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A kinship care arrangement is an agreement that is commonly made between the parent of the child, the local authority and a close relative such as a grandparent or aunt on a short or long term basis, the kinship carer must be approved by Warwickshire Fostering Panel. Where the child is accommodated by the local authority that is often subject to an Interim Care Order the kinship agreement is reviewed under the Child in Need procedure s (Warwickshire County Council 2009).

There is a six week timescale to complete the kinship assessment. The fostering team has the responsibility for completing this within the timescale set out in line with the Fostering Regulation’s 2002. A Viability Assessment which is Schedule 3 of the fostering regulation 2002 requires that there is a detailed report complete with references be submitted to the Fostering Panel for approval (Warwickshire Fostering Services 2002). As part of this assessment I had to complete a two part Health & Safety Checklist Part One during initial visit and Part Two during the actual assessment, which is updated annually as part of the Foster Carer review. I was required to complete the initial 6 week Kinship Assessment on Arthur and Joan to be submitted to Warwickshire Fostering Panel approval, followed by submission to a Finding of Fact meeting in court.

Jane is a 6 year old dual heritage female who lived close to Nuneaton centre with mother, Ruth 28 white female unemployed recovering heroin addict and her current partner Jason 35 year old unemployed white male with offending history for violence.

The local authority have been involved with Ruth and her child since 2008 the police contacting social services to advise them that Ruth’s partner had been arrested for having indecent images of children on his computer and serious abuse of babies. Ruth was advised of this but did not appear to recognise the risk he presented to Jane. The courts ordered that Ruth should only have supervised contact due to this.

Warwickshire Council convened a child protection conference which concluded that Jane be made subject of a child protection plan. Whilst the investigation into the neglect was ongoing, Jane stayed with her maternal grandfather Arthur and Joan his partner. Arthur is 58 year old football coach and Joan is a 62 year old retired book keeper and they live in a 3 bedroom house close to Ruth. A kinship referral was received by the Fostering Team to complete a viability assess Arthur and Joan’s ability to meet Jane’s needs as temporary carers.

Jane is still subject of a child protection plan, as well as Looked After Child procedures and is subject of an Interim Care Order made in December 2009. The responsibility for completing the kinship assessment was given to the fostering team that I am on placement with and I was then asked to complete the assessment under supervision. This is the type of assessment that is completed when a child is looked after and placed on a statutory order.

Jane is currently experiencing problems at school with bullying because of her skin colour and is in a minority. Jane is being teased because her hair is not the same as other children. I feel that Jane has not recognized that her mother is white and her father black. Arthur has stated that although she is not white she is his granddaughter and he doubts whether Jane even recognises her skin colour as significant.

It is important for the Fostering Social Worker to have access to all case files relating to the child when completing the viability assessment so that the assessment demonstrates the level of commitment the grandfather and his partner have and have had to the child (BAAF, 2009).

Farmer and Moyers (2005) suggest:

Kinship care occupies an uneasy position on the boundary between the public and private spheres of caring and this leads to a situation where some kin carers struggle to care for needy children with low levels of support and financial help.

Jane’s maternal grandfather has shown incredible commitment including being willing to give up his fulltime job to be able to meet Jane’s needs. This is causing tension in the relationship between Arthur and Joan as this will significantly reduce their income. She has also expressed concerns at not always being able to cope with the high demands of Jane and how this has brought her relationship with Arthur to breaking point at times. When child’s behaviour is causing a disruption, kinship carers (as opposed to foster carers) tend to be more willing to persevere with the difficulties faced by the child (Broad and Skinner, 2005, Colton et al, 2008: 38).

It is important that when examining Kinship Care that the outcome for the child is measurable, this could be in terms of regular contact with the birth parent with less supervision. Legislation has a propensity towards securing long term placements, children who were placed with their grandparents were the least likely to experience disruption when compared with other family or friends (Hunt et al, 2008). Some placements continued with little monitoring or supervision from the social worker. In other instances social workers had allowed professional standards to fall well below what would have been acceptable to another child. This can cause the child rights to be compromised as they will not receive a service that they are entitled to (Farmer & Moyers, 2005).

An assessment involves assembling full and accurate facts about a service user’s circumstances and it is essential during the assessment process that person being assessed is fully engaged with the assessment and as the assessor I am in continuous consultation with my supervisor. The information collected must be recorded in a systematic way to give a clear and accurate understanding of needs and a possible plan of action (Smale & Tuson, 1993).

The viability assessment must pay close attention to the circumstances around the reason why the kinship arrangement is needed. Arthur and Joan realise that if they do not take on the role of carers then Jane is likely to be placed with unrelated foster carers. The assessment includes the family to look at creating a kinship arrangement that will at best be acceptable to the child, the local authority should consider the child’s extended family as an alternative to the mainstream fostering system when completing the assessment.

The Children’s Act 1989 directs that where the child is looked after by the local authority the child should be placed with a relative, friend or significant other (www.childrenscommissioner.gov.uk accessed 16/01/2011) if this is a viable option. The Adoption and Children Act 2002 directs that relatives must be considered in care proceedings and in line with Public Law Outline which emphasizes the importance of robust judicial case management. The Children and Young Persons Act 2008 has led to developments that promote the child’s welfare and are likely to increase the use of placements with family members. Over a 15 year period from 1989 to 2005 there has been a gradual increase in the numbers of children in care that are fostered with family and significant others, from 6 per cent to 12 per cent of looked after children in England (Department of Health, 2006; DfES, 2004). If a child is looked after by the Local Authority and is placed with a family member or significant other for a period exceeding 6 weeks then the carer should be approved as a foster carer by the Local Authorities Fostering Panel (Warwickshire Council 2009). The Local Authority must have a clearly defined role in enabling the parent of the child to have some input in the care arrangements of their child in accordance with section 20 of the Children’s Act 1989.

‘Where the local authority places children in kinship care arrangements they also must assess the kinship carer(s) in line with existing legislation that applies to unrelated foster carers therefore have responsibilities to ensure that the kinship carers receive financial support in line with boarding out regulations’ (Warren-Adamson, 2009).

The ‘Munby judgement’ in 2002 set a precedent that local authorities must treat kinship carers in the same way as non related foster carers. This means that Warwickshire County Council must assess Arthur and Joan as kinship carers even though they may well already be looking after the child at the point the assessment starts.

The difficulties I experienced as the Fostering Social Worker completing the assessment was mainly around the support, training and payment of Kinship Carers. The research also found that Kinship Carers are unlikely to challenge parents legally for the kinship of the child because it can have a negative impact on the parent’s relationship with the Kinship Carers. One of the implications highlighted by the research document was that Kinship Carers are unlikely to go for Special Guardianship Orders due to the reduced payments and support. The Joseph Rowntree Foundation (JRF) research found that ‘ kinship carers may resent the intrusion the assessment process will entail into their lives by statutory services and feel they are being monitored and placed under surveillance’ (JRF, 2002). The Joseph Rowntree Foundation (JRF) found that unsatisfactory placements with family and friend lasted significantly longer than with unrelated carers (Farmer & Moyers, 2008).

Local Authorities are required under the Children’s Act 1989 to operate a policy of ‘less intrusive intervention’ when intervening with families. Argent (2009) draws attention to the assumption that social workers from non ethnic backgrounds tend to assume that families from Black Minority and Ethnic groups would rather manage the kinship without outside help or they do not understand the process. Argent highlights that some minority groups have a strong sense of kinship without any legal or statutory intervention.

There are four types of kinship care these are determined by the legal status of the child that is being accommodated Fostered with a family or friend; Residence Order; Living with family and friends and a Special guardianship order. The viability assessment I undertook was to assess whether Arthur and Joan were suitable to go on to the next stage of the assessment, the Special Guardianship Order. Special Guardianship Orders were introduced in the Adoption and Children Act 2002 to encourage flexibility with regards to the length of the placement. This order recognizes that long term fostering or adoption might not be an option and that this type of order gives parental responsibility until the child is 18. At present there is not a legal requirement for Warwickshire Council to explore Kinship but the legal framework implies that it is a preferred option to private fostering. A family group conference is called with a view to exploring the potential of a family member becoming a kinship carer (Hunt et al, 2008).

The aim of the Viability Assessment is to make certain that Jane’s needs remain central to the assessment (Hunt et al, 2008). Milner and O’Byrne (2002) suggest that assessments can be divided into a number of stages:

Preparation: I gathered information from case notes and other reports that have previously been written, in consultation with the Jane’s social worker we agreed on who to interview with regards to people that are a part of the extended family or wider support network and would be in contact with Jane. Preparing for the interview I ensured that I had the essential questions and an explanation of the interview purpose along with timescales for the viability process.

Collecting data: I checked on sources of written information for factual accuracy.

Weighing the data: I identified gaps, consulted colleagues and began to identify any key facts or themes.

Analysing the data: I considered relevant research evidence and theory.

Using the data: I analysed the data and formed an opinion as to whether Jane’s needs would be met by Arthur and Joan.

The outcome of the above process was to make a recommendation to the court.

Along with the viability assessment was the health and safety of the property that the child will be living in also had to be assessed. .

I had to think about how the separate pieces of information interlink and about their impact on the grandfather. It has been suggested it is important to avoid subjectivity and not to dismiss information that does not fit with preconceived assumptions:

Taking information for granted and not checking. Getting ‘stuck’ with one perspective, and failing to recognise alternative explanations. Stereotyping situations and solutions to them. Making assumptions about age, culture, disability or any aspect of a service user’s life. ‘The way it’s done here’ approach – fitting service users into the routine response of the agency instead of focusing on the client. Using the assessment process to ration resources or disguising their absence, in other words, assessment becomes resource-led rather than needs-led (Milner and O’Byrne, 2002).

Smale and Tuson (1993) propose three models of assessment:

aˆ? The questioning model: where the worker is seen as expert and follows a set format of questions

aˆ? The procedural model: in which the worker gathers information in order to see if agency criteria are met

aˆ? The exchange model: in which the service user is seen as expert in his or her own situation and the worker helps to provide resources and seeks to maximise potential.

In conclusion, I realise that people change and as a social worker I need to be aware that new information may emerge that causes situations change, so I have to consider the impact it has on the assessment. Although the assessment is often viewed as a separate stage to the intervention, it is also a continuous process and there is a need to constantly re-assess throughout the intervention (Milner and O’Byrne, 2002). I used a Task Centered Model for completing the Viability Assessment as it was a short term (6 weeks) problem solving approach with a clear beginning, middle and end, and has a specific timeframe to complete the assessesment and submit it to the court. I adopted a Solution Focused approach in my intervention as it worked with Arthur and Joan to help them to look at their strengths and to find their own solutions to challenges they may face. A Solution Focused approach enables people to see better futures, it can be used to focus on the positives whilst also accepting that their strengths which are Arthur and Joan’s commitment to meeting Jane’s needs for as long as she needs them and fact that this can be used as a platform for future long term planning.

In practice I found it difficult to choose a single model as I realized I would be using all three in this case. Firstly, the Viability Assessment for kinship involved me in the role of expert with a set format of questions, and secondly, I was conscious of the criteria for kinship to enable me to ask appropriate supplementary questions but lastly, I feel that the exchange model reflects the values of anti-oppressive practice in that Arthur is placed in a position of control and so that the process meets his expectations as well as mine as the assessing social worker. However, as social workers operating within a statutory setting we must recognize that there are pressures to conform to questioning or procedural models. To work in an anti-oppressive manner is to incorporate necessary questioning, schedules and scales into an assessment that respects Arthur’s expertise in caring for Jane (Smale and Tuson, 1993).

In this essay I will be focussing on Looked After Children (LAC) as my service user group and identify relevant laws relating to the service user group and then identify recent policies which underpin this aspect of practice, and discuss the values which underpin the law in this area of practice and finally relate these legislation to my placement practice.

Definition of the term ‘looked after’?

The term ‘looked after’ was introduced by the Children Act 1989 and refers to children who are subject to care orders and those who are voluntarily accommodated. Wherever possible, the local authority (LA) will work in partnership with parents (Pierson and Thomson, 2002).

Many children will have been affected by distressing and damaging experiences including physical and sexual abuse and neglect. Some may be in care because of the illness or death of a parent. Others may have disabilities and complex needs. The majority of young people in care come from families who experience difficulties and are separated from them because their family was unable to provide adequate care. Vulnerable unaccompanied minors seeking asylum in the UK may also become looked after (Department of Education and Skills, 2004).

The main pieces of legislation underpinning social services for children and young people are the Children Act 1989, the Children (Leaving Care) Act 2000 and the Adoption and Children Act 2002.

Local authorities have specific legal duties in respect of children under the Children Act 1989 including:

To safeguard and promote the welfare of children in their area who are in need Provided that this is consistent with the child’s safety and welfare, to promote the upbringing of such children by their families, by providing services appropriate to the child’s needs , to make enquiries if they have reasonable cause to suspect that a child in their area is suffering, or likely to suffer significant harm, to enable them to decide whether they should take any action to safeguard or promote the child’s welfare(Brammer, 2007).

Children (Leaving Care) Act 2000 places responsibilities on local authorities to provide greater support to young people living in and leaving care. These include:

A duty to assess and meet the needs of young people aged 16 and 17 who qualify for the new arrangements, the provision of a personal adviser and pathway plan for all young people aged 16 to 21, or beyond for those who qualify for the new arrangements ,a duty to assist those leaving care, including with employment, education and training (the duty to assist with education and training and to provide a personal adviser and pathway plan continues for as long as a young person remains in an agreed programme, even beyond the age of 21(Brayne and Carr (2005)).

Adoption and Children Act 2002

This act aligns adoption law with the Children Act 1989 to make the child’s welfare the paramount consideration in all decisions to do with adoption. It includes:

Provisions to encourage more people to adopt looked after children by helping to ensure that the support they need is available. A new, clear duty on local authorities to provide an adoption support service and a new right for people affected by adoption to request and receive an assessment of their needs for adoption support services .Provisions to enable unmarried couples to apply to adopt jointly, thereby widening the pool of potential adoptive parents .Stronger safeguards for adoption by improving the legal controls on intercountry adoption, arranging adoptions and advertising children for adoption .A new ‘special guardianship’ order to provide security and permanence for children who cannot return to their birth families, but for whom adoption is not the most suitable option and a duty on local authorities to arrange advocacy services for looked after children and young people leaving care in the context of complaints (Department of Education and Skills,2004).

The other key aspect of the duties of LA’s in relation to children looked after by them is the provision of education. Every Child Matters (2000), the Children Act 1989 (s.22) (3)(a) (and amended by section 52 of the Children Act 2004) have stressed and reinforced the importance of the local authority’s duty to promote LAC’s educational achievements.

In order to do so, a care plan needs to be produced, which would include a Personal Education Plan (PEP). The PEP would look at the child’s developmental needs in terms of his/her education and, as states by Every Child Matters (2000), should be reviewed regularly. Here, partnership and inter-professional/agency work is again reinforced in order to meet the child’s needs. Further, there is a need for LA’s to encourage LACs to have health examinations, particularly regular checks by GP’s, dentists and opticians. At the same time to acknowledge that a child can refuse this – having regard to his/her age and understanding (Children Act 1989)(s.38)(6).

