased through the adding of additional screening measures, new technologies in equipment as well as increased personnel and surveillance systems.

Risk management measures were also upgraded through enhanced Civil Protection Mechanisms, along with crisis management techniques to provide guidance in pre attack, in the event of their occurrence, preparedness and post attack response ” (European Union Counter Terrorism Coordinator, 2005). The London bombings resulted in the Council putting forth a plan to devise crisis coordination as a result of a special adoption of the Council made on 13 July 2005. The foregoing entailed increased information sharing in emergencies and in particular, terrorist attacks when such involves more than one member state, with such measures to be in place by June 2006 ” (European Union Counter Terrorism Coordinator, 2005).

The importance of the foregoing is the increased funding, inter agency cooperation and information sharing for all European Union member states as well as national governments not a part of the EU.

Governmental Agencies in the United Kingdom

The events of 7 July 2005 involved the following agencies and departments, the Metropolitan Police Service, London Fire Brigade, City of London Police, London Underground, London Ambulance Service and the Gold Coordinating Group, MI5 as well as outside intelligence reports. MI5 represents one of the more important agencies in the preceding list and maintains a web site for reference by the general public. It provides information on response levels and threats, however no update on measures either directly taken or in progress as a result of the 7 July bombings is available on their web site (MI5, 2006). Equally important is the Ministry of Defence which maintains a web site as well. It as well did not and does not contain any relevant information concerning departmental updates in the aftermath of the bombings (UK Ministry of Defence, 2006). The same search was conducted for The Secret Intelligence Service (2006) that yielded the like results. The preceding is understandable in that disseminating internal information regarding the conduct of affairs in relationship to measures in place or being put into place, does not represent an intelligent option. Internal measures and developments on the part of governmental agencies are secretive areas, thus new plans and activities represent aspects that are unavailable to the public.

Public sentiment and anxiety in the United Kingdom over the 7 July bombings represent an area of intense concern within the country for all of its citizens. The aftermath of this event resulted in the country developing “… stronger counter terrorism measures … as represented by legislation (Lawson, 2005). As the attacks were carried out by homegrown terrorists, the difficulty in preventive measures has increased dramatically as the identification means take in individuals already inside the country’s borders.

The response by the Emergency Medical Service represents a major component plan that worked from the standpoint of crisis management. With a wounded total in excess of 700 people, the importance of getting medical personnel to the sites, performing emergency services and transporting them to hospitals, coordinating which location was a major undertaking. The London Ambulance Service deployed vehicles throughout the four sites and had to respond accordingly to the level of the incident as developments became known (Heightman, 2005). A situation of this type calls for on the spot reactions, decision making and judgment.

As part of emergency preparedness, the London Ambulance Service had researched various plans scenarios to respond to such incidents as a result of the events of September 11^th in the United States, briefings with government officials and the threat of such a disaster occurring in London as a result of the country’s participation in Iraq and the train attack in Madrid some sixteen months prior. The personnel total exceeded 250 emergency staff, supplemented by a contingency of volunteers who responded to the situation, with approximately 100 ambulances used to transfer injured individuals to various medical facilities (Heightman, 2005). The total or injured exceeded the London Ambulance Service capacity, so under the contingency plans developed, it called in aid from Bedfordshire, Kent, Essex, Herefordshire and Surrey as well as St. John Ambulance and the British Red Cross (Heightman, 2005).

Per the crisis management operational plan the vehicles were staged at locations that had been planned in advance where a large contingent of vehicles could have easy access and departure. Local managers arrived at these locations to coordinated activities and schedule departures as well as points to ferry the injured to as well as aiding in making determinations of whom to carry out first and whom to treat on the scene (Heightman, 2005). In total, the London Ambulance Service oversaw the treatment of 645 individuals, of which 45 represented critical and serious injuries such as burns, amputations, fractured limbs and blast burns, with an additional 300 treated on scene and 300 ferried to various hospitals (Heightman, 2005). Working in conjunction with the London Metropolitan Police the entire operation was seamless and one of the bright spots in a day of disaster.

In the immediate aftermath of the bombings the government’s COBRA crisis management team, along with the Joint Terrorism Analysis Center swung into action which combines MI5 and MI6, domestic and foreign intelligence, Government Communications Headquarters and the police together to coordinate response, investigation and management of the situation (Philpott, 2005). The entire operation went global in hours, pulling in intelligence and research from the United States, United Nations, The European Union, and other countries to review briefings, documents, surveillance and other materials. The inter-agency team London Resilience that was put into operation after September 11^th, coordinated emergency services, health, fire, transport, utilities and business under its umbrella (London Resilience, 2006). London Resilience ‘Strategic Emergency Plan’ represents a blueprint designed for the effective handling of crisis situations in London as a collaborative effort.

The London Metropolitan Police were also prepared for the situation, as stated by Ian Blair, Commissioner, “This is the biggest crime scene in England’s history … a situation for which we have planned and prepared …” (Philpott, 2005). Critical in the immediate investigation of the incident where the 400,000 CCTV cameras throughout London that helped to identify the bombers at King’s Cross when they arrived. (Wikipedia, 2006). It recorded them splitting up and talking, and the investigation team spotted the four bombers on Monday through matching their images with documents found at the explosions (Philpott, 2005). The CCTV system was designed and developed as a result of the 1985 IRA bombings, and the trial program was so successful that it was expanded (Wikipedia, 2006). As one of the most sophisticated CCTV systems in the world, the United Kingdom has one camera for every 14 individuals when home, business, and governmental systems are added together (Wikipedia, 2006).

The events of 7 July has resulted in all major cities increasing their security efforts with respect to subway bombings, however, the measure of scanning all backpacks, pocketbooks, suitcases and other carry one items is not only impractical, but impossible. Thus, in the aftermath the underground system in the United Kingdom is safer, but still vulnerable, much less so than prior to the incident, but vulnerable nevertheless. In London a major impediment to more security measures on top of the additional personnel which has been put into place is fiscal. The present budget does not allow for security officer patrolling enough trains, as well as having at least one officer per station to eye scan passengers (Philpott, 2005). Funds to provide added cameras, hardening of tunnels, fences, radiation detection and intrusion systems, control and command tools for security and track monitoring along with rolling stock have been estimated at ?1 billion (Philpott, 2005).

