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When you are a little child you always imagine what life will be like when youre older. As a child you think you will grow up a singer, firefighter, policeman or something special; you don’t ever think that you will become a teen mother or parent. Teen pregnancy is becoming a complex issue in the United States (Klein, 2005). It not only affects the families of the teen parents, it also affects the government, health care, educators, and the teen (Klein, 2005). When a little girl grows up she always says that she wants to be a mommy one day like her own mother, but never states that she wants to be a teenage mother. Young pre-teens and teens from ages 12-18 are increasingly having babies these days. Even though they don’t know it their young age and stage in development will have a great impact on the growing infant. Being a teen mom will not only affect their lives, it will affect their babies.

Girls around the ages of nine until about sixteen years old go to puberty and menarche which is sometimes difficult for girls to understand and be comfortable with. Going through the developmental stage of puberty girls develop into young ladies and their bodies develop more; these developments are the ones that attract the boys. When girls are ready to explore them never really think about all of the outcomes of their actions. About one fourth of American adolescents have had intercourse by the age of fifteen years old (Klein, 2005). Most of the time, an adolescents first time is without using contraception;63% of teens reported did not use a condom their last intercourse(Klein,2005) .This can be a huge factor with teenage pregnancy and the increased rates of STD’s. When teens have intercourse and experiment, they don’t think twice about getting pregnant or what could happen in the future.

Teen mothers are not full developed in their stage of development. Their brains and bodies are still immature and some aren’t even developed enough to hold a child. A child at the age of twelve is in their “awkward” stage in development when their body starts to look weird to them. Carrying a child at that age has serious risks due to the fact that the child does not have the body to carry an infant. With 20% of 740,000 U.S. teen girls getting pregnant a year, prevention strategies should be taken (Berk, 2012). Also, teen mothers often do not know they are pregnant until it is too late, which then they do not have a good start on the prenatal care of the baby. Most teen mothers still smoke, drink, and have inadequate diets that can cause complications to the infant (Berk, 2012).Teen moms also do not have the funds to get good prenatal care and care for themselves while they are pregnant. Poor prenatal care of the infant can suppress the development if the immune system and cause problems with the respiratory system (Berk, 2012). Teen mothers have a higher rate of having babies that are underweight, and there is a higher risk for Down syndrome in the fetus. The United States holds the record for the highest teen pregnancies in the world (Gallup-Black & Weitzman, 2004). The shocking part about teen pregnancy today is that it is lower than it was in 1991(Berk, 2012).

Teen pregnancy also has other leading factors to it that psychologist haven’t investigated yet. The new shows on TV called “Teen Mom” and “Sixteen and Pregnant” are factors to teen pregnancy are many ways. Teenage girls are watching these shows and saying “Oh this is all I have to do to get a show on TV” or “Wow I hope I can be a teen mom and go on that show!” Teen girls watching these shows look at the lives of other teens becoming parents but bypass the fact that they are struggling and look at the fact that they are making money for being teen mothers. Not only do the teens on these dreadful shows become TV stars, their faces start to become posted on all these different magazines such as “People” magazine or “Seventeen” magazine. This makes teen girls want to buy the magazine and influences them to get pregnant even more. MTV and other television stations should create shows on what teen pregnancy does to your life and to prevent teen pregnancy rather than have teen mothers flaunt their pregnancy around. The only positive thing about the show “Sixteen and Pregnant” is that it is more of a documentary and it does show that the teens are struggling and having a hard time being a teenager and a parent.

Adolescent teen mothers usually come from a low income or poor family. About 83% of teen moms who give birth are from a low income household (Klein, 2005). The economic circumstances of teen mothers are a huge issue. Due to the fact that most teen parents are not graduated high school and most of them end up dropping out of school, those being able to find a good job to support their new family are extremely difficult. Usually teen mothers and fathers find low-paying, unskilled jobs which can only provide the new baby with the basic necessities (Berk, 2012). Teenage mothers cannot work until about 6 weeks after the child is born, so they are more dependent on the teen father and their parents to support the teen and the baby they just delivered. Teen mothers not only have to deal with the stress of having a new baby, they also have to deal with stress of income and school.