The value of the child welfare is incorporated in the every child matters (2003) policy which emphasise that looked after children must be healthy, stay safe, enjoy and achieve in life, make a positive contribution to society and achieve economic well being (Department of Education and Skills,2004).

My second placement was with an organisation who deals with Children and Adolescents who suffer from Mental Health and also have difficulties with their status in UK. The team specifically worked with ‘looked after children’ (LAC) who were suffering from emotional and psychological behavioral problems.

Whilst on my placement, s31 were used most often. The social workers had to make certain that they had all the necessary documents in place before any action was taken. If a social worker interfered, without authorised documents from the courts, the birth parents could take court action against the local authorities.

Legislation may at times be helpful or unhelpful for LAC. A positive aspect of legislation is that the local authority has a obligatory responsibility to make sure a care plan is in place, in accordance with the 1989 Children Acts, s26 (2) and s31A plan, within ten days of the individual being placed with the local authority. This will make sure that the individuals’ needs, views and wishes are taken into consideration when decisions are made. The child’s parents or whoever holds parental responsibility, foster careers and an independent advisor may also be present when the care plan is been drawn up. The care plan should include factors such as the individual’s education and health needs, how often contact should be made with parent/siblings.

During my placement, I attended a review meeting, to discuss child x who had just been placed in a foster home. The foster carer was discussing the troubles she encountered with him, for example his challenging behavior and him missing his siblings. Following the meeting the social workers decided to speak to child x, to identify reasons for his behaviour.

However, there are certain aspects of the legislation that may at times be harmful to LAC. The Children Act 1989 s22 (3) places an importance towards family stability. This may not always be in the child/young person’s best interest. Kinship care may not always be suitable due to factors such as family dynamics, if the child was taken away because of abuse or neglect or there could still be contact with the birth family. The above could have a unfavorable effect on the child/young person’s well being.

Section 22(5) of the Children Act 1989 states that all local authority, have a duty, to consider a child’s cultural and ethnic background, when placing them with foster carers. However, this may not always be possible, for service users who are from the black and ethnic minorities, due to the lack of black and ethnic minority foster carers

(Colton et al, 2001). According to Colton et al (2001) there are a high proportion of black and ethnic minority children and young people, especially dual heritage service users, who are looked after.

In today’s society, children who are ‘looked after’ are considered to be amongst the most at risk (Every child matter, 2004). Numerous having experienced hardship may be naive of their entitlements and therefore may not get their requirements met. The language often used within social work is judge to be very complex and confusing for service users, especially children and young people. Therefore Local authorities and social workers need to work in partnership with LAC, their families and agencies in order to protect and look after service users. Legislation needs to be used fittingly in order to empower service users. Research has shown when local authorities and parents work together the outcomes for the child/young person, have a higher chance of working (Thoburn et al, 1995).

Social workers hold a vast amount of authority when carrying out their work therefore it is vital that they do not misuse this status. Social workers work within the restraints of policy and procedures trying to meet the needs of service users. (Allen, 1998). Good social work practice is working in partnership with all concerned. This may however cause an imbalance between the service users/family and local authority. For example, if the local authority has to remove a child due to abuse, the family may not always agree. By having awareness and working in a reflective manner, with regard to one’s own personal prejudices, values and attitudes will enhance safe social work practice with service users. Legislation at times may discriminate either on a personal, cultural or structural level (Thompson, 2001). It is the duty of all social workers to be aware of this and challenge it, on all levels. In the Children Act 1989, s22 (5), tries to support anti discriminatory practice by given ‘due consideration to LAC religious and cultural needs, before placing them with foster carers (Allen, 1998).

It is important that social workers, who work with LAC and their families hold fast to the

Children Act 1989.Understanding of the law is extremely important. Also social workers need to be alert and be aware of the challenge that they may meet when working within the legal framework. It is of utmost importance that social workers receive regular training to be kept informed with legislation and necessary skills, which will help to improve their current practice. Social workers need to make sure their practice is anti-discriminatory, as to empower service users and promote their autonomy.

Reference
Allen, N. (1998) Making sense of the Children’s Act (3rd edition), John Wiley & Son
Brayne, H. & Carr, H. (2005) Law for Social Workers. (9th Ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Colton, M.; Sanders, R.; and Williams, M. (2001) An introduction – Working with children, a guide for social workers, Palgrave.
Pierson, J & M, Thomson (2002) Dictionary of Social Work. Harper Collins Publishers.
Brammar, A. Socail Work Law,2007(2nd edition),Pearson Education Ltd.
Thompson, N. (2001) Anti-Discriminatory Practice (3rd edition), Palgrave
Thoburn, J.; Lewis, A and Shemmings, D. (1995) Paternalism or Partnership Family Involment in the Child Protection Process, Blackwell.
Every Child Matters (2000) Guidance on the education of children and young people in public care 2000. [Online]. Available from: http://www.everychildmatters.gov.uk/files/9E18CB7F9306BA85A821C24BBCE18082.pdf (Accessed 4/5/2007).

Alcoholism results in long lasting and negative effects on the entire family. Family therapy can help the entire family whether they are the alcohol abuser or the abused family members. Including the entire family in therapy sessions can help keep the alcohol abuser out of denial when he or she hears how their alcohol abuse affects the entire family. The family members have the same chance to heal and to be heard when they might not otherwise get that chance without being included in therapy sessions. Considering that the family members are often told to keep the alcohol abuseraa‚¬a„?s behavior a secret, therapy can empower them when they talk about their experiences openly and receive much-needed support. Because the psychological effects of alcoholism can last a lifetime for the entire family, it is important to treat every person in the family, where they can learn to feel safe while revealing their feelings, fears, and disappointments. Everyone in this type of family needs help healing from the alcohol abuse and how it has affected each individual in a personal way. Because family therapy includes every member, it can mitigate some of the devastating and ongoing effects alcoholism has on each member, especially the children.

Keywords: alcoholic, family therapy, empower

Alcoholism and its Effect on the Family

The devastating effects of alcoholism on families and children have been well documented. When alcohol disrupts the normal functioning of a family in a home, a clinical diagnosis of alcohol abuse can be made (Ripley, Cunion, & Noble, 2006). There has been recent progress in the treatment of alcohol abuse with family therapy (Ripley et al., 2006). Some problems, which alcoholism can lead to in a family, might include risky behaviors such as love affairs, unplanned pregnancies, problems with the law, reduced inhibitions, and social nonconformity (Ripley et al., 2006). Family therapists usually support using family therapy as a first-line treatment for alcoholism; although in some circumstances, where there is violence or psychosis, the entire family is not always present (Ripley et al., 2006). Therapy for the entire family can make an important difference in the lives of family members, especially the children who can grow up to become adults with serious adjustment and psychological problems as a result of living with an alcoholic during their childhood.

Parental Alcoholism and Family Life

A recent ten-year study has shown a significant increase in American alcoholism (Johnson & Stone, 2009). The number of children that have been exposed to alcoholism or alcohol abuse in their homes is estimated to be 28.6% or 1 in 4 children (Johnson & Stone, 2009).

Children and families can experience many damaging effects from alcohol abuse, some being angry outbursts, physical abuse, and notable decreases in caring or warmth (Johnson & Stone, 2009). In an alcoholic home, there is increased distress for the spouse, and the spouse suffers much greater psychological upset and health problems than in a non-alcoholic environment (Ripley et al., 2006).

In alcoholic families there is frequent fighting with angry scenes of arguing and blaming. In addition, children are frequently elevated to a parental role, becoming caretakers for parents or siblings, confusing appropriate parental/child boundaries (Johnson & Stone, 2009). When looking back on their lives, adult children of alcoholics tend to remember their families of origin as less healthy than adults who did not have an alcoholic family member. Research has also shown alcoholic families to have been less able to function as a healthy unit due to the effects of frequent drinking (Johnson & Stone, 2009). There is less cooperation, problem solving, and communication with alcoholic families than with non-alcoholic families (Ripley et al., 2006).

Other negative effects of alcoholism on children include divorce and becoming alcoholics themselves (Johnson & Stone, 2009). Children in alcoholic families experience more traumatic events and are at a higher risk of physical, emotional, and sexual abuse. Neglect is also a risk for children who grow up with an alcoholic parent (Johnson & Stone, 2009). Family functioning decreases when there is unpredictability, abuse, or lack of parent involvement in the lives of their children (Johnson & Stone, 2009).

Fathers’ Alcoholism and Infant Attachment

The decrease in family functioning can be evident in children up to 12 months of age who showed less attachment to parents than children of the same age in non-alcoholic families (Edwards, Eiden, & Leonard, 2004). Studies have suggested that there is a connection between infants who have difficult temperaments and alcoholic parents. The father’s mental health issues that usually accompany alcoholism such as avoidant behaviors and antisocial behaviors negatively affect the father-infant attachment (Edwards et al., 2004).

Infant attachment is negatively affected also when the mother has mental health issues. Depression has a strong effect on the mother-infant relationship, especially when the depression goes on long term (Edwards et al., 2004).

Another effect of alcoholism on an infant is that there is a strong association between marital animosity, alcoholism, and the parent-infant relationship. The marital relationship directly influences parent-infant attachment (Edwards et al., 2004).

Children and Acting out Behaviors

As the infant gets older, children of preschool age who have alcoholic fathers have more behavior problems and act out more than other children (Eiden, Edwards, & Leonard, 2006). Behavior problems starting this early have been linked to antisocial behaviors leading to substance abuse in older children (Eiden et al., 2006). Sons of alcoholic fathers showed more deviant behavior as toddlers than other children without alcoholic fathers. Daughters of alcoholic fathers showed more fear, anxiety, and uncontrolled compliance as toddlers than other children (Eiden et al., 2006).

Psychological Adjustment of Children in an Alcoholic Home

Besides children having fear, anxiety, and deviant behavior, research has shown that a father’s heavy drinking affects his children’s psychological and social adjustment over a period of time (Andreas & O’Farrell, 2007). Fathers who entered into treatment for their alcoholism, and remained in recovery, had children who showed a decrease in their adjustment issues while fathers who continued and increased their drinking had children who had an increase in their adjustment issues (Andreas & O’Farrell, 2007).

Because children in alcoholic homes have increasing adjustment issues as well as a multitude of developmental problems, being a child of an alcoholic is a high risk factor for having developmental and adjustment issues (Andreas & O’Farrell, 2007).

Children of alcoholic fathers who demonstrated having adjustment issues showed improvement when their fathers entered treatment and drank less. When these fathers returned to their heavy drinking behaviors, their children also returned to exhibiting coping and behavioral problems as before (Andreas & O’Farrell, 2007).

Children and Self Control

Children respond to their parent’s drinking behaviors and successful self control is thought to be learned and internalized by the quality of parenting. A mother’s warmth, sensitivity, and discipline have a significant role in learning self regulation (Eiden et al., 2006). Studies have shown that a mother’s responsiveness at 13 and 24 months predicted self control at 6 years old. It has also been shown that a mother’s emotional availability has a significant effect on self control. Mothers, who are warm and positive, have children who have lower levels of hostility, acting out behaviors, and higher levels of self control (Eiden et al., 2006). Alcoholic families, in which the father is the alcoholic, are less sensitive to their children’s needs for warmth, attention, and time and do not have as many positive play interactions with their children (Eiden et al., 2006).

Parental Depression and Alcoholism

Mothers who are depressed are less emotionally and verbally responsive to their children and have poor parent-child interactions. Children become more negative and irritable as a result of their parent’s depression starting as early as 3 months old (Eiden et al., 2006). With parental depression, mothers and fathers are less involved in interacting with their children, show less physical affection, and are easily aggravated and frustrated, and use more negative discipline (Eiden et al., 2006).

Family Violence and Alcoholism

Together with depression and neglect, alcoholic parents are more likely to use harsh physical punishment than non-alcoholic parents. Family violence is common within the alcoholic environment and approximately 1/3 of abused children in the alcoholic home develop PTSD (Sher et al., 2005). Research has shown that there is a significantly higher degree of verbal and physical violence in alcoholic homes when compared to non-alcoholic homes (Ripley et al., 2006).

Effects of Alcoholism as an Adult

The abusive way of life in an alcoholic home, including verbal and physical violence, depression and neglect, can directly affect the child when he or she becomes an adult (Johnson & Stone, 2009). Some adults who have experienced a childhood alcoholic home along with emotional abuse struggle with social issues, mood problems, anxiety, and are also at risk for drug and alcohol use themselves (Johnson & Stone, 2009). Adult children of alcoholics have shown less satisfaction with their lives and relationships and tend to have negative attitudes than those who are not adult children of alcoholics. They will often marry another adult child of an alcoholic and have more divorces and less satisfaction with their own children and marriage. Adult children of alcoholics will tend to be more controlling of others and their lives (Johnson & Stone, 2009).

Sense of Self as an Adult

Other affects of living in an alcoholic home suffered by adult children of alcoholics are that they tend to react to their environment with more emotional lability, can be hyper-sensitive, and do not have a clear idea of who they are. They also tend to have difficulty with trust and intimacy and tend to be avoidant people (Johnson & Stone, 2009). Adult children of alcoholics will tend to avoid and be disconnected from their families, or overinvolved when there is more family health and cohesion (Johnson & Stone, 2009). Studies have shown that adult children of alcoholics who experienced verbal abuse were less fused to their families and more cut off from their families of origin (Johnson & Stone, 2009). Studies show that if adult children of alcoholics saw more physical violence between their parents, they ended up showing less ability to know who they were along with not being good at making their own decisions and standing by them. The longer a child lived at home with alcoholic parents, the more emotionally reactive they tended to be as adults (Johnson & Stone, 2009).

Antisocial Behavior and Alcoholism

Other abnormal behavior by alcoholic parents may be antisocial behavior, which can be linked to alcoholism. It can manifest as angry, aggressive behavior in the home as well as having a possible genetic link to temperament (Eiden et al., 2006). There is a correlation between alcoholics, impulsivity, and sensation-seeking behaviors (Ripley et al., 2006).

Psychopathology and Alcoholism

A family history of alcoholism is a risk factor for the development of many mental illnesses, in addition to antisocial behaviors, which include alcoholism, substance abuse, major depression, conduct disorder, and aggressive behavior (Sher et al., 2005). Studies show that people with a family history of alcoholism report a higher rate of physical and sexual abuse make more suicide attempts with more intent to die when compared to depressed subjects without a family history of alcoholism (Sher et al., 2005). Females who have a family history of alcoholism are more likely to develop major depression than males who have a family history of alcoholism. There is also a higher degree of depressed people from alcoholic homes who develop PTSD (Sher et al., 2005).

