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Personal Reflections On Becoming A Social Worker

In this assignment I am going to explore the reasons and motivations that inspired me to redirect my life and enter the social work profession. I am going to reflect on my life, so that I am able to realise the probable impact of my experiences on my professional life.

My story begins with my grandparents, both paternal and maternal, who were working class, suffering disadvantage and poverty. Both my grandmothers worked in the mill doing piecework to try and keep their families afloat. My maternal grandmother was always in debt, borrowing on HP to buy goods, and my paternal grandmother was a widow who brought my father up alone.

There was no benefit system then, therefore, she had to work to survive. My father passed the grammar school exams but was unable to attend, as my grandmother could not afford for him to go, hence he had to seek employment instead. My father worked hard and eventually acquired his own business.

As I grew up I became aware that my father was very thrifty, a consequence of the hardship he suffered as a child and not wanting to return to this state, which made me very aware of the disadvantages of poverty.

My father and grandmother brought me up, with my brother. We lived in a terraced house, in East Lancashire, with no bathroom and an outside toilet. I do not remember life as a ‘normal’ family as my parents divorced when I was young. My grandmother was upset by the divorce, inducing her to ‘split’ (Klein identified this process as a defence) favouring her son. She idealised my brother, and I was left to my own devices, (I was denigrated, I assume because I resembled my mother) often playing with friends and joining them on family outings.

I felt isolated and as though I did not belong anywhere. I promptly adapted my own survival techniques by splitting; becoming a ‘free spirit’, and pretending I belonged to the families I joined on outings. ‘Splitting’ being the “most primitive of the defences” (Froggett, 2008).

Growing up I remember there was not much money, my grandmother buying clothes from jumble sales, and I only remember getting new socks for Easter. I was not particularly aware of my socio-economic position, however, I did recognise that we were different from other families. Although people no doubt did feel sorry for me, I used my personality to gain recognition as an individual. This, perhaps, was the beginning of my interest in less fortunate individuals, influencing my decision to enter social work.

I was unaware, at this time, that I had a mother but I did have contact with my maternal grandparents. My father was not particularly political, however, my grandparents were very much of the labour mindset, having split, and adapted a ‘them and us’ mentality regarding their status of working class.

My maternal grandmother was involved with the Catholic Church and helped others less fortunate by knitting clothes and baking cakes. She was very kind and caring in one way, but to a lesser extent if people were of a different religion. During that time the community relied on their faith and helped their neighbours, seeing it as a Christian duty. My grandmother was a respected member of the community who was aware of, and took responsibility, showing empathy and compassion for those less fortunate than herself.

She believed that she was improving their lives, but was realistic recognising that she could only assist them with emotional and practical needs, not material wealth. Hence, she was not alleviating their poverty but making it more bearable, and it could be said that she acted as a ‘container’ for others. Containment (Froggett, 2002, pg 13) “refers to the capacity of an individual, ….., to mentally receive and hold the disorganised or troubling psychic material of another, rendering it more bearable.” This resulted in, according to Klein, her realizing the ‘depressive position’ (seeing the other as whole).

Looking back now I believe this is where I gained my values and beliefs, my grandmother being an important role model. Her influence was the beginning of my need to enter a caring profession, feeling a sense of obligation to support and care for others.

My grandparents often talked of wartime, the struggles and hardship, remembering rationing and institutions. They welcomed the new welfare state, seeing it as an end to their struggles providing benefits, healthcare and education. I grew up not knowing anything other than a welfare state, accepting it as a right for everyone; however, I can imagine how difficult life was for them and the disadvantages they suffered as a result of their social position.

Prior to commencement of this course I have criticised welfare for creating a ‘dependency culture’ and demonised those who could work and never tried to find employment. At the time I was suffering hardship, being widowed and pregnant at the age of 27 with 3 boys already aged 18 months, 3 and 5 years respectively. I received widowed mother’s allowance but also worked part time to support my family.

I was not in receipt of any other benefits, free school dinners or free school uniforms. I would have been better off on benefits but chose self-respect, not wanting to be a burden, and I feel this has made me a more independent person. I realise now that others lives are more complex and involve other issues, nevertheless, by working I was not allowing myself time to grieve and by demonising others I was blaming them for my situation.

Now I can see all angles and have reached the ‘depressive position’, having mourned and can feel compassion for those on welfare. The ‘depressive position’ being a “… selfless capacity to acknowledge other people for their unique qualities and moral worth.” (Froggett, 2002, pg 45)

I have always wanted to enter a caring profession; when I was younger people would comment on how I would make a good nurse, but until the death of my husband I did not pursue this, as life had presented me with other obstacles. It was due to my own lack of support after my husband’s death that I became more determined to help others who could not help themselves. However, during the process of becoming a social worker I have become aware of and welcomed the help I am also giving myself, resolving hidden issues from the past.

Being abandoned by my mother left me feeling rejected, isolated, and feeling of no importance to anyone. The experience made me a very independent and untrusting person, making me feel as though I could only rely on myself, and this remains with me to this day with exception of the ‘untrusting’.

As I matured and formed a relationship with my mother, albeit a fragmented one, I now understand her reasons for leaving, (a characteristic of the ‘depressive position’), although, having been widowed with 4 children to raise in later life, I cannot condone her actions. She has expressed guilt and sorrow, and felt that she was doing the right thing at the time, reasoning with herself that I was better off with my father and stability.

She entered a new relationship, having a second family and ‘split’ her feelings for me as a response. I ‘split’ in a way that I denied I had a mother, repressing her into my unconscious, and erased her from my memory. I remember at the age of 6 coming home from school to find my mother with my grandmother and not knowing who she was.

From the age of 7 I moved area to live with my mother and new family and felt like a prisoner. My anxiety caused me to demonise my mother as I blamed her for taking me away from my father and for trying to indoctrinate me to have bad feelings for him. I could not see any positive qualities about our relationship (Froggett, 2008).

Consequently my relationship with my mother was never a good one, and I constantly challenged her attitudes, and beliefs. The challenges were sometimes in my actions, but mostly within my thoughts as I was too scared to challenge her directly as she was manipulative and controlling which in turn made me split and become more independent, refusing to ask for help. I felt I didn’t need anyone and could manage on my own.

The contemptuous relationship with my mother was a result of a damaged transition into ‘twoness’, (separation from my mother) which made me, at times, mistrustful and uncertain of relationships in my adult life, fearing rejection and unreliability (Froggett, 2008). My childhood experiences meant that I lost confidence in ‘the reliability of the social world’ (Honneth, 1992, p133) and was insecure.

My life changed dramatically when I was 13 and my mother was diagnosed with cancer. It was at this time that integration became apparent, and I was able to forgive and re-build our relationship, achieving a ‘depressive position’. I felt needed, and guilt at the same time regarding my feelings for my mother. She was very ill and I was expected to become an adult and run the guesthouse we lived in.

I felt very isolated; I no longer saw my friends from school as I looked after my family, did the household chores, paid the bills, did the shopping, visited my mother in hospital (before I went to school) and had no spare time to socialise. I managed to cope with the extra responsibility but experienced loneliness at home; and at school where I was bullied for a time because I was permitted to enter school at 9.30.

Other children recognised this as being given special treatment, whereas, it was ‘misrecognition’, as I had chores to complete before school, which was difficult, “…. misrecognition can inflict harm, can be a form of oppression, imprisoning someone in a false, distorted and reduced mode of being.” (Taylor, 1995). However, my relationship with my mother had changed and I was able to convey my feelings to her and contain my anxieties.

This new found desire to help led me to become involved, as a teenager, with helping children and committing to some voluntary work at a psychiatric hospital. Identifying with similar people was a form of release, helping myself by helping others, allowing me to deal with my feelings of abandonment, exclusion and isolation. I developed this further when I later became involved with Home Start, as a volunteer, which was the determining factor in my decision to become a social worker.

My relationship with my mother deteriorated again when my brother died. I felt alone again, as my brother had been the one stable element in my life, and my way of coping was to blame my mother for uprooting us and bringing us to live with her. I detached myself and denied my brother was dead for a while by pretending he was away, (he had been in the RAF living in various camps) as a defence mechanism. I had just met my husband at this time and his strength allowed me to deal with my loss and come to terms with it; he became my ‘container’ allowing me to reach the ‘depressive position’.

At the age of 18 years old my mother told me to leave after constant confrontations. We could not live together as we were both finding it very difficult dealing with our own grief, and each other’s. I felt liberated and was relieved as I had always been too scared of my mother before but my husband, my ‘container’, gave me the strength to stand up to her, and I finally found the strength to attain recognition as an individual.

When my husband died I feel I split once more. I no longer felt I belonged, I hated everyone, particularly happy families, and I felt isolated and alone (Woods and Hollis, 1990). This could be defined in Kleinian terms as being the ‘paranoid schizoid’ position (a form of splitting) (Beckett, 2002).

This was the worse time in my life and affected me deeply. I did start to drink at this stage to enable me to experience ‘oneness’, but did not attain this (Froggett, 2008). I was pregnant at the time; therefore, for the sake of my sanity I addressed my negative behaviour to prevent damage to my child. I realised that I had an unborn child who needed me, as well as 3 other children, who loved me unconditionally and I somehow found the strength to resolutely challenge myself not to disappoint them as my mother had me, this being my reason for containment (Froggett, 2008).

During this time I was never asked or given a choice about any form of counselling, and I received very little support. This became my motivation for embarking on social work as a career, as I felt I could do a better job than some; as I had experienced disadvantage, trauma and been marginalized. I felt that I would be committed and reliable to the people who needed my support.

My experiences have given me an inner strength, making me stronger (Hollis and Woods, 1990), enabling me to empathise and show compassion to others, and I felt that I had a lot to offer others less fortunate than myself. I had always been of an altruistic nature, and during this period of my life I realised social work, as a career, would allow me to practice altruism on a larger scale, gaining emotional gratification (Woods and Hollis, 1990).

Hollis and Woods (1990) suggest that ‘motivation is very much affected by hope’ (p274), and although I had suffered traumatic events throughout my life I was able to acknowledge that I could use these experiences for the benefit of others. I had reached the ‘depressive position’, could begin to move forward, integrate the experience, and make sense of everything, the world being a better place (Beckett,2002).

I embarked on a course at college, studying at night while I worked during the day, and continued my development when accepted on this course. My family felt this was an inappropriate choice, as they felt I had enough to do bringing up four children. My mother in particular thought it was a waste of time as she considered social workers to be ‘do gooders’.

I felt that I wanted to give something back to society, and make a difference to those who are vulnerable, oppressed and struggling to cope with the pressures of social injustice and poverty. I wanted to make sure people have basic resources to meet their needs regardless of race, age, sex, or sexual orientation, empowering them to take control of their lives and promoting well-being. My mother’s attitude just made me more determined to pursue this route.

Whilst at university I have developed my practice on placement, learning many new ideas, and realising the importance of social work on peoples’ lives.

“Understanding the impact of transitions within a person’s life course is important for social work practice in order to help us understand other people’s lives” (Crawford and Walker, 2003, p5).

On placement I worked within a family support team, and found one situation, with a young girl, particularly difficult as I identified with her complex situation. The girl had been abandoned by her mother, and was living with her father and stepfamily. Recognising her feelings I assisted the girl to develop an internal container by giving her a secret diary to record her thoughts and feelings, and we would discuss these feelings weekly.

Whilst supporting the girl I experienced ‘transference’, feelings evoked from past attachments with her mother were transferred onto me, (Froggett, 2008)) and she became very attached and dependent on my visits. I was overwhelmed by the strong emotions projected from the girl, however, was unable to reject her, and as a consequence of her actions encountered ‘counter-transference’, relating my own personal experiences (Froggett, 2008).

My vision became blurred with my own internal feelings, resulting in my inability to see the girl realistically. I found myself very protective of her, working extremely hard; advocating for her with her father who was oppressive and controlling, as I felt she was alone, and unable to challenge him. Furthermore, I wanted to ‘mother’ the girl to boost her self-esteem, and thus prevent her isolation. After our sessions I would go home mentally drained.

Bion (1977) suggests there are three types of container-contained relationships:

‘parasitic’ – dependent and unhealthy
‘commensal’ – mutual containment, of benefit to both parties
‘symbiotic’ – receiving support to manage feelings, and seen as a healthy relationship.

Fortunately I was able to express these anxiety provoking feelings with my assessor, hence she became my ‘container’. We had a ‘symbiotic’ relationship and she enabled me to disentangle myself from the situation, regain my ability to hold painful feelings, allowing me the capacity to perceive the girl as separate, and re-integrate (Menzies-Lyth, 1988).

I was in a position to reflect, appreciating complexity, achieving ‘3^rd position thinking’, ## I became stronger as a result, thus I was able to perceive things from a different perspective. During reflection I recognized emotional factors had clouded my judgement and I reached a better understanding of the situation, realising I had transferred my personal experiences onto the family (Winnicott, 1971).

I acknowledged this intervention had proven difficult, bearing resemblance to my own experiences, and resolved to be more aware, making sure my professional boundaries were firmly established for subsequent visits and for the future (Froggett, 2008). Towards the end of my placement I referred the girl to a counsellor at school, so she did not feel abandoned, making effective use of another support network.

Initially I had been attracted to working with children and families, however, supporting this girl made me realise that perhaps family support is not an area of practice that I should go into, as it may prove too emotional a field for me. Getting too involved with a client could prove ineffective and I could lose my focus.

I have faced many challenges throughout my life but I have always managed somehow to rise above these, drawing on my reserve strengths and becoming a more resilient person. The importance being that I feel I have become self-assured, and can be an asset to the profession of social work.

“The personality traits that I have as an adult are a direct result of my experiences from childhood” (Woods and Hollis, 1990, p34)

Undertaking this assignment has been challenging and difficult, however, I found that putting my life into words was quite therapeutic, releasing certain issues that I had repressed. Freud suggests repression is “the most important of all defences” (Froggett, 2008 pg. 8) but releasing my feelings and thoughts about my life experiences enabled me to understand how I came to develop my own beliefs and values, as Crawford and Walker (2003) inform us “Social workers need to understand their own life course development and the significance that this has had on the values and beliefs that they have developed themselves.” Pg.13.

According to the Code of Ethics, a social workers objective is to support people in need, addressing social problems. Experiences have made me the person I am, and utilising my skills, both personal and educational, will help me perform this duty. I believe my personal experiences changed me, making me more open to new ideas, and although I am very much aware of the past I have dealt with it, and do not dwell, moving forward. I have achieved ‘3^rd position thinking’, realising that I can be a ‘good enough’ mother, whilst achieving success as a professional (Froggett, 2008).