Discussion

Teen pregnancy is a huge issue in the United States and all around the world. Teens from the ages of 12-19 are having sex and most of them aren’t realizing the full consequences of intercourse without contraception and birth control. Condoms and birth control are free in many states and all a teen has to do is go to the nearest clinic and ask for them. With approximately 900,000 teenage girls getting pregnant every year in the United states (Klein, 2005), prevention measures should be taken. Teen moms do not realize that their bodies aren’t fully developed to carry children and that they are not fully mature enough to become a parent. Most teen moms become single mothers due to the fact that the teen father runs off because he cannot handle to pressures of parenting. Teenage girls are having children and not thinking about the drastic change that the child is going to have on them and their families. Even though 35% of adolescent pregnancies end in abortion (Gallup-Black &Weitzman, 2004); teens that have their babies are unaware of what being a parent is. Also, teen mothers are most likely to drop out of high school and then will not ever get the chance to see how the rest of their high school years, graduation, and college experiences would be. Their incomes will be lower because most fathers or mothers will not have a successful job. About 50% of teen parents have also had a criminal record or have been committed of some illegal offense (Berk, 2012).

Through these facts and main ideas stated in this research paper, teen pregnancy is clearly an issue and should be pronounced as an issue. There should be more methods of prevention taken so that teens get a clear view of what their life would be like as a teen parent. High schools and middle schools should address this issue to their students to help them realize what a great impact becoming pregnant as a teen has on them and their whole world. Teens should use condoms and learn more about what the actions and consequences of sex are before and while they do it. Also there should be more support group or other centers for teen moms to meet up and discuss how their lives have changed and support one another. Becoming a teen mother is not the end of the world, and the mothers should know that. Teen mothers need support and do teens without children to learn the changes and to prevent the other teens from having children at such a young age. Throughout this research and the articles supporting this research, teens should follow through and learn about prevention and contraception so they can become successful and live their lives before becoming a parent.

Self-esteem is all about how a person views themselves. When a person has a healthy sense of self, they respect themselves and they possess the courage to try different experiences even if it means that they might fail. A positive sense of self is driven to make healthy decisions and does not search for negative influences to pattern after. Low self-esteem is the complete opposite; it entails feelings of loneliness and self-hate. Low self-esteem is a serious problem for many young people; they often feel that they are undesirable and not worthy of having long lasting friendships or love interest. These feelings are a normal part of adolescence but, children who have low self-esteem find that negative thoughts and feelings of self-loathing don’t seem to disappear. A child who has a normal and healthy sense of self has the ability to overcome these feelings or find ways to cope with them. Children with low self-esteem often can’t summons the energy to channel positive thoughts and feelings. To combat this problem, teens will search for things that will make them feel complete. According to (Bessie`re, Seay, & Kiesler, 2007; Wan & Chiou, 2006), feelings of inadequacy and meekness often leads young people to prolonged use of the Internet. Children with low self-esteem also feel that the important adults in their lives, constantly judge them on their performances in school and in other social situations. They feel a need for acceptance and love from their parents, peers and community. The Internet and Social media sites also provide children the opportunity to fill the void of despair by choosing negative and harmful role models to pattern themselves after. These role models become important to them, they feel a need to nurture them and allow them to grow. Many times, these characters are more important than actual face to face communication with peers and family.

Internet addiction in this case is characterized as a child or young adult spending excessive amounts of time and energy on the internet or on social media sites. The child will often find himself visiting sites; posting pictures and communicating all day long, while neglecting their daily responsibilities and routines. Instead of having normal peer relationships and interactions, the child seeks; people to chat with on-line. Greenfield (1999) found that young people, who use chat-rooms in a marked degree, make up a large group of compulsive Internet users. For these participators, chat rooms and Social media sites become their primary outlet for interactions; relationship building and the fulfillment of social needs. These children often miss the opportunity to make friends in the real world because they start to believe that the people they meet on line can be trusted with personal information. Polls taken on students found that Seventy-two percent of school age range youth has admitted to using internet chat rooms in excess on a daily basis. Young (1997) found that children lose out on peer interactions and academic opportunities due to compulsive internet use.