Genetic and Environmental Factors

The family members who are at greater risk for the mental illnesses associated with alcoholism and develop mental illness are more impaired by their mental illness than people who do not have a first-degree relative with alcoholism. This impairment is most likely due to genetic as well as environmental factors. Genetics may contribute to alcoholism as well as suicidal behavior in a family with alcoholism. Serotonin imbalance is implicated as a factor in alcoholism, depression, and related illnesses. Sons from alcoholic families who do not become alcoholics have been shown to be deficient in serotonin (Sher et al., 2005). Other biological differences have been found in families with a history of alcoholism (Sher et al., 2005). Because people are influenced by their environments, this has to be considered as well as biological predisposition when considering the effects of alcoholism in the home. Both biological and environmental factors work together to cause a higher rate of developing alcoholism in people with a family history (Sher et al., 2005). Other environmental issues that contribute to alcoholism include poverty or lack of opportunities (Ripley et al., 2006). The continued abuse of alcohol can cause additional health problems due to the health risks caused by the alcohol consumption (Ripley et al., 2006).

Treatment Approaches to Alcoholism

Treatment of the possible health risks associated with alcoholism is an important first step in order for the client to be healthy enough to participate in therapy. After this, the initiation of family therapy can be considered. Some evidence shows that family therapy is a superior treatment for alcoholism while other evidence shows no difference in treatment of the alcoholic as an individual versus family therapy (Ripley et al., 2006). Family therapy as the treatment approach for alcohol abuse makes sense as the primary treatment modality because everyone in the family suffers the effects of the substance abuse. If the alcohol abuser is a child, parents will suffer with worry and wait up for their child to come home at night. If the abuser is a spouse, he or she will try to hide evidence of drinking, hiding bottles, avoiding work and friends. Children of alcoholics will be affected by guilt and often be elevated to a position of adult, dealing with responsibility they are not prepared for. Adult children of alcoholics will often suffer the effects of alcoholism throughout their lives being unable to stop suffering the memories of their past and finding themselves in unhealthy relationships that mimic their past. Alcoholism can affect immediate families as well as generations of families.

The way in which families interact with each other can contribute to the continuation of alcoholism with the substance abusing member. Without realizing how alliances and enabling behavior within the family can help support unhealthy behavior, the family will not be able to change. Alcohol abuse can be missed and even unknowingly encouraged by other family members. If the family is willing to participate in therapy, and the alcohol abuser is not, change can still begin by unbalancing the family system when the other members engage in new behaviors, possibly causing the alcohol abuser to also participate in therapy and admit their problem.

When the problem of alcohol abuse is addressed as a family issue all members have responsibility for the issue. In the beginning of therapy, helping the alcoholic to stop drinking and maintain sobriety should be the highest priority. Research has shown that the alcoholic can maintain sobriety longer if the entire family is involved in problem resolution following a relapse (Ripley et al., 2006). This would be easier when the entire family is aware of the problem and willing to do whatever it takes to help the alcoholic remain sober. Any type of enabling behavior can be addressed and stopped at this time also making it more difficult for the alcoholic to rely on previous methods for getting others to help with alcohol consumption, allowing it, and tolerating addictive behavior.

Stabilizing the Family

After an alcoholic stops abusing alcohol, the changes in that person are often difficult to tolerate by other family members. Family members feel the person is different and they can feel lost and depressed. Their old enabling roles are disrupted and they do not know what to do or what to expect. These family members can feel a sense of emptiness and a feeling of being without direction. Families have been known to sabotage the alcoholic’s attempt to remain sober by providing alcohol and causing temptation. In family therapy, if a relapse does occur, the family therapist can bring up the question of who is to blame for the relapse. Because relapse can be complicated and contributed to by others in the family, it is addressed in family therapy as a family problem rather than the alcoholic’s problem alone. If a crisis of relapse occurs, this can be addressed and other family issues can be brought up to improve relationships, receive healthy support, and improve the intimacy between couples.

Behavioral Therapy for Families as a Preferred Treatment

Behavioral therapy used in family therapy is thought to be the most effective treatment for alcoholism (Ripley et al., 2006). Behavioral therapy for families focuses on determining what current situations in the family contribute to maintaining drinking, what the family thinks is the positive effects of alcohol, and consequences of drinking (Ripley et al., 2006). Behavioral therapy for families works on changing the motivation for drinking, working on the alcoholic and spouse to make needed behavior changes, teaching positive reinforcement for not drinking, and to help the alcoholic and spouse regarding new cognitive and behavioral skills for maintaining sobriety (Ripley et al., 2006). Behavioral therapy for families has been shown to cause significant reduction in alcohol use as well as improve the relationship between the alcoholic and spouse (Ripley et al., 2006).

Family Systems Therapy

Family Systems Therapy focuses on the family system in which the alcoholism is the problem rather than the individual. In the beginning stages of therapy, the alcoholic is not pressured to stop drinking. The therapist operates as a consultant until the family decides what their goal is regarding the problem drinking in the family. A goal might involve changing interactions that might contribute to maintaining drinking behavior in the family (Ripley et al., 2006). Studies have shown this approach is no better than other treatment approaches; however, other treatment modalities may use this approach as part of another approach (Ripley et al., 2006).

Structural-Strategic Family Therapy

Another family therapy modality is Structural-Strategic Family Therapy which is concerned with problems in substance abuse. It is action-oriented and this produces results because of this. This approach has been shown to be a good option for adolescent alcohol abusers.

The Johnson Intervention

Before beginning family therapy, initially the Johnson Intervention can be used to educate the family of an alcoholic regarding the preparation for a confrontation and intervention. The goal of this intervention is to help the alcoholic to overcome denial and to encourage him to enter treatment. Studies have found that this intervention technique helps the alcoholic to begin treatment, but has not made a significant difference in getting alcoholics to stay in treatment (Ripley et al., 2006).

Conclusion

Alcoholism is a problem that affects the entire family. Some of the effects last through years and even generations. Treating this as a family issue allows the family to work as a unit to bring about change for the alcoholic, and to also get help for themselves. Spouses can be affected by problematic behaviors such as physical and emotional violence, sexual affairs, and loss of jobs and income. Children of alcoholics can live through devastating scenes of physical violence and yelling. They can suffer sleep deprivation while waiting up for their alcoholic parent to come home from the bars. Adult children of alcoholics are known to continue dealing with the lasting effects of living with an alcoholic in their families of origin. Adult children of alcoholics can suffer from post traumatic stress, anxiety, fear, depression, and not knowing who they are or what their purpose is in life. These long-term psychological effects can be debilitating. Treating alcoholism as a family can bring help to every member and possibly stop the cycle of alcohol abuse. Children can express their fears, worries, and hopes for the future. Spouses can not only express their fears and worries, but can also find ways to help the alcoholic maintain a sober existence. Cooperation by every member is crucial, and if the entire family commits and agrees to therapy, the alcoholic has a greater likelihood of recovery. By having the entire family present for therapy, the alcoholic is not only offered a solution to the drinking problem, but the rest of the family has an opportunity to heal from the effects of living with the alcoholic. If this is successful, the alcoholic can stop abusing alcohol and become a contributing member of his or her family, the spouse can heal and lead a healthier and happier life, and the children can heal from their traumatic past and subsequently look forward to a more positive future.

I have chosen to focus my essay on lone parents and poverty. Lone parents are a growing group in Great Britain and elsewhere, and one with high rates of poverty and receipt of social assistance. This paper will analyse the current Government’s policy objectives and their vision that it is right to expect people to make every effort to get themselves ready for work, as well as raising expectations within society.

employment, or employment on low earnings (Millar and Ridge 2001). This means that many lone parents have to rely on state benefits which are often set at low levels.

To this list we might also add low rates of receiving child support from ex-partners (the father of any children), and relatively low rates of child support even among those receiving any (Marsh et al 2001). It is widely accepted that poverty is a consequence of lone parenthood. But poverty is itself also a cause of lone parenthood, particularly for single (never-married) lone mothers.

In previous years in Britain lone parents with children below the ages of 16 had a right to seek paid work or not without any risk of sanctions from the Government or other Government bodies (Rafferty and Wiggan, 2011). This was further pointed out by by the Freud Review (2007) of the welfare to work provisions as well as the green paper on welfare reform published in the same year – In work, better off: next steps to full employment.

This was seen as a critical phase in the development of social poilicies within the area, it saw a new social agreement and view that sought to reinforce lone parents’ oblihations to seek paid work (Department for Work and Pensions 2007).

The subsequent December 2007 White Paper, Ready for work: full employment in our generation, while acknowledging that many respondents to the Green Paper did not support the proposal to require lone parents to seek work on the basis that they should be able to choose to stay home to look after their children full-time, pointed towards evidence of the negative long-term effects for parents and children of long-term economic inactivity.

Under the old labour Government, lone parents with a child under 16 who were not in full-time work could claim Income Support. However, from November 2008 most lone parents with a youngest child aged 12 or over were no longer eligible for Income Support. Those deemed able to work were instead able to claim Jobseeker’s Allowance, provided they were ‘available for and actively seeking work’.

The age threshold for the youngest child was then progressively lowered, so that by October 2010 most lone parents with a youngest child aged seven or over were subject to the JSA regime and this was further extended in the Budget 2010 to those whose who’s youngest dependent child being ¬?ve or over (Great Britain, Parliament, Her Majesty’s Treasury, 2010).

The Government’s intentions are for those who find work to benefit from higher income and improved wellbeing. They are committed to halving child poverty by 2010-11 and on the way to eradicating it by 2020. Currently there are 2.9 million children living in poverty. In addition to making families better off, paid work has other important benefits including improving the health and well-being and future prospects of both parents and children.

There are also fiscal benefits behind the idealisms, with a lower benefit burden the Government estimates that this policy change will affect approximately 100,000 single parents in 2011 and make saving of ?380m between 2011 and 2015 (Tickle, 2010) there is also wider social gains with reduced adult and child poverty through increased employment (DWP, 2008).

Lone parents feel that their concerns have been disregarded; that being a parent is a full time job and there are insufficient flexible, ‘family friendly’ jobs available (Woods, 2011). Gordon (2002) stated that there was an uncertainty about how to get benefits reinstated quickly if a job did not work out well for the lone parent and it was another barrier in the way of seeking employment as well as the loss of Housing Benefit and changes in their Working Tax Credit.

This is reinforced by the Policy Studies Institute (1997) which found that many out of work lone parents say they are unable to take paid jobs, even if they could find affordable childcare and the biggest reason given was that their children were too young and needed their mother at home.

On 26 October 2009 Gingerbread published a report, Signing on Stepping up? Single parents’ experience of moving on to Jobseeker’s Allowance, which presented the findings from a qualitative study based on interviews with 34 lone parents both before and after their move to JSA, carried out between January and August 2009.

Before the move, parents expected to feel under considerable pressure to find work once they were on JSA. Once they were on JSA many parents did indeed feel under pressure and some were applying for jobs that would not really be suitable. In general the increase in pressure was not accompanied by more support to find a job; once on JSA many parents said that they had not had any support or advice about job hunting apart from hurried fortnightly sign-on appointments.

Many parents said that they felt the Jobseeker’s Allowance is more stigmatised than Income Support, and parents felt embarrassed about signing on at the Jobcentre. The change to fortnightly payments also was very unpopular and caused problems for many parents.

There was evidence that parents are not getting enough clear information about the change to JSA. Some parents did not know well in advance when their benefits would change, others were worried that their JSA might be stopped if they didn’t find work, and many did not understand the conditions and flexibilities around JSA.

Many of these parents had health conditions or other responsibilities that would make it difficult for them to work, and many had children with health issues or problems at school. Channel 4 News (2011) broadcast this as the new welfare reforms for single parents coming into force, and that lone parents are being set up to fail by the new proposals. (Gingerbread, 2011).

Gordon went on to state that older policies that had been pushed through and pursued by the Conservatives in the 80’s and 90’s had resulted in a large increase in low-income households and families. This only changed when New Labour came to power in 1997 – they changed direction and focused their policies on making work pay by creating a liveable minimum wage and a welfare ideology within society, which emphasised the importance of maternal care.

They created the ‘making work pay’ strategy which they hoped would in the long term lower the numbers of people, including lone parents, who were welfare dependant. It was aimed at all groups who were seen as vulnerable and suffering under the older system and was especially helpful to lone parents as it included increased financially supported childcare and a specific ‘New Deal’ which started after the 1997 election.

The deal was a voluntary programme which offered help and support for lone parents who wished to return to work or make an attempt to do so. It included job search support and the training needed, along with personal support, to help lone parents attempt to adjust and prepare for the transition to work – however one of the flaws that developed was that there was limited opportunities for the training amongst lone parents.

Government policies that are designed to help vulnerable groups, including lone parents, get back into the working environment and reduce the levels of poverty within society ‘could had a profound difference and change the quality of life for lone parent families.’ (Gregg, Harkness and Smith, 2007)

It is obvious that Social Workers must be aware of lone paretns and their daily struggle with poverty and employment. It is a ‘current and big issue within socieity and poverty is a key and defining feature in the lives of many service users’. (Cunningham & Cunningham, 2008)

They go further by statting that sociology is a key component and skill for Social Workers to learn and understand so that they can use it in their practice to under pin the Codes of Practice set forth by the General Social Care Council. The same codes that state that all Social Worker’s must have appropriate knowledge and skills to provide social care and keep those skills and knowledge up to date. (GSCC, 2002)

Reducing welfare dependency for lone parents could result in reduced welfare expenditure and maximised employment rates along with ‘improved socio-political impact for women however the financial incentives for work has to be substantive and sustainable to reduce the risk of in-work poverty’. (Knijn, Martin and Millar, 2007).

Finch et al (2004) suggested that a lack of good childcare was one of the significant barriers to the governments target to increase the lone parent employment rate to 70 % by 2010.

In the budget address of 2010, George Osborne stated that the government expects lone parents to look for work when their youngest child goes to school. These changes were then implemented on 25 October 2010 and affected lone parents’ claiming income support.

The Job Seekers Allowance Regulations 2010 also changed the policy too making it that once children are of full time school age, parents who are able to work and are claiming benefits should be expected to look for paid work to support themselves and their family.

Gingerbread, is still calling on the Coalition Government to ‘implement plans to enable all employees to apply for flexible working, to ensure all jobs in the public sector are offered on a part- time or flexible basis and introduce a right to paid parental leave to help parents deal with time off when children are ill.’ (Ahrends, 2009)

Ahrends goes onto state that David Cameron, Gordon Brown and Nick Clegg all pledged to challenge prejudice against single parents in 2010 and the newly elected Coalition Government further stated that it was committed to introducing flexible working for all and launched a taskforce on children and families. Unfortunately 9 months later this same government has scraped regulations and introduced new ones which came into force April 2011 as part of a package of measures to reduce bureaucracy for businesses.

It means firms with fewer than 10 employees from all new “red tape” for three years as it subjects 21,000 pieces of regulation to an audit by the public. (Stratton and Wintour, 2011) This will see a shelving of the right to request flexible working for parents with children under 17 which will apply to all firms, not just small ones. It will also scrap the right to request time for training and education toward continuous professional development.