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Beckett, C. (2002) Human Growth and Development. London. Sage

Bion, W. (1977) ‘Learning from experience’, in Seven Servants, New York, Jason Aronson

Crawford, K. and Walker, J. (2003) Social Work and Human Development. Exeter. Learning Matters

Froggett, L. (2002) Love, Hate and Welfare – Psychosocial approaches to policy and practice. Bristol. The Policy Press

Froggett, L. (2008) Psychosocial Theory and Practice for Social Work: A Conceptual Introduction to an Object Relations Approach. Preston. University of Central Lancashire. Unpublished manuscript

Hollis, F. and Woods, M (1990) Casework: A Psychosocial Therapy 4^th Edition. USA. Library of Congress

Honneth, G. (1969) Integrity and Disrespect: Principles of a Conception of Morality based on the Theory of Recognition. In: Political Theory. 20 (2). 187-201

Menzies-Lyth, I. (1988) Containing Anxiety in Institutions: Selected Essays, Volume One. London; Free Association Books

Taylor, C. (1995) The Politics of Recognition, in: Philosophical Arguments, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press. (First published 1992 in Gutmann, A. (ED) Multiculturalism and ‘The Politics of Recognition’, Princetown NJ, Princetown University Press).

Winnicott, D. (1971) Playing and Reality. London. Tavistock Publications Limited

Aldridge, M (1994) Unlimited liability: Emotional Labour in Nursing and Social Work. In: Journal of Advanced Nursing. 4. 722-8

Hochschild, A (2003) 2nd edition The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling. USA; University of California Press.

This aim of this essay is to discuss the role of the social worker in addressing social exclusion and discrimination and the impact that such issues have on individuals, groups and communities. I am also going to demonstrate my understanding of anti-oppressive practice and ethical issues that social workers face, particularly in the Welsh context. Accordingly, ever since the late 1980’s there has been a rising understanding of the effect of oppression and discrimination on individuals, groups and communities (Thompson, 1997). More recently, anti-discriminatory practice has surfaced as a main focal point underpinning social work policy, theory and practice (Pierson, 2002). Hence, with the aim of carrying out their role constructively, social workers should develop and uphold an awareness of why anti-oppressive and anti-discriminatory practice standpoints are vital and the approach that they can take when dealing with discrimination, oppression and social exclusion. Wales, like other nations, is merely an example of a multi-cultural society with various dissimilar aspects of diversity and personal experiences. Thus, gender, class, language, age, ethnic group, together with other social factors, collectively have an effect on a person’s social identity, experience, and awareness of the world that they inhabit (Williams, 2007). With this in mind, discussing the effects of discrimination and social exclusion, and tackling matters of oppression, may provoke numerous difficulties for social work practitioners. Nevertheless, valuable practice tools have been developed so as to challenge inequalities and endorse social inclusion (Thompson 1997; Pierson 2002).

Accordingly, it can be said that impartiality is fundamental to social equality. In this regard, persons and groups must believe that they are able to partake wholly in the community and be thought of as equal members. In situations where this is not the reality, individuals could be subjected to isolation, detachment, disadvantage and prejudice. In particular instances, this could cause generations of individuals living on the margins of society. Thus, the ideas of social exclusion and discrimination are very much in parallel. Societies lacking in equality where specific individuals or groups are discriminated against can cause exclusion. Similarly, social exclusion promotes inequality and discrimination (www.socialexclusion.gov.uk). The Social Exclusion Unit delineated social exclusion as what can occur when individuals, groups or communities experience a combination of concurrent difficulties such as unemployment, poor skills, low incomes, poor housing, high crime environments, bad health and family breakdown (www.socialexclusion.gov.uk). Likewise, discrimination emerges when a person or group is treated unfavourably, when compared with others in similar circumstances, because of their age, sexual orientation, disability, racial or ethnic origin, religion or belief, or gender. (Adams, Dominelli and Payne, 1998). Accordingly, it can be said that socially excluded individuals or groups are incapable of playing a full part in the community due to an array of difficulties they are confronted with, such as unemployment, lack of skills, ill-health or inequality. Frequently, specific individuals or groups are more likely to encounter these difficulties. As an example, individuals that suffer from a disability or mental ill health come across apprehension and intolerance from other persons, often derived from erroneous beliefs about such conditions. Such stigma could not only intensify individual distress but could also inhibit the person from seeking necessary assistance. Hence, such social exclusion and discrimination could obstruct access to services and resources such as housing, employment, parental rights, immigration, health care and access to justice (Sayce, 1998). These individuals or groups that are excluded from society have to conquer these obstacles to opportunities that other members of the community enjoy. It has been documented that Wales possesses some of the most disadvantaged communities throughout Europe (Williams, 2004). Moreover, the Assembly Government refers to regions of marked deprivation exemplified by dependence on benefits and a necessity for employment opportunities (National Assembly for Wales, 2009). In addition to inadequately salaried or lack of work, poor skills have also been noted as a vital cause of unemployment, economic inactivity and poverty for individuals, and in 2001, 20% of adults of working age in Wales had no qualifications (National Assembly for Wales, 2009). For 2008, the young adult (16-24) unemployment rates was 16%. Consequently, almost half of the individuals in Wales without work are under 25 (www.jrt.org.uk). Such lack of prospects underpins the probability of some individuals or groups being incapable of fully integrating into the community. Thus, those socially excluded can experience feelings of stress, poor health and isolation due to low living standards and limited access to services (National Assembly for Wales, 2009). Other members of society can encounter greater degrees of anxiety and reduced mobility due to reduced social unity and augmented concern for criminal activity (Pierson, 2002). Accordingly, the social worker has the crucial responsibility of making the quality of existence better for individuals, groups and communities and challenging the triggers of social exclusion and discrimination.

Hence the role and task of the social worker is complex. The role ranges across empowerment, counselling, advocacy, partnership, needs assessment, care management and social control (Scourfield, Holland and Young, 2008). Social work practitioners should be dedicated to human rights and equality and strive to encourage and support individuals, groups and communities that experience the damaging consequences of social injustice. Thus, ‘the social work profession promotes social change, problem-solving in human relationships, and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being. Utilising theories of human behaviour and social systems, social work intervenes at points where people interact with their environments. Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work’ (www.ifsw.org.uk). This indicates that social workers have a duty to confront discriminatory attitudes towards persons due to capability, age, ethnicity, gender, class, marital position, political beliefs, racial or other physical characteristics, or sexuality (www.ifsw.org.uk). Within their role, social workers should have a duty to work towards an inclusive society by confronting circumstances that promote social exclusion, oppression and/or hardship. Hence, Pierson (2002) has documented five extensive building blocks for social workers to employ in practice to effectively work with socially excluded individuals, groups and communities and ultimately promote social inclusion. The first building block encompasses the significance of concentrating on income and for the social worker to have a full understanding of the benefits system overall (Pierson, 2002: 42-47). The second building block encompasses the part played by networks jointly as a basis of reliable collective support for individuals, groups and communities and as a practical means for social workers (Pierson, 2002: 47-51). The third building block encompasses partnerships between citizens, groups, voluntary, private and religious organisations and statutory services where holistic, coherent action can be carried out on the ground (Pierson, 2002: 51-56). The fourth building block encompasses several advantages in developing elevated levels of service user and neighbourhood participation in the community. For example, legislation such as the Children Act 1989, the NHS and Community Care Act of 1990 and the Disabled Person’s Representation Act in 1996, ‘required local authorities to consult closely with users when they undertake assessments and devise care plans, and in the follow-up reviews of how those plans are actually unfolding’ (Pierson 2002: 57). Also, proposals by Government, for example Quality Protects, New Deal for Communities and the Best Value framework necessitate citizen involvement (Pierson, 2002:57). Finally, the fifth building block encompasses the importance of the whole community and assisting resident ability through neighbourhood improvements. For example, involvement in community activities, childcare, looking after neighbours, credit unions and neighbourhood watch (Pierson 2002: 65).

Moreover, in executing their role, social workers habitually face ethical issues when discovering challenging principles and obligations (Mattison, 2000). Hence, the principles or ethics of independence may be at variance with not only a responsibility of care, but also between the wellbeing for the person and the wellbeing of other members of society (Mattison, 2000). For this reason, it is crucial for social workers to carefully consider their own principles and practice. This is fundamental because even though frameworks like the professional code of ethics are made available to offer practical assistance, to a degree, using ones own discretion when making decisions is unavoidable (Mattison, 2000). Social workers must also confront ethical issues regarding confidentiality. Hence, social workers often make judgements as to whether it is deemed necessary to reveal confidential information to outside organisations without the individual’s permission so as to protect society or comply with legal judgements or legislation. A further ethical issue is professional paternalism or beneficence, which means that social workers may have to make judgements about whether to place restrictions on individuals that engage in self-harming conduct, for example substance misuse or rejecting certain services (Clark, 1998). Moreover, it seems crucial to use an anti-oppressive approach when dealing with ethical issues. Hence, various fundamental principles underpinning anti-oppressive practice in Wales have been documented by Elaine Davies (1994). These include the following: ‘a service user has the right to decide which language to use with the Social Worker; individuals are able to communicate more effectively and contentedly in their preferred language; high-quality practice means offering service users an actual choice over language use; an all-embracing service of excellence in Wales means a bilingual service; and refusing this right is a way of oppressing an individual’ (Davies, 1994: 60). In addition, particular sections of the Children Act 1989 place an obligation on agencies to take a child’s language into consideration when assessing and providing services (Davies, 1994). The characteristics of the Act are influential with importance placed on partnership and consultation. Thus, it is stated that it is unfeasible to converse productively without using the preferred language of the child and family and their racial, cultural, religious and linguistic background must be taken into account (Davies, 1994). Moreover, Article 30 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989 is comparable to the Children Act and declares that ‘children who are members of an ethnic, religious or linguistic minority must not be deprived of the right to enjoy their culture, practice their religion, or use their language’ (cited in Welsh Assembly Government, 2004: 68). Therefore, every individual that converses in Welsh should be able to decide which language to use. Also, offering language choice provides the service user with appropriate power and an effective ability to speak. Effective social work practice also means undertaking assessments and providing services in the service users’ preferred language. Moreover, language appropriate provision should be considered under the scope of equal opportunities in the main, with the Welsh Language Act 1993 being a close comparative to other forms of legislation that advocate equality, such as, the Race Relations Act 1976 and the Human Rights Act 2000 (Scourfield, Holland and Young, 2008 ). Thus, it has been documented that language is not only a mode of communication; it is also a system by which an individual assembles their identity and their understanding of the world (Williams, 2007). Accordingly, social workers must strive to ‘identify and respect diversity and to challenge inequalities and hardship’ (cited in Welsh Assembly Government, 2004: 14).

To conclude, social work has the capacity to transform an individual’s existence for the better due to the breadth of the role and the variety of its resources. Considerable improvements have been made by altering the way in which services are made available in Welsh communities. For example, social services in local government strive to safeguard adults who are vulnerable or at risk, promote social inclusion and support persons to live independently where this is possible (Williams, 2007). A consequence of the All-Wales Strategy for Older People was the creation of the National Service Framework for Older People in Wales and the establishment of the position of Commissioner for Older People to counteract discrimination and oppression and eventually to promote opportunities (Williams, 2007). Such standards of practice have been intensified through the Care Council for Wales and the Care and Social Services inspectorate for Wales (Scourfield et al, 2008). Additionally, the unique role enables social work practitioners to diverge from more formal practice and have contact with individuals and groups in their own homes or communities, in order to work in partnership rather than enforce solutions to difficulties (Pierson, 2002). Hence, it has been disputed that ‘a unique quality of social work is found in the close attention it pays to individuals’ own understanding of their situation and to the informal processes by which client or user and social worker broker a solution’ (Jordan, 1987 cited in Pierson, 2002: XV). This distinctive practice approach presents numerous opportunities for social workers to address discrimination and exclusion, and ultimately promote equality and the inclusion of individuals and groups in society (Pierson, 2002).

Bibliography

Adams, R. , Dominelli, L. and Payne, M. (1998) Social Work: Themes, Issues and Critical Debates (Palgrave).

Care Council for Wales’ Code of Practice (available online at http://www.ccwales.org.uk).

Clark, C. (1998) ‘Self-determination and Paternalism in Community Care: Practice and Prospects’, British Journal of Social Work, 28, pp. 387-402.

Davies, E. (1994) ‘They all Speak Welsh Anyway’: Yr iaith Gymraeg ac ymarfer gwrth-orthrymol; the Welsh Language and Anti-oppressive Practice (Caerdydd: CCETSW).

Jordan, B. (1987) Rethinking Welfare (Oxford: Blackwell), cited in Pierson, J. (2002) Tackling Social Exclusion (Routledge).

Joseph Rountree Foundation (2009) ‘Monitoring poverty and social exclusion in Wales’ (available online at http://www.jrf.org.uk).

International Federation of Social Workers (available online at http://www.ifsw.org.uk).

Mattison, M. (2000) ‘Ethical Decision Making: The Person in the Process’, Social Work Vol.45 (3), pp.201-212.

National Assembly for Wales 2009 Third Annual Report on Social Exclusion in Wales. Cardiff: National Assembly for Wales.

Pierson, J. (2002) Tackling Social Exclusion (Routledge).

Sayce, L. , (1998) From Psychiatric Patient to Citizen (Basingstoke: Macmillan).

Scourfield, J. , Holland, S. and Young, C. (2008) ‘Social Work in Wales Since Democratic Devolution’, Australian Social Work, 61, pp. 42-56.

Social Exclusion Unit (available online at http://www.social exclusion.gov.uk).

Thompson, N. (1997) Anti-Discriminatory Practice (Macmillan Press LTD).

Welsh Assembly Government (2004) ‘Children and Young People: Rights to Action’ (available online at http://www.assemblywales.org).

Welsh Assembly Government (2007) ‘A Strategy for Social Services in Wales over the next Decade: Fulfilled Lives, Supportive Communities’ (available online at http://www.wales.nhs.uk/sitesplus/documents/829/WAG).

Williams, C. , (2004) ‘Access to Justice and Social Inclusion: The Policy Changes in Wales’, Journal of Social Welfare and Family Law, 26(1) pp. 53-68.

Williams, C. (2007) Social Policy for Social Welfare Practice in a Devolved Wales (Venture Press).

Social Worker Burnout Studied(Fall 2003)

AUTHOR-ABSTRACT:
For the past 30 years, researchers and practitioners have been concerned about the impact of work stress experienced by social workers. Although research on burnout has been a useful field of exploration, a new concern has arisen about work stresses specifically associated with work with victims of trauma. The concept of vicarious trauma provides insights into the stresses of this particular kind of work. Like the burnout research, early research on vicarious trauma has identified both personal and organizational correlates. In this article, the authors review the growing literature on the organizational components of vicarious trauma and suggest changes in organizational culture, workload, group support, supervision, self-care, education, and work environment that may help prevent vicarious trauma in staff.