Egger (1996), found eight prevalent indications of Internet addiction: 1. the child seems to overlook time spent when on line, 2. the child gets angry when he is asked to end Internet time. 3. The child steals time on the internet without parental permission, 4. The child exhibits a loss of interest in daily activities or relationships, 5. Child seems depressed and despondent when they are not on-line, 6. Child checks e-mails and Social Media accounts constantly, 7. The child seeks out friends on-line and forms new relationships and 8. The child uses chat identification names while off-line.

A child can also find themselves developing addictive patterns like; checking media sites or entering chat rooms. On the Internet; a child who is normally shy and reserved, can create a whole new image and personality by joining on-line chat rooms. In a groundbreaking article, Rheingold (1996) argued that internet chat rooms and Social media sites are places that a child can “act out” a part in a role of their choosing. The child can create their own reality, while hiding behind a computer terminal. In these social media rooms, the child feels the freedom to “re-create” himself into the person he wishes to be. This gives the child the power to control his state of being. Instead of feeling powerless and non-existent, the child has the confidence that he never had before. On-line friendships in Social media sites become more important than actual relationships with family members and peers. This is why it is so easy for the child to become addicted to Social media; they seem to be a safe harbor for anyone who feels lonely and powerless. There are many popular sites that children use in order to chat with others; many times these sites condone sexually explicit behavior and messages. These sites have a large adolescent following; they offer the chance to chat with peers and create web pages that can be

suggestive and inappropriate. Many children often feel free enough to explore their sexuality and desires without anyone knowing who they are. Arisoy and Davis (2009, 2001) states that despite the fact that overuse of Social media and Internet sites are seen as productive and gratifying to the user; it is actually an unhealthy way of coping with feelings of inadequacy.

Facebook and MySpace are very popular Social media sites that teens with low self-esteem frequent. These sites are among the most popular social networking sites that children frequent today; with millions of teen followers (most under the age of 15). These sites allow the users to update their status as many times as they would like without fear of being reprimanded for inappropriate language or content. Lampe (2006) argued that the dominant reason why Social media sites exist is to bridge friends and family together; in spite of distance and time constraints. But what happens when these sites are abused by teens? These sites then become addictive and harmful to the user and can ultimately cause the child to perform poorly in school and in life.

The allure to these sites seems to be the fact that children can create the self-image they always wanted to have. They can create an identity that mirrors the self-image they wish to have; while inviting the same peers who tease them to be friends with them. The child feels that the friends made on line are true and loyal. The child feels a sense of excitement and joy when their peers desire to view their page; this is seen as acceptance-even if the child is being deceptive. Children with self-image issues are given the platform to voice concerns and maybe turn the tables on awkward situations. Many children will hide behind Social media sites in order to empower themselves-sometimes in negative ways.

Another effect that the internet has on self-esteem is cyber bullying. Cyber bullying entails using the internet or other electronic devises to harass or intimidate another person. Cyber bullying occurs when a child or group of children flood the internet or other electronic devises with negative images; slurs or rumors about fellow classmates of peers. Analysis establishes that cyber bullying causes both boys and girls feelings of exasperation, sadness, and desperation. Girls tend to respond with discontent but boys are preoccupied with feelings of possible revenge and score settling by the bully. This negative behavior has become a national problem; it is among the leading cause of teen suicide and school violence. Cyber bullies have many excuses as to why they harass their peers. Some say that they do it to “get back” at them for some wrong doing; another cyber bully says they did it because the class mate dressed and acted differently from other students. Children who have low self-esteem and are bullied feel unsafe in their surroundings. They feel that wherever they are, they can be touched by vicious and unfounded rumors on the Internet or physically harmed by the people who started the rumors. Children in this situation may feel too intimidated to tell a parent, family member or community leader. There is an unspoken rule that children in schools across the country follow; the no “snitching” or tattling rule. It often does not matter if the child is threatened or harmed in front of hundreds of their peers, that child feels that they can’t tell. If they are brave enough to tell, the child will most certainly face retaliation and social humiliation by not only the bully but their friends also. These feelings of helplessness and confusion often lead the victim to either take their own life or the lives of the bully or other innocent people. Kessel (2012) stated that many victims of cyber bullying dealt with feelings of emotional distress; these feelings lead to depression, self-mutilation and or suicide.