Single parents often want to work, but finding jobs to fit around the school day is very difficult; as is finding and paying for suitable good quality childcare before and after the school day. (Freegard, 2010). It is also important to note that family friendly’ jobs are still far too rare despite the Government requiring 100,000 single parents to seek work in 2011. (Woods, 2011)

There has also been calls for the Government to move faster on plans for flexible working hours for lone parents however ‘business case for flexible working has been proven with most employers agreeing that people work best when they have a work/life balance.’ (Weir, 2011)

However it is important to note that in terms of poverty eradication there has been an improvement. Single parents’ employment rate has certainly risen, from 40% in the early 1980s to 56.6% in 2009. (Giullari, 2009)

For the Government’s policies to work, there has to be ‘sustainable, flexible work for lone parents to be employed in. Under this welfare ideology one of the key assumptions is that all adults should be in work even if it means precarious employment’. (Lewis and Giullari, 2005)

Ahrends debates although successive governments have promoted work as the route out of poverty and that many single parents are better off in paid work this is not always the case: 21% of children whose single parent is in full time work still fall below the poverty line, as do 29 % of children whose single parent is working part time. 4 out of 10 children living in poverty are in a single parent household, and 9 out of 10 of them are mothers. More than 20% of women have persistently low incomes, helping, rather than forcing, these women is the answer.

Finch et al (2004) discusses that numerous studies have suggested that Britain’s parents are ‘failing, children are miserable and have poor moral, social and intellectual upbringing’. And it has been said that ‘children from single parent families are ‘worse behaved’, children raised by single mothers are twice as likely to misbehave as those born into traditional two-parent families’. (Paton, 2011)

When a lone parent starts work, there are many changes to daily life. and the lives of their families and other family members. ‘All of this including the social, work, carer and school settings are key elements to work sustainability; this has not yet been systematically explored in research.’ (Millar and Ridge, 2009)

Lone parents are a growing group in Great Britain and elsewhere and now represent one quarter of families with children (Haskey 2002). In the longer term, perhaps one half of British children will pass through a non-intact family at some stage in their childhood. Lone parents have been an important area of social policy study, given their high rates of receipt of social assistance. Their low incomes may be traced to low rates of economic activity, low rates of maintenance receipt, and relatively lower earnings when in paid work.

A lot of single parents do want to work and for good reasons such as the sense of financial independence they get but also to set good examples for their children – however with the current changes to the social policies surrounding lone parents and their benefits and the forthcoming changes mean that they feel isolated and vulnerable.

In conclusion lone parents are facing a changing environment due to the budget cuts and the reduction in services. ‘With the Coalition Government there has been a shift away from supporting lone parents being full time carers at home to an employment-based maternal model. There is a rhetoric focus and direction towards supporting employment and now the move to compulsory work-related requirements. Lone parents with children five years or over are treated the same as any other unemployed claimant.’ (Woods, 2011)

‘Family-friendly employment with a work/life balance are not now part of the government’s policies and without action from both the Government and employers, many single parents will remain in the poverty trap.’ (Woods, 2011)

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Physical abuse: This is any form of harm caused to the body, which may include one or more episodes of aggressive behavior, usually resulting in physical injury with possible damage to internal organs, sense organs, the central nervous system etc.

Sexual abuse: This is when a sexual act is carried out without the consent or understanding of the service user involved. This can include sexual penetration of any part of the body, touching inappropriate parts of the body without informed agreement, sexual exploitation and/or threats regarding sexual activity.

Emotional / psychological abuse: service users being bullied, controlled, intimidated or taken advantage of . Service users needs being ignored, reports of shouting, screaming, swearing, scared of raised voices, distressed, being teased, being humiliated, un respected, not being given choice, opinion, dignity, privacy, being undermined.

Financial abuse: This can be the case when a third party is controlling or spending a service users money. Not being made aware of their own finances, family controlling service users money and not making it available for the service user to use, control of their finances being taken away even if able to deal with them, sudden changes in the service users will, personal belongs going missing, unusual spending patterns, others moving into the service users property. |

Institutional abuse: This can occur in a care home, nursing home, acute hospital or in-patient setting and can be any of the following – For example, being made to do things not of the service user’s own free will, i.e. under duress, being forced into acts they are not compliant with (or being forced into behaviour they are not happy with) such as set meal times, set bedtimes, freedom restricted.

Self neglect: This is when a service user neglects their own basic needs, such as personal care – not eating/drinking, not taking medication, neglecting personal hygiene, neglecting appearance.

Neglect by others: This can occur when a third party neglects a service user, whether intentionally or via oversight. Neglect can involve not catering for the service user’s basic needs such as nutritional needs, healthcare/hygiene needs, leaving a service user without adequate finances, neglecting medication needs.

Identify the signs and/or symptoms associated with each type of abuse

The indicators or warning signs of abuse can be clues that something is happening in the life of the service user that should be looked into. Some indicators are obvious signs of abuse. Other indicators are subtle, requiring careful observation.

Signs/symptoms of:

Physical abuse – Bruises, Burns, Cuts or scars, marks left by a restraint, imprint injuries (eg., marks shaped like fingers, thumbs, hands, belts or sticks), missing teeth, bald spot in hair (from pulled hair) , eye injuries, broken bones ,sprains, abrasions or scrapes, sudden onset of psychosomatic complaints, sudden difficulty walking or sitting.

Sexual abuse – unusual sexual behaviour, blood or marks on underclothes, recurrent genital/urinary infections, loss of confidence, lack of interest in appearance, sleeping problems, feeling depressed, frequent complaints of abdominal pain.

Emotional/Psychological abuse – changes in the way affection is shown, sudden onset of nightmares, changes in sleep patterns, difficulty sleeping, sudden regression to childlike behaviors (i.e., bed-wetting, thumb-sucking), cruelty to animals, sudden fear of a person or place, depression, withdrawal, or mood swings – any unexplained change in behaviour.

Financial abuse – unpaid bills, no money for food, clothing, or medication, unexplained withdrawal of money from someone’s bank account, family member or representative refuses to spend money on the adult’s behalf, possessions disappear, family member or another person forces an adult to sign over Power of Attorney against their own will.

Institutional abuse – Inability to make choices or decisions, not being offered an advocate when needed, no awareness of own rights, agitation if routine broken, not person centred, care plans not available to service user, strict times for routines which MUST be adhered to, carer/company using policy and procedure as a reason for not doing something for the service user without making an effort to find another way to do it, lack of personal clothing or possessions, denial of visitors or phone calls, lack of privacy, lack of adequate procedures (e.g. for medication, financial management, controlling relationships between staff and service users, poor professional practice, high number of complaints, accidents or incidents. These are all signs that may be shown when institutional abuse is occurring.

Self neglect – Signs shown when self-neglect is happening to a service user are poor personal hygiene, no food in the cupboards or fridge, rapid weight loss

Neglect by others – When services users are being neglected by others signs that this is happening may be, they become ill, hungry, cold, dirty, injured, deprived of their rights and rapid weight loss may become evident.

Describe the factors that may contribute to a service user being more vulnerable to abuse

Vulnerable people may be more susceptible to abuse when carers have made changes to their lives that they are not comfortable with, when there is no family to support them, when they have more than one carer supporting them, when they do not know how/where to make a complaint, when they need more care than they are currently receiving, when their carers become dependent on alcohol or drugs, when living in housing which has no adaptations, are socially isolated or are not aware of their rights.

2. Know how to respond to suspected or alleged abuse

Explain the actions to take if there are suspicions that an service user is being abused

I would firstly observe the service user and if I became suspicious that he/she was being abused I would ask if they are okay. I would next inform my line manager of my concerns and discreetly document my concerns, but I would not ask the service user leading questions.

Explain the actions to take if an service user alleges that they are being abused

If a service user alleges that they are being abused I would need to stay calm, Listen very carefully, ensure that he/she is not in any immediate danger, call for emergency services if urgent medical / police help is required and be aware that medical and forensic evidence might be needed, encourage the person not to wash or bathe in a major incident of abuse as this could disturb medical/forensic evidence. I would next tell the person that they did the right thing in telling me, express concern and sympathy about what has happened, reassure that the information will be taken seriously and give information about what will happen next, let the service user know that they will be kept involved at every stage; that they will be told the outcome and who will do this. Give the service user contact details of somebody that is in a position to help further so that they can report any further issues or ask any questions that may arise. Next I would explain that I must tell my Line Manager, then inform my Line Manager of the situation immediately and explain what I have been told along with my concerns.

Identify ways to ensure that evidence of abuse is preserved

I would begin by making a written record of messages (e.g. answer-phone) to ensure they are not lost (including the date and time and sign them), ensure written records (notes, letters, bank statements, medication records etc.) are kept in a safe place. If this involves physical abuse I would not tidy up, wash clothes, bedding, other items, or try to clear/tidy anything up. I would try not to touch anything unless I have to for the immediate wellbeing of the service user – if I have to I would then make a record of what I have done. If any sexual abuse has been committed I would discourage the service user from washing, drinking, cleaning their teeth or going to the toilet until the police are present. I would then try to ensure that no one else enters the premises (apart from medical staff or necessary people in positions of authority until the police arrive. I would contact my Line Manager to try to ensure that the alleged perpetrator does not have any contact with the service user, record any physical signs or injuries using a body map or hand drawing and write a description of any physical signs or injuries including size, shape, colour etc. I would lastly sign and date my notes and any other records I have made.

3. Understand the national and local context of safeguarding and protection from abuse

Identify national policies and local systems that relate to safeguarding and protection from abuse

No secrets (Department of Health2000)

Safeguarding of Vulnerable Adults policy, (SOVA)

Care Quality commission (CQC)

Mental Capacity Act

Independent safeguarding authority (ISA)

National occupational standards

General social care commission

In safe hands

Local safeguarding children board

Explain the roles of different agencies in safeguarding and protecting service users from abuse

No secrets

Provides guidance to local agencies that have a responsibility to investigate and take action when a vulnerable adult is believed to be suffering from abuse. It offers a structure and content for the development of local inter-agency policies, procedures and joint protocols which will draw on good practice nationally and locally; and encourages partnership working between all statutory, voluntary and private agencies that work with vulnerable adults.

P.O.V.A List

The Care Standards Act 2000 introduced a list for the protection of vulnerable adults known as ‘the POVA list’ which listed care workers who were considered unsuitable to work with vulnerable adults. Section 82(1) of the Act provides that a person who provided care for vulnerable adults must refer a care worker to the Secretary of State if the provider had dismissed a care worker on the grounds of misconduct which harmed or placed at risk of harm a vulnerable adult.

Every child matter

Every Child Matters, the government’s vision for children’s services was published in September 2003 as part of the response to the death of Victoria Climbie. It proposed reshaping children’s services to help achieve the following five key outcomes for children and young people: Be healthy, stay safe, enjoy and achieve, make a positive contribution, achieve economic well-being. It focuses on supporting families and carers and prevent them reaching crisis point and prevent child abuse.

Care standards act 2000

The Care Standards Act 2000 came into effect in April 2002, replacing the Residential Homes Act 1984 and the Residential Homes Amendment Act 1991. The Act set up a new system of national minimum standards for services It established a major regulatory framework for social care to ensure high standards of care and will improve protection of vulnerable people. Implementation led to the establishment of the independent National Care Standards Commission (NCSC).

Quality Care Commission

Established through the Care standards Act, the care quality commission aim is to promote improvements in care via its triple functions of inspection, regulation and review of all social care services. It provides a comprehensive overview of social care in England and works at a local level, at a national level, and across all sectors. Regular reviews of social care provision are published.

General Social Care Council (GSCC)

The Care standards Act also established the GSCC, the first ever UK-wide codes of practice for social workers and employers were launched in September 2002. It is the regulatory body for the social care workforce in England. Their codes of practice provide a clear guide for all those who work in social work, setting out the standards of practice and conduct workers and their employers should meet. They are a critical part of regulating the workforce and helping to improve levels of professionalism and public protection.

Safeguarding Vulnerable Groups Act (2006) barring scheme

The Safeguarding Vulnerable Groups Act (2006) introduced a new vetting and barring scheme for those who work with children and vulnerable adults. The scheme was launched in autumn 2008 and replaced the Protection of Vulnerable Adults (POVA) arrangements. The scheme covers health and social care services. All new job applicants who will be working with children or vulnerable adults must have a Criminal Records Bureau (CRB disclosure) which gives prospective employers information about any criminal records history guiding their decision on the applicants suitability to work with children or vulnerable adults.

The Independent Safeguarding Authority’s (ISA)

role is to help prevent unsuitable people from working with children and vulnerable adults. We assess those individuals working or wishing to work in regulated activity that are referred to us on the grounds that they pose a possible risk of harm to vulnerable groups. There are two principal routes by which referrals are made to the ISA. Firstly, when a person applies for ISA registration, any convictions or cautions which are considered relevant would trigger a referral. The other way a referral would be made is where an employer or an organisation, for example, a regulatory body, has concerns that a person has caused harm or poses a future risk of harm to children or vulnerable adults. In these circumstances the employer or regualtory body must make a referral to the ISA.

Local Safeguarding Children Board (LSCB)

Under the Children Act 2004, each local authority is required to set up a Local Safeguarding Children Board (LSCB). The legislation followed concern over high profile instances of child abuse, such as the Victoria Climbie case. LSCBs are responsible for local arrangements for protecting children and young people. They provide inter-agency guidelines for child protection Where someone has concerns relating to anyone who holds a position of trust or responsibility for children or young people, these should be discussed with and reported to the Local Authority Designated Officer (LADO).

3.3 Identify reports into serious failures to protect individuals from abuse

I have identified two separate reports into serious failures to protect individuals from abuse (below). The first is a link to the tv documentary Panorama and the second is an article reported in the daily mail on 23 November 2011.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b011pwt6

The attached link from the BBC Panorama programme show how on the top floor of a special hospital, locked away from their families and friends, a group of men and women are subjected to a regime of physical assaults, systematic brutality, and torture by the very people supposed to be caring for them.

The victims are some of the most vulnerable in society – the learning disabled, the autistic, and the suicidal. In a Panorama Special, Paul Kenyon exposes the truth about a gang of carers out of control, and how the care system ignored all the warning signs.

Daily Mail – article printed 23/11/11 by Daniel Martin, Whitehall Correspondent
Cruelty of the carers: Damning report into home help for the elderly finds neglect so appalling some wanted to die
‘These small acts of cruelty are being enacted, possibly unthinkingly, every day’
Cancer victim, 76, had to struggle to kitchen to heat up a meal – because it was claimed health and safety rules meant home helpers could not operate a microwave
Another patient, her 90s, put to bed at 2.45pm

Read more: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2064957/Elderly-people-abused-carers-Neglect-bad-pensioners-wanted-die.html#ixzz23Xe5Hjrp

Identify sources of information and advice about own role in safeguarding and protecting service users from abuse

My company policies and procedures will outline my specific work role regarding safeguarding and protecting service users from abuse and the mandatory yearly ‘safeguarding of vulnerable adults training will make me aware of the legislations dedicated to abuse, and my role in safeguarding vulnerable adults.

4. Understand ways to reduce the likelihood of abuse

Explain how the likelihood of abuse may be reduced by:

Working with person centred values:

When taking a person centered approach the carer would be working with the service users, discussing their needs and preferences for care. This approach would enable the service user to gain trust in the carer, by having a caring person who they can talk to. The carer would then gain a deeper understanding of the service users preferences and beliefs. Thus, empowering the service user, upholding their rights and beliefs and reducing the risk for abuse.