BODY: WHETHER SHAPING PUBLIC POLICY or providing services to individuals, families, and communities, social workers are fully engaged with today’s social problems. This difficult work can take an emotional and psychological toll on the worker (Davies, 1998; Gibson, McGrath, & Reid, 1989). This stress comes not only from responding to people in pain and crisis; characteristics of the organization also contribute to the stress (Sze & Ivker, 1986). This occupational stress has been examined primarily in terms of burnout (Maslach, 1993), but recent research in the field of trauma has identified stresses unique to that work. These stresses have been conceptualized as vicarious trauma (McCann & Pearlman, 1990b; Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995a, 1995b). To date, most research has focused on the individual characteristics thought to contribute to vicarious trauma. There has been less focus on the organizational structures that may contribute. In this article, we draw on the research on organizational correlates of burnout as a background for examining the research on vicarious trauma and then outline various organizational strategies suggested by practitioners working with trauma survivors to prevent vicarious trauma. This discussion is informed by a qualitative study of counselors working with victims of domestic violence (Bell, 1998, 1999) that suggested the importance of the work environment, among other issues, in the development of vicarious trauma. Quotations by counselors from that study will be used to illustrate the discussion.

Organizational Correlates of Burnout

Maslach (1993) described burnout as having three dimensions: (a) emotional exhaustion; (b) depersonalization, defined as a negative attitude towards clients, a personal detachment, or loss of ideals; and (c) reduced personal accomplishment and commitment to the profession. Burnout has been conceptualized as a process rather than a condition or state, and some have theorized that it progresses sequentially through each of these dimensions (Maslach, 1993). Maslach and others have examined the individual, interpersonal, and organizational characteristics that contribute to burnout. Of particular interest to this discussion is the finding that organizations can either promote job satisfaction or contribute to burnout (Soderfeldt, Soderfeldt, & Warg, 1995). Unsupportive administration, lack of professional challenge, low salaries, and difficulties encountered in providing client services are predictive of higher burnout rates (Arches, 1991; Beck, 1987; Himle, Jayaratne, & Thyness, 1986). Individual staff members suffer, and the resulting loss of experienced staff can diminish the quality of client services (Arches, 1991). This research has helped identify organizational supports that could be effective in buffering or mediating burnout and point to workplace characteristics that may also prevent vicarious trauma.

Vicarious Trauma

Recently, the occupational stress of social workers working with trauma survivors has begun to receive attention (Cunningham, 1999; Dalton, 2001; Regehr & Cadell, 1999). Some authors are beginning to suggest that trauma theory has important utility in understanding the burnout experience of social workers working in child protection and with HIV-infected populations (Horwitz, 1998; Wade, Beckerman, & Stein, 1996). Many theorists have speculated that the emotional impact of this type of traumatic material is contagious and can be transmitted through the process of empathy (Figley, 1995; Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995a; Stamm, 1995), as in this example from an experienced social worker talking about counseling women in a family service agency:

Some times after a session, I will be traumatized….I will feel over whelmed, and I can remember a particular situation with a sexually abused person where I–I just didn’t want to hear any more of her stories about what actually happened.She seemed to want to continue to tell me those over and over and I remember just feeling almost contaminated,like,you know,like I was abused. You know? And so I set limits withher a fter some super vision about that but tracked her in a different way.It hink it has an impact. I’m just not sure of what…(a squoted in Bell,1998) In the past 10 years, the emotional impact of working with trauma survivors has been examined under several constructs: compassion fatigue (Figley, 1995), secondary traumatic stress (Figley, 1993; Stamm, 1995), and vicarious trauma (McCann & Pearlman, 1990b; Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995a, 1995b). These constructs have been compared and debated (Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995a; Stamm, 1995), and a full discussion of them is outside the scope of this article. The majority of the empirical studies in this area have used the vicarious trauma construct. For this reason, the term vicarious trauma will generally be used throughout this article unless another term has been used specifically in the research cited.

Vicarious trauma has been defined as “the transformation that occurs in the inner experience of the therapist [or worker] that comes about as a result of empathic engagement with clients’ trauma material” (Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995a, p. 31). Vicarious trauma can result in physiological symptoms that resemble posttraumatic stress reactions, which may manifest themselves either in the form of intrusive symptoms, such as flashbacks, night-mares, and obsessive thoughts, or in the form of constrictive symptoms, such as numbing and disassociation (Beaton & Murphy, 1995). It may also result in disruptions to important beliefs, called cognitive schemas, that individuals hold about themselves, other people, and the world (McCann & Pearlman, 1990b; Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995a, 1995b), as in the following example from a young worker in a battered women’s shelter:

I think you see the worst of people, working here…the worst of what people do to each other. And I think when you do n’t have proper resource stop rocess that,to work through it, to underst and it or put it in some kind of context, it just leaves you feeling a little baffle dabout what’s going on out there, and the way things work in the world and your role in all of that.(asquotedin Bell,1999,p.175) Although some of the numbing symptoms of vicarious trauma bear some resemblance to burnout and may in fact result in burnout over time, research on therapists has also begun to establish vicarious trauma as a distinct concept from burnout (Figley, 1995; Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995a). Unlike the construct of burnout, the construct of vicarious trauma was developed from and is clinically grounded in trauma theory, specifically constructivist self-development theory (McCann & Pearlman, 1990b). In several studies, burnout and general stress levels were not related to exposure to traumatized clients, whereas measures of trauma exposure and vicarious trauma were related (Kassam-Adams, 1995; Schauben & Frazier, 1995). Thus, burnout alone does not appear to capture the effects of trauma as an occupational stressor. Although vicarious trauma may present with elements of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment, it also has effects that are unique and specific to trauma work.

Many professionals risk vicarious trauma through their contact with traumatized people or material that contains graphic images of trauma. Studies have indicated that approximately 38% of social workers experience moderate to high levels of secondary traumatic stress (Cornille & Meyers, 1999; Dalton, 2001). In addition, emergency workers (Leseca, 1996; McCammon, Durham, Allison, & Williamson, 1988; Wagner, Heinrichs, & Ehlert, 1998), nurses (Joinson, 1992), police officers (Follette, Polusny, & Milbeck, 1994), sexual assault counselors (Johnson & Hunter, 1997; Regehr & Cadell, 1999; Schauben & Frazier, 1995), child protective service workers (Cornille & Meyers, 1999), and trauma therapists (Chrestman, 1995; Follette et al., 1994; Kassam-Adams, 1995; Pearlman & Mac Ian,
1995) have all been documented as developing symptomology quite similar to acute and posttraumatic stress reactions as a result of their second-hand exposure to traumatic material.

Recent studies of trauma therapists have begun to explore some of the factors involved in the development of vicarious trauma. Therapist exposure to traumatic client material has been found to be an important predictor for symptoms of traumatic stress and, in some cases, of disrupted beliefs about self and others. In a survey of 148 counselors, Schauben and Frazier (1995) found that those who worked with a higher percentage of sexual violence survivors reported more symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder and greater disruptions in their beliefs about themselves and others than did counselors seeing fewer survivors. The researchers tied these symptoms of trauma counselors to a number of factors. Most commonly, counselors said that hearing the trauma story and experiencing the pain of survivors was emotionally draining. Second, many counselors felt that the counseling process was more difficult when working with trauma survivors, who tended to have more problems trusting and working in a therapeutic relationship than clients who were not traumatized. Finally, some counselors found the work more difficult because of the institutional barriers within the legal, and mental health systems that their clients were forced to navigate. Similar findings emerged when researchers compared the stress level of sexual assault counselors with that of counselors who worked with a more general client population (Johnson & Hunter, 1997). Not only did sexual assault counselors show greater evidence of stress, but their work stress also contributed to personal relationship difficulties at home.

The impact of the therapist’s own history of abuse on current report of vicarious trauma are unclear. Pearlman and MacIan (1995) reported significantly more vicarious trauma symptoms in 60% of the therapists they surveyed who reported a personal history of trauma. However, Schauben and Frazier (1995) found that counselors with a history of victimization were not more distressed by working with survivors than were counselors without such a history. Pearlman and Mac Ian found that therapists without a trauma history were more likely to report intrusive imagery than those with a history. Follette et al. (1994) found that mental health professionals with a significant history of childhood physical or sexual abuse did not experience significantly more negative responses to child sexual abuse survivor clients than those without such a history. They also reported significantly more positive coping strategies. However, the comparison group of law enforcement personnel with childhood abuse histories who also worked with sexual abuse survivors showed significantly more distress than the mental health professionals. The researchers hypothesized that the use of personal therapy by 59.1% of the mental health professionals versus 15.6% of the law enforcement professionals may have accounted for the difference.

Increased time spent with traumatized clients seems to increase the risk of stress reactions in mental health professionals (Chrestman, 1995; Pearlman & Mac Ian, 1995). Furthermore, spending time in other work activities decreases the risk. Having a more diverse caseload with a greater variety of client problems and participating in research, education, and outreach also appear to mediate the effects of traumatic exposure.

Age and experience are inversely correlated with the development of vicarious trauma. Younger and less experienced counselors exhibit the highest levels of distress (Arvay & Uhlemann, 1996; Pearlman & Mac Ian, 1995). They may have had less opportunity to integrate traumatic stories and experiences into their belief systems, as well as to develop effective coping strategies for dealing with the effects of vicarious trauma than have older and more experienced therapists (Neumann & Gamble, 1995). Such was the case of this experienced counselor who worked with battered women in the court system:

It hink for somebody who doesn’t do this type of work it would be extreme lystressful, but after twelve years, I’ve just–I’ve handled so many cases and dealt with so many people, I know my limitation sand the court’s limitations and I just don’t get as worked up about each case as I used to.(as quoted in Bell, 1999,p.117) vicarious trauma can be considered a type of occupational hazard in settings where there are high levels of traumatized clients. As a result, organizations providing services to trauma victims have a practical and ethical responsibility to address this risk.

Implications for Agency Administrative Response

The primary focus of discussion about the prevention of vicarious trauma has been on the individual (for a good summary, see Yassen, 1995). However, as with burnout, the organizational context of trauma work has been discussed as a factor in the development of secondary trauma. Several authors have written about their own experiences in agencies that serve traumatized individuals. They have suggested both prevention and intervention strategies in the areas of organizational culture, workload, work environment, education, group support, supervision, and resources for self-care. Each of these will be discussed in turn below.

Organizational Culture

The values and culture of an organization set the expectations about the work. When the work includes contact with trauma, they also set the expectations about how workers will experience trauma and deal with it, both professionally and personally. Of primary concern is that organizations that serve trauma survivors, whether rape crisis centers, shelters for battered women, or programs that work with veterans, acknowledge the impact of trauma on the individual worker and the organization. As Rosenbloom, Pratt, and Pearlman (1995) wrote of their work at the Traumatic Stress Institute, “We work together to develop an atmosphere in which it is considered inevitable to be affected by the work” (p. 77). It is not uncommon for feelings and reactions generated by trauma to leave the social worker feeling ineffective, unskilled, and even powerless. An organizational culture that “normalizes” the effect of working with trauma survivors can provide a supportive environment for social workers to address those effects in their own work and lives. It also gives permission for social workers to take care of themselves. Yassen (1995) provided an example of a potentially harmful “norm” that can frustrate workers’ attempts at self-care: “In some settings, it may be assumed that if employees do not work overtime, they are not committed to their work, or that clinicians who do not take vacations are more committed to their work than are others” (p. 201). A supportive organization is one that not only allows for vacations, but also creates opportunities for social workers to vary their caseload and work activities, take time off for illness, participate in continuing education, and make time for other self-care activities. Small agencies might signal their commitment to staff by making staff self-care a part of the mission statement, understanding that ultimately it does affect client care. Administrators might also monitor staff vacation time and encourage staff with too much accrued time to take time off. Self-care issues could be addressed in staff meetings, and opportunities for continuing education could be circulated to staff. In social work agencies, which typically operate with inadequate resources and relentless service demands, such commitments, regardless of how small, are not inconsequential.

Workload

Research has shown that having a more diverse caseload is associated with decreased vicarious trauma (Chrestman, 1995). Such diversity can help the social worker keep the traumatic material in perspective and prevent the formation of a traumatic worldview (Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995a). Agencies could develop intake procedures that attempt to distribute clients among staff in a way that pays attention to the risk of vicarious trauma certain clients might present to workers. When possible, trauma cases should be distributed among a number of social workers who possess the necessary skills (Dutton & Rubinstein, 1995; Regehr & Cadell, 1999; Wade et al., 1996). In addition, social workers whose primary job is to provide direct services to traumatized people may benefit from opportunities to participate in social change activities (Regehr & Cadell, 1999). Agencies that do not already provide such services might consider providing community education and outreach or working to influence policy. Such activities can provide a sense of hope and empowerment that can be energizing and can neutralize some of the negative effects of trauma work. Organizations can also maintain an “attitude of respect” (Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995b, p. 170) for both clients and workers by acknowledging that work with trauma survivors often involves multiple, long-term services. Organizations that are proactive in developing or linking clients with adjunct services–such as self-help groups, experienced medical professionals for medication, in- and out-patient hospitalization, and resources for paying for these services–will support not only clients, but also decrease the workload of their staff (Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995b). Developing collaborations between agencies that work with traumatized clients can provide material support and prevent a sense of isolation and frustration at having to “go it alone.”

Work Environment

A safe, comfortable, and private work environment is crucial for those social workers in settings that may expose them to violence (Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995b; Yassen, 1995). Some work sites, such as shelters or agencies located in high-crime neighborhoods, are so dangerous that workers may actually experience primary trauma, rather than vicarious trauma. In a sample of 210 licensed social workers, Dalton (2001) found that 57.6% had been threatened by a client or member of a client’s family, and 16.6% had been physically or sexually assaulted by a client or member of the client’s family. Being threatened by a client or a member of a client’s family was strongly correlated with compassion fatigue. Although it is more of a challenge in certain settings, protecting workers’ safety should be the primary concern of agency administration. Paying for security systems or security guards may be a necessary cost of doing business for some agencies that provide services to traumatized individuals. Failing that, agencies may consider developing a buddy system for coworkers so that if one worker is threatened by a client, another can summon the police.

In addition to attention to basic safety, Pearlman and Saakvitne (1995b) have suggested that workers need to have personally meaningful items in their workplace. These can include pictures of their children or of places they have visited, scenes of nature or quotes that help them remember who they are and why they do this work. One hotline worker described her use of such an item:

When it’sare alintense call, I kind of hunch over the phone and kind of like focus here on my[computer screen]and I some times try to consciously tell my self to sit back and look at one of my pictures that I have up to remind me of happier times.(asquotedin Bell,1998)

Agency administrators can encourage staff to make these small investments in their work environment. By placing inspiring posters or pictures of scenic environments (rather than agency rules and regulations) in the waiting rooms, staff meeting rooms, and break rooms, the organization can model the importance of the personal in the professional. In addition, workers also need places for rest at the job site, such as a break room that is separate from clients (Yassen, 1995). With a space such as this, the organization could address the self-care needs of staff by providing a coffee maker, soft music, and comfortable furniture.