All in all, the emergency services, police, MI5, intelligence arms and government responded favorably to the largest incident in the country’s history, save for World War II. The planning, preparations, and coordination that the government put into place after September 11^th helped to quickly identify the bombers, although the evidence strongly suggests that they were sacrificed in the process by devices that were timed to go off quicker than they were led to believe thus capturing them in the explosions as well (BBC News, 2005). The fact they were carrying their personal identification, bank cards, and the parking ticket points to their belief that they were deceived by their superiors (Edwards, 2005).

Conclusion

The surprise nature of the bombings could not have been forecast, even in the face of the advance knowledge of the Madrid train attack, as to location, date and timing. Pre terrorist planning by the Metropolitan Police, London Ambulance Service, Fire Brigade and other governmental agencies has not been identified as being sub-standard or negligent. In a Report made to Parliament concerning the “Government Response to the Intelligence and Security Committee’s Report into the London Terrorist Attacks on 7 July 2005”, a full briefing of all of the salient facets were covered. The Security Service did pick up Shazad Tanweer and Siddeque Khan, but their name identities were unknown and they were not identified as significant participants at that time. Said Report made a number of important recommendations regarding the merging of police systems along with increasing police community support officers to heighten departmental capabilities in the future which were enacted. Additionally allocation increases for the police budget were immediately granted.

The blasts also prompted the Council of the European Union to adopt a number of measures concerning intra country intelligence and cooperation protocols. The Declaration of March 2004 to combat terrorism was set forth to be a priority for the European Union. Money laundering,, enhanced Port and Airport security measures were increased and various agencies were provided with directives to devise increased security and cooperation methods and measures. The Council Report also increased Civil Protection Mechanisms, crisis management and pre attack preparedness. The London Ambulance Service performed admirably in response to the attack handling in excess of 600 patients and coordinating the activities of a number of regional ambulances services and volunteer units to effectively ferry the injured to hospitals. Their performance lessened the loss of live and was a bright spot in an otherwise dreadful historic day.

Internal security measures and inter agency cooperation has been enhanced in the aftermath of the attacks to better coordinate activities in the pre terrorist phase through investigation, detainment and arrest. The system has prevented two such occurances and continues to seek ways to improve upon their operational standards. Thanks to the 400,000 police CCTV cameras in operation in the target area, visual identification was made in short order, resulting in arrests as well as the discovery of the factory where the devices were made.

The lessons learned from the 7 July attacks represented severe and costly teachings that the country as well as European Union and the United states have taken to heart. It again provided evidence regarding the need to be ever vigilant in techniques, surveillance and preemptive action to prevent occurances of this type in the future. The loss of live by civilians represents an unacceptable price in a battle of idealism that encompasses the quest of a small group, Al-Qaeda, to impose its will on nations.

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When considering the immensity of accessible knowledge today in our high-tech society it seems more than evident that social change is in equation. The vast scope of fields in which ICT’s (information, communication, technologies) have invaded the global market with it’s unfathomable possibilities just might start a revolution. Knowledge societies now have freely accessible information transmitted instantaneously serving as a support for all essential needs. This capacity to meet the overall needs of the world and the reperccusions of global knowledge on mankind may conceal unthinkable changes.

Education, environmental issues, government issues, religion, science ,wealth and risk management have become ressources through internet of intellectual sharing and education. Valuable information at the touch of the keyboard is not without the responsability that this implies.This massive information giving has caused considerable change in the personal development of each individual having access to a computer and internet, therefore allowing fulfilment in once unthinkable places, enabling the inclusion of disadvantaged people.

On the other hand this may become another reason that accentuates social exclusion in developing countries. The gap between internet users and non internet users may become unbridgeable at some point. Computer savvy and computer illiterate may plunge the needy into even a greater abyss.

What will the side effects be when highly educated masses meet their extreme opposite counterparts?

Imagine the freedom of expression in any given language due to training, an inquisitive eye for other cultures, other lands, other ways of being and expressions of life. The cultural shock would jolt our high-tech societies into facing the fact that with all this information there are still huge discepansies of social classes throughout the world. We frankly need to’ mind the gap’!

This social exclusion for the sake and risk of revolutionary technologies may also cause our downfall. The incredible benefits for those that have access as compared to those who don’t is reinforcing the idea of social power.

Companies and individuals have become direct advocates of risk management and wealth management. On a daily basis right from your home or office you can consult any of your personal investments 24 hours a day. People have become their own financial partners having consequently earned their financial freedom. This freedom has made considerable social changes .People are more and more aware of the myriad of finacial placement possibilites and their options. Without having to leave the ofice they are able to orchestrate their choices by internet which not only brings them to finacial freedom, but to more leisure time.People are planning their future in an industrious way.

What can we say for the risk society in social changes? We can probably say that the stakes are even higher than they were before. Social contrast, environmental pollution, nuclear and chemical weapons, transportation, the crime rate, drug abuse, war, civilian protection, military mangement; all of which through globalisation have created a state of international insecurity. Awareness on a daily basis of this state of unsafeness has

largely contributed to either ignoring the situation and living with your head in the sand, or doing something about it. The person playing the ostrich will still feel insecure. The person that employs his energy in doing something about it may also feel insecure although he has made the choice to make a small step towards change on another level. Neither one of the two cases illustrated is a comfortable situation to be in .

Generations of wearing blinders makes for more generations of wearing blinders which can only ignite the steaming anger of the disadvantaged. On the other hand there are those who give their support doing their best to nuture a feeling of solidarity towards the less fortunate.

Social changes are also produced by the risk society for several other outstanding reasons.

The fact that a high rate of divorce means children coming from mono-parental homes and the precariousness therein is a risk foundation factor of today’s society; Children are left to their own sort,while women are making up for lost time in executive positions on the work force. This new work pattern will affect the structure of the society in it’s roots.

Medicine has made astounding technological advancements in disease prevention and treatments.Which means we have a high increase in population of people over fifty.

Science and medicine alike have progressed in all areas through consequent research.

The outmost prepoderance today is in the domain of bioethics. How are we as citizens of the world going to respect, encourage, develop, the the safekeeping of humanity through scientific practices?