Pedophilia and predatory stalkers are also contributors to self-esteem and the Internet. In this case, children are preyed on while on certain Social media sites with the assumption that they are reaching out to young people their own age; but police reports and news articles paint a different picture. In the last few years; reports have invaded the news about the dangers of frequenting sites that have a large youth following. Pedophiles and stalkers prey on the young and naA?ve; they use and contact children through their social media pages with false identities and backgrounds. The perpetrator is only chatting with the child in order to gain their trust and to acquire their personal information. After the offender gains that child’s trust; they offer to meet them face to face with the promise of sex, drugs or some type of adventure. Often; these children are found sexually abused, psychologically scared or even worse- deceased. According to Melody (2007), in standard, there are three elements of staking:

1. there has to be a continuous sequence of unwanted behavior displayed by the stalker to the victim;

2. The stalker has to have made a threat toward the victim;

3. The victim has to have experienced a sense of uneasiness or danger as a result of the stalker.

Recently, Facebook and other sites have promised to “clean up” its content by going in and deleting the member pages that contain explicit and suggestive language and content. They also vowed to delete the pages of children who post personal information such as; phone numbers, addresses and names of schools. Facebook and other sites only agreed to do this after a group of angry parents and educators called attention to the threat against our youth.

Spitzberg and Hoobler (2002) argued that with the influx of Social media sites and other forms of technology, stalkers and pedophiles have better access to their victims. It is imperative that parents become active participants in spreading the word about the dangers of excessive internet use.

Another link to self-esteem and internet use is negative body image. Teens are often ambushed with some type of media which includes circulars, videos, radio and Internet sites. Many young people and teens spend large amounts of time searching on fashion sites for the latest trend and fad diet. Children can spend hours in their rooms on various sites “researching” pictures of the perfect nose; eyes; stomach and behind. Many times these images are photo shopped and “doctored” to be flawless; the children feel that these images are real and should be aspired to. Young people with low self-esteem feel that their bodies are ugly and flawed so they are in search of what will make them feel whole. Many young women find themselves eager to have reconstructive surgeries done on their bodies due to these feelings. The Internet fuels these feelings of self-hate by encouraging young women and sometimes boys to fixate on images and celebrities body parts that they deem as attainable. The more these images are downloaded; more time consuming it becomes for the adolescent; this causes them to loose themselves in a world of unhealthy and detrimental thoughts. This time could be better spent interacting with peers and forming; lasting relationships outside of the home. Park (2005) suggests that the issues teens face with body image has taken an upturn with the surge in popularity of the Internet and Social media sites.

There are many strategies parents can use in order to build higher self-esteem in children: parents need to create an open dialogue with children about their feelings and social interactions. Children who are disheartened feel that they have little chance to be successful in life. By opening the lines of communication; the child can express emotions and work out any aggression they might feel. This also gives the parent a better understanding on how to help the child through difficult times.

Adults should show genuine care and concern toward the child and their particular issues; this will break down the wall of uncertainty and lack of trust between parent and child. Children can feel betrayed and angry when they sense that the parent is humoring them or being condescending; these feelings might lead the child to mistrust the parent and shut down. These assumptions could also lead the child to feel that their parents don’t have their best interest at heart. To ensure that the child is not made to feel embarrassed or shunned, parents should think before they engage in an open dialogue. It is a good idea that parents establish an environment of optimism and concern about life and its up’s and down’s; be honest enough to tell them that we all face disappointments and hardships but stress the importance of not giving up. Have faith in the child/young person and display it- let the child know that they make a difference in the world. Dispense praise and positive assessment; children feel their self-worth is contingent on how their peers view of them. To help reassure the child a parent can acknowledge when they attempt a hard task then, praise them for having had the courage to try. Learn to acknowledge what a child is feeling by asking them to identify their feelings. Parents of young children can even have a feelings chart hung in sight; with the proper title under each emotion.