Read more: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_adopting_a_person_centred_approach_which_offers_choices_and_upholds_rights_can_empower_an_individual_and_help_to_reduce_the_likelihood_of_abuse#ixzz23u4FTLNw

Encouraging active participation

Encouraging active participation builds self esteem, therefore the service user will refuse to tolerate abuse and will be more inclined to report it. They are also around other people when actively participating, which will help to build friendships in which they can share things – they may tell one of these friends if abuse should happen, which could lead to the service user obtaining help.

Promoting choice and rights

Service users have a right to dignity and freedom from discrimination. They should be treated with respect and shown that their feelings are considered in the care they receive. Service users should be empowered by being given choices and encouraged to make their own decisions, in this respect the likelihood of being abused by a carer is diminished.

Explain the importance of an accessible complaints procedure for reducing the likelihood of abuse

Promoting choice and rights is also addressed by having an accessible complaints procedure. This may be included in a service user’s ‘welcome’ pack and backs up the service user’s rights, thus enabling the person to know who they can go to with a complaint or concern about any aspect of their treatment or care. This will give the person confidence in being able to file a complaint, who to complain to, the procedure to follow and what will happen when they have complained.

5. know how to recognize and report unsafe practices

Describe unsafe practices that may affect the well-being of service users

This can include a variety of practices, such as, carers not been properly/adequately trained for using equipment (eg hoists etc), carelessness, being too tired to carry out the role correctly, ‘cutting corners’ due to time restrictions, inexperience, faulty equipment being used.

Explain the actions to take if unsafe practices have been identified

If unsafe practices are identified they need to be reported to my immediate line manager so that the person identified can be retrained or the condition remedied to prevent further damage.

Describe the action to take if suspected abuse or unsafe practices have been reported but nothing has been done in response

The national minimum standards (NMS) calls upon all care providers to have whistleblowing arrangements (which my organization also has), which will protect me and my job when I report my concerns. Whistle blowing is about helping people working for an organisation, to raise legitimate concerns or worries about unsafe or bad practices. If my concerns are not acted upon or I feel they have not been dealt with correctly I can pass my concerns on to the Care Quality Commission (CQC) and know that they will respond appropriately. Depending on the severity of my concerns I may feel it necessary to alternatively contact my Local authority safeguarding team or the police.

The purpose of this essay is to critically analyse a report ‘Listening to Troubled Families’ (Casey, 2012). To accomplish this it will be necessary to give a brief historical overview of social policy and legislative developments from 1979 to the present day. It will go on to debate the drivers for contemporary practice and strategies that promote children safeguarding and family support. The essay will apply legislation, guidance and policies that give social workers a legal mandate to work with families whose children are deemed to be at risk. The essay will also deliberate a selection of social work skills whilst employing ‘theories and methods’ that are in accordance with ‘social work values’ (Teater, 2010, p. 4).

The report entitled Listening to Troubled Families is a snapshot of sixteen family’s lives who have ‘entrenched, long-term cycles of suffering problems and causing problems’ (Casey, 2012, p. 1). The phrase ‘long-term cycles’ is very similar to an expression that the Prime Minister at the time Tony Blair (2006) used in a speech to describe families with ‘problems [that] are multiple, entrenched and often passed down the generations’ (Blair, 2006 cited in Welshman, 2008, p. 77). Both statements can be compared to Joseph’s (1972) ‘cycle of deprivation’ hypothesis (Joseph, 1972 cited in Welshman, 2008, p. 77). This is important because according to Welshman (2012) it is an enactment of the debate concerning the ‘deserving and undeserving poor’ and popular beliefs aimed at ‘scroungers’ in British society. This has led Featherstone et al. (2012, 630) to conclude that previous and successive governments since 1979 have demonstrated ‘a cross-party consensus in regard to reduced political support for the welfare state’.

The families in the report had been compelled to work with the Family Intervention Project or risk ‘facing action on child care proceeding’ (Casey, 2012, p. 3). However, the report is actually based on ‘120,000 families’ that have been identified as ‘troubled’ (Casey 2012, p. 5) and who have cost the Government some ‘?9 billion in the last year alone’ (HM Government, 2012, p. 1). This equates to ‘…around ?75,000 per family’ (http://www.number10.gov). The figure of a 120,000 families is based on a report conducted by the ‘Social Exclusion Task Force (SETF)’ (Levitas, 2012, p. 4). That carried out some ‘secondary analysis’ (Levitas, 2012, p. 4) from the Family and Children longitude study (FACS) in 2004. Which highlighted that ‘2 per cent’ (p. 4) of households in Britain had numerous disadvantages. Levitas (2012) notes that the Coalition government have intentionally sought to mislead the electorate, into assuming that ‘multiple disadvantage’ (Levitas, 2012, p.12) equates to families that are ‘troubled, to families that are or cause trouble’ (Levitas, 2012, p. 5).

In order to work effectively with families where neglect and abuse put children at risk it is essential that the ‘subject knowledge, understanding and skills’ (QAA, 2008, p. 8). That the student has acquired in professional training underpin all interventions with individuals to allow an ‘understanding’ of ‘situations’ (Trevithick, 2012, p. 4). To understand a situation it is important that a social worker has excellent ‘communication skills’ Koprowska, (2009, p. 1) considers that these are a fundamental requirement for ‘social work assessment and intervention’ (Koprowska, 2009, p. 72). Research conducted by Levin (2004, p. 5) substantiates this as service users require social workers who are skilled in ‘listening, counselling, assessing, case managing and finding practical ways’ to facilitate. Sedan (2005, p. 22) notes that communication comprises of ‘an interactive process involving the giving, receiving and checking out of meaning’. Having the skills to communicate would enable the practitioner to engage with caregivers and children to conduct an assessment ‘ensuring an effective and fair process and outcome’ (Holland, 2010, p. 110). Laming (2009, p. 28) reiterates this claim by asserting that the ‘Assessment processes’ should encourage ‘an increasingly clear understanding of a child’s situation’ (Laming, 2009, p. 29).

To accomplish assessments social workers are required to use the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (DoH et al. 2000). This is a ‘holistic’ (DoH et al. 2000, p. 26) and ecological tool that has been influenced by the work of Bronfenbrenner (1979) who proposed that individuals are shaped by their ‘macro, exo, meso and microsystem’s’ (Bronfenbrenner, 1979 cited in Trevithick, 2012, p. 325). When an assessment is conducted with an ecological approach it gives a sociological context to the whole person’s life and can gauge the impacts of government policies on individuals who are often in poverty (Trevithick, 2012). A practitioner who utilises an ecological perspective will understand how the structures of society (Jack, 2011) and the inequalities and adversities that some individuals face within it can impinge on their life chances (Trevithick, 2012). It avoids ‘individualising’ (Trevithick, 2012, p. 326) problems. Using the assessment framework facilitates the practitioner in ascertaining if a child is in need and how best to react (Ward and Glaser, 2010) which the social worker will base on current research findings (DoH et al., 2000). Information is recorded about the child’s ‘developmental needs’ (Ward and Glaser, 2010, p. 160) and the caregivers capabilities to respond ‘appropriately’ (DoH et al. 2000, p. 12). Whilst taking account of all other sources of family support and any environmental influences (DoH et al., 2000, p. 12). Another significant element in the assessment framework is information sharing between multi-agencies for ‘best interest’ decisions for the child and family (Rose, 2010, p. 44). This is to avoid what has often been referred to as a ‘silo’ style of working (Miers, 2010, p. 75). Brandon et al. (2009, p. 49) in their serious case reviews have highlighted the ‘lack of information sharing within and between professional agencies’ (Brandon et al., (2009, p. 49) which has led to children dying or suffering unnecessarily. Moreover, under Working Together to Safeguard Children (DCSF, 2010, p. 31) there is a legal requirement to implement ‘effective’ (DCSF, 2010, p. 31) collaborative ‘joint working’ (DCSF, 2010, p. 31) between agencies and multi-professionals who bring a range of knowledge and expertise into discussions.

However, it is imperative that the social worker consults with the family and seeks ‘appropriate consent’ (Rose, 2010, p. 44) except when or if a child is ‘suffering, or is at risk of suffering, significant harm (HM Government, 2012, p. 22). This would be in concordance with government guidelines Information Sharing: Guidance for practitioners and managers (HM Government, 2012). This is to protect the family from any ‘over-zealous’ (Brammer, 2010, p. 126) interference and a consideration of the Human Rights Act 1998 Article 8 should be applied to the families situation by any professionals involved in their lives. A practitioner should also consider the Rights of the Child under The United Nations Convention 1989 (Brammer, 2010, p. 178). Although these rights are not recognised under the United Kingdom domestic law and usually the ‘Gillick competency’ applies (Brammer, 2010, 179).

Angela and Carl (a case study within) the Troubled Families report had asked for help in relation to their son ‘Sam’, unfortunately this was not forthcoming. An appeal for support and Sam’s presenting behaviour should have been an opportunity for early ‘identification’ of any ‘additional need’ (DCSF, 2012, p.84). Professionals in health or education could have implemented the Common Assessment Framework (CAF) with ‘informed consent’ (CWDC, 2012, p. 20).

Performing a CAF would have identified Sam’s additional needs as above and beyond universal services (CWCD, 2012). The CAF is a combination of ‘integrated frontline’ (CWCD, 2012, p. 8) service provision that is incorporated into ‘statutory guidance’ (CWCD, 2012, p. 8) of the Children Act 2004 under section 10 (multi-agency collaboration) and section 11 (protection and promotion of children) (CWCD, 2012, p. 8). Significantly, the local authority, health and education ignored Angela’s concerns and displayed an ‘individualised approach’ (Davis and Smith, 2012, p. 14) to Sam and his family. This may have been because of the ‘rationing’ (Davis and Smith, 2012, p. 14) of services in social care. As a result of numerous local authorities losing fifty per cent of their child in need budget (Community Care, 2011). Professionals involved should have endeavoured to ‘understand’ the ‘life issues’ (Davis and Smith, 2012: p. 14) for Sam and contacted health and education professionals that Working Together to Safeguard Children (DCSF, 2010) requires.

As an alternative, to an individualised approach the social worker concerned could have employed a selection of ‘politically nuanced holistic models’ (Davis and Smith, 2012, p. 18) to the intervention. These models according to Davis and Smith (2012) would allow the social worker to recognise that they are not the total expert in situations and accept that there are many ‘forms of expertise’ (Davis and Smith, 2012, p. 18). The social worker should have identified Angela as the expert on her family and listened to her concerns. Dolan et al. (2006, 2008) have differentiated several processes to assist the practitioner in ‘family support work’ (Dolan et al. 2006 cited in Davis and Smith, 2012, p. 19). They propose that by identifying a service user’s ‘resilience’ and ‘strength’ (Dolan et al. 2006, 2008 cited in Davis and Smith, 2012, p.19) a promotion of partnership working will be established for all individuals concerned including the child. (Dolan et al. 2006 cited in Davis and Smith, 2012 p 19.). A social worker should be accessible and listen to a child’s requests and views while considering their ‘well-being’ and ‘safety’ (Dolan et al. 2006, 2008 cited in Davis and Smith, 2012, p.19). This is a requirement under section 17 of the Children Act 1989 (CA 1989) as amended by section 53 of the Children Act 2004 (CA 2004) to determine the ‘wishes and feelings’ of the child (http://www.legislation.gov.uk).

Applying an ecological perspective to Sam would have facilitated the practitioner into recognising the impact of ‘poor housing’ on his ‘mind, body and emotions’ (Davis and Smith, 2012, p.16). An opportunity was missed by social services to engage the family with a ‘minimum intervention’ service (Davis and Smith, 2012, p. 18) and connect Angela via a ‘systems approach’ with some ‘community resources and networks’ (Mantle and Backwith, 2010, p. 2381).

The Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families recognises the implications of poverty and is determined to ‘tackle the root causes of poverty and social exclusion’ (DoH et al. 2000, p.1). However, Brewer et al. (2009) challenge this claim, and note that in 2007 – 08; poverty for individuals in the United Kingdom had increased to a ‘total of 13.5 million’. This has led to the highest levels of ‘income inequality’ since 1961 (Brewer et al., 2009 cited in Mantle and Backwith, 201, p. 2380). It is vital therefore that whilst conducting an assessment that the social worker does not exhibit ‘poverty blindness’ (Becker, 1997; Dowling, 1999 cited in Gupta and Blewett, 2008, p. 462) and has awareness of the effects poverty and how it can impact on parenting abilities. Service users in a collaborative research project were asked their views about what makes a good social worker. They wanted practitioners who were ‘open and honest and could ‘demonstrate an understanding that society as well as individuals can create neglect’ (Gupta and Blewett, 2008, p. 465).

The ‘Listening to troubled families’ report was deficient in its lack of reference to poverty or ‘social inequality’ (Palmer, 2010 cited in Trevithick, 2012, p.77). It did not discuss the ‘multiple forms of oppression’ (Hick and Murray, 2009, p. 88) that ‘dominant structures’ (Hick and Murray, 2009, p. 88) create. Hick and Murray, (2009, p. 88) suggest that the social worker who uses a structural perspective would seek to emphasise the ‘class analysis’ of the oppressed individual by the forces of dominant ‘economic power’ (Hick and Murray, 2009, p. 88). They posit that this perspective has been influenced by a ‘feminist analyses’ and the ‘patriarchal’ (Hick and Murray, 2009, p. 88) effects on family dynamics and work environments. As most social workers and the recipients of services are women (Balloch, 1997; Howe, 1986) a social worker could utilise a feminist perspective to inform their practice and advocate for fairer ‘rights and opportunities’ (Orme, 2009, p. 67) with these particular families. The social worker should be politically enlightened to enable them to campaign for the ‘collective interests of working-class’ (Orme, 2009, p. 67) groups. Leading to a recognition of full ‘economic and social rights’ (Bryson, 1999 cited in Orme, 2009, p.67).

Nicole who was a participants from the report had been raped at the age of four by her half-brother, started suffering ‘depression, it all got too much’ (Casey, 2012, 34) and was subjected to domestic abuse and rape by an ex-partner. Nicole was consuming alcohol and a ‘speed addict’ and was presenting with ‘anti-social behaviour’ (Casey, 2012, p.34). Research from Widom Spatz and Sturmhofel (2001) note that the experience of being abused as a child can increase a person’s likelihood for alcohol related problems as an adult. It could be hypothesised that Nicole was using alcohol and drugs as a form of self-medication and to gain control of an oppressive life situation. Research indicates, that ‘Dylan’ Nicole’s son or children of parents who abuse substances may be at risk of poor attachments to caregivers (Brooks and Rice 1997; Klee et al. 1998; Howe et al. 1999; Flores 2001), difficult interpersonal family relationships (Cleaver et al. 1999; Velleman and Orford 1999; Harbin and Murphy 2000) and a substantially increased risk of violence (Brookoff et al. 1997). The chronicles of children whose parents have or are misusing substances have been procured by an evaluation of research studies by Kroll, (2004). Themes that emerged from the research studies were ‘attachment, separation and loss’ (Kroll, 2004, 133) children spoke about being second best and keeping secrets. ‘…When you see ’em do drugs long enough you know you’re not number one; you know you’re always put second and the drugs are put first…’ (‘Jessica’ aged 15, in Howland Thompson 1998, cited in Kroll, 2004, 133). The research highlighted the children’s losses and lack of ‘reliable, consistent and responsive’ (Kroll, 2004, 133) parenting, their lack of ‘confidence’ and self-worth, (Kroll, 2004, 133) and the loss of an ordinary life in which they would be able to invite friends home or attend school consistently (Cork 1969; Howland Thompson 1998). In the children’s narratives they wanted professionals to appreciate their ‘hurt on the inside’ (Kroll, 2004, 136) and not to be ‘invisible’ (Kroll, 2004, 136).