Therefore using those creations for the good of mankind excluding any attempt to manipulate, exploit, destroy,or govern others through these practices. We have come to the stage of our development when it might seem as if we were all reading a former science fiction scenario which has finally come true.

How have religious beliefs changed with knowledge?

Religion has always been subjective whereas science is prouvable knowledge. In the light of the fact that’ faith’ is’ faith ‘ religion has basically remained the same. Few or little changes have occured in the basic concepts. What has changed is the participation and questioning of how faith is transposed. Recently at a conference a woman in the audience made the remark that when the chips are down people turn to their faith and to their God. What awareness has changed are the blossoming number of charities in the world today. People are using their faith and expressing it through social services to the disadvantaged. If church attendance is ‘down’ the charitiy services are’ up’ putting faith into action. Advocates of human rights charities, NGO’s, and humanitarian services combined represent a great influence in counter balancing political issues. Interdenomonational efforts are being made for problem solving, empowerment, and conscience raising. Since the emphasis s not put on the doctrines but more on the strengths of uniting forces, yet another social pattern is changing in the face of new knowledge. In Europe this plurality is especially changing patterns when it comes to world peace. You may find at the same peace movement Muslims, Communists, Catholics all with the same amount of exploitable energy for world peace.

A wave of interest for self-help litterature and New Age spirituality are allowing people to commit themselves in a more individually expressed way. Some choose community service, others NGO’s which may have a more political priority towards human rights, politics, clubs, or groups of people with standards and values to uphold that do not necessarily have a religious doctrine connotation but with a sense of mankind. Globalisation of thoughts has brought about many changes. We need to take into consideration that readily available knowledge influences thought and produces changes in patterns. Whenever there is a change in patterns society is directly implicated as a result of those changes. Globalisation has lead to localization. People may suffer a loss of the individual being drowned by the mass in his identification process. He will therefore feel a need to imply himself on a lesser scale to connect with non virtual existences and to have real life contact. The tendancy will be to form small groups as opposed to immense circles. Business has already predomonated the patterns by imposing it’s multinational structures upon the world.

People will feel a need for real human contact on a smaller scale to be able to face the more universal scale they observe everyday on television. Taking good care of oneself has also become a new priority. A sort of self-awareness that has it’s repercissions on the choice of knowledge saught and it’s resulting change in patterns of thought. Change the thought patterns and society is highly affected as people with self- help in mind and individual emergence are evolving.

Innovative skills and knowledge are at our disposal for inner growth. Perhaps the awakening of the ‘self’ will allow individuals to meet global needs when their own needs are fulfilled.

Media has changed our vision through worlwide news reports. Terrorist attacks have been presented live on TV throughout the entire world. The risk society is even more exposed to insecurity by what is said than by what remains unsaid. Commercials have shaped the image of men and women and given children role models that impress upon them neurotic behaviour as being quite normal. Reality shows are allowing us to enter into somebody’s living room and experience their daily life in every aspect. This is bound to have an effect on our vision of others and our opinion of the world and it’s inhabitants. Our reasoning has been greatly influenced by the everyday aspect of media use through television, radio, magazines, newspapers. This constant focusing of visual and auditive input has also been a determining factor in social change.

In conclusion, countless examples of how knowledge is linked to social change have lead me to believe that without knowledge in the first place there would be little room for change in the first place. When the expression’ ignorance is bliss’ is used it might just be that with the acceptance of knowledge the notion of responsability is heavy with meaning. The inevitable social changes that will occur stemming from cognitive growth are perhaps not always what we would hope them to be. Citizens of the world need to assume their knowledge and the forthcoming responsibilities that it will engender.

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Beck, Ulrich (1992) Risk Society;

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Nowontny Helga, Scott Peter, Gibbons Michael (2001) Cambridge Polity Press

Abstract

Using four published articles this paper takes a look at gender differences in addressing intimate partner violence (IPV), the causes, who’s at risk and what can prevent revictimization. Not only will this paper explore intimate partner violence (IPV) and the motives behind it, it will also discuss the court system, public policies, and the gender bias’ it holds. A portion of the studies analyzed in this paper used the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) to gain research. This study is the largest annual crime victimization survey worldwide. The information used for analysis in these particular journals was gathered from 1987 to 2003, and participants in the study were interviewed once every six months for three years.

This paper attempts to evaluate Intimate Partner Violence and compare the severity and frequency of male perpetrators and female perpetrators. IPV is defined by Cho and Wilke as “a violent crime, including rape, sexual assault, aggravated assault, and simple assault, committed by a current of former spouse or boy – or girl friend”. This topic is important to study in order to reduce the prevalence of IPV and to be able to better help victims of IPV.

In a 2004 study, Henning and Feder compared the demographic characteristics, severity of intimate partner violence and criminal histories of men and women arrested for assaulting an intimate partner in order to analyze the increase in female arrestees due to IPV. The study will evaluate if women offend as often and as seriously as men.

The study analyzed 16,200 men and women from 1997-2001 that were arrested for misdemeanor or felony domestic violence assaults. Henning and Feder (2004) found 16.8% of people arrested during the four year period were women. It was found that females that were arrested were younger than male arrestees and were also young than the victim. In addition to this, the majority of men and women were African American. Additionally, female offenders were more likely to get arrested with their partner and also more likely than men to be charged with a felony assault and to have used a weapon. Contrary to this however, women were not more like to have injured their partner during the dispute. Males in the study were more likely to have had the police involved in a previous domestic abuse incident and also more than twice as likely to have prior arrests.

The study shows that while women do have a fairly high level of intimate partner violence, it was concluded that risk assessments associated with men that were arrested were much greater than risk assessments associated with women that were arrested. Furthermore, the criminal history of men that had been arrested previously for domestic violence and nonviolence charges may be more likely to continually be arrested for domestic violence, while women in the study “appear to be at low risk to engage in continued aggression or criminality” (Henning and Feder, 2004).

A significant weakness in this study is that it fails to take into account self defense from women. For example, if a woman was using violence as a form of self defense, she would still be included in the study. A major limitation of this study is that it only analyzes men and women in Shelby County, TN and may not be an accurate representation of all men and women.