Education

Trauma-specific education also diminishes the potential of vicarious trauma. Information can help individuals to name their experience and provide a framework for understanding and responding to it. Training settings, such as schools of social work, have a responsibility to provide this information to field interns entering placements where they will encounter trauma (Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995b). Dalton (2001) found that social workers with master’s degrees had lower levels of secondary traumatic stress compared with those with baccalaureate degrees. This difference suggests that the type of clinical training available in master’s programs, such as information about client empowerment, self-care, and recognizing destructive behaviors, may be a missing but important part of training social workers in baccalaureate programs to prevent secondary stress and vicarious trauma.

Efforts to educate staff about vicarious trauma can begin in the job interview (Urquiza, Wyatt, & Goodlin-Jones, 1997). Agencies have a duty to warn applicants of the potential risks of trauma work and to assess new workers’ resilience (Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995b). New employees can be educated about the risks and effects associated with trauma, as new and inexperienced workers are likely to experience the most impact (Chrestman, 1995; Neumann & Gamble, 1995). Ongoing education about trauma theory and the effects of vicarious trauma can be included in staff training (Regehr & Cadell, 1999; Urquiza et al., 1997) and discussed on an ongoing basis as part of staff meetings. Agencies can take advantage of the flourishing number of workshops on vicarious trauma at professional conferences in social work and other disciplines by sending a staff member for training and asking that worker to share what he or she has learned with the rest of the staff. This information provides a useful context and helps social workers to feel more competent and have more realistic expectations about what they can accomplish in their professional role. Preparation for a stressful event, when possible, protects individuals from the effect of stress (Chemtob et al., 1990).

Learning new ways to address clients’ trauma may also help prevent vicarious trauma. Theories, such as constructivist self-development theory (McCann & Pearlman, 1990a) on which the theory of vicarious trauma is based, maintain a dual focus between past traumas and the client’s current strengths and resources. Working from a theoretical framework that acknowledges and enhances client strengths and focuses on solutions in the present can feel empowering for client and worker and reduce the risk of vicarious trauma.

Group Support

Both the burnout literature and the writings about vicarious trauma emphasize the importance of social support within the organization (Catherall, 1995; Munroe et al., 1995; Rosenbloom et al., 1995). Staff opportunities to debrief informally and process traumatic material with supervisors and peers are helpful (Horwitz, 1998; Regehr & Cadell, 1999; Urquiza et al., 1997). Critical incident stress debriefing (Mitchell, 1983, as cited in Wollman, 1993) is a more formalized method for processing specific traumatic events but may be less helpful in managing repetitive or chronic traumatic material (Horwitz, 1998). Support can also take the form of coworkers’ help with paperwork or emergency backup. Time for social interaction between coworkers, such as celebrating birthdays or other events as well as organized team-building activities and staff retreats, can increase workers’ feeling of group cohesion and mutual support.

Peer support groups may help because peers can often clarify colleagues’ insights, listen for and correct cognitive distortions, offer perspective/reframing, and relate to the emotional state of the social worker (Catherall, 1995). Group support can take a variety of forms, such as consultation, treatment teams, case conferences, or clinical seminars, and can be either peer led or professionally led. For example, shelter workers interviewed by Bell (1999) started a reading group and together read and discussed Pearlman and Saakvitne’s (1995a) book, Trauma and the Therapist: Countertransference and Vicarious Traumatization in Psychotherapy With Incest Survivors. The group met after work on a regular basis. Group members learned about vicarious trauma and ways to deal with it in their own work and lives. The group cost the agency nothing, did not interfere with work, and provided an opportunity for workers to give each other much-needed support. Regardless of the form group support takes, Munroe et al. (1995) warned that it should be considered an adjunct to, not a substitute for, self-care or clinical supervision.

There are some potential pitfalls of group support. One is the tendency toward “groupthink” and conformity (Munroe et al., 1995). Another is that members hearing about a coworker’s distress may use distancing and victim-blaming as a defense mechanism. Peer groups and treatment teams also offer the opportunity for traumatic reenactments, such as splitting the group members into the roles of exploiter and exploited, that are so common in working with trauma survivors (Munroe et al., 1995). When groups are held within agencies, there is also the potential problem generated by conflicting roles in the group, such as a supervisor who is both supporter and evaluator or a coworker/supervisor who is also a friend. Finally, group members may be more rather than less traumatized by the necessity of hearing each other’s worst horror stories. Guzzino and Taxis (1995) have suggested a number of ways for members of such groups to talk about their experiences without further traumatizing group members through the use of psychodrama and art therapy. To further minimize the potential for problems in support groups, Catherall (1995) has suggested that group members discuss such a possibility before it happens and normalize the experience of vicarious trauma and its impact on the individual and the group.

Supervision

Effective supervision is an essential component of the prevention and healing of vicarious trauma. Responsible supervision creates a relationship in which the social worker feels safe in expressing fears, concerns, and inadequacies (Welfel, 1998). Organizations with a weekly group supervision format establish a venue in which traumatic material and the subsequent personal effect may be processed and normalized as part of the work of the organization. As one hotline worker said of the value of supervisory support in response to a stressful call: “It’s kind of like you have this big sack of rocks and every time you kind of tell someone about it you can, you know, give them a couple of your rocks and your sack gets lighter” (as quoted in Bell, 1998).

In addition to providing emotional support, supervisors can also teach staff about vicarious trauma in a way that is supportive, respectful, and sensitive to its effects (Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995b; Regehr & Cadell, 1999; Rosenbloom et al., 1995; Urquiza et al., 1997). If at all possible, supervision and evaluation should be separate functions in an organization because a concern about evaluation might make a worker reluctant to bring up issues in his or her work with clients that might be signals of vicarious trauma. Dalton (2001) found that 9% of the variance in her study of social workers and secondary traumatic stress was related to supervision. Her results indicated that the number of times a worker received nonevaluative supervision and the number of hours of nonevaluative supervision were positively related to low levels of secondary traumatic stress. In situations where supervisors cannot separate the supervisory and evaluative functions, agency administrators might consider contracting with an outside consultant for trauma-specific supervision on either an individual or group basis. The cost of such preventive consultation might be well worth the cost savings that would result from decreased employee turnover or ineffectiveness as a result of vicarious trauma.

Resources for Self-Care

Agencies can make counseling resources available for all staff that interact with traumatic material (Regehr & Cadell, 1999; Wade et al., 1996). If there are many employees encountering the same type of trauma in the agency or within the larger community, agencies may consider the feasibility of forming a peer support group, as discussed earlier. Workers also need health insurance that provides mental health coverage (Rosenbloom et al., 1995). Following is a quote from one young shelter worker who was seeing a therapist to deal with some of the challenges of her work:

It’s nice to be able to talk to an other professional person, It hink, who underst and salot of the crazy things that can happen working in as helter. It hink when you try to talk with your friends about it or family, they are horrified at some of the stories that you comeup with, so it help stoget feed back from an other professional who says, “Oh,I know what you’retalking about. I’ve been there, and yes, that is very horrible.”And mainly just to vent, just to be able to speak about it. To get it out, so it doesn’t disrupt my life in other ways;in my sleep patterns or things like that.(asquotedin Bell,1998) Wade et al. (1996) also recommended that in addition to providing resources for therapy, organizations should provide opportunities for structured stress management and physical activities. Organizations with limited resources might consider exchanging training on areas of expertise with other agencies that have experts in stress management. Again, sending one staff member to a conference or workshop to learn stress management techniques and then asking that person to present what he or she learned to coworkers is a cost-effective way to circulate this information throughout an organization. Organizing something as simple as a walking or meditation group during the lunch hour or after work might also contribute to staff wellness at no cost.

In summary, the physical and cultural environment of work may prevent or predispose social workers to vicarious trauma. Additional research is needed to understand how and to what degree social workers may be affected by the trauma they come into contact with in the workplace and which workplace variables are most salient. Furthermore, how vicarious trauma impacts the social worker’s relationship with clients is another fruitful area for study. Research that helps to clarify the relationship between vicarious trauma and burnout would also be useful in providing a clearer theoretical framework from which to make agency decisions.

Conclusion

Working with clients who have experienced traumatic events challenges many of the beliefs held in the dominant culture about justice and human cruelty. Being personally exposed to these realities can take a toll on social workers’ emotional resources and may effect their perceptions and worldviews in fundamental ways. Personal knowledge of oppre

General Category of Service User: Level One

Erikson’s ‘Stages of Human Development’ (Kalat, 2010, p.173) divides a human’s life into stages. Each stage highlights specific tasks which have to be completed before moving onto the next stage. Each stage creates its own physical, social and emotional conflicts. These stages help to determine where a person is in their life, rather than basing it on their age. Rachel Clark is nineteen years old, and is at the physical stage of a young adult, late teens to early twenties. However, as she has not yet developed her identity, it is fair to say she is still at the stage of an adolescent, early teens. Erikson greatly emphasised the adolescent period, as it is a fundamental stage for a person to develop their identity. The main conflict at this stage is better known as identity versus role confusion. Since moving back to Northern Ireland from Liverpool, Rachel had to move from one friend’s house to another before finally finding a place of her own. This may have affected Rachel’s confidence and increased her stress. Prior to meeting with Rachel it is important to consider where she is now living and who her peers are.

Theories such as ‘Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs’ (Taylor & Devine, 1993, p.44) is relevant to Rachel’s case as it is important to understand if her psychological needs are being met in order for her to grow. In an attempt to address unmet need, the use of interventions, such as assessment is proposed and these requirements are legislated for in the Children Acts across the UK. Assessment is used to ‘…make possible informed decisions about meeting client needs’ (Taylor & Devine, 1993, p.7) Assessment frameworks such as; Understanding the Needs of Children in Northern Ireland (UNOCINI) are used to not only assess the child but also to assess the parents’ capacity to meet the needs of the child. Additionally, assessment is used to help the service user and worker to identify any areas which require growth and change. The UNOCINI framework is also in line with legislation such as; the Children (NI) Order (1995) and Article 8 of the Human Rights Act (1998); right to respect for private and family life (legislation, n.d.), which are also fundamental while working with Rachel’s case.

Additionally, the stages of Egan’s ‘Skilled Helper Model’ can assist in providing a ‘basic framework for the helping process’ (Egan, 2002, p.25). Each of these stages are a set of tasks based around a theme that assist clients in moving forward to help develop opportunities and provide assistance in managing problems.

Information specific to the service user/s: Level two

Rachel Clark is a nineteen year old, who is currently residing in Northern Ireland. She is a single parent to a son named Jamie, two years old. Rachel’s parents divorced when she was fifteen. Following this, her mother and twelve year old brother, Mark, moved to Liverpool with Mrs Clark’s boyfriend, Gavin. Rachel was unable to settle in Liverpool and quickly lost interest in her education. Rachel became pregnant at sixteen and gave birth to her son, Jamie, at seventeen. Rachel’s relationship with Jamie’s father ended before Jamie was born. Rachel returned to Northern Ireland six months ago with Jamie. Following this, Rachel had to move from one friend’s home to another until she was granted rented accommodation from a local housing association. It has also been mentioned that Rachel’s grandmother lives nearby and provides support for Rachel on a daily basis. There has been reason for concern with Rachel’s situation following a call from one of her neighbours, they wish to remain anonymous. It has been stated that Rachel is ‘partying all night and sleeping all day’, there is a collection of rubbish within Rachel’s garden and it has been reported that Jamie has been heard crying on occasions.

Prior to the initial interview with Rachel, it is important to have a clear overview of objectives and aims prepared. The main aim is to engage with Rachel and some objectives may include:

To find out if there is any truth in the allegations made against Rachel.
If Rachel is acquiring the full financial/emotional support available to her.
What kind of support she receives from her grandmother and to establish if respite may be required to give both Rachel and her grandmother a break from Jamie.

As Rachel is a young mother, it is important to make sure she is receiving all the help and support that is available. These include financial support, housing support and any child maintenance that is available to her. Although Jamie’s father is not on the scene, Rachel will still be able to claim child maintenance. This is perhaps something that could be discussed with Rachel. The financial help available to Rachel is also something that could be discussed, to make sure she is receiving all the financial support possible. It is stated that Rachel receives daily support from her grandmother, but it does not state what kind of help or what age her grandmother is. It may also be important to consider if respite may be required for both Rachel and her grandmother, to allow them both to have a break from Jamie at times.

Specific Phase of Work/Tuning in to SU’s feelings/anticipations of potential SU objectives: Level three.

A key skill during the preliminary phase of social work is to develop a sense of empathy. It is also essential to develop some initial strategies for responding directly to indirect words or actions. This skill is described as ‘Putting the client’s feelings into words’ (Shulman, 2012, p.148). In Rachel’s case, it is important to consider what it might be like to be an adolescent. It is essential to get in touch with possible feelings and anxieties that a client might be feeling. In this case, Rachel may be feeling anxious about what kind of worker or person she is going to be meeting with. It is important to engage with the service user and to establish a rapport to help her feel at ease and to gain her trust. Furthermore, effective preparation highlights your concern for the service user and therefore makes them feel valued.

It is important to consider how Rachel might be feeling during the point of first contact with social services. She may be feeling angry that someone has reported her for neglecting her son, as well as showing anxieties about whether or not she will have her son taken away from her. It is important to acknowledge how difficult it must be for Rachel to have a social worker talk to her about things that could be a sensitive subject.

Tuning in to own feelings, values and skills: Level four.

It is important for me, as a social worker, to tune into my own feelings and possible anxieties before beginning the first session with Rachel. The reason for this, is because if they are not addressed before hand then they may arise during the interview session, cause a distraction and may ultimately affect my ability to help Rachel. To establish a rapport with Rachel, personal values such as respect, honesty and compassion would be beneficial and would help to relax the client when they know you are showing a genuine interest. The values and skills within social work apply to the process of aiding others from a professional perspective. Professional values such as; social justice, respect for their rights and professional integrity will also come into effect before and during the interview with Rachel. A number of communication skills can be used to engage with Rachel. Talking and listening skills such as; paraphrasing, the use of open questions, clarifying, reflecting and summarising would show evidence of genuine interest. Other skills such as body language will show non-verbal indications of my attitude or feelings towards Rachel, so it is important to have an open posture. Likewise, the ability to respond to non-verbal cues are also important during the interview session. But, most importantly, the ability to be empathetic is a fundamental skill which is required to help develop strategies and relate to the service user. The use of non-verbal methods, such as; self-perception questionnaires, a problem tree or using a life line, are other communication skills which could be used to help Rachel interact with me. Additionally, Rachel might feel an impact of oppression with stereotyping based on her gender, age, gender or mental ability to cope. She may feel like the social services are judging her because she is a young, single mum and therefore, she might feel tense and under pressure. To understand how discrimination and inequalities are present in the interaction between service users and social workers, it is useful to consider the situation in terms of three levels. The personal, cultural and societal level, referred to as Thompson’s PCS model (Thompson, 2012, p.33). Thompson’s PCS model is important to comprehend as it states how personal beliefs, cultural norms and structural institutions combine to create oppression in society.

What is a social work assessment, plan and evaluation?