When the young child can’t express their emotion in words, they can point to an emotion that best describes them. This will give the child the assurance that they are heard and understood by the parent while the parent teaches the names of the emotions and the best ways child how to handle them. Parents should also try to focus on the positive actions of the child instead of the negative ones so the child will feel confident and empowered instead of degraded and singled-out. Children love to imitate or follow after adults so it is important to allow children to see you take chances and step outside the “norm”. This action sends a clear message to the child; “If I am brave enough to try, you can do it also”. Encourage your child to use the creativity they possess; if they like to draw or paint, enroll them in an art class and participate. Lastly; trust that your child can handle making their own decisions; start with small issues then work up to large ones but keep the lines of communication open. For example; allow the child to choose their wardrobe for school. If there are questionable choices made, use that situation to positively discuss it. As time goes on, both sides will learn to compromise and talk out larger issues. Parents can also get children involved in activities away from home and the computer. Engaging in physical activity helps to stimulate the mind; build muscles and allows opportunities for positive social interactions.

There are many strategies parents can use in order to combat excessive Internet usage in children.

1. Parents need to inform themselves about the internet and chat rooms; parents are not aware that their children are addicted to the internet because they know so little about it. Parents should ask their children to help them navigate through some of the social media sites. Allow them to

assume the role of teacher while the parent praises them of their knowledge and understanding of the sites. This will make the child feel easier about sharing this information and create an opening for questions and answers.

2. Take a computer literacy class. If parents are not comfortable with asking their child to show them how to navigate the web, they can sign up for free classes. Places like the public library and community centers offer free or reduced priced classes that will teach the basics of computer usage.

3. Computers should reside in an open space in the home. This way; the child will not lock himself away in a room or spend enormous hours surfing unknown and unsafe sites. If the entire family has access to the computer, the child does not have the privacy to sneak away and use the computer inappropriately.

4. Adults also need to monitor children’s use of the internet. The child should not spend more than two hours a day on the Internet with each hour broken into half an hour intervals. By allowing children to use the internet in intervals, we give them an opportunity to explore other talents and interests that might not be utilized while on-line.

5. Parents should become detectives. Parents can log on and create their own page in a site that a child frequents; this way the parent will find out the types of conversations that takes place. Some may find this as intrusive but in some cases; it has to be done to save a child’s life.

6. When choosing data plans for cell phones or other devises, limit the time and sites that the child can visit. There are many applications that can be downloaded on the phone to ensure the

safety of youth and teens. Technology can be wonderful and beneficial if we learn to use it properly.

In an effort to combat cyber bullying and online harassment it is a good idea to get teachers and school administrators involved. Some students are more comfortable confiding in teachers or counselors about cyber bullying rather than talking to their parents. They may feel that the teacher has a better understanding of these issues because they understand teens better. While in school, teachers should:

1. Discuss Internet safety and proper usage of cell phones and other devises.

2. Facilitate open dialogues in class about the dangers and warning signs if cyber bullying.

3. Give students the strategies to combat cyber bullying like; reporting it right away and keep personal business and information off the Internet.

4. Lastly, make an effort to let the student know that you are available to assist them with the issue.

Parents can also turn to churches for seminars and small group discussions about self-esteem and internet use. Parents can play a role in self-esteem building by treating the child with respect and love, seriously listening to their views and opinions. Most importantly, parents have to remember that self-esteem is paramount in every child’s development. When the child sees that this issue is important to you; they will take notice and start talk about their concerns.

Now that we have identified the link between internet addiction and self-esteem, parents must be proactive and get involved with their children and their activities. Parents have to be able to recognize the signs of low self-esteem and be ready to help the child cope with their feelings. Parents have to be the child’s first resource when their feelings and emotions seem to go awry. In order to be this resource, they have to become familiar with various strategies and plans that will aid the child. Parents should be prepared to notice the signs of low self-esteem and be willing to seek outside help. The Internet and other technologies have indeed changed our lives in meaningful and substantial ways; this why we have to help our children understand and assume the responsibilities of it.