In research acquired by Muller, Desmarais & Hamel (2009) it shows that women initiate physical aggression as often, or more often than men, rarely in self defense, and motivated for similar reasons, typically for the purpose of expressing frustration, to communicate or to control, our out of desire to retaliate. Our public policy focuses primarily on male- perpetrated domestic violence and the needs of female victims and their children (Muller et al., 2009). There are close to 2,000 shelters nationwide and only a handful offer beds or services to battered men and their children (Muller et al, 2009).

Muller et al. (2009) research reveals that women are significantly more likely to have their abuse protection request granted than men, with an approval rate of 91% versus men at 66%. Currently there are 227,941 active restraining orders against adults; almost all of them are domestic violence cases (Muller et al.,2009) Approximately 72% were protecting a woman from a restrained man, 19% restrained a same-sex partner, and 9% restrained a woman from a protected man according to Muller et al (2009). Female defendants were much more likely to use a dangerous weapon when attacking their victims and were also more likely to scratch or gouge their victims (Muller et al., 2009)

In Hamby’s summary article she brings to light the fact that women perpetrate physical abuse against their children in roughly equal numbers, if not more than men. Along with Muller et al. (2009), Hamby research also complies that women report more victimization crimes with the police. Interestingly enough once the police were called they were more likely to arrest assailants of females (36%) versus males (12%) (Hamby, 2005).

The findings were parallel in both Muller et al. (2009) and Hamby (2005) articles, concluding that due to the size differential injury rates are much higher in assaults against women. Research demonstrates that men far more hesitant to report domestic violence than women, even in the more severe cases (Muller et al., 2009). Muller et al (2009) also showed that male plaintiffs are more likely to drop a case given the decreased likelihood that they will report their abuse. This can be due to prevailing norms regarding masculinity, men may be opposed to convey their fear or to call the police even when they have every reason to do so (Muller et al.., 2009).

Cho and Wilke (2010) examined the effects an arrest has on a domestic violence offended and revictimization. Cho and Wilke analyzed men 18 and over who reported being a victim of IPV from a female perpetrator (female victims were also analyzed for sake of comparison).

In the study, Cho and Wilkes found, there are 8 times as many female IPV victims as male IPV victims, which highly contrasted with Hamby’s findings. Female victims in this study were younger than male victims. Similarly to Henning and Feder’s 2004 study, female victims reported more minor injuries while male victims endured more aggravated assaults (Cho and Wilkes, 2010). Also, as Henning and Feder reported, Cho and Wilke found “more female perpetrators used severe violence and weapons than did male perpetrators”. Male victims were revictimized less frequently than female victims; which may be in part due to what was suggested in Henning and Feder’s 2004 study, that women are less likely to be repeat offenders, and also with Hamby’s research that women report more victimization.

In the study, there appeared to be no significant relationship between perpetrator arrest and reducing revictimization of males. However, perpetrator arrest reduced the odds of female revictimization by 45% (Cho and Wilkes, 2010). Also, while Cho and Wilke found there was no difference in revictimization in cases with or without weapons, it was found that victims of rape/sexual assault were three times more likely than victims of simple assault to be assaulted again. Like Henning and Feder, Cho and Wilke concluded that men are IPV victims much less frequently and they confirmed that IPV is mainly male violence.

A significant limitation in this study is that only 33 of the 298 men study were revictimized, and out of those 33 men, only 7 had perpetrators that were arrested (Cho and Wilkes, 2010). Since this number is so small, it would be hard to link arrests to the reduction of revictimization. Another limitation is that the study did not take into account the context of the violence, or what “type” of violence it was, much like Henning and Feder’s 2004 study.

A more conclusive study of IPV would provide a better insight to the understand of male vs. female perpetrators. However, based on the studies analyzed, one can assume that women are much more likely to be the victim of IPV than men. Muller et al. 2009 research deviates from these findings, but it is in the minority. This was the main concern in comparing the four studies, as it seemed like it would be very clear as to which were more likely to be perpetrators – men or women. For the reason that only one of the four studies found that women perpetrate more than men, it is safe to assume that women are more frequently victims of IPV.

As suggested, services and after care for victims of domestic violence is much more geared toward women. Research in the studies proposes men may be less apt to look for help after IPV as well as less likely to report IPV, which can be a severe factor in the skewing of information. Although research suggests that men are more capable of hurting women in IPV disputes, women and men both need to be held to the same standards when it comes to arrests and seriousness of the offenses. In order to more accurately assess the prevalence of IPV against men vs. against women the same action must be taken to each offender.

References

Cho, H, & Wilke, D. (2010). Gender differences in the nature of the intimate partner violence and effects of perpetrator arrest on revictimization. Journal of Family Violence, 25. Retrieved from http://www.springerlink.com.proxy.library.oregonstate.edu/content/g66p6m7l17h04783

Hamby, S. (2005). Measuring gender differences in partner violence: implications from research on other forms of violence and socially undesirable behavior. Sex Roles, 52(11), Retrieved from http://www.springerlink.com.proxy.library.oregonstate.edu/content/n73725h872gn7564/fulltext.pdf

Henning, K, & Feder, L. (2004). A Comparison of men and women arrested for domestic violence: who presents the greater threat?. Journal of Family Violence, 19(2), Retrieved from http://www.springerlink.com.proxy.library.oregonstate.edu/content/mju9703751346711

Muller, H, Desmarais, S, & Hamel, J. (2009). Do judicial responses to restraining order requests discriminate against male victims of domestic violence?. Journal of Family Violence, 24(8), Retrieved from http://www.springerlink.com.proxy.library.oregonstate.edu/content/r8j8u66319rl13j7/

THE IPOD GENERATION

The young adults of today, the under-35s, are often referred to as the IPOD generation. This both connects them with the latest technology and design that the sleek IPOD represents, and according to David Smith in a recent article in the Sunday Times, stands as an acronym for insecure, pressured, overtaxed, and debt-ridden. Labels such as these designate a generation that is experiencing and environment and reaction both negative to itself and to the future prosperity of Britain. They call to question both whether the current situation could have been avoided, and what can be done to more fully integrate the IPOD generation into British prosperity now.