The aim of social work is to protect individuals from harm, and to empower them and improve their lives. Social workers form a human link between the many programs employed to serve the public good and those who are in need. They form the ‘eyes and ears’ of public efforts to combat social ills, so to speak, and they are the practical human element of common sense in their application. It is in this role where new ideas are created and innovative solutions are identified, where existing practices are judged for effectiveness, and, most importantly, where the faceless bureaucracy of government takes human form.

In order to accomplish this a critical process of assessment, planning, and evaluation has evolved in the field of social work which allows social workers to effectively achieve their goals. Moreover, it is has found a wide range of applications, from the student-supervisor relationship to practitioners in the field.

The process of assessment is aimed first at identifying problems or ‘taking stock’ of a particular situation. Identifying the problems in a situation provides the fundamental raison d’etre for the development and employment of a solution. Past identifying whether there is actually a problem (which is often suspected or reasonably understood before an assessment is undertaken), social work assessment has more to do with determining the particular nature of the problem and its degree. Understanding what kind of problem is being faced, and just how bad it really is, is key to forming a coherent plan to affect a real solution. This requires strong observation and critical analysis skills on the part of the social worker, but it also requires an intimate and experiential knowledge of the field in which the assessment is being undertaken.

Once the nature and degree of a problem is understood, different options may emerge – each as a possible solution. Each possible solution will have its own strengths and weaknesses, its own advantages and drawbacks. And while the process of assessment may be viewed as excessively tedious at times, it is critical to never underestimate its importance. A study on the need for an assessment model in primary medical care facilities for the elderly noted that: “When psychosocial needs go unmet through misdiagnosis, lack of detection, lack of treatment and follow up, elderly patients are at risk of further health problems that can lead to physical deterioration, reduced independence, and eventually to the need for more intensive and expensive services. “ (Berkman et al., 1999) The failure of proper assessment not only prevents positive solutions, but also results in negative impacts.

Assessment forms a critical foundation for the effectiveness of all other social work efforts. As such, the identification of different solutions requires policy knowhow and creativity on the part of the social worker. Meeting the demands of this important aspect of assessment, in conjunction with the skills of problem identification and critical analysis, will ensure sound and proper assessments which enable the identification of proper solutions.

Assessment is a critical component at the basis of all kinds of social work, from medical care and patient treatment to domestic violence and child poverty. All outcomes depend upon an assessment model built upon sound observation and critical analysis combined with creative and informed policy thought.

Solid assessment will provide the social worker with a range of options for addressing a particular problem. The selection of an appropriate solution involves properly understanding the nature of the problem, as well as the various impacts of each option at different levels.

The skills required to identify the right solution to a problem involve more than simple program literacy or policy analysis. They involve the fundamental ability to not only understand policies, but to weigh them concurrently against previously identified goals. Because many factors involved in determining the impacts of a possible solution are subjective (i.e. individuals, public and private groups, changing laws etc…), achieving this is not a matter of simple analysis but of an intuitive understanding of these subjective factors. Too often, someone unfamiliar with, or removed from, these subjective variables enacts a calculated decision based upon what is understood to be sound analysis. The history of social work is filled with this kind of serial miscalculation.

Take, for example, a 2005 study on battered women. It found that: “Safety planning will be most effective if it occurs within a contextualized assessmentprocess that illuminates the deeper struggles and multiple harms that women balance when making decisions about continuing or ending relationships.” (Lindhorst et al., 2005) While a “contextualized assessment process” is the main focus of the essay, it is the effectiveness of the plan or policy that is identified as the major issue affected by its absence. Assuming the burdens of sound assessment are properly met elsewhere, the ‘contextualization of the process’, or the root of its understanding in the subjective variables which specifically define it, will determine its success.

Real planning and policy implementation in response to sound assessment must always be rooted in the day to day reality of the issue it is dealing with. Too much abstraction or beaurocratization of this process distances it from reality, and only serves the employment of solutions which leave critical needs and major goals unmet. Ensuring that this understanding is present, along with the required critical analysis skills and policy knowledge on the part of the social worker, will ensure the right person is making these decisions. A bad decision based upon the best assessment is still an unacceptable outcome.

It is never evident, however, that the right plan or policy was chosen or the right assessment undertaken without some kind of evaluation. Success and failure is seldom absolute. More often it exists in degrees. And while success may be met in a number of respects, it may be absent in a number of others. The process of evaluation is designed to measure these degrees.

The changes that have taken place since a particular plan or policy was implemented are a major indicator of their effectiveness. Too often, however, not enough attention is paid to whether or not these changes are actually the result of the plans or policies in question. It is the process of evaluation’s primary task to determine the facts of policy impacts and exactly what policies are responsible for certain changes.

Furthermore, the process of evaluation is usually synonymous with some kind of accountability. When looking at programs from a financial point of view, this accountability is welcome. Indeed, it is rightly viewed as necessary to their responsible administration. This evaluation is, to a large degree, black and white. Either the numbers add up or they don’t. Either an idea has fundamentally succeeded or it has failed, or else it needs some tweaking.

From a personnel perspective, however, “the words ‘accountability,’ ‘supervision’ and ‘evaluation’ are frightening. They imply having one’s feet held to the fire for failure. These processes exist in a paradigm of fear and dread. Educators blame others and blame the circumstances for their lack of effectiveness rather than taking personal responsibility.

This phenomenon in human dynamics should not be seen as unique to teachers and administrators in education. It exists everywhere. We all have a tough time taking and giving criticism. We all have that very common fear of failure.” (Mcgrath, 2000) The human dynamic is here identified as a force resistant to the very kind of accountability the process of evaluation is meant to bring about. The study, “The Human Dynamics of Personnel Evaluation” (Mcgrath, 2000) talks about the judgmental nature and pressure of accountability which needs to be taken into account in the evaluation process.

The evaluation process is often viewed as a simple matter of calculation, or arithmetic. We had the goals the reasoning goes, we had the assessment and the plan, and we had what happened – just add it all up. But it’s just not that simple. The human dynamic is woven between virtually every fibre in the assessment and policy process. Viewing accountability through a fiscal lens, or a purely factual lens of objective causes and effects, miscalculates one of the largest and most influential factors in determining the usefulness of social work evaluation: people.

Making the evaluation process effective must involve, as with the two other processes discussed in this essay, more than just analysis. It must involve a psychology of responsibility that individuals are confronted with in the process at all levels. It must involve a confrontation of the fear of failure present in the heart of every sincere effort. Perhaps the great compassion which drives the field of social work forward, demanding the investment of nothing less than life itself from thousands of people, is also its greatest weakness. I believe, however, that it is the unawareness of this vulnerability which makes it a liability – nothing the fullness of character and a mature temperament cannot address.

Bibliography

Berkman et al. (1999) “Standardized Screening of Elderly Patients’ Needs for Social Work Assessment in Primary Care: Use of the SF-36” Health and Social Work. Vol. 24

Boutin-Foster et al. (2005) “Social Work Admission Assessment Tool for Identifying Patients in Need of Comprehensive Social Work Evaluation” Health and Social Work. Vol. 30

Burgess, H., Taylor, O., (2004) Effective Learning and Teaching in Social Policy and Social Work. London: RoutledgeFalmer

Garcia, J., Floyd, C., (2002) “Addressing Evaluative Standards Related to Program Assessment: How Do We Respond?” Journal of Social Work Education. Vol. 38

Ginsburg, E., (1990) Effective Interventions: Applying Learning Theory to School Social Work. New York: Greenwood Press

Gitterman, A., (2001) Handbook of Social Work Practice with Vulnerable and Resilient Populations. New York: Columbia University Press

Lindhorst et al. (2005) “Contextualized Assessmennt of Battered Women: Strategic Safety Planning to Cope with Multiple Harms” Journal of Social Work Education. Vol. 41

Mcgrath, M., (2000) “The Human Dynamics of Personnel Evaluation” School Administrator. Vol. 57

Pardeck, J., (2002) Family Health Social Work Practice. London: Auburn House

Siebert, D., Siebert, C., Spaulding-Givens, J., (2006) “Teaching Social Work Skills Primarily Online: An Evaluation” Journal of Social Work Education. Vol. 42

Social work as a practice is of recent origin and attempts to meet the needs of people especially those in urban areas. In essence, it is a professional activity of helping individuals or communities enhance or restore their capacities to a social functioning and to create societal conditions favorable to their goals. It aims to improve the quality of human life as well as show commitment towards social justice (Ryan and Hughes, 1998). Individuals, families, communities and organizations are able to attain their full potential by seeking social work related services. The need for such services has been extended to cater for children as they are currently facing challenges that hinder their proper development. This has become the main focal point of this document.

First of all, as mentioned above, social work is aimed at improving the livelihoods of people and engaging them constructively to attain their full potential. This cuts across all generations including children. Several reasons have contributed to my desire in working within the Public Child Welfare system. The system is driven by the aim to promote the safety, wellbeing and permanency of children as well as families (Ryan and Hughes, 2006). Most children experience situations such as being deprived of parental care, abuse ranging from physical, sexual, emotional to neglect, marital conflicts, stigma related issues, unfavorable socioeconomic conditions (Weaver et al., 2006) that expose them to scenarios such as opting for prostitution.

Qualities Of A Good Child Protection Services Worker

For one to be a Child Protection Services worker, one has to meet the basic requirements which include a Bachelor’s degree in social work or a Master’s degree in social work, maintain substantial knowledge of current affairs pertaining to children’s welfare and be able to apply the knowledge acquired into structured settings.

One should be aware of the ethics and values which describe in detail the code of conduct. A commitment to the ethics and values of a Child Protection Services worker should be fully adhered to, be able to apply basic helping skills where one is able to respond to individual, group and community needs, engagement skills, observation skills, communication skills, empathy skills, resistance intervention and assessment skills. With these strengths I am able to carry out my duties as Child Welfare Protection Officer effectively and efficiently.

Challenges To Effective Child Welfare Service Provision

However, even with the above strengths, several challenges exist that compromise service delivery on the part of the child welfare services worker. Ryan and Hughes (1998) expound on these challenges to include; poor public perception of the Child Welfare Social worker. Service delivery is compromised by high staff turnover as well as lack of competent personnel in the social work institutions; vulnerability of families with complex needs thus requiring time bound complex solutions. This cannot be tackled by the few workers available; poor working conditions result in the workers having to bear with increasing caseloads without proper remuneration and flexible routines; increased caseloads with complex needs. These stem in part from the vulnerability of families where breadwinners are unable to provide sufficiently for their dependants. Complexity of these needs requires complex actions in their solutions which further demands time to solve them; reduction in the number of foster care parenting. Increased caseloads face a backlog of foster care parenting as less individuals sign up into foster care systems due to increased expenses and bureaucracies involved.

Proposed Changes To Improve The Public’s Perception Of Public Child Welfare Services

In order to improve the public perception of public child welfare services, adequate training and employment should be done to increase the number of competent personnel in these institutions. This would effectively take into account the need to improve service delivery to cater for increasing cases related to child welfare (Weaver et al., 2006).

Secondly, institutional changes that encompass policy development and implementation need to be adequately addressed to ensure systematic co-ordination in securing resources for affected families and children. Further more, compensation should be incorporated to promote foster care parenting o that foster families do not feel overburdened in taking care of the adopted children. Staff should also be compensated in situations where they have incurred extra expenses of both time and money in their quest to address underlying issues brought to them.

Permanency Planning

Weaver et al., (2006) defines permanency planning as a guiding principle intended to minimize the exit, entry and time spent in home care. It includes both legal and social efforts aimed at securing viable families for children. It further describes where a child will live after foster care.

Foster Care System

Foster care system refers to a system where a minor is taken up in a caregiver’s home. Such a caregiver is certified by the state and is referred to as a foster parent. The state and a child welfare institution engage in legal decisions affecting the minor while the foster parent contributes to the daily care of the minor and is compensated for extending such services by the state. This system is mostly short term in nature as the minor awaits permanent adoption or reunification (Ryan and Hughes, 1998)

Career Prospects

Five years after my graduation, I intend to become a social worker with a bias in child protection services. I will focus my attention mainly in child labor and female genital mutilation cases for the first three years. I will then establish an organization whose main mandate would be to address the above issues.

References

Ryan, J. and Hughes, R. (1998), Field Guides to Child Welfare (Vol II-XIII). Washington: CWLA Press

Weaver, D. et al., (2006), Retention of Public Child Welfare Workers. Berkeley: California University

“the biggest challenge we face: the growing number of our fellow citizens who lack the means material and otherwise, to participate in economic, social, cultural and political life in Britain today…It is about more than poverty and unemployment. It is about being cut off from what the rest of us regard as normal life. It is called social exclusion…” (Mandelson, 1997, p.1)

Social exclusion policies in Britain, France, Germany and The Netherlands emphasise the issue of unemployment. People, it is argued, are excluded primarily because of unemployment therefore society should focus on reintegration into the workforce as a means of extending social inclusion. (Sheppard 2006) This promotion of employment has been seen through the various New Deal initiatives, tax credits as an incentive to take up low paid employment and increased resources for childcare. However, Washington and Paylor (1998) suggest that social inclusion is a multi-dimensional disadvantage which dislocates people from the major social and occupational opportunities in society from citizenship, housing, adequate living standards and employment and Sheppard also points out that both here and elsewhere “unemployment has often been used as a practical and shorthand proxy for poverty and its effects.” (Sheppard, 2006, p.8)

As has been pointed out, in Britain employment is the route to ‘inclusion’ but as Hirsch (2006) argues poverty and social exclusion need to be tackled together. He goes on to suggest that poverty intersects with social exclusion due to labour market and social trends in Britain currently. This coupled with public policy has contributed to high poverty rates. To further this argument Hirsch further states that poverty can be looked at as an aspect of income inequality or it can be looked at in terms of exclusion. For example:

“People in poverty find it hard to participate in society because they lack resources to do so. Conversely, lack of participation exacerbates poverty, both directly (exclusion from paid work) and indirectly (exclusion from social networks enabling people to improve their lives).” (Hirsch, 2006, p.4)

This highlights aspects of poverty in terms of social exclusion. Particularly oppression and discrimination which are particular barriers preventing equal access to fundamental economic and social rights.

Davies (2008) suggests that since New Labour has come into power it has coupled policy with a ‘rights and responsibilities’ agenda. People experiencing poverty are increasingly expected to meet responsibilities in order to meet the criteria for claiming entitlements while equal emphasis is not given to protecting their rights. Dominelli (2002) also states that poor and marginalised groups like refugees and asylum seekers and many service users in the fields of mental health, substance abuse and child protection now receive much harsher and more conditional forms of treatment. This notion is upheld by Ducklow (2003) who suggests that government treats the majority of citizens by promoting individual responsibility, self-sufficiency and choice to promote a self-improving form of citizenship.