Much of our understanding of the value of play has originated from Piaget (1962) and Vygotsky (1978), who focused on the role of play in childrens development. They saw children as active explorers of their world. With each new encounter or interaction, children were able to discover new meanings, and thus developed more complex understandings and skills. Play is therefore, an important part of the process of constructing knowledge. It enables children to control what happens and to use what they already know to further their understanding and development. Socio-dramatic play is one of the most important forms of play (Smilansky & Shefatya, 1992). Play experiences support children to be active participants in developing and strengthening their character, finding their own voice in compromising with others or directing their play ideas. When engaging in pretend play, children use fantasy, make-believe, and symbolic behavior in representing one object as another (Kaugers &Ross 2009). Play is a skill worth practicing and mastering not, as adults often seem to think of it, a mere time filler or something to do outside to blow off steam. Mastering play is as important as mastering oral or written language. All these modes of symbolic representation enable human beings to remember manage, plan, and communicate with each other (Reynolds & Jones 1997). The term play is often used but loosely defined. For the purpose of this paper when speaking of play the kind of play that will be discussed will be socio-dramatic play (Smilanskiy 1968). This type of play,also called dramatic, imaginative, or pretend play, can occur with peers, adults, or both. Characteristics of socio-dramatic play include make-believe that involves roles, objects, and

situations; and includes language and social interaction. The social aspect distinguishes socio-dramatic play from dramatic play because children can and do pretend during solitary play. Socio-dramatic play may also occur in combination with constructive play in early childhood classrooms.

Much of what we currently know about sociodramatic play started with Vygotsky’s research. Vygotsky saw play as the leading behavior in children’s development. In Vygotsky’s theory, children play beyond their years (Bodrova & Leong, 2005). The play has several elements to it. First, the play must include an imaginary element, second, involved children must have assigned role(s) with implicit rules, and finally, language must be involved. (Smilansky & Shefatya, 1992).

The Role of Teachers in Children’s Play

Because children are the active participant they have autonomy over their play and this is one of the most empowering experiences a child can have (Canning, 2007). The adults in the child’s world play an integral role. Children want support in practical difficulties, but also want to be seen as important and competent individuals (Pramling, Samuelsson, &Johansson 2009). Children want to know when they are doing the right things and want to appear in a favorable light to their teachers and other adults by informing them when peers break rules. By this the children also confirm the teachers, in the sense that they are to be trusted, they know how things should be and they have power and knowledge to mediate. The role of the teacher in play is complex and can involve a directive, non-directive, and/or elaborative role. Howard, Jenvey, and Hill (2006) indicated that higher levels of teacher verbalization can reduce play behavior. Similarly, Tamburrini (1982) suggested that re-direction devalued play as a learning activity whereas elaborative interaction facilitated play behavior. Play activities tend to occur more frequently between children rather than with teachers (Canning, 2007). Piaget’s clinical observations supported educator’s discoveries that children construct knowledge for themselves through spontaneous activity. Through the play experiences teachers provide; children acquire rules, imitate reality, and socialize with their peers (Piaget, 1962). So then in the early years for many teaching is based on observation. Teachers don’t however just watch and sit idly by. They also make play possible. The play they make possible is rich, complex, and thoughtfully-planned. Socio-dramatic play provides an excellent context for children to develop and practice many important skills and behaviors that contribute to later success in school and life. As play matures, there is a progressive transition from reactive to and impulsive behaviors to behaviors that are more deliberate and thoughtful (Bodrova & Leong, 2005). Teachers need to know how to observe play, helping children grow into master players. Like every stage of development, play does not occur automatically, it needs nurturing from a capable adult. Children must learn how to engage in satisfying socio-dramatic play and teachers must take responsibility for setting up their environment and assisting the play by taking on the role of observer, stage-manager, and co- player (Bredekamp 2005).

Within research, play has been analyzed in numerous studies. The purpose of this study will be to examine the role of the teacher’s involvement during play. Specifically can a teacher or another trained adult improve socio-dramatic play to improve other cognitive and socio-emotional abilities? In order to examine this, the following questions need to be explored: What is the level of socio-dramatic play in the classroom? How is the teacher involved? What obstacles hinder progress?