The local authority are compelled under the CA 1989 part III to support families who need help bringing up children and work in partnership with caregiver’s (DoH et al., 2000). However, after the implementation of the CA 1989 it was discovered through Messages from Research (DoH, 1995) that a concentration on ‘child protection’ had created a dearth of services for the child in need (Morris, 2012, p. 14). This was supported by the Victoria Climbie inquiry as Laming (2003, p. 6) asserted that usually the safest protection for the child was ‘…timely intervention of family support services…’ In response to the inquiry, the Green Paper, Every Child Matters (2003) was introduced (Parton, 2006, p. 151). Its remit was to focus on ‘universal’ (Parton, 2006, p. 152) services for all children and ‘targeted’ (Parton, 2006, p. 152) services for children with any further supplementary needs.

The Laming inquiry (2003) made recommendations that were instigated by New Labour who envisaged service provisions that were based around ‘preventative services and early intervention’ (Driscoll, 2009, 335). These services took the form of ‘Sure Start, the Children’s Fund and Connexions (Morris, 2012, 16). However, the provisions that New Labour implemented failed to engage the families’ with the most enduring and ‘complex’ (Morris, 2012, p.16) requirements. Therefore, like the preceding CA 1989 which had ignored ‘children in need’ (Morris, 2012, p. 17) and the subsequent Children Act (2004) which had failed to reach more complex families, ‘policy drivers’ had become ‘confusing’ and sometimes ‘contradictory’ (Morris, 2012: 17).

The debate around ‘early intervention’ (DoH et al., 2000: xi) have evolved from New Labour’s ‘modernisation’ agenda and their attempt to meet the demands of a ‘globalised economy’ (Frost and Parton, 2009, 25). However, these concepts can be traced back, to when the Conservative government who had initially gained power in 1979 (http://news.bbc.co.uk) and introduced managerialism and a mixed economy of care into the organisation of social services departments (Frost and Parton, 2009). As well as promoting ‘economy, efficiency and effectiveness’ (Frost and Parton, 2009, p. 24) the Conservatives were concerned with encouraging services that were ‘transparent’ and ‘accountable’ (Frost and Parton, 2009, p. 25). When New Labour was elected in 1997 they ‘adopted’ (Chard and Ayre, 2010: p. 96) many of the Conservative policies and implemented ‘performance targets, inspection regimes and league tables’ (Frost and Parton, 2009, p. 25). However, Ferguson (2004, p. 4) posits that New Labour went further and ‘has embraced the market with a passion and enthusiasm which often leaves the Conservatives standing’ Numerous commentators (Dixon et al., 1998, cited in Chard and Ayre, 2010, p. 95) assert that managerialism has been regarded as a market driven ‘solution’ to a public service ‘problem’. Lonne et al. (2008) argue that a managerialist perspective does not appreciate the significance of forming trustful, professional, relationships with service users. Ferguson (2010) clarifies this as the absence of social work involvement with children and families as social workers have been increasingly drawn into an office based environment. Therefore, any direct contact with families is limited with the social worker orchestrating services and fulfilling administration duties. This leaves no time according to Peckover et al. (2008) for interpersonal communication between the practitioner and family. Broadhurst et al. (2010, p. 363) bemoans this outcome as ‘the space between help-seeker and help-provider is steadily widening’. Munroe (2011) in her final report on child protection stressed that professionals have found it increasingly difficult to sustain any direct work with children and their families. This is because of the burden of ‘statutory guidance, targets and local rules’ (Munroe, 2011, p. 6). Laming (2009: 10) reiterates these claims by asserting that ‘…ultimately the safety of a child depends on staff having the time, knowledge and skill to understand the child or young person and their family circumstances’.

In conclusion this essay has explored the Listening to Troubled Families (Casey, 2012) report and as Levitas (2012, p. 4) notes ‘The problem is not the research itself, but its misuse’ and the Coalitions attempt to mislead the public.

The social work profession promotes social change, problem solving in human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being. Utilizing theories of human behavior and social systems, social work intervenes at the point where people interact with their environments. Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work. (IFSW/ IASSW, 2000/ 2001).

As per the above definition we understand social work as a profession based on certain values, norms, ethics and principles. Applying this theoretical knowledge into practical a social worker can help the people for their happiness, development and attainment at social and psychological level. Human beings are the most prominent identity or unit of any society. The aim of social work profession is to bring social changes in the society and make people aware and independent for their development. Social work practice emphasizes social development, equality, human rights, social justice, social change, community development, fulfillment of needs of every individual as well. On the worldwide social work practice has been developing. To understand the issues in International social work, first we will discuss the global and international. Global social work means the practice pertaining to or involving the whole world, whereas international can mean one of the following: between or among two or more nations, of or pertaining to two or more nations or their citizens, pertaining to the relations between nations, or transcending national boundaries or viewpoints. So, international social work is that it involves any aspect of social work in which there is some relationship between two or more countries or nations. We can understand international social work from following aspects:

When a social worker practice social work in any country other than his/her home country,

Working with various international organizations (whether or not a social worker moves to the different country)

When a social worker do collaborations, networking between countries and they exchange their views and ideas for development of social work profession.

International social work is defined as international professional practice and the capacity for international action by the social work profession and its members. International action has four dimensions: internationally related domestic practice and advocacy, professional exchange, international practice, and international policy development and advocacy. (Healy: 2001, p. 7)

Linkages between international and local social work: – There is a strong connection between international and local social work. As we know that both social work practice are for development of human beings. The integrated approach to international social work and even each dimension of all four perspectives cannot exist without local social work. All the global social problems are raised from local only. The global issues like poverty, human trafficking, HIV/AIDS, Gender discrimination, violation of human rights, ageing etc originates from local. These issues not only affect the local even they raised a question around the globe. So we can say that international and local social work are interrelated to each other.

Global
Perspective

Movements to internationalise social work: – In present scenario social work is emerging as broad and vast profession with in different countries and on global level as well. To understand the movements to internationalise social work we need to understand the integrated aa‚¬” perspective approach of international social work which is based on four inter related dimensions. It is an integrated approach because every dimension of it is related to each other.

Human Rights Perspective
Ecological
Perspective
International Social work
Social
Development
Perspective
Fig 1.1

The above integrated approach to international social work depicts that all these approaches are interrelated and compliments each other in some way. The integration of these approaches constitutes international social work. We can say that international social work covers or exists the integration of these perspectives. A single perspective cannot constitute international social work. Here we are discussing the movements in each perspective to evolving international social work.

Global: – The importance of global factors can be found at macro level. As it is global perspective so this factor influences the international social work at global levels. Global perspective is itself significant and vast. In the existence of global perspective focused on six dimensions of global perspective. These are unity, diversity, interdependence, globalization, localization and world citizenship.

Unity: – The unity dimension of global perspective shows that all human beings obtain from the same origins and exhibit the same basic needs. However we all are affected in one sense or another but varying degrees we bear, for example issues in the world which affects human beings at global level i.e. terrorism. So these global issues affect the human beings although we all are from same origins.

Diversity: – The other side of coin is that all human beings are diverse with each other in many ways. Although origin is same but at the global we all have different culture, way of living. Around the globe people are different to each other in their behavior, understanding as we know that each individual is unique. This diversity among human beings can be in terms of political, social and economic system which sometimes results in competition or conflicts among systems which affects the human beings at global level.

Interdependence: – These unity and diversity among human beings enables us all to learn and benefit from each other experiences around the globe. We strive to build a world of benefit to all people across all generation.

Having a global perspective and approach to social work practice enables us to appreciate the universals in human experience. Recognition of commonalities and increased respect for differences helps to dissipate fear and distrust and to promote world peace, international cooperation and global justice. A global perspective offers new ways and multiple dimensions of analysis from a multicultural and pluralistic viewpoint. This dimension shows us that people around the globe are interdependent and interconnected to each other. As we know that events exists in any part of the globe does effects all the human beings in other part of the globe. For example the issues of human rights, conflict changes in political or economic systems affect the whole world.

Globalization: – Globalization is a process which diverse people, economies, cultures and political processes which influences people at international level. Globalization affects the social work in different countries. It is a process of global integration of people which bounds and influences them economically, culturally and politically. In the other aspects of globalization it may be useful to highlight the movements at national and international levels including antiglobalization movements. We cannot discuss international social work without globalization as it affects on both social work practices and social systems. For example the actions of social work are contextualized by the impact of economic, political and cultural globalization.

Localization: – It is quite opposite to globalization, as globalization represents or influences around the globe whereas localization exists the changes at local levels. Globalization and localization clearly interdependent to each other. We can understand these as two sides of the one coin.

World Citizenship: – The above dimensions localization and globalization also conceded through the concept of world citizenship. Global citizenship exists at both the local and global level as well. This concept is closely related with the emergence of global civil society. Although a human being can be a citizen of any nation or territory but we are the entire first and most citizens of the world, entitled to the protection of international community also. As we have already discussed that issues at the global or international affects the human society at the local level also.

Human Rights: – The human rights perspective is a prominent dimension of integrated approach of international social work. As it emphasis the values and rights basis of international social work practice. The human perspective consists of four dimensions, these are: values and principles, human rights, universality and a guide to living and behavior. The first dimension values and principles are based on the importance of human rights, philosophical values and principles as well. It highlights the list of the values and principles on which human rights arte based which is given by United Nations Centre for Human Rights. The second dimension emphasis the human rights at global level. There are declarations by UNCHR for the protection of human rights and for their welfare. A set of human rights which embraces the overall development of an individual also highlights the human rights at every aspect. The third dimension of universality says that human rights are entirely universal. The human rights are fundamental and universal which is recognized internationally. These human rights are necessary for every individual to live their life with dignity and protection. This gives universal values, importance and identification to human rights even internationally. The fourth dimension which is related to perspective of human rights i. e a guide which reflects the norms and values to human beings for their living and behavior in the society. This guide basically tells human beings how to behave and treat with each other in society whether at individually or in groups.

The Ecological Perspective: – This perspective has also four dimensions. Theoretically, the ecological perspective gives emphasis on the protection and safety of natural environment where an individual is living his/her life. This is also based on four dimensions.

Holism and Unity: – This highlights the importance of holistic approach for human development which emphasizes the unity among human beings and nature from both a spiritual and a practical perspective as well.

Diversity: – As we have discussed diversity in global perspective. Here also in ecological perspective unity and holism is balanced by diversity. According to this as human beings are diverse in nature, culture etc. So nature should be benefited with diversity of species and conditions within the web of life.

Equilibrium: – Here this dimension is giving emphasis to maintain a balance between the various species and their differing conditions. This basically shows the connection between human beings and environment that they both are interdependent on each other.

Sustainability: – This dimension is the most prominent in ecological perspective. This highlights the sustainable development of human beings. Sustainable development is extreme as it is gives last satisfaction and fulfillment of human needs and improvement of the quality of human life.

The Social Development Perspective: – We can define social development is a process of planned social change designed to promote the well-being of the population as a whole in the conjunction with the dynamic process of economic development. (Midgley, 1996a). This perspective has four dimensions which are as follows:-

Value- based: – The value based dimension highlights that individual is a key important in any society. It accepts the human development by society at every level. It highlights the approaches and key issues for the social development of human beings with their participation. It gives opportunity to every individual for being a part of social development.

Proactive intervention: – According to this dimension social development adopts a development approach, that it creates a society which is elf reliance, independent and empowered. In this sense it represents the proactive intervention dimension which can give opportunity to human beings to make their life better. This shows that it is people- centered and participatory dimension

Multidimensional: – The social development approach is multi-dimensional. As here social development means a development in holistic and integrated manner. This recognizes the development in life of human being in the social, political, economic, legal, ecological manner. On the other side it is highlighting the presumption in development of social structures, social relations, and social values as per the situations in human life. This shows that social development is talking about the multidimensional dimension around the globe.

Multilevel: – This is very prominent as 0it shows the development of human beings at every level such as local, national, regional or global level. Also the development of every units of society. So we can treat it as multilevel dimension.

As we have discussed earlier in the concept of international social work is that when a social worker moves to another country in order to practice social work. Here transmission of social work happened within the countries through various social workers.

International Law: – At the beginning of 21st century, international law remains subordinate to state power which tends to favour economic, political or military interests whenever they conflict with those of justice. International laws are there to protect human rights and the role of state for the protection of these human rights.

Universalization: – It is a process which emphasizes that core values apply to all human beings irrespective of their identity, cultural background, personal preferences and so on.

Human Rights: – Human rights could be generally defined as those rights which are inherent in our nature and without which we cannot live as human beings. Human beings are equally entitled to our human rights without any discrimination. Universal human rights are often expressed and guaranteed by law, in the form of treaties, customary international law, general principles and international law. International human rights law lays down obligations of governments to act in certain ways or to refrain from certain acts, in order to promote human rights and fundamental freedoms of individual or groups.

Erasmus Intensive Programme: – Before discussing this we will understand the concept of professional imperialism which emphasizes the ways in which social work practices and models of professional education have been taken from the global North to global South.

This programme is funded by Erasmus (EU) for 3 years. In this programme constitutes the collaboration of 5 nation states: UK, Germany, Spain, Finland or Poland. This is open for social work and social policy students to make a student exchange visits and to conduct research projects in their respective states which promotes the concept of international social work.

Conclusion: – In conclusion we can say that international social work is a vast concept which we can understand in various ways. International social work refers to education, practice, research, policy and exchanges concerned with the realities of global processes in human well- being. We cannot ignore international social work as there is need to promote it around the globe, so that in collaboration with various international and national organizations social workers can do social development in society and can attain the sustainable development of human beings. International social work represents a modernity perspective, a common understanding of problems, that people are much the same that we are all citizens of one globe and that problems can be understood across borders. The problems at local affect the global and issues which are from global affects local.

‘There are many competing pressures to direct the service in ways that may not be consistent with Social Work principles towards greater penal and correctional models. It is therefore essential to have a clear understanding of the policy and legal framework that creates the remit and legitimacy for the operation of Social Work in the Criminal Justice process’ (Whyte, 2001, p.7).

As Whyte’s views indicate, to practise effectively, it is necessary to have a critical understanding of the law and to recognise limitations as well as strengths in Social Work. The law can lack clarity and can be open to interpretation. This essay aims to discuss Social Work roles and responsibilities in Criminal Justice settings in relation to the increasing number of women involved in the Scottish Criminal Justice system. The law can make the Social Work task complex and issues related to assessment, decision-making, accountability, discrimination and oppression will be considered and the impact on services users, their families and the community.