Davies (2008) goes onto state that the welfare reform Green Paper (DWP 2008) reinforces this approach by making entitlement to Jobseekers Allowance for some claimants conditional on carrying out unpaid relevant full-time work. Also the recent announcement to cut benefits of substance misusers’ who do not undertake treatment is also reinforcement. Accordingly such policy exacerbates social exclusion by limiting the people who live in poverty their access to fundamental rights. Participants in ATD Fourth World (2008) research project mentioned how the increased emphasis on responsibilities versus rights pushed people into illegality, either by making a false claim or taking cash-in-hand jobs as a means of survival. This evidence, states Davies (2008) illustrates how this leads to “people feeling marginalised by policy and decision-makers.” (Davies, 2008, p.8)

Considering these points and considering that social work is involves working with some of the most disadvantaged sections of the community it is clear that social workers must defend against oppression, discrimination and exploitation. Lister (1998) suggests that citizenship is an important value because it places emphasis on rights and social inclusion. She argues if the concept of citizenship is to be of value for the marginalised, the first step is to acknowledge its power as a force for exclusion. Lister further maintains that the extent to which social work services can be seen to invest in the life of local communities is important as it will represent a tool for the promotion of the active citizenship of marginalised individuals, groups and communities.

Sheppard (2006) proposes that the equality of citizenship rights is dependent on an implicit notion of the equality of value placed on humans in society. However, young people can find participation in society and achieving their rights as citizens more difficult. For example the Child Poverty in Scotland Report (2008) indicates that evidence from the Princes Trust Scotland suggests that the most vulnerable young people suffer from multiple forms of deprivation, that those young people who stand to gain the most from training courses experience the greatest difficulties in securing access and financial support.

“Rigid application of eligibility criteria for JSA and other benefits can work to the disadvantage of our clients and prevents them participating on Prince’s Trust courses as they can be faced with the withdrawal of benefits (the 16 hour rule). Sometimes we reluctantly have to advise young people that their interest would not be best served by participating on one of our courses as their principal means of support would be withdrawn.” (House of Commons Scottish Affairs Committee, 2008, p.26)

Likewise, older people can be marginalised through a variety of reasons such as disability, poverty, dementia which can also make participation in society and achieving their rights as citizens more difficult. Sayce (1998) comments the equality of citizenship also emerges in the prejudice and stigma suffered through race, gender and mental health which can affect life opportunities, negatively affect their sense of identity and encourage low self-esteem. As Thompson (2005) points out to be a citizen means having social rights and being included in mainstream social life. In this respect, states Thompson, much social work practice plays “a pivotal role promoting…the citizenship status of particular individuals, families or groups who are otherwise prone to social exclusion.” (Thompson, 2005, p.124)

As far as accessing services are concerned Dowling (1999) suggests

“social exclusion is about a lack of knowledge of alternatives. It is about assuming officials know best and when a service is denied, accepting that nothing can be done.” (Dowling, 1999, p.254)

Families living in poverty often experience difficulties in accessing their rights to services. Davies (2008) argues they also face discrimination in the form of judgements from other people based on stereotypes of people living in poverty. Prejudices and pre-conceived ideas mean people experiencing poverty are at a disadvantage. An interesting point made by Davies is that stereotypes can lead to suggestions that if you live in poverty you are likely to neglect your family. ATD Fourth World (2006) states that many disadvantaged families live with the fear of their children being taken into care due to the intervention of local authority social services. They are worried about possible interference in their lives, about their control being undermined or about their privacy being invaded. Some also believe that services were either not relevant to their needs or they were so preoccupied and overwhelmed by their difficulties they did not have the freedom of mind to look for sources of support.

This is backed up by recent research by Canvin et al (2007) which showed that, for families in poverty encounters with public services were perceived to be associated with the risk of losing resources, being misunderstood and harshly judged or ultimately losing their children. As one participant put it:

“When you’re living in poverty, you don’t answer the knock at the door. It’s never good news: it’s either the debt collector, the housing officer, the police or the social worker.” (quoted in ATD Fourth World 2004)

Further to the point about accessing services Davies (2008) suggests that families often feel let down by the services that are meant to support them, with offers of support not delivered or initial help being retracted due to lack of resources. As Davies goes on to point out “this experience makes families experiencing poverty reluctant to use any form of services.” (Davies, 2008, p.9)

In view of the above it is realised the impact that social exclusion has on service users and it is known that the most common shared characteristic of those who use social work services is that they are poor. They are also likely to experience a range of other difficulties including mental health problems, violence and experience of the criminal justice system. (Ferguson 2007) Therefore the multi-dimensions of social exclusion epitomize inequality, disadvantage and marginalisation factors that have long been the context for social work practice. Sheppard (2006) encapsulates this by suggesting

“Social workers are seeking to present the ‘world’ of the marginalised to mainstream society and the values and perspectives of mainstream society to the marginalised.” (Sheppard, 2006, p.41)

One theory in this context is emancipatory practice. This approach in social work is concerned with oppression and discrimination. Thompson (2005) suggests the focus of this approach is

“To contribute to the empowerment of clients to help them overcome the disadvantages they experience as a result of their social location and negative attitudes towards them.” (Thompson, 2005, p.67)

Empowerment according to Croft and Beresford (1994) is a participative approach and valuable because people want and have a right to be involved in decisions and actions taken in relation to them. Their view of emancipatory practice is empowerment which involves challenging oppression and making it possible for people to take charge of their own matters. It gives control to people in defining their own needs and it equips people with personal resources to take power by developing their confidence, self-esteem, assertiveness, knowledge and skills. Payne (2005) by contrast suggests the use of empowerment created an idealistic and perhaps misleading objective for practice in a period when the role of social work agencies is increasingly limited to protection or service provision. Payne further adds that we should not mistake empowerment with enablement.

“Empowerment is not limited, as enablement is, to allowing or assisting people to take actions, but it is aimed at relinquishing and transferring to them the power to control their lives permanently.” (Payne, 2005, p.302)

Smale et al (2000) argues that this approach has an implicit agenda in that the client is empowered by restricting the power of the practioners and turning them into facilitators and that they as the client recognise that they themselves know best what they need and what should be done for them.

This notion of empowerment is embodied in the IFSW (International Federation of Social Workers) definition.

“The social work profession promotes social change, problem-solving in human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being. Utilising theories of human behaviour and social systems, social work intervenes at the points where people interact with their environments. Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work.” (IFSW 2000)

As Asquith et al (2005) point out that although the IFSW statement is general it particularly promotes change, identifies the importance of social justice and rights and working with disempowered members of society. Social work from this perspective as Asquith et al suggests, is about assisting, supporting and enabling certain sections of the community. They go on to add that for this reason, one constant in the history of social work has been its concern with those who suffer from the negative effects of social inequalities. As Ferraro (2003) indicates social work is really concerned with freeing the poor and the marginal underclass from subordination and exclusion.

Considering this in Changing Lives (Scottish Executive 2006) Statham et al (2005) identified three main functions that define what social workers do. They intervene between the state and the citizen, maximise the capacity of people using services and contribute to policies and practice that support social and personal well-being.

To maximise these functions Payne (2005) describes three different approaches to social work which he argues “is one paradigm of social work, socially constructed in the discourse between the three views” (Payne, 2005, p.13) The first approach is reflexive-therapeutic (therapeutic helping). This approach seeks the promotion of the best possible well-being and self-fulfilment for individuals, groups and communities in society. It is a process of mutual influence through which service users gain power over their personal feelings and way of life. Payne suggests this view expresses in social work the social democratic political philosophy – economic and social development go together to achieve individual and social improvement.

Secondly is socialist-collectivist (emancipatory or transformational) view. This sees social work as seeking cooperation and mutual support in society so that the most oppressed and disadvantaged people can gain power over their own lives. Payne (2005) states that value statements about social work, such as codes of ethics, represent this objective by proposing social justice as an important value. Politically this view expresses the socialist political philosophy – planned economics and social provision promote equality and social justice.

Thirdly is the individualist-reformist (maintenance or social order) view. This is termed as the maintenance approach in that social work is seen as maintaining the social order and maintaining people during periods of difficulties. This view expresses the liberal or rational economic political philosophy – that a free market economy supported by rule of law is the best way of organising societies.

In Changing Lives (2006) it is interesting to note that it refers to the development of therapeutic relationships.

“…the quality of the therapeutic relationship between social worker and individual or family is critical to achieving successful outcomes…The therapeutic approach and the working alliance that goes with it are key elements in developing a personalised approach to helping those with the most complex needs gain control of their lives and find acceptable solutions to their problems. Crucially, this is as important in compulsory aspects of services as it is in those actively sought by service users.” (Scottish Executive, 2006, p.27)

Thompson (2005) also expresses the notion of theoretical paradigms. Thompson suggests social work need a grasp of a range of theoretical perspectives and the ability to draw on these when required. For example the systems theory according to Thompson is a more sociological approach in which social work situations are understood as a series of interlocking social systems e.g. the family system and neighbourhood and community systems. It is the task of the social worker to understand the interactions of such systems and the problems that arise so that the patter of systems can be altered and the problems resolved.

One method of this theory is the community needs profiling approach. Green (2000) argues that community needs profiling should be seen as

“an umbrella term for an approach which attempts to gain information about a community, particularly its needs, and to use this as the basis for change and community development” (Green, 2000, p. 290)

He suggests that potential outcomes for social workers undertaking their own community needs profiling would give a good ‘baseline information’ such as the extent of poverty within the area, types of housing tenure, unemployment levels and the distribution of poverty in any given locality of the area. Green further states that from this information it might also be possible to identify from agency workloads whether there is a particular neighbourhood that is receiving a disproportionate level of social work intervention and that by locating this information may further highlight possible links between individual, family and community poverty and referral and contact with social work agencies.

Green suggests that from this information a more critical awareness of the social, economic and material context to working with poor individuals and families such as at the structural level whereby it gives an understanding of inequalities such as poverty and how they are reinforced. Secondly at the organisational level, the role of social work agencies and social workers in providing resources and services to tackle user need can be explored and lastly, at the interactional/psychosocial level, it aims to locate individual user problems within their structural context.

Community needs profiling outcomes for social work agencies purposes would be its contribution to policies, service provision, evaluation of services and practioners interventions. Green (2000) furthers this by suggesting that organisational benefits would include policies grounded in service user and community needs based on local research findings and social work intervention models and strategies compatible with people’s needs and more evidence-based.

In conclusion the role social work can have in responding to social exclusion is the principles of partnership and user involvement. As Lister (1998) points out they underpin a relationship in which users are perceived and treated as equal citizens.

“…user-involvement represents a more active form of social citizenship in which welfare state users are constructed as active participants rather than simply the passive bearers of rights or recipients of services.” (Lister, 1998, p.15)

Further to this if the marginalised feel that the actions and attitudes of the social workers themselves are participatory and inclusive, that their views are listened to then there should be a successful role for social work in relation to social exclusion.

TO WHAT EXTEND SHOULD SOCIAL WORK BE LED BY THE WISHES OF SERVICE USERS?Introduction

Social work involves the improvement of the human condition and positively changing how the society responds to unending problems. The profession is meant to enhance the quality of life and to ensure each individual realizes full potential in life. In pursuit of these goals social workers work with communities, groups, families, individuals more so the sick and poor. For a long period of time social workers have been providing services with less involvement of the users. They were considered receivers of the services whereas the workers were providers of services. This was seen to give little choice and autonomy to the users. On the other hand the care givers were trained to offer services to the users irrespective of how they felt about the service. Slowly, in a number of western societies there is a growing trend to change the approach. The users are given more say in the manner they want to be treated. This is understandable considering that they are suffers and know better where the shoe pinches. Their opinions have for a long period of time been overlooked by the authorities (Banks, 2006). To address this issue is both a challenge and an opportunity for delivery of better services.

Involvement of Service Users

There have been attempts in the recent past to have involvement of service users in health and care services. The consumer of social service is perceived just like a consumer of any other type of commercial service. This means that he or she is obliged to have a choice, quality service, and value for money and even an avenue to complain (Thompson, 2009). There is much emphasis on the necessity to have knowledge about the exact needs of the users based on research. It is not only advocating for participation or involvement of the users but a greater empowerment. In this the power and control of the professionals is surrendered to the users. There are given a chance to control and run the services. This form of service delivery is rear and may not be realized soon. Nevertheless attempts are being made to let the user gain more information, knowledge and skills regarding the power being bestowed on him.

Such a venture can prove challenging to the users and those trying to emancipate them. Most of the users are ignorant, disabled, unfit physically and in majority cases with a low self esteem. To involve them is delivery of service will require much assurance, patience and friendliness from the workers (Munday, 2007). It is for this reason that training has been initiated for both the users and social workers. This training enables them to better understand one another and work in collaboration.

Merits of Involvement of the Users

There are a number of reasons why the involvement of users in providing service is vital. The most important factor is to have services reflect on the preferences and needs of the users. Similarly the users also have to be able to participate in decision making regarding the delivery of the service. The latter reason is important in the sense that the users gain more control over their lives. There are also made to be flexible hence able to respond to various needs at appropriate time. Besides, the people will be able to unite as a group, identify with one another and speak with one voice. In this way they guarantee to give a new perspective and approach to tackle social issues. The involvement of the users is also essential in a sense as their input will be used in reports and other documents. As a result most of the materials meant for this purpose become understandable to other service users, members of the public and providers of services.

Though there are those who see the involvement of users as a challenge to the workers, it can actually lighten their work. Once social workers and users trust each other and work together it becomes easy to deliver the services. It is easy to satisfy someone who responds and gives directions on how he or she wants to be served. The social workers will therefore not be required to rely so much on book reading but field experiences. The more they interact with users the more they get to know them and their problems.

In most cases resources are scarce thus making social work a challenge. To some extend the involvement of users can help in proper resource allocation and avoid wastage (Byers, 2005). There are instances where social workers provide what is not needed by users. Some of the resources are expensive yet do not fully satisfy the needs of the users. It can be more prudent if the users are involved in the planning such that only useful items are provided. In countries such as Norway personal budgets have been helpful in dealing with individual needs (Munday, 2007). This approach whereby some cash is provided to individuals has been very useful. As much as some critics will term the approach as expensive; still it is a step towards empowering the users.

In addition individual needs and expectations vary with time and context. The training of the social workers needs to be updated often in order to address current circumstances. For this to be realized there must be intensive research carried out on the service users. Such a venture can prove expensive and time consuming to the social workers. Alternatively the workers have the option of researching on the users as they provide services. The knowledge and ideas gotten from users can be useful in future practice.

Barriers to Involvement

Despite these apparent positives there are obstacles to the full implementation of the plan. The most crucial is the significant minority users whose view may not be represented by the chosen few members attending meetings. It is also possible for the user representatives in the committee meetings not to effectively stand for wishes of the entire group of service users. It is therefore a challenge to have greater involvement and participation of the people. The majority of whom it may not be easy to contact.

Another impediment is the professionals themselves. Traditionally power belonged to service providers and still most of them are reluctant to relinquish the power. There is less willingness to share power with users such that most of them are already intimidated to attend the meetings. This is especially so with regard to decision making. The professionals still want to be in control in allocation of resources. The assumption is that allowing users in decision making would prove costly to the professionals. Such a venture is also time consuming considering tight schedule of the professionals. On the other hand the teaching staff has to be made aware of the emerging trend in service delivery. As opposed to traditional practices, the current approach emphasizes on sharing of power.