It is perhaps easiest to consider the four labels of the IPOD acronym in reverse order. First, the generation is debt-ridden. This is due not only to an increase in ease of acquiring consumer credit, but also to changing attitudes about debt and an increase in educational costs. Credit is easier to obtain than ever before, with many if the IPOD generation having multiple credit cards and getting them whilst still in school. Various banks and lending institutions, who make high profits from consumers carrying credit balances on such cards, often target young adults who may not be ready to responsibly manage debt. Where once young adults assumed they would need to work and save to emulate their parents’ standards of living, today’s young adults are encouraged towards immediate gratification. They can buy a car on credit, fill the tank on credit, furnish their first place on credit, and so on until their credit limits are reached. Then they are strapped, spending years paying off a quick path to a “higher” standard of living.

Additionally, many young adults leave university with high student loan debt. This reflects both a change in education and a change in the overall British economy. At one time there were well-paying jobs for those chose not to attend university. Many could enter into manufacturing and similar positions with an expectation of job stability and reasonable pay and job security. However, in the past twenty years the British economy has shifted. Many of these “secure” manufacturing jobs have been transferred to Asia and similar countries, where companies can secure workers for much lower wages. Computers and technology have changed the face of many of the jobs that remain, requiring a higher educational level for those wanting a reasonable wage. As a result, the number of young adults going on to university has increased eight times over since the 1960s. Although they feel it necessary to extend their education to have any shot at a well-paying job, this has made university education more commonplace and therefore worth less in the marketplace. Most students have responsibility for some or all of their educational expenses, and resort to loans.

Many of the IPOD generation are therefore leaving university having pounds ten or twenty thousand or more in student debt without the job prospects previous generations enjoyed. They spend years in unstable positions, combating their acquired debt and high rents. The property ladder is not even a consideration, at least not for many years.

To make matters more difficult, the IPOD generation is also over-taxed. This is the first generation who is on the losing end of the welfare bargain, who will pay more into the system than they receive from it. First, the large number of aging baby boomers require greater expenditures by the government on health care and pensions. This requires current workers, including young adults, to shoulder a greater share of the tax burden. This is likely to only become worse over the next two decades, and politicians continue to be slow to cater to the needs of young adults, as the IPOD generation is both fewer and less likely to vote than their older counterparts. Young adults also receive fewer benefits from the state. They are not only expected to pay for their own education, as mentioned above, but health care and pension costs previously mentioned leave less money for other government programmes that might benefit them. Their tax burden, therefore, is disproportionate and a great hamperance to their full integration into and enjoyment of economic opportunities.

A combination of these high taxes and debt leave the IPOD generation pressured. There is a societal expectation that they should be exceeding their parents in lifestyle and success, yet good jobs are few and they have greater obligations from society economically. They must learn to juggle high debt and high taxes at increasingly an young age, often with little hope of escape from such a situation. For example, moving to another part of the country with lower taxes also typically means fewer job prospects and those jobs having lower wages.

In addition, some believe the integration of the UK into the European Union also puts pressure on the IPOD generation. On one hand, British participation opens the opportunities for companies to sell product in a wider market. However, this is more likely to benefit business owners, whom are typically of the older generations, rather than entry-level workers. Increased opening of British job markets to other Europeans actually increases the number of potential workers. This also disproportionately affects younger adults, as workers from some other countries will compete for entry-level and less-skilled jobs, and are often willing to work at much lower wages. This means young adults from Poland, for example, can compete for British jobs, although British young adults are unlikely to benefit similarly from job opportunities in Poland. Such political changes in the both the UK and global environment put additional pressure on the IPOD generation.

All the above leaves the young adults of today increasingly insecure. They can no longer count on job opportunities, even if they have invested the time and expense in additional education. Debt and high tax burdens leave today’s young adults with less available capital, and less prospect of available capital. This makes them less inclined to risk or to venture into entrepreneurial activity. The IPOD generation in Britain are not only less likely to engage in entrepreneurial pursuits than previous generations, but, according to Smith’s report in the Sunday Times, less likely than youth in America, Australia, New Zealand, or Ireland. This indicates such insecurity is particularly a British phenomena, even with the number of wider economic shifts that contribute.

Concerns are rising of the impact of all of this on the future of the British economy. An insecure generation that does not create business also does not create jobs or a tax base. Over time, this further opens British markets to competition from non-British firms. The economy begins to slide, increasing the tax burden on those who are working or trying to develop business pursuits, which hampers their success and makes other potential British entrepreneurs even more insecure and adverse to risk. This has the potential to become a downward circle, with continuing negative impact on the UK economy as a whole and the IPOD generation in particular.

Whilst there are certainly steps that could have been undertaken to lessen the pressure on the IPOD generation, as noted above some of the impact is simply the result of economic and demographic shifts in the economy. In regard to debt, tighter government regulation of credit and tighter credit requirements would reduce debt in the IPOD generation, as would increased government investment in higher education, and programmes to provide other job skills as an alternative to university. Certainly the government could have also anticipated rising health and pension costs and taken steps to alleviate some of tax burden on today’s young adults. Instead, the government appears to be making decisions based on current votes, rather than future economic needs. Increasing affordable housing or programmes for new businesses would additionally address the pressure and insecurity experienced by the IPOD generation. However, all these require both advance planning and the willingness of the government to make difficult decisions that will be also undoubtedly unpopular to older people. Politically, this appears unlikely, although such steps could still be undertaken now.

Some possible avenues to address the needs of the IPOD generation, however, are being considered. A Reform study of the problems facing the IPOD generation contradict Tony Blair’s agenda to increase school leavers who pursue additional education to fifty percent. That plan, the study contends, would flood the job market with over-educated workers who will not be able to get ample return on their educational investment. The Reform study instead recommends focusing on increasing job skills based on the country’s economic needs.

Suggestions include changing recruitment of school leavers and job seekers to assist young adults in securing stable, reasonably paying employment, and implementing apprenticeship plans where young adults can develop job skills needed by the current and future economy without incurring high debt or investing potential earning years in university education that may not provide the same return that it did for previous generations. Both these suggestions would be a step towards assisting the IPOD generation in becoming more economically viable, but larger issues requiring government intervention, as discussed above, are additionally needed to truly address the situation.