Social Work involves working with marginalised and disadvantaged service users who can be both vulnerable to crime and susceptible to criminalisation and subsequently, practice involves work with victims or offenders. Local Authorities (LA’s) have a statutory responsibility to provide Criminal Justice Social Work Services to support the Criminal Justice process through assessment of individuals, information to the Courts and supervision of offenders.

Scotland differs from the rest of the UK in that there is a unique cultural and political heritage and a separate legal system. Social Work therefore, has a central role within the Criminal Justice process in Scotland which is in contrast to England and Wales. As McAra (2005) suggests a more welfare orientated approach has been adopted due to Scotland’s legal culture and political history.

The legal framework outlining powers and duties of Criminal Justice Social Work is the Social Work Scotland Act 1968 (as amended). Section 27 of this Act outlines the duty by LA’s to provide specific Criminal Justice services (for example social background reports, supervision of offenders on an Order or Licence) in respect of central government funding however, it does not explain the objectives of these services or provide guidance on their exercise. Section 12 gives LA’s discretion to provide additional services for example to victims, as part of the general responsibility to ‘promote social welfare.’

Probation or offender services became the responsibility of the LA Social Work Departments in 1968 and had a general duty to ‘promote social welfare’ in their locality (S12, Social Work (Scotland) Act 1968). This was due to the Kilbrandon Committee (Kilbrandon, 1964) being appointed to investigate increasing juvenile crime. The Kilbrandon Report recommended a new approach to children’s services with children who offend being treated the same as children requiring care and protection. Kilbrandon also suggested diversion and early voluntary intervention as crime prevention and one department for children and adults. This merge of work with adult offenders was pivotal in recognising work with offenders as having a welfare component admittedly with a level of control. The Kilbrandon philosophy advocated rehabilitation and treatment of offenders and an awareness of the social causes of crime which is still relevant to today’s practice.

From the 1980’s onwards Criminal Justice in Scotland has undergone major legislative and

policy change. As there was concern for public protection and community disposal

effectiveness in 1991, 100 per cent central government funding was introduced and the

National Objectives and Standards (NOS) were published which set out core objectives,

service provision and guidance on their delivery (Social Work Group, 1991). This resulted in

the government committing to Social Work delivering this role.

Due to recent rising prison populations, there has been growing political concern that custody rates need to decrease and should be replaced with community based alternatives. Women are only a minority of the prison population but their imprisonment is increasing more than that of men (McIvor, 2007), although their offending is less serious and less frequent.

Prison sentences are inappropriate for female offenders, with the exception of serious or violent female offenders as their fragile situation in the community can be exacerbated and this can have a long-term negative impact on women and their families (Corston, 2007).

Social Work with offenders should aim to address and reduce offending behaviour. Whilst the law provides a framework for practice, effective work with offenders requires skills such as communication, therapeutic relationships in supervision, assessment and risk management. The task is varied and complex as Social Workers have the power to control the individuals who are referred via the Courts and enforce Court Orders but must also work with an offender in a holistic, inclusive way to have a positive impact on their offending behaviour (Scottish Executive, 2004a). This can be through support and assistance in relation to personal and social problems but also the individual taking responsibility for their actions. Effective and ethical practice is therefore, about considering and managing the needs and rights of the Courts, the general public, victims and offenders.

Although Social Workers have statutory duties and powers to intervene in people’s lives this is not always welcome but is necessary in promoting public safety. Under the Scottish Social Services Council (SSSC) Code of Practice, Social Workers have an obligation ‘to uphold public trust and confidence’ and the Criminal Justice Authorities (CJA’s) are required by Scottish Executive guidance to develop a strategy to address this (Scottish Executive, 2006b). This strategy includes both offenders and their families and Social Workers should engage these individuals and recognise their views in the development of services.

Both Criminal Law and Social Work recognise the autonomy of individual’s choices on how they lead their lives and with this capacity is criminal responsibility. Those who lack capacity e.g. children and the mentally disordered, are not culpable in the eyes of the law and may be treated differently. It is therefore recognised that criminal behaviour is not just a choice but may be about social circumstances to which they have minimal control. Social Workers should assist in allowing individuals to improve their capacity for making choices together with consequences to their actions (ADSW, 1996a).

Although Social Workers are obliged to protect the rights and interests of service users there is a belief amongst the general public that they have forfeited these rights when they have offended. All Criminal Justice agencies must comply with the Human Rights Act 1988 which incorporates into domestic law the fundamental rights set out in the European Convention of Human Rights (ECHR). Public Authorities are required to respect all of the provisions however, the two articles with particular relevance to Criminal Law and Social Work are ‘the right to liberty and security’ (Article 5. ECHR) and ‘the right to a fair trial’ (Article 6, ECHR). However, restrictions can be imposed on those who breach criminal law or are a threat to public safety as long as the detention is authorised by law and there is balance between the individual, their victims and the general public. The Social Worker must assess this balance through rigorous assessment and analysis of risk. The role requires respect to offenders as individuals and ‘ensure that the offender’s ability and right to function as a member of society is not impaired to a greater extent than is necessary in the interests of justice’ (ADSW, 1996a).

Criminal Justice Social Work services are delivered in partnership with various statutory and non-statutory agencies and this presents challenges due to conflicting professional values and aims. The Management of Offenders etc. (Scotland) Act 2005 was introduced to improve joint working and co-ordinate the management of offenders in the transition from custody to community supervision and places a duty on Criminal Justice Authorities (CJAs) to have an information sharing process in order that relevant information is shared between agencies (s.3 (5)(g)) for improving offender and risk management. However, sensitive personal information must be handled carefully and be under the principles of the Data Protection Act 1988 and local agency protocols.

Practitioners must ensure that any information sharing decisions are fully explained and understood by the offender even when their consent to disclosure is not required.

Organisations who deliver public services have general duties to eliminate unlawful discrimination and promote equality of opportunity on the grounds of race (Race Relations (Amendment) Act 2000), sex (Equality Act 2006), and disability (Disability Discrimination Act 2005). Individuals who are involved with Criminal Justice organisations are entitled to the protection of discrimination laws which relate to sex, race, disability, religious beliefs and sexual orientation, with exception to exercising judicial functions or carrying out Court orders. In these circumstances, it may be within Article 14 of the ECHR which prevents to the right to liberty and security of the individual or the right to a fair trial being interfered with on a wide range of discriminatory grounds. Criminal Justice is still influenced by prejudicial and discriminatory views.

Research carried out by both the Social Work and Prisons Inspectorate for Scotland (1998) highlighted concerns about the treatment of female offenders in the Criminal Justice process. In addition, several inquiries in England and Wales in relation to racial discrimination by the police and prison services have subsequently raised public awareness (Macpherson, 1999; Keith, 2006). The Scottish Government has a duty to publish information of discrimination of any unlawful grounds (s.306 (1)(b) Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1995) and therefore, all workers need to practise in an anti-discriminatory way.

The law outlines the limits of Social Work intervention and knowledge of the law is essential to anti-oppressive practice.

‘The only legitimacy for intervening in the life of the individual within the criminal justice process is the individual’s offending behaviour…if individuals have social needs which require to be met but are not crime related or crime producing, or if the offence is not sufficiently serious to fall within the criteria of the ‘twin-track’ approach, services should be offered, as far as possible, through voluntary provision…No-one should be drawn into the criminal justice processes in order to receive social work help’ (Moore and Whyte, 1998, p.24).

Risk assessment and offence based practice is an ethical approach. It aims to ensure that ‘the most intensive and potentially most intrusive services are focused on those service users who pose the greatest risk of causing harm to others'(ADSW, 2003) and prevent socially disadvantaged individuals being taken further into criminal justice control which can result in further social exclusion. There is often a complex relationship between social exclusion and offending behaviour and often the Criminal Justice process displays existing injustices within society. It is important that issues in relation to class, age and social context should be recognised together with vulnerability to discrimination.

The Social Worker’s role should be to address issues of social exclusion and empower individuals to lead law abiding lives by addressing their offending behaviour. Social Work can help offenders develop capacity to make informed choices by actively encouraging engagement with improving their current situation and their participation in the supervision and change process (McCulloch, 2005; McNeill, 2004). Assisting offenders to focus on their strengths as opposed to their risk and needs can have a positive impact as they learn to recognise the value in their own lives and respect the value of others.

The sentencing stage in the criminal justice process generates the majority of Criminal Justice Social Work through provision of information to the Court in the form of Social Enquiry Reports (SERs) and the administration of community disposals, with the exception of liberty orders (tagging). SERs have no legal basis but there is a statutory duty on criminal justice social work to provide reports to the Court for disposal of a case (s.27(1)(a) SWSA 1968. ‘Reports provide the court with the information and advice they need in deciding on the most appropriate way to deal with offenders. They include information and advice about the feasibility of community based disposals, particularly those involving local authority supervision. In the case of every offender under 21 and any offender facing custody for the first time, the court must obtain information and advice about whether a community based disposal is available and appropriate. In the event of custody, the court requires advice about the possible need for a Supervised Release order or Extended Sentence Supervision on release’. (Scottish Executive, 2004d, para. 1.5)

The Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1995 sets out when the court can or must obtain an SER. Failure to request a report, where required by law, can result in a sentence being quashed on appeal. The Court is not obliged to follow recommendations or opinions in the SER however, Social Workers can have a direct influence on the sentence passed.

‘Preparing SERs demands a high standard of professional practice. It requires skilled interviewing, the ability to collect and assess information from different sources, and the art of writing a report which is dependable, constructive, impartial and brief’ (Social Work Services Inspectorate (SWSI), 1996).

The law imposes time limits in compiling reports, which in practice creates more demands on a worker’s time and places increased pressure in the preparation of SERs especially if there are high numbers of worker absence or whether the offender is known to the worker and their individual circumstances. Whilst conducting interviews the worker must ensure that the offender understands the purpose of the report, the relevance of questions (health, addiction issues, and personal relationships) and the limits to confidentiality of this information. Social workers must balance between an informed recommendation and an awareness of the severity of the offence. The report author should be impartial and not minimise the seriousness of the offence and its impact (NOS, Scottish Executive, 2004d, para 5.5) and phrases that imply moral judgements, label or stereotype offenders should not be used (para. 5.1).

When compiling an SER workers are required to consider the suitability of disposals in relation to the risk posed by an offender and to target appropriate resources which are most appropriate and successful in addressing offending behaviour. Risk assessment is complex and there has been a shift from concern for the offender and their needs to concern about public safety and the offender being a potential source of risk to others. Although the legislation is not explicit about offending behaviour, NOS state that SERs should provide ‘information and advice which will help the Court decide the available sentencing options…by assessing the risk of reoffending, and…the possible harm to others. This requires an investigation of offending behaviour and of the offenders’ circumstances, attitudes and motivation to change’ (Scottish Executive, 2004d, 1.6).

The most widely used assessment tools are The Level of Service Inventory – Revised

(LSI-R) to assess risk of re-offending and the Risk Assessment Guidance Framework (RAGF) to assess risk of harm. However, worker’s vary in their use of risk of harm assessment tools, with some workers using the Risk Assessment 1-4 (RA1-4) due to lack of training on the RAGF assessment tool, lack of confidence or personal choice and in personal experience some workers fail to address the risk of harm in SER’s for fear of being questioned about the validity and reliability of the assessment. LA Criminal Justice Services have opted for one or other, or a combination of both approaches in their offender management. However, the national implementation of a common tool is now planned, with the proposals for The Level of Service Case Management Inventory (LSCMI) (Scottish Government, 2007).

These risk assessment tools are inappropriate for women offenders, as their development is based predominantly on populations of men (McIvor and Kemshall, 2002: Maurutto and Hannah-Moffat, 2006), tend to over predict the risk of re-offending and fail to identify health and other needs that are of particular relevance to women. Even where needs are identified it is unclear whether or how they relate to women’s offending. Actuarial calculations can result in inappropriate and harsh responses from the Courts but can also deny that a woman is in the process of desisting from crime or that her offending is a symptom as opposed to a cause of other additional problems in her life. It could be argued that focus should be more about needs which stablise an individual’s lifestyle than on offending, which results from that lifestyle, and could be seen as a better way to inform both sentencer and practitioner decision making.

Professional judgement also varies widely depending on the assessor. Differences can emerge due to worker’s age, length of service and experience and some use their professional judgement more than actuarial methods (Barry, 2007a). Risk assessments are standardised tools which fail to take into account how appropriate interventions are or the availability of services but form the basis on which the need for and access to interventions is determined. These differing needs and circumstances mean that available interventions are not appropriate for a lot of women.

The assessed needs of women are not always taken into account in the sentence they receive. Women predominantly, are given harsher sentences that are disproportionate to the offence in comparison to the treatment of male offenders. Community Service is a high-tariff disposal which is legislated to serve as an alternative to custody. However, research carried out in Scotland concluded that women were more likely to receive a Community Service Order in their involvement in the Criminal Justice system than men (McIvor, 1998; McIvor and Barry, 1998).

Community Service is traditionally male dominated, is mainly heavy manual duties such as painting, landscaping and joinery and many women struggle with this disposal for several reasons. Firstly, in terms of child care arrangements whilst undertaking their placement, women can be wary due to past experiences with Children and Families Social Workers even although they have no access to childcare through their own social networks and therefore, organising childcare facilities becomes the responsibility of the Social Work Department.

Additionally, there is lack of female supervisors to oversee Community Service placements for women and many women are reluctant to be supervised by a man and this greatly reduces the number of placements appropriate to their skills and capabilities.

The use of effective and appropriate sanctions for female offenders presents some challenges. Interventions and services are typically developed for male offenders but are unlikely to meet female offenders’ needs and there is increasing recognition that gender appropriate provision is required. As argued by Sheehan et al. (2007) gender specific responses may encourage a reduction in imprisonment for this vulnerable group as women tend to offend through necessity than choice (Barry, 2007b; Home Office, 2004).

Support from Social Workers’ should be given to reduce involvement in offending, but underlying problems must also be addressed such as low self-esteem, mental and physical health, financial restraints and limited educational and employment opportunities.

A study of probation with female offenders in Scotland, found that practitioners recognised that interventions with women need to be more informal, less structured and more focused on issues other than offending behaviour. Community sanctions work more effectively if there is flexibility as women tend to breach orders as a result of non-compliance as opposed to further offending (Scottish Government, 2007).

Probation can be seen as access to a package of welfare measures which might not otherwise be available to women who need support as opposed to punishment (McIvor and Barry, 1998). An ongoing challenge for practitioners is the absence of alternative welfare orientated disposals and that some women view probation negatively based on previous episodes of supervision or involvement in relation to child care issues and may not embrace support made available. Probation Orders vary in length and this can cause difficulties in client motivation over a long period of time and increases the risk of non-compliance resulting in Breach.

Although the law is crucial in framing Social Work practice in the Criminal Justice process it is equally important that Social Work skills and values are central to effective interventions. Crime has become increasingly prominent both in the public and political agenda and therefore, Social Work has become more prominent and complex. Social Workers have a professional responsibility towards victims, the Court, community and offenders however, community based resources are scarce for women as their offending rarely presents a significant public risk (Scottish Office, 1998).