In majority cases service users perceive themselves being secondary to the wishes and dictates of the professionals. This has acted as an impediment to their involvement. The users appear to be lacking in knowledge, skills and understanding (Munday, 2007). This makes them susceptible to exploitation. In some cases their physical condition does not seem to favor a meaningful participation. Their personal opinions and needs do not tally those of the professionals yet such concerns are rarely addressed by the authorities. For this barrier to be surmounted there must be training allotted to both service users and caregivers.

Apart from the people involved in social work institutions also act as a major obstacle. The established practices and structures of the organizations allow for little reforms. There is almost no room to hold discussion for power sharing. The long established tradition in institutions makes power issue a tricky affair. The administrations are also bureaucratic thus shun involvement of the users. In some cases it is the lack of clear goals by the administration. This becomes a barrier to initiate any reforms in favor of involvement. However, constant calls for awareness may help address the issue.

Time and resources also prove as obstacles to the achievement of the goals. There must be enough resources to meet the needs of the users (Trevithick, 2005). This may not be readily available hence calls for support to allow the participation of various stakeholders. Some of these seminars are costly as participants have to be well catered for. The expenses include reimbursements, transports costs and also paying the services users. Similarly, institutions pose some difficulties that need to be overcome. All the same there need to be commitment on the part of the users. Time and energy have to be sacrificed of which majority users can hardly afford.

Furthermore in most countries there is no legal provision to advocate for the rights of the users. The political willingness is also lacking (Adams, Dominelli and Payne, 2009). This makes it is difficult to push any agenda concerning users of the service. In some cases the legislation may exist but are inadequate to address the issue at hand. It therefore becomes necessary for other avenues to be explored to ensure that the concerns of users are addressed.

Finally there seem to be a language barrier between some of the users and social workers. In some cases the two speak different languages hence cannot communicate easily and effectively. Naturally this will require the services of an interpreter who may not be readily available. In addition the language of the professionals may be too technical making meaningful communication impossible. It is for this reason that professionals have to cut on the use of jargon and try to simplify their language. Sometimes it is only language that creates distance between users and social workers.

Impact of User Participation

There is much evidence to show the widespread popularity of user participation. However, the impact of participation is yet to be monitored. As much as there is willingness to allow for participation of users still institutions are rigid. The traditional systems, structures and practices are maintained. It makes it hard for any meaningful reforms to be carried out.

In addition users seem to be skeptical about current programs. According to perspectives from a number of users their views continued to be ignored. This is basically because professionals in the field are unwilling to share power. The users therefore find it difficult to find a way of having there needs prioritized. It becomes vital for them to meet together and speak in one voice.

It is due to these reasons that learning institutions are advised to take note such that they help in bringing solutions to the problem (Davies, 2008). Without a new way of looking at the problem and changing the system then the problem is likely to persist. The barriers that see to the marginalization and disregard of views of users can only be addressed by changing traditional systems.

Expectations of the Service Users

Service users expect to be heard and their problems listened to. This is in addition to the need to be valued as human beings. They crave for humane treatment, warmth, honestly, and respect. The lifestyle and cultures of the users are also to be respected. It is unfortunate that most of the social workers disregard some of these issues. There is a tendency to imagine those that are poor or aged are not entitled to the best services.

Apart from this users are also in need of understanding and to work in collaboration with social workers. There differences as individuals have to be acknowledged. Above all the need for good communication is emphasized. The communication should be clear and straight forward. All manner of ambiguity should be shunned. Moreover, professionals should try as much as possible to avoid use of jargon.

Social work education is a useful tool to enable workers not to imagine the condition of the users. A social worker has to constantly monitor the condition of the users and respond accordingly. Students on career training have to be made aware from the onset to be respectful and open to participation with users. The perspectives of users need to be kept under consideration. It will also ensure there is partnership between service users and students on a daily basis.

Service users are also important in providing knowledge and understanding. Their views and opinions need to be taken with seriousness and equal value just like those of professionals. Their experiences are essential to enable a successful involvement practice. In many instances these experiences vary from those of professionals. This is not to be seen as anything out of the ordinary. In fact it can be used as a good background to better the teaching of the subject.

There is still need for programs in social work to allow for user involvement and partnership with social workers (Wilson, Ruch, Lymbery, and Cooper 2008). The impediments outlined earlier should be done away with. The service users have identified a number of issues which have to be tackled in order for there to be an effective partnership. For instance there is need to commence a direct partnership with users. There knowledge and experience should be incorporated in the services being provided. This means a continued sustenance of the partnership between the users of the service and those providing the service.

The importance of participation of more people cannot be emphasized. This must include people with varied background and experience. The system should be in favor of inclusiveness such that there is a wide approach to challenges. Once users are able to articulate their problems and issues facing them without feeling intimidated then it would be a step forward. For this to be realized it would take more than just participation but direct effort from the concerned parties.

Each and every individual is unique. It is therefore faulty for social workers to give the same type of service to a number of users. The truth is that even for individuals, circumstances and needs change with time. Those attending to users must therefore be sensitive to individual complaints at particular times. Workers have to look at the history of patients and ensure there was no misdiagnosis. Concern for the past of the patients boosts confidence and friendship. Similarly, services can only be implemented when there is trust between professionals and the users of services. It also means the same staff should be maintained for a long as possible. An occasional change of staff gives a discontinued service to the users.

Perspective of the Workers

The social workers too have needs and also suffer from a number of work related illnesses. The most common ones are anxiety, stress and depression. Just as the users of the service, workers need support. This may be psychological, financial or spiritual. The majority however do not disclose their personal problems since they see it as a weakness on their part (Davies, 2008). They are meant to respond to the needs of others hence most of them forget the fact that they too have got needs. There are those that put the needs of others before there own. Whereas the mainstreams come to believe distress and concerns are inevitable and cannot be done away with.

It is therefore important that workers are made to understand not only the situation of the sick but their personal situations as well. On a daily basis social workers have to deal with a lot of issues most of which depend on their decisions. They not only have individuals to deal with but families, groups and communities. Furthermore the resources are scarce such that workers have to find a way to share equally. Their work is punctuated with lots of uncertainties; contradictions, risks and tension (Davis, 2008). Everyday workers face a number of challenges. It is not always smooth as they rely on their own judgment to solve some problems. This becomes even more complicated in times of crisis. The majority are denied time to spend with family and even relax with friends. All the same the workers are expected to deliver the best service to users. They need to focus and listen to whatever complaints the users put across (Levin, E., 2004).

Conclusion

It is beyond doubt that users of social services need to be involved in social work. For a long period of time they have been sidelined and their views suppressed by the authorities. In some way this involvement will help to address some of issues that users feel are being neglected. Service users need to develop a personal relationship and trust with social workers. They have to be listened to, respected and empowered. It is only when they are free with workers, confine to one another that the work will run smoothly. On the other hand it is not going to be an easy task for social workers. The expectations of users are many and varied. In order to meet all of them workers have to be skillful and experienced. Furthermore authorities have to ensure scarcity of resources and bureaucracy is dealt with. This will give ample time to the workers. All in all the two parties are to work in conjunction with one another, respect and value each other. It is not necessarily that all the wishes of service users be met but at least respect and understanding should prevail.

The fact that social work has to be done in collaboration there is need for training for both service users and workers. Once the two parties participate in training it becomes a lot easier to work together. It will not be a question of responding to the wishes of users. Some of the groups and or individuals need a lot of guidance and counseling. There are those that can hardly understand themselves and need a lot of help. Again training may not go well with most of the users. Majority will not see the usefulness of training. Others may as well ignore. Nevertheless institutions that train social workers should address the changing roles of users in social work. The graduates should be skillful and flexible enough to respond to the challenging environment.

References
Adams, R., Dominelli, L & Payne, M., 2009. Social Work: Themes, Issues and Critical Debates.3rd ed. Palgrave Macmillan.
Banks, S., 2006. Ethics and Values In Social Work. British Journal of Social Work. 37(1):161-162;
Byers, C., 2005. Towards a Meaningful involvement of People Using Service and Carers in Social Work education: developing Strategies for Good practice. School of Social Community and Health Studies. Retrieved on November 13, 2009 from http://www.bemidjistate.edu/academics/publications/social_work_journal/issue11/articles/byers.htm
Davies, M., (ed) 2008. The Blackwell companion to social work. Blackwell Publishers Ltd
Davis, A., 2008. What Service Users Expect From Social Work. International Conference on Social Work Education. Tblisi State University, Georgia July 1-2 2008. Retrieved on 18 November 2009 from http://www.ceimh.bham.ac.uk/documents/Ann_Georgia_presentation.pdf
Levin, E., 2004. Involving Service Users and Carers In Social Work Education. Social Care Institute for Excellence. Retrieved on November 18, 2009 from http://www.scie.org.uk/publications/guides/guide04/files/guide04.pdf
Munday, B., 2007. Report on User Involvement in Personal Social services. Retrieved on 13 November 13, 2009 from http://www.coe.int/t/dg3/socialpolicies/socialrights/source/ID4758-Userinvolvementinpersonalsocialservices.pdf
Thompson, N., 2009. Understanding Social Work: Preparing for practice. Palgrave Macmillan
Trevithick, P., 2005. Social Work Skills: A Practice Handbook. 2nd Ed. Open University Press.
Wilson, K., Ruch G., Lymbery M., Cooper A. 2008. Social Work: An Introduction to Contemporary Practice. Longman.

In the reading by Bennett and Zubrzycki (2003) they write about themselves, a Polish-Australian and an Indigenous Australian who collaborated in a research project about Indigenous social work. They interviewed 6 Indigenous social workers and give details of the difficulties faced in contemporary social work practice. Those interviewed face many obstacles in their practice due to cultural issues in a profession that is dominated by another culture.

Green and Baldry (2008) argue that even though Australian social work clients are made up of many Indigenous people, the workers they deal with have their practice rooted in theories taken from European, British and Euro-American social theory. They talk about the role of social workers in past injustices inflicted on Indigenous people and the fledgling movement among social workers, especially Indigenous ones, to develop theory and practice specifically targeting the needs of Indigenous Australians.

The reading by Briskman (2007) looks at developing frameworks in response to the deficits of contemporary social work practice in five areas experienced by Indigenous Australians. These are social constructs of whiteness and “othering”, colonialist practice, racism and institutional racism, citizenship and human rights.

Wilson (1997) explores the failure of welfare departments in understanding Indigenous kinship systems and the removal of children from their extended families and lands. Wilson argues that the removal of children and placing them away from extended family is tantamount to child abuse in itself. It is also stated that welfare related interventions are best handled by Indigenous organisations as mainstream organisations use the term “culturally appropriate” without really knowing what it means.

Analysis

The readings show that despite the many definitions of social work, Indigenous Australians do not receive the service delivery they should. Although Australia has moved away from using British and American models of social work to reflect our own history (Napier & George 2001, p.79) we are still lacking in our practice frameworks with Indigenous people.

The Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission 1997 (cited in O’Connor, Wilson, Setterlund & Hughes, 2008, p.25) states that the historic colonisation, seen as invasion by Indigenous people, destroyed them, their culture and their land along with the imposing of alien laws, religion and social and economic arrangements upon them. The results of this have seen Indigenous people as the most marginalised people in Australia with many social problems including domestic violence, child care and poverty that needed to be responded to by the government (O’Connor et al. 2008, p.40).

Goldlust (cited in Briskman 2007, p.37) states that Indigenous Australians were not citizens of their country until the Nationality and Citizenship Act of 1948 granted them automatic citizenship but even so they were not given the right to vote until 1962. Anderson (cited in Whiteside, Tsey & Earles, 2011, p.114) states that even though Australia was a world leader in its welfare entitlement arrangements, Indigenous people were not able to access these benefits until the late 1960s.

When the Whitlam Labour government came into power in 1972 major social reforms took place which saw a large injection of funding for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Affairs along with the dismantling of the White Australia Policy through the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (O’Connor, Wilson, Setterlund & Hughes, 2008, p.27).

One of the major problems in Indigenous communities has been the historic removal of children and their over representation in the child welfare system. It was not until the release of the Bringing Them Home: report of the national inquiry into the separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families by the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission [HREOC] (1997) that this issue began to be addressed. There is a conflict of values among welfare workers in the child protection system. Western society see differences in the way indigenous people live as “abnormal” and therefore this signals to them that there is a problem within the family (Wilson 1997, p.452). They have no understanding of the indigenous kinship system which then results in the removal of many children unnecessarily. Wilson argues that neglect is the primary reason for welfare intervention in Indigenous communities and that social inequality directly causes neglect. Racism in schools, housing problems, general poverty and structural factors also resulted in interventions (1997, p.453). Furthermore Wilson states that welfare departments fail to consult with Indigenous families, communities and organisations regarding interventions and that culturally appropriate welfare services should be provided by Indigenous organisations (1997, pages 453-458). There is a need for more Indigenous and culturally competent social workers in Australia today. Green and Baldry contend that social work in the past has been involved in racist, patronising and unjust practices toward Indigenous people and having now apologised is seeking to learn from Indigenous Australians how to work with their communities and individuals (2008, p.389). Bennett, Zubrzycki, and Bacon (2011, p.34) discuss that there is still much to be done in teaching social work students to be culturally sensitive to Indigenous Australians:

Social work practice with Aboriginal people and communities requires significant

resources and development. While some schools of social work (e.g., University of

Western Australia and University of New South Wales) offer students core units on

working with Indigenous Australians, there is still no national core curriculum that

requires this important subject to be included across all Australian schools of social

work. Theories of Whiteness, knowledge about the ongoing practices of colonisation,

knowledge of Aboriginal English, Aboriginal languages, and Aboriginal world views

are just some of the areas that remain marginal in social work education. Yet the

social justice outcomes for Aboriginal people indicate that these communities are the

most disadvantaged and marginalised in Australia. This means that social workers,

who have a central role in the delivery of welfare services, need to be educated and

supported to work in ways that are culturally respectful, courageous, and hopeful. (Bennett, Zubrzycki & Bacon 2011, p.34)

This advice should be followed in order for social work to address the needs of Indigenous Australians adequately. Indigenous people make up a small percentage of the Australian population. Therefore the number of Indigenous social workers is minute in terms of being able to service their people and communities. They also face challenges in their role as social workers due to the very fact that they are Indigenous. Soong (cited in Bennett and Zubrzycki 2003, p.62) contends that these workers are often seen as culture brokers who mediate between two cultures. This results in them experiencing tensions caused by being caught between professional and cultural expectations that are in conflict with each other. This dichotomy should not be and Indigenous social workers need a lot more support from their peers in practice.