Brach Hadean

Immigration in America

The most vital and maybe special historic components adding to the personality for the US system is the range of backgrounds from where the nation’s resident come. Immigrants from nearly every spot associated within the globe have actually been determined enough to leave their particular ancestral houses and work out a brand new life in the US. Except for the American Indian, Eskimos and local Hawaiians, every American is both an immigrant or a descendant of immigrants. The circulation of individuals to what is today the United States Of America started in the the sixteenth century. Information technology proceeded mostly unrestricted until 1921, till congress enacted legislation establishing quotas for the wide range of the individuals that could enter the United States Of America. Most importantly, this continuing immigration made a great and remarkable jump in populace in the United States Of America.

However, the influence of immigration and the growth of the United States Of America goes far beyond its influence on the dimensions of the population. The wave of immigrants that started to enlarge within the 1840s and crested at the conclusion of nineteenth century made feasible the impressive commercial and industrial development of the United States Of America, as well as territorial development. Another influence function of US immigration happens to be the ethic, financial and spiritual range associated with immigrants. Various other countries can track their particular development to size influxes of immigrants.

Circumstances overseas as well as in the United States Of America triggered these individuals to show up here in great waves. Nearly all African immigrants arrived prior the Civil War, but unlike most various other immigrants, they didn’t come by their own accord. Chinese workers, recruited to aid creation of the railroads, set roots in huge numbers in the western Coast within the 1850s and 1860s. A lot of men and women from north and west Europe emerged before 1880. At the conclusion of the nineteenth and start of the 20th century, various others from Southern, Eastern and Central Europe came in bigger quantities for a number of years. Hungarians and Cubans have actually fled their particular homelands to escape communist regimes.

Politics and Immigration

The cultural range made possible by immigration in the United States Of America has enriched US songs, literary works, art, etc. This has additionally had an apparent influence on the United States political system. The most significant facets for the US for many immigrants happens to be a practically endless chances to take part in the American community despite their particular novice standing. After five year’s of good standing residence together with the passing of a number of exams in the concepts of federal government and legislation in the US, any person may become a US resident. The needs and requirements of the naturalized residents have actually supplied inputs for the United states political system. Once the wide range of possible immigrant voters increased, politicians started looking for techniques to win their particular electoral assistance. One particularly efficient means would be to spend even more effort looking into the happenings in nations from where huge figures of immigrants had come. In an effort to charm brand new voters throughout the nineteenth century, the nations government started to support issues associated with certain circumstances in various other nations.

The Emergence of Ethnic Politics

Much more essential, had been the influence of immigrant groups in the United states governmental system as they became involved in the government procedure. Many of these immigrants were indeed peasant farmers from their particular country of origin . They had little to no formal training education in crafts, investments or careers. The very first immigrants attracted from many nations had been in most cases apathetic and highly dubious of politics, and they regarded this a regulating device. It was in the nations hubs of towns and cities that the immigrants initially became linked with politics. Sooner or later they became linked, mastering all that politics could offer their particular passion by assisting to supply them with tasks and neighborhood solutions. They discovered furthermore that politics supplied networks of development for the highly motivated people in the immigrant group, which discovered their particular place in the government it self, either becoming a frontrunners or serving frontrunners on their own. Numerous immigrants shortly discovered that, when they ran for a particular office, they could bring in a considerable wide range of ballots from member of votes from people in their particular immigrant collective.

As immigrants made up bigger and bigger levels of voters within the metropolitan areas, they became more and more effective in electing their particular people to general public positions. The immigrant politician tried to discover tasks for people in their own cultural group. Just as crucial, he aided them withe guidelines, legislation and obligations of citizenship in positions where in the vocabulary ended up being unknown and hard to learn. In return for these favors, the immigrant voters added to continued governmental help. This design, which appeared in the last half of the nineteenth century, profoundly affected the nature associated with the US governmental system. The design ended up being private and individual instead of focused toward wide problems of general public plan. Certainly, it had been focused toward getting the financial protection of immigrants in a realm of uncertainly. No matter what appeal might be presented to immigrants to become part of the modern or major governmental movements, the device that opened the doors to immigrants ensured their loyalty because of the opportunity originally given. Immigrants thus never ever became an essential power in reform politics.

The very early individualistic and personal direction of immigrant politics ended up being changed with 2nd and 3rd generation immigrants. Politics based on favors started steadily to minimize as second-generation immigrants at the conclusion of the nineteenth century reacted to the increasing failure of urban area employers to provide all their particular requirements. Second generation immigrants had additionally an even more extended consciousness of this opportunities of politics than their particular forebears. The cultural groups within the urban centers started to join modern and liberal governmental motions and by the time the New Deal contract came into existence in the 1930s they constituted a crucial base of help for the democratic party.

Cultural Politics and American Pluralism

Possibly, one of the most essential results of immigration in American governmental life happens to be the extension of ethic identification in American politics. This respect to nationwide beginnings is of good relevance whenever a possible prospect is selected for public office. Additionally, it influences the casting of ballots, the framing of problems, the filling of community tasks and a lot of other issues in the government. The continuation of ethic identification is particularly significant because it reinforces the pluralistic personality associated with the United states political system. It adds to the complexity of causes affecting the tasks of federal government and it will help to make sure that governmental aid is going to be extensively provided. Since there are incredibly numerous ethic distinctions, no one group is in a position to obtain control of the equipment necessary for control of the US federal government.

In spite of the perseverance in maintaining ethic identification, many ethic groups have grown to be adequately assimilated into American culture to subordinate this identification for their identification as US citizens. This is because of the capacity regarding the governmental portions of this culture to take the newcomers into the governmental and social procedure.

The Ebony in the American Situation

Unlike various other ethic groups, black American, who’ve been here prior to the creation associated with the republic, haven’t been in a position to take part completely in the government. Despite their expertise aided by the vocabulary or their typical values with bulk of People in America, they are held outside the framework of the United states culture. Rules, statutes and customs had been piled against them, preventing them from voting, from equal education and the right to live in an area of their choosing if affordable. Even after reformation, numerous blacks continue to be annoyed at their particular incapacity to play a role in the inputs of governmental system. They think there are no particular officials through who they may be able channel their needs or who can express their issues adequately. Some black colored individuals believe that aggression and violence may be their only way to counteract this ineffectiveness within the governmental system.