Method
Participants and Setting
Dependent Variable
Independent Variable
Experimental Design and Procedures

What occurs to children in the early years has consequences right through the path of their lives. While there are many occasions to interfere and make a difference to the lives of children and young people, this report suggests that intervening in early childhood is the most effective phase to impact on the future development of the child. This statement explores the factors that effect on life-long health, growth and well-being from environmental, and life path perspectives.

Early childhood settings plays an important role in promoting health and a feeling of wellbeing for children, their families and ultimately their communities (Hayden & Macdonald, 2000). Therefore the goals of health and wellbeing promotion are supported by parents, staff and early childhood professionals who use early childhood services.

There are multiple aspects or dimensions to general wellbeing. For the purpose of this report it is convenient to identify and discuss the most important six areas of health mental, emotional, spiritual, physical, environmental and social. These six areas are overlapping and interrelated, but together provide a useful framework for thinking about children’s growth and development as health, well-rounded individuals.

2. Background

The early childhood era sets the phase for how well children view themselves, each other, and their world. Young children actively construct meanings about the world and their place in it, offering alternative but equally valid understandings to adults (Millie & Watson, 2009).

The communication between careers and children work as building blocks for the growth of children as whole (Hayden et al., 2000). In order to share positive experiences of services delivered for the development of six dimensions of health and wellness in respective childcare settings is the intended objective of this report.

2.1 Health: Towards Wellness and the Six Dimensions

Prior to the 1800s, health was simply means the antithesis of sickness (Donatelle, 2006). Therefore, when all parts of body were functioning properly called as a good body having health. However focusing on global health issues at an international conference in 1947, the World Health Organization (WHO) took a landmark step and clarified that what health truly meant: “Health is the state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” (Donatelle, 2006). According to Donatelle (2006), Health is complex and involves the interaction of variegated factors, which includes;

Physical refers to the capability of human body structure to function properly

Social refers to the capability to interact with other individuals

Mental refers to the capability to process information and act properly

Emotional refers to the capability to cope, adjust, and adapt

Spiritual refers to conviction in some force or dynamic other than humans

Environmental consist of

· External: refers to one’s surroundings (e.g., habitat, occupation)

· Internal: refers to an individual’s internal structure (e.g., genetics)

Achieving wellness means attaining the optimal level of wellness for a given person’s unique set of limitations and strengths (Donatelle, 2006).

2.2 Wellness and Wellbeing: The importance in early childhood

One of the greatest indicators of health and wellness in a community is the extent to which it nurtures healthy children, as they will become the healthy adults citizens who make communities vibrant (McMurray, 2007).

While we have long recognized that early experiences have an effect on later life, new findings from longitudinal studies and new brain conceivable techniques, are showing that the initial years of life are serious in the purpose of physical, neurological, cognitive, emotional and social growth (Ferber, 1996). In the meantime, studies on social determinants have exposed that enduring health and well-being is predisposed not only by heredity and lifestyle, but also by economic, social and other environmental factors (McMurray, 2007). These findings recommend that accountability for health extends beyond health check professionals: doctors and nurses. Those who are concerned with promoting healthy environments may be uniformly significant in guiding health outcomes. Early childhood professionals are comprehensible contributors in this ground.

3. Six Dimensions of Wellness

The six dimensions of wellness interact continuously, influencing and being influenced by one another.

For example, spiritual wellness is associated with social skills, which can help build interpersonal relationships, which are in turn linked to physical wellness and longer life expectancy. The self-esteem that comes with emotional wellness is associated with increased physical activity and healthy eating habits, which support physical wellness.

3.1 Physical wellness

Physical wellness is basically the overall well being of a person’s physical state. This dimension includes characteristics such as size and shape, sensory acuity and responsiveness, susceptibility to disease and disorders, body functioning, physical fitness, and recuperative abilities (Donatelle, 2006).

For good health, children need physical activity. Being active promotes healthy frame, strength and joints, builds patience and muscle force, makes it easier to uphold a healthy load, increases power, and even fosters self-respect.

Children of all ages need and want places to play. To support the variety of their physical activities, they need many types of entertaining facilities, both public and private, near their homes and schools (Sallis & Glanz, 2006). Children may spend more time being immobile indoors, where they remain inactive. These inactive behaviours such as television viewing and videos are dangerous factors for obesity in youth and reducing such behaviours is another strategy for preventing weight gain in children. Similarly using less fruits and vegetables and greater dependence on convenience foods and fast foods contribute to the epidemic of childhood obesity (Sallis et al., 2006).