The needs presented by women appear to be less about offending and more about the underlying problems in their lives such as former or current abuse, poverty, parenting difficulties, mental health and addiction issues and this can increase the likelihood of offending (Carless, 2006). These problems due to their nature and complexity often make it difficult for professionals to work effectively within the confines of the Criminal Justice system. Priority should be given to offering practical and emotional support to women rather than focusing on their offending behaviour and their ability to comply with strict requirements. The Criminal Justice system cannot solely provide effective responses to vulnerable women leading often chaotic and damaged lives within an increasingly risk averse and punitive environment however, Social Workers need to have a critical understanding of the law to practice effectively and to recognise its limitations as well as strengths.

The drive towards the provision of ‘person-centred’ services for people with learning disabilities, has acquired a vast amount of policy maker’s attention in the United Kingdom (Cambridge, 2008). Valuing People (UK Department of Health, 2001) has been the most fundamental government paper that has prompted a change in the way current health and social care services operate. Collaboration can be seen as an important facilitator in delivering quality healthcare and achieving an holistic care service (Xyrichis et al., 2008). However, previous research focusing on teamwork in healthcare has been criticised for lacking a basic understanding of what this concept represents. This assignment aims to address the importance of inter-professional and multi- professional collaboration within the health and social care domain, when working with adults with learning disabilities.

The concept of working together originated under the umbrella term mutli-agency team working; this term dominated the discourse of policy and practice in the first years of the 21st Century. Mutli-agency teams were drawn together from distinct agencies for a set period of time and for a particular task whilst other groups of professionals came together as interagency teams simply for a particular project or case (Anning 2006). An example is a group of health practitioners, social workers and carers, reviewing and monitoring service provision and access to person-centred services for adults with learning disabilities. The government have advocated for Learning Disability Partnership Boards to be set up so as to make it a priority that service users don’t fall ‘between the gaps’ and that they receive sufficient support and access to person-centred services.

Clark (1993) states that inter-professional and inter-disciplinary practice can be used interchangeably. Inter-Professional working occurs when two or more professionals collaborate together in order to provide patient-centred care and a better quality of care; for instance the interaction between a general practitioner and a nurse. Multi-professional working occurs when professionals from health related occupations and varying backgrounds come together for a particular case. For example a diabetes team, whose primary function could be to assess, monitor and inform all people with diabetes within a particular catchment population. The team would mostly comprise of a consultant endocrinologist, two diabetes specialist nurses, a dietician and podiatrist. The UK Department of Education (2003) conducted research which shows that a person with a disability is likely to be in contact with more than ten different professionals in their lifetime. Throughout this time, issues can arise which may lead to a lack of continuity and co-ordination of care services. This is the main reason why the government advocates for an integrated approach for health and social care provision. This is not limited to healthcare but also outside of the domain, as different organisations have their own role to play. For instance, disparate services such as education, training, housing and employment need to work together and have a certain level of access to information about a client, whist maintaining patient confidentiality. For example the transition from secondary care to tertiary care such as from hospital to a residential home would require varying levels of expertise. An occupational therapist to examine the environment that the patient will be moving to, a medical practitioner to identify the need for the patient to be moved, a nurse to ensure continuity of care and a social worker to ascertain the level of support required on a day to day basis.

The National Health Service (NHS) is the largest organisation in Europe, and is recognised by the World Health Organisation as one of the best healthcare services in the world (Department of Health, 2000). The Healthcare Act (1999) requires NHS organisations to work together in partnership (Glendinning et al, 2001) yet evidence such as the Lord Lamming report suggests that barriers to inter-professional and multi-professional practice still exist. Lord Lamming’s findings of the Victoria Climbie inquiry highlighted that poor co-ordination and a lack of communication between agencies, was central to her untimely death.

Since the publication of Every Child Matters (Department for Education and Skills 2003) local authorities are now developing innovative solutions for information sharing known as an ‘Information Hub’. Clear and effective communication between all parities is required for this to be successful, with specific reference to learning disability, care providers work and plan in different ways such as PATH (Planning Alternative Tomorrows With Hope) therefore it is even more important to clearly document and share information freely in order to foster the implementation of care plans and create value in the best interest of service users, service providers and other professionals.

Traditionally, the NHS relied on paper records such as patient files, letters and referral forms. This was subject to unauthorised access, loss, a breach in patient confidentiality and a lack of accurate and up-to-date information. However due to the National Programme for Information Technology (UK Department of Health, 2005) and advances in technology, information sharing is more accessible due to the use of electronic databases which has security mechanisms to prevent malpractice and unauthorised access as well as upholding clinical governance. As outlined in the Nursing and Midwifery Code of Conduct (2008) quality record-keeping and evidence based policies are necessary for effective communication. However, this can in turn result in ‘inactive collaboration’ (Daly 2004) with each professional group having a ‘singular input into patient care’. Purtilo and Haddad (1996) state that verbal communication is important in sustaining the relationship between patients and healthcare professionals. Regular meetings of a multi-professional team with a common care pathway can aid the teams’ collaboration.

Professional identity and patient power, is another factor which must be considered. Leathard (1994) points out that the rivalry between professional groups can inhibit collaborative working. Power struggles within society for example between, experienced colleagues and inexperienced colleagues are barriers towards successful inter-professional working. However, new approaches in care provision such as skill-mixing and a drive towards person-centred services utilises the authority of the patient to govern the priorities of an inter-professional team as well as valuing each member of a team and their contribution. A difference in philosophies of care is also a key factor, as different professional groups have different moral and ethical philosophies in care provision. Such as, the paternalistic approach of a medical practitioner versus the approach of a public health advocate (Daly 2004).Recent research suggests that inter-professional working can lead to verbal abuse; professional autonomy is challenged when professionals work together in groups. A study conducted by (Joubert, Du Rand, VanWyk.., 2005) reported that ‘nurses experienced high levels of verbal abuse by physicians’. A tense environment can lead to poor working conditions and a higher risk of errors (Celik et al 2007).

Professionals have different pay brackets, which is defined according to their professional group and then their role within the group. Issues that may arise include resource allocation and funding for staff. At present the UK is involved in global crisis and the economy is central to restoration as jobs are at risk and services are being cut which is a hindrance to mutli-professional working. There staff shortages within the NHS, which can damage interaction between groups and see a decline in collaboration. However, Leathard (1994) states that that advantage of inter-professional lies in the more efficient use of staff.

Integrated care lies at the heart of health and social care provision and is at the future management of people with learning disabilities. The Care Programme Approach (CPA) was introduced in 1991 as a framework for people who require support from a range of different care service providers. The aim of the approach was to promote personalisation by consolidating services into a single service known as a ‘care co-ordination model’ (Goodwin, 2010). The concepts of inter-professional and mutli-professional teamwork can promote effective and efficient patient care. A patient is able to receive expertise specific to the individuals’ problem, and a team can provide co-ordination which can prevent any aspect of the patients’ care being overlooked. Professionals are able to share knowledge and skills however it is important to understand how professions can work together amicably as ethical dilemmas can arise. Core values such as altruism, advocacy and integrity are important in health and social practice and all staff should adhere to professional codes of conduct.

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This essay will discuss the student’s role within a residential care home in relation to legal and ethical aspects of health and social care. The essay will be looking at legislation that is in place to protect both the residents and staff of the home which is run for the care of young children. This will also look at values and ethics and why they are important. This will then go on to discuss the student’s role as a support worker and their duties towards the residents. This essay will also look at ethics and values and how we learn these throughout our lives.

Ethics is about making commitment towards positive values to help with the well being of the individuals within the society Warnock (19980) cited in (Banks 2006). Ethics refers to beliefs and value system to moral community, social and professionals groups. To live in the society and to have flourishing people within the society individuals must have rules and regulations in place so that people can be prevented from any kind of harm and so that they can live a healthy life style. Ethics promotes education and training to assist individuals to develop the skills needed to compete and to achieve the response for moral action. Warnock (19980) cited in (Banks 2006) states that are three types of ethics and these are Metaethics which relates to moral judgement, it comprises of critical and analytical thinking of whether something is good, right or duty. Normative ethics is about morals; it attempts to find answers for problems for example the morally right of action in some cases could be if an individual is a morally good human being or if lying is always wrong. Descriptive ethics is about individual’s moral opinions, beliefs and how people would react with certain issues. For example in Britain people always morally believe that abortion is wrong.

Values are about the standards of evil and good and they govern people’s choices and behaviour. People’s values are derived from the government and the society Timms (1983) cited in Banks (2006). Values are mostly used to refer to moral cultural, religion, ideological beliefs, attitudes, political, options and preferences. Values can be regarded as several types of beliefs that individuals hold about what is valuable or worthy. Giddens (1993) cited in Kirby et al (2000) sates that values can be seen as a fundamental belief that underpins communities, societies and provide general principle for the human behaviour.

Individuals are socialised through the family, community, peer groups, education and mass media. According to Giddens (1993) cited in Kirby et al (2000) there are two types of socialisation: primary and secondary socialisation. Primary socialisation is given to the child from parents, grandparents and siblings. This involves learning the basics of communication and the language the child is born in. This is the first stage in a lifelong process and the child is taught the basic norms and values. Secondary socialisation is followed on from primary socialisation and this is given through many multiplicities of agencies that involve in secondary socialisation. This is given through education, religion, mass media, peer groups and books. Children who are socialised will know how to behave and to interact with people from different backgrounds and will learn to become independent and acquire both personal and social identity.

I do voluntary work at a private residential care home which is not a part of the NHS. The home provides twenty four hour care for young people. It also has the facilities for an onsite private school, where the young people are provided with an education according to their ability. Some of the young people have never been to school or have had a fractured education. The principle teacher plans lessons for each individual young person and provides one to one to support to help them meet their education requirements so that they can achieve one of the five outcomes of every child matters. These young people are in residential care due to many different circumstances some have suffered abuse, neglect, behavioural problems, misuse of substances and disadvantaged backgrounds.

Ethical issues within a work place come in many different forms. Banks (2006) identified four types of issues that frequently have resulted in ethical problems or dilemmas. There are issues on public welfare, issues on individual rights and welfare, issues around relationships, boundaries and professional roles.

There are many ethical issues within the residential home. My role as a student support worker is to assist the teacher in preparing and delivering lessons to the young people, as these young people have a history of absconding, vandalising and could harm themselves or others, the home has to ensure they are under strict supervision twenty hours a day. During the week l take the young people for various activities, such as going to the gym, swimming, bowling and shopping so that they are given the opportunity to interact and socialise with other members of their community. While we were at the gym, one of the service users, who is thirteen years old started a conversation about his personal life. A service user divulge to me that when he absconds from the residential home he goes to see a young woman and has unprotected sex with her, when I questioned him about how old this young women was, he said fifteen years old, I was shocked to discover this and asked him where her parents were when he goes to see her, he told me that her parents were at work and she is on her own. The service user then asked me to keep this confidential. I explained that I could not make this promise, as part of my role was to report concerns to qualified staff, if l discovered information which could be potentially dangerous to a service user or other members of the public (REF – job description). Therefore I made him no promise as this was an ethical issue, where both these young people were having unprotected sex and were under age.

Miller (2000) argues that it is very important to promote anti-discriminatory practice. The advantages of implementing anti-discriminatory practice would be that staff would be able to work together as a team, communicate with each other, improve their practice, would acknowledge any problems or concerns and would agree with each other on appropriate changes. Team work can provide opportunities to take collective actions based on consensus. This will look good and benefit the service users. However if a practice does not promote anti-discriminatory practice it will suffer lack of support from colleagues or management, lack of interest, resources, time and staff. If staff is unable to communicate with each other they will not be able to provide a good standard of service and as a result service users can leave the practice and go somewhere else where they would feel they are receiving better service. The residential home promotes anti-discriminatory practice and all the staff communicates and supports each other, because of this it was not difficult for me to approach my manager about this issue, my manger took immediate action to protect both young people. She made the young woman’s parents aware of the issue and then contacted the relevant department and reported this incident and also asked me to update the log book, where everything is logged to keep an up to date record.

There are many legislations relating to looked after children. The residential home has to comply with all of them to ensure that the young people are protected and safeguarded. The children’s Act (1989) was an act to reform the law relating to children in community homes, voluntary homes, residential care homes or any other organisation. The Care Standard Act (2000) is an act to institute a National care Standards Commissions and it replaces the registered Homes act (1984). The National Minimum Standards for Children’s Homes (2000) are the latest standards that the Children’s home should work towards. The Children’s Homes regulation Act (2001) is an act where OFSTED observe on how the standards and regulations work together in practice. The Data protection Act (1998) is an act for the service users so that they safeguard the integrity of the young people, other workers and clients. The Protection of Children Act (1999) is an Act where everyone who is involved in working with the children has to complete a CRB check to ensure that they are the right people and trusted to work with the young service users.

The residential home follows a code of conduct (see appendix) where all employees have to follow the rules and regulations accordingly as it is a guidance for safe working practice for adults who work with young people and children distributed by the government. All members of staff and visitors have to adhere to the policy as to ensure that everyone’s behaviour constitute a safe practice and which behaviours should be avoided. It aims to ensure that the duty of promoting and safeguarding and wellbeing of the young people is achieved. All staff at the home have duty and are accountable for the ways in which they exercise authority, use resources, manage risk, and how to protect young people and children from physical, sexual and emotional harm. All employees must understand the responsibility of their role and be aware that disciplinary action can be taken against them if these provisions are breached. All employees have access to the confidentiality files and can only be shared with other agency when it is in the best interest of the young person. If for any reason things goes wrong or the children make a complaint through advocacy or social workers, the residential home would be accountable to the OFSTED and any further action would be taken from there. The code of conduct sets clear boundaries between the employees and the service users. (See appendix code of conduct)

There are many theories based on how a person should act morally. According to Kant (1948) cited in Edwards (2009) Deontological theory emphasis on moral duty. Kant argues that lying is morally wrong. Kant only believes in telling the truth regardless of what the circumstances and consequences are. Whether it makes someone happy or sad, one should not morally lie For example telling a very critical person that he has not long to live, would be the last thing they want to hear, but on the other hand it will give them a chance to do things as informing their member of family about his last wishes.

However Mill (1962) cited in Edwards (2009) Utilitarianism theorist disagrees with Kant, as he argues that acts are morally right if by lying you can make someone happy. For example telling someone that a member of their family died peacefully, although he died with a lot of pain, would make them feel a bit better, however if they reveal that he died in a lot of pain and agony can also jeopardise the relationship with the professionals and they would not trust them.

This essay has demonstrated how values and ethics are an important part in people’s lives and how individuals are socialised through primary and secondary socialisation. It has also discussed the student’s role within a residential care setting and how important it is to follow recognised codes of conduct. The issue of reporting moral or ethical issues, respecting all individuals and maintaining confidentiality at all times has also been addressed. This essay has also looked at different theories and how they can contradict each other. It has also looked at legislation that protects the service user and employee. Working in a care profession you must always make sure that every individual is treated with respect and not to make judgements on anyone regarding their backgrounds, sexuality, race, culture.