Cultural variety can be both a benifit and a hindrance. In a lot of instances, it has a tendency to deteriorate and prevent a person or group from obtaining control, therefore permitting most of the groups to take part in the democratic processes. Conversely, like in the scenario of black colored United states, whenever any solitary group is not incorporated into the procedure, the democratic beliefs are not satisfied.

Altering Patterns of Immigration

In the past years remarkable modifications have actually taken hold within the diverse populace of immigrants who are assimilating into America. Whereas within the past, many immigrants arrived from Northern Europe, nowadays practically one 3rd of all of the immigrants come from Asia. This development reflects an improvement in the immigration legislation in 1965, that Eastern Hemisphere and Europeans nations are placed on equivalent ground; not more than 20,000 immigrants per 12 months from each nation are permitted to enter the United States Of America. Of certain importance would be the fact that immigrants these days are attracted through the elites of the local nations, instead of through the lower classes. It has triggered a mind drain who has badly crippled a lot of Asian nations.

The issue of Illegal Aliens

By the conclusion of the 1970s the United States Of America had been confronted using the uncommon issue of coping with millions of unlawful aliens. It’s impossible to acquire a precise count of illegal immigrants, the Immigration and Naturalization division places the cumulative figure at 6 to 8 million. The issue is especially in the Southwest, in which happens to be an apparent intrusion of Mexicans, looking to escape the extensive impoverishment in their own personal nation. It was projected that huge numbers of unlawful Mexicans cross the country’s borders looking for employment, that a few of the United states companies provide due to the lower wages. The issue of illegal aliens reflect change in the immigration plan that today significantly restrict immigration. Whereas previous immigrants established the anchor for the current work force and the literal feeling they created a great deal of America, the descendants regarding the initial immigrants today start to see the increase of individuals from overseas as a risk for their jobs in a nation of lower than filled national employment.

Sources

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States

http://www.history.com/topics/u-s-immigration-before-1965

http://www.inmotionaame.org/home.cfm;jsessionid=f8302211001397524805099?bhcp=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)

http://www.sparknotes.com/us-government-and-politics/american-government/american-political-culture/section2.rhtml

A shame community is described as a society whose main tool for ruling over is gaining having power over children and continued control over adults in the perpetration of shame and corresponding threat of social rejection. A guilt society is described as a society that is maintained by creating control and consistently strengthening the sense of guilt and the anticipation of reprimanding now for predestined behaviors.

Raimond Gaita carefully explains that there is moral challenge in the Australian society in the contemporary society. He arguably disagrees that by keenly depriving the indigenous inhabitants their land the Australian government the most important part of their humanity thereby denying them a chance to enjoy their lives to fullest. In report of bringing them home and ‘Mabo’ are associated to legal and historical symbols that bring back to what was not given to inhabitants of Torres Strait and Aborigal Islands by taking away the land that formed part of their humanity.

Professor Raimond also explains that refuting peoples their humanity is terrible and that it calls a change of attitude and language for the society to remain intact. The drawing on Simone Weil ” Love sees what is invisible”, the professoer recognizes that some ideasA “can only be understood by the heart”. Raimond, sees the Australian High court instituting ruling using wild language and describes the judgment as shameful to those who pay attention with their hearts. There is racial discrimination in the Australian society which is depicted by the phrase, Terra nullius, which is used to imply that Aboriginal people are not full human as the invaders. The latest decisions of Australian High court have been done to bring an end to past injustices and the court had affirmed the full and the same humanity of native people.

According to Raimond, those people who were involved in refuting indigenous people their humanity felt guilty, and there was shame to all the members of the Australian society. Raimond belives that just as society should be conceited about national achievements in which people have not been directly involved, the society should also express shame for what wronging its inhabitants and develop a method of amendment to manage the nation shame. Raimond views that if there is no shaming and its consequences, then justice cannot be possible.

According to Raimond, true shame societies are reliant on outside sanctions for good behavior not as true guilt societies on an internalized fervor of transgressions. Shame is depicted as an effect to other people’s condemnation. Raimond claims that a society is openly scorned and rejected by fantasying to it that make it ludicrous.

According to Raimond, when shame is viewed as a heteronymous forced or involved with issues that are deemed morally irrelevant or insignificant it becomes as a subject of psychological evaluation. Raimond views familiarity of guilt to be socially induced or associated to be ethically irrelevant.

Raimond believes that torture, should not be applied to human race during interrogation. But he further adds that in circumstance s where there is a potential threat of terrorism then use of torture should be advocated. Raimond believes the fact that many Australians do not understand what has been substantiated in the report of bringing them home requires to be put in a wider social context. The Australian community’s comment that they never cared enough about Aborigines humanity demonstrates the scope of racial discrimination inAustralia.

Modern feminism began in 1960s in the United States with the Women’s Liberation Movement. This political movement subsequently spread to Europe and initially focussed on equality between men and women. Women saw themselves as ‘subordinate’ and nothing more than “imaginary figures, the objects of another’s desire, made real” (Mackinnon, 1987) and thus tried to raise awareness of the social inequality experienced by women. Social feminist geography (adopting a Marxist ideology) revolved around the question of how best to articulate gender and class analyses, with the theorisation of a ‘sexual division of labour’. Haraway (1991) thus claims “a feminist is one who fights for women as a class and for the disappearance of that class”. From these roots drawing inspiration from women’s movements of the 1960s, feminist geographies have developed considerably and diversely over the last 30 years and now hold, without doubt, a considerable institutional presence. This essay will overview the development and progression of feminism as a ‘critical discourse’ and argue that although scholars such as Bondi, in McDowell and Sharp (eds) (1997), contend “…feminism has never achieved a high profile in geography…” and that the “…potential of feminism is ignored…” this is NOT necessarily the case. I will argue feminist theory has shaped theory and practise in geography through raising the awareness of gender issues, helping remove blatant sexism from academic journals and institutions and contributing hugely to the ‘cultural turn’ within the discipline.