Reflection

As I reflect on what I have learnt in this unit I am reminded of the enormity of what will be expected of me in order to become a competent social worker in the future. The readings I have done in my chosen topic about Indigenous Australians have been of particular interest to me due to the fact that I manage an Indigenous Out of Home Care / Kinship Care service and am the mother of Indigenous children. The past injustices that have been visited upon the Indigenous communities in Australia are something that can never be changed nor forgotten but we can learn from this and move on to a future that will embrace social justice and human rights on a large scale rather than the way it is now, in a stage of infancy. I have learnt that there is a lot more to being a social worker than you would expect and that it takes a lot of grit and determination to practice justly and fairly. My beliefs and values have been challenged, especially around the whiteness theories and the position of privilege that I hold just because of the colour of my skin. The unit has raised awareness in me of the predicaments people find themselves in through no fault of their own and it has given me more compassion and the desire to go out and help those who are marginalised and in poverty. I am a natural advocator, it is something that I like to do along with it being part of my profession and I have been challenged to go out and advocate for those that are less well off more often. In regards to future learning this unit has spurred me on to want to know a lot more as this is only the start of my course. I would like to learn more about politics and sociology. Human rights is a subject that I would like to do a lot more study on as it is something that really inspires me. By the end of the course I fully expect to be a competent social worker with a strong foundation in theories both past and present. The readings I have read in the unit are able to be put to good use already in my workplace and in my life and as I go on I am expecting to change and be a better person because of what I have learnt.

Additional Reading

The reading I have chosen is called “How White is Social Work in Australia” and the full reference for this reading is as follows:

Walter, M, Taylor, S & Habibis, D (2011) ‘How White is Social Work in Australia?’,

Australian Social Work, 64: 1, 6 – 19.

I got the reading from the Deakin Library under the journal section after doing a search on Australian Social Work. This reading sheds light on my topic as it enables white people to see that there is a world of difference between them and Indigenous Australians. It also brings an awareness of how we practice “othering”, even if unconsciously so.

Critically evaluate the contributions of theory, research, legislation and policy to social work practice in relation to one aspect of practice in one of the following: Children and Families.

In this essay I am going to critically evaluate the contributions of theory, research, legislation and policy to social work practice in relation to looked after children who experience neglect. Erickson and Egeland (2002) argue that there are five types of neglect; emotional, medical, physical, mental health and educational neglect and these can all impact negatively on a child. I have chosen to concentrate on middle aged children around the ages of five to ten years of age who have experienced neglect because neglect is one of the most identified forms of child abuse and can have serious effects on children of this age (Mennon et al, 2010). According to the DfES (2014) 62% of looked after children are looked after because of abuse or neglect. Therefore it is important to evaluate how theory, research, legislation and policy can contribute to social workers understanding of neglect and how social workers can support children in overcoming these effects. I appreciate that children who become looked after due to neglect often experience other forms of abuse and these can have further negative effects on children (Mennon et al, 2010), however because this essay aims to be prescriptive rather than exhaustive I have chosen to concentrate on middle aged children who experience neglect.

Research has made a significant contribution to social work practice in relation to looked after children who experience neglect. The majority of research concentrating on children who experience neglect (Mennon et al, 2010; Trickett and McBride Chang, 1995; Hildyard and Wolfe, 2002) has tended to show that the risk factors associated with neglect can significantly hinder children’s growth and development. Children who are neglected tend to live in poverty, with a lack of parental care, parents may be misusing substances, parents may have mental health problems, one parent may be experiencing domestic violence, and poor prenatal and postnatal care can all lead to a child being neglected by their parents (Pelton, 1994). Research has shown that children who are neglected tended to have the lowest academic grades (Eckenrode, Laird and Dorris). Studies have found that children of school age who were neglected showed social and behavioural problems, they were socially withdrawn, unpopular with other children and socially isolated (Erickson and Egeland, 2002 and Trickett and McBride Chang, 1995). Hildyard and Wolfe (2002) found that children who were severely neglected impacted detrimentally on children’s emotional well-being. Therefore, the factors associated with neglect can impact negatively on a child’s normal development and have adverse effects, which is why it is vital for social workers to understand the impact of neglect on children so they can target the most effective interventions to help children overcome the effects.

However, it could be argued that there is a lack of research that specifically relates to children who are looked after and experience neglect. Many children who are neglected who are involved with child protection services will have interventions targeted at them in order to prevent neglect from continuing and children do not always become looked after. For example, a child who is being neglected because their parents have substance misuse problems may not end up being taken in to care because the parents seek help for their problems. Or a parent who is being abused may move away from the abusive partner which enhances their ability to parent the child. Much of the research tends to concentrate on how social workers in child protection services can help families where children are experiencing neglect. Arguably therefore there is a lack of research which specifically looks at how the two compounding issues of neglect and being looked after impacts on children.

Despite this, the research exploring the effects of neglect on children help social workers understand the impact of neglect on children who are looked after and how this hinders their development which they can then consider when undertaking assessments. This can then help social workers decide what intervention is needed to promote a child’s health and well-being. Attachment theory for instance is invaluable in understanding why looked after children experience some of the adverse effects that they do (Trickett and McBride Chang, 1995). Howe argues that attachment theory is “very useful to child welfare and adoption workers” (1995: 136) because it can explain children’s behaviour which can help social workers target the most effective interventions (Howe, 2005). Attachment theory, developed by John Bowlby, argued that children need “secure attachments to their mother in order for them to be stable individuals in later life” (Dunk-west, 2013: 42). Attachment theory suggests that children who grow up without a secure caregiver have difficulty forming stable social relationships in later life. The lack of a warm and secure relationship with a caregiver during early childhood can lead to a child experiencing adverse effects, such as delinquent behaviour and depression (Howe, 1995).

Therefore children who have been neglected are likely to have insecure attachments because of the lack of care and nurturance they received growing up (Hildyard and Wolfe, 2002). Attachment theory can therefore contribute significantly to social work practice because it helps social workers in their assessments to understand the child’s needs. It also helps social workers understand the need to place looked after children who have experienced neglect in stable placements so they can develop secure attachments to their new caregivers (Howe, 2005; Cocker and Allain, 2008). This can support the emotional and social development of children and is central in building resilience (Crawford and Walker, 2007). To ensure placements are stable and secure attachments can develop; social workers must carry out good quality assessments and develop robust care plans (Cocker and Allain, 2008). Social workers must then frequently assess children in their new placements and assess the quality of their new attachments with their new caregivers, continually updating the care plan to ensure they are supporting the child’s social and emotional development (Cocker and Allain, 2008).

However, Dunk-West (2013) argues that whilst attachment theory is important, it is vital to assess children within their social contexts. The inequalities looked after children face can be more effectively explained by using an ecological approach. Walter (2007) argued in his study that a combination of risks and multiple stressors can lead to adverse effects for looked after children and therefore a holistic approach such as the ecological model can help social workers to do that. Using Brofenbrenner’s (1979) theory for example, within the micro system a social worker could assess that a looked after child who has been neglected is highly likely to have had very little parental support and there may have been family conflict and this could have been because of characteristics within the exo system of a child’s life. Their exo system is likely to have been characterized by poverty and living in a deprived neighbourhood. For example, parents may argue because of the stress of living in poverty or engage in excessive drinking or drug taking to try and cope with the stress of living in poverty which then affects their ability to parent effectively and provide children with adequate support or supervision.

Furthermore, within the macro system looked after children are aware that society perceives them as a group of children that are deemed as at risk (Walter, 2007). For example, in Care and Prejudice (2009) an Ofsted study that interviewed three hundred children in care found that half the children in their study felt that the public held negative stereotypes about them, such as being delinquent and troublemakers. Looked after children felt heavily discriminated against and felt that this impacted on their ability to do well academically, build friendships and gain employment (Care and Prejudice, 2009). Therefore, it could be argued using an ecological approach that looked after children who experience neglect have poorer outcomes than other children because of the multiple social and environmental factors that impact on parents capacity to parent effectively (McAuley and Davis, 2009).

It could be argued that attachment theory is matriarchal in nature. For example, Bowlby’s work in particular which was developed in the 1950s is arguably sexist because the primary caregiver is assumed to be the mother (Beckett, 2006). Yet more recent work on attachment theory has reframed attachment as not meaning attachment to the mother. In modern society as more women have entered the labour market, children are increasingly taken care of by multiple figures; this can include the father, childminders or grandparents (Dunk West, 2013; Nicolsen et al, 2006). Children tend to attach and bond to multiple key figures, male and female (Beckett, 2006).

Despite this, research does tend to demonstrate how fathers are marginalized by social workers in children services and are poorly engaged. This can be particularly detrimental for children who are looked after because social workers potentially lose a valuable asset for children (Brigid and Taylor, 2000). Brigid and Taylor (2000) also argued that legislation and policy does not contribute effectively enough to guide social workers in how to challenge traditional gender assumptions, nor does legislation give clear guidance for engaging fathers. For instance, it was only from 2003 that fathers who were not married to the mother of their child acquired parental responsibility automatically even if he was on the birth certificate. Prior to this change in legislation a father could only acquire parental responsibility by a written agreement with the mother or by applying to court (Cocker and Allain, 2008). Therefore, it could be argued that the earlier work of attachment theory has heavily influenced social workers in children’s services. The importance of the attachment to the mother has been persistent and as a result social workers have often marginalized fathers (Brigid and Taylor, 2000). Attachment theory has therefore arguably contributed negatively to looked after children because social workers are still heavily influenced by its matriarchal nature.

Legislation however underpins how social workers should support looked after children and therefore makes a huge contribution to looked after children who experience neglect, in particular the Children’s Act 1989 and Children’s Act 2004. Under section 22 of the Children Act 1989 there is a duty on the local authority ‘to safeguard and promote the child’s welfare’ (Branye and Carr, 2013: 291) it looks after. The Children’s Act 2004 added an additional duty on local authorities to promote the child’s educational achievements. When a child is subject to a care order or interim care order, social workers become the looked after child’s “corporate parent” and share parental responsibility with the birth parents. Therefore the local authority becomes responsible for a child’s care and achieving positive outcomes (Cocker and Allain, 2008). For example, ‘Section 7 of the Education Act 1996 states that parents have a duty to ensure their children are suitably educated’ (Cocker and Allain, 2008: 138), social workers as a corporate parent therefore share this duty with the birth parents (Cocker and Allain, 2008). As a result of this legislation looked after children are given a designated teacher who ensures they have a personal education plan which sets out developmental and educational needs and identifies targets (Cocker and Allain, 2008). Personal education plan meetings are then held twice a year to assess the child’s educational progress. Research has shown that looked after children tend to achieve lower grades at school than their peers and has therefore arguably heavily influenced legislation.

In addition, local authorities have a duty to monitor children’s developmental progress and so children receive medicals once a year. This is all part of safeguarding and promoting the child’s welfare. CAMHS involvement may also be necessary if the child has additional therapeutic needs (Cocker and Allain, 2008). The Children’s Act 2004 made it mandatory for different agencies to work collaboratively and share responsibility for vulnerable children and this includes looked after children so social workers have a duty to work with a range of professionals in order to promote the well being of children. Legislation is therefore central to working with looked after children as it mandates how social workers should support looked after children.

Despite parental responsibility being shared, the local authority can overrule birth parents but social workers must work in partnership with parents or anybody else with parental responsibility and consult them when making any decisions regarding the child’s welfare (Cocker and Allain, 2008). However, partnership working with parents in practice can be extremely difficult for social workers when parents do not agree with their decisions regarding the child. For example, a number of studies have highlighted how challenging it is for social workers to work in partnership with parents and take their wishes into account when a decision is made to permanently remove a child (Clifford and Burke, 2004; Charlton et al, 1998). Working in partnership with parents therefore becomes extremely challenging for social workers as they try to take the parent’s wishes in to account but also trying to act in the best interests of the child and gather evidence to explain why the child should not return home. Furthermore, Wigley et al’s (2006) study found that social workers often faced challenges when trying to collaborate with schools, as they either did not implement personal education plans or they did not communicate effectively with social workers which made it difficult to work in partnership with educational professionals.

In addition, social workers under Section 22 of the Children’s Act 1989 must also consult the child about their wishes before any decision is made and this is a key principle of the Children’s Act 1989. However, a number of studies have found that children felt they were not listened to by social workers. They often felt powerless and had very little say about their placements (Morgan, 2006; Wigley et al, 2006). It is vital for children to feel listened to so they can develop a sense of self-efficacy (Schofield and Beek, 2006) which Rutter (1985) suggests is a key factor in building resilience. It could be argued however that in many cases the child could not understand why they were being moved to a different placement and did not understand that social workers were trying to act in their best interests. Therefore, legislation although good in principle, is arguably not always effectively put in to social work practice in relation to looked after children.

Care Matters: Time for change (DfES, 2007) is a major policy framework for looked after children and is similar to legislation because it stresses the importance of improving the educational, health and emotional needs of children (Cocker and Allain, 2008). In particular, Care Matters suggests that educational attainment needs to be improved, looked after children should be prioritised in school admissions, health outcomes for looked after children should be improved, and placements need to be more local and stable and this can be delivered through high quality assessment and care planning (DfES, 2007). In addition, Care Matters suggests that children should be helped to engage in leisure activities and hobbies, which can help children to build their self-esteem and build support networks and friendships. Rutter (1985) suggested that a sense of self-esteem and confidence is vitally important to help children build resilience. Jaffee et al (2007) defines resilience as “achieving normal development in the face of considerable adversity”. Therefore, policy has made a vital contribution to social work practice in relation to looked after children.

However, with local authorities facing a fourth year of cuts to funding and with increasing numbers of children going in to care (McNicoll and Stothart, 2014) it could be argued that it is causing increasing pressure for social workers to implement policy effectively in to practice. In particular, some local authorities arehaving to make cuts to foster placements making it increasingly difficult for social workers to find high quality placements for children who have high level and complex needs (McNicoll and Stothart, 2014). This makes it extremely challenging for social workers to find placements that are local and stable for children.

To conclude, it is evident that theory, research, legislation and policy have all made a major contribution to social work practice in relation to looked after children who experience neglect. Research has heavily influenced legislation and policy, which in turn underpins social work practice in relation to looked after children. In addition, attachment theory has helped social workers to understand why looked after children may behave in the way they do and the ecological approach helps social workers to understand why looked after children experience inequalities and tend to have poorer outcomes than children in the rest of the population. These theories help social workers when carrying out their assessments and finding the most effective interventions to support looked after children who have experienced neglect. However, it is evident that policy and legislation cannot always easily be applied effectively in to practice because of the challenges of working in partnership with birth families who may oppose the child’s permanency plan and children who may not understand that the social worker is acting in their best interests. In addition, attachment theory is arguably quite matriarchal in nature and this has influenced social workers and has resulted in fathers being marginalised. Furthermore, social workers may not have the time or resources to provide the most appropriate support to looked after children and this is a weakness of the ecological approach and policy. Despite this, it is evident that theory, research, legislation and policy have all made a significant contribution to social work practice in relation to looked after children who have experienced neglect.