A huge volume of literature has amassed on feminist geographies over recent decades meaning that in the current era there are numerous ‘feminist geographies’ spanning across the discipline. This is clearly apparent in the number of books that have been published on the topic, the formation of the journal Gender Place and Culture in 1994 and the volume of articles that can be found in other contemporary human, cultural and social geography journals. Although feminist perspectives and outlooks vary in theory and content, common concerns cut across them all (Johnston et al., 2000). Developing out of the radical separatist ideas and oppositional politics associated with the ‘global sisterhood’ of the 1960s and 70s, came a more theoretical outlook associated with the ‘cultural turn’. Feminism thus developed as a critical discourse. The discipline of geography itself was criticised for its inherent masculine bias and for “excluding half the human from human geography” (Monk and Hansen, 1982). Haraway (1991) argued that women “do not appear where they should in geographical literature”.

However, as part of the cultural turn, the shift away from grand theories and a concentration on diverse and interconnecting global micro-geographies, gender was understood to interact with race and class and therefore to understand gender, one “had to constantly go beyond gender” (Connell, in McDowell and Sharp, 1997). The massive literature on contemporary feminism thus reflects criticisms that ‘Western feminism’ has played down sexual, racial and class differences. Western feminism had been strongly criticised for being ethnocentric, as it obscured or subordinated all other “Others” (Haraway, in McDowell and Sharp (eds) 1997). Black women argued they were not constituted as ‘women’ as white women were, but instead constituted simultaneously racially and sexually as marked female (animal, sexualised and without rights), but not a women (human, potential wife, conduit for the name of a father). This critique expanded into development studies where it was argued although ‘cultural barriers’ can impede policy progress, many of these barriers may in fact have been magnified and reinforced by Western interventionist ‘gender blind’ development policies, through an ignorance of local traditions (Crewe and Harrison, 1999).

The further development of ‘feminist geographies’ and the attempt to make women visible through ‘geographies of women’ has also resulted in a large literature on feminist methodologies (Moss, 1993; Nast, 1994, Farrow, Moss and Shaw, 1995, Hodge, 1995), including experimental writing and self-reflexivity (Rose, 1997). Work by Rose (1993) criticised geographical fieldwork as being “masculinity in action”, using historical examples such as Tansley’s (1939) ‘Man and Nature’. McDowell (1992) also details sexist biases in research methods, culminating in an absence of statistics about women, for example, detailing their unpaid labour (i.e. housework). In many studies there also seems to be a lack of women that were interviewed. For example, William Whyte’s Street Corner Society (1955), in which he seemed unaware that he had only interviewed men! There has thus been an application of feminist ideas to research and fieldwork. Feminist enquiry now works for an egalitarian research process between the researcher and her ‘subjects’.

A further similarity between ‘feminist geographies’ is that they trace the inter-connections between all aspects of daily life, across sub-disciplinary boundaries of economic, social, political and cultural geography. From Linda McDowell’s extensive research on the feminist geographies of the labour force involving ‘glass ceilings’ and discrimination (McDowell, 1997), to Hoschchild’s (1997) ‘dual role’ women and the ‘second shift’ (women having to be carers and mothers as well as career women). There has also been a huge volume of literature over recent years regarding the rise of women workers in the service industry (for example, call centres) and women as the ‘new proletariat’. Conversely, as part of this new ‘identity politics’, gender is argued by some to be a competitive advantage for women in the current workforce in terms of their roles as ‘emotional managers’ (Hochschild, 1983). McDowell (2001, 2004) has also recently tracked the development of a ‘crisis of masculinity’ associated with the collapse of Fordism, unemployment and a ‘lost generation of males’. Thus, it is argued by some the best ‘man’ for a job is now a woman.

This thorough, multi-disciplinary application of ‘feminist geographies’ at a variety of different scales in various sub-fields of the discipline clearly highlight its impact in shaping modern theory and practise within geography. From its beginnings of liberal feminism and oppositional politics (1960s and 70s), feminist geography has developed through feminist Marxism involving a gender/class interface (late 70s/80s) to feminist geographies of difference (late 80s-present) as part of identity politics and the ‘cultural turn’. Feminist geography now concentrates on gendered identities within a post-structural, post-colonial, cultural theoretical framework, studying gender relations across races, ages, ethnicities, religions, sexualities and nationalities. Most recently of all, the discipline has undergone further internal-critique, calling for more intensive study of relations and equality between women themselves. It is for these reasons I believe ‘feminist geographies’ have had a huge ideological impact on geographical theory and practise over recent decades and will continue to do so for years to come.

References:

Crewe, E. and Harrison, E. (1999) Whose development?: an ethnography of aid, London, St Martin’s Press.

Farrow, H., Moss, P. and Shaw, B. (1995) Symposium of feminist participatory research, Antipode, 18:2, 186-211.

Haraway, D. (1991) Simians, Cyborgs and Women: the reinvention of nature, London, Free Association Books.

Hochschild, A.R. (1983) The Managed Heart: Commercialisation of Human Feeling, University of California Press, Berkeley.

Hochschild, A.R. (1997) The Time Bind: When Work Becomes Home and Home Becomes Work, Henry Holt, New York.

Hodge, D. (ed) (1995), Should women count? The role of quantitative methodology in feminist geographic research, The Professional Geographer, 47, 426-66.

Johnston, R.J., Gregory, D., Pratt, G., Watts, M. (2000), The Dictionary of Human Geography, Blackwell.

Mackinnon, C.A. (1987) Feminism unmodified: discourses on life and law, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press.

McDowell, L. (1992) Defining women: social institutions and gender divisions, Cambridge, Polity Press.

McDowell, L. and Sharp, J. (eds) Space, gender, knowledge: feminist readings (London: Arnold, 1997).

McDowell, L.M. (1997) Capital Culture: Gender at Work in the City, Oxford, Blackwell.

McDowell, L.M. (2001) Father and Ford Revisited: Gender, Class and Employment Change in the New Millennium, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 26, 448-64.

Monk, J. and Hansen, S. (1982) On not excluding the other half from human geography, The Professional Geographer, 32, 11-23.

Moss, P. (1993) Feminism as method, The Canadian Geographer, 37, 48-61.

Nast, H. (ed) (1994) Women in the field: critical feminist methodologies and theoretical perspectives, The Professional Geographer, 46, 54-102.

Rose, G. (1993) Feminism and Geography, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press.

Rose, G. (1997) Situating knowledges: positionality, reflexivities and other tactics, Progress in Human Geography, 21, 305-20.

Whyte, W.F. (1955) Street Corner Society: the social structure of an Italian slum, Chicago, University of Chicago Press.