3.1.1 Experience of our childcare Centre

The standard length of reside in a children’s home is making an impact on individual students, so we recognize it as a challenge. We created modified tactics to give confidence to children (and staff) to eat at smallest amount five servings of fruit and vegetables each day and to connect in one hour of physical activity which consist of play and fun, five days a week. The center also provides hands-on training for forefront staff that helped those serves as role models for healthy performance. The center produced partnerships with other group of people organizations to offer nutrition-related services.

3.2 Emotional Wellness

Emotional wellness is an active condition that fluctuates with corporeal, academic, spiritual, interpersonal and social, and environmental wellness (Donatelle, 2006). Sound health results from the contentment of basic needs – the need for kindness and love; safety and clarity; social acknowledgment; to feel capable; physical needs and for meaning in life. It includes happiness and happiness, efficient social functioning and the dispositions of hopefulness, openness, curiosity and flexibility (Hood, 2009).

The infants achieve their satisfaction of basic needs by: attaching themselves to individual and groups of people who can help them survive and to find out how things around them work; to explore their soundings, so they can eventually learn to keep themselves safe and meet their own needs. And since these two behaviours are so fundamental, not achieving success with them causes distress (emotional dysregulation), which, if sustained, affects mental health (Hood, 2009).

3.2.1 Experience of our childcare center: considerations of Emotional Wellness – Promotion, Prevention, and Intervention

Staff at our center provides opportunity for involvement and plans with careful notice that successfully maintains emotional wellness.

Promotion

We provide emotionally supportive environment by holding and singing to infants and play with toddlers, and pay attention to and monitor preschoolers vigilantly.

We display problem solving skills by using role play indicating words and verbal communication with toddlers, and assist possible group discussions that direct problem solving skills with preschoolers.

Prevention

Prevent a lack of communication with families – We do proper planning for sharing strategies and information with families to better understand children’s likeness and dislikesness attitudes.

Avoid escalated situations – We do appropriate planning to make sure that all actors of working group have ordinary visions for anticipation, intrusion and endorsement to provide a complete support scheme.

Intervention

Awareness of interventions services – We keep alert ourselves from the need of intervention services such as mental health and child wellbeing agencies, early intervention programs, and medical intervention services for high threat situations.

Construct successful collaborations – We provide documented information to the intervention service program to provide a complete picture of the child’s needs in order that they correspond efficiently with one another and employ follow up strategies.

3.3 Intellectual Wellness

The uniqueness of intellectual health include the ability to think clearly, reason impartially, examine seriously, and use ‘intelligence’ effectively to meet life challenges. Academic health means learning from successes and mistakes and making sound, responsible decisions that take into deliberation all aspects of a situation (Donatelle, 2006).

Children have a talent for being inquisitive about everything around them. So the caregivers should try to regain this inquisitiveness about the world and will be astonished at how much children will learn.

3.3.1 Experience of our childcare center

Our center’s services in this dimension of wellness are not exhaustive; however we try to improve children’s intellectual wellness. To make an action plan to improve children intellectual wellness, we discover issues related to problem solving, originality, individuality, and learning. We try to figure out to children to read for fun! By choosing books for fun (like filling colours in figures), so they not only gain knowledge of about an exacting topic or concentration, but also learn about how others express themselves.

3.4 Spiritual Wellness

According to Bone (2008) Spirituality is a term with many definitions and means different things to different people and often confused with religion but my definition of spirituality is a

aˆ¦aˆ¦..means of connecting people to all things, to nature and the universe. Spirituality adds to my appreciation of the wonder and mystery in everyday life.

It alerts me to the possibility for love, happiness, goodness, peace and

compassion in the world.

Spiritual wellness refers to integrating our beliefs and values with our actions (Donatelle, 2006). A sense of purpose, direction, and awareness form spirituality.

3.4.1 Experience of our childcare center

To develop spirituality in children we teach them through fun play and demonstrations and mutual dealings in the setting;

To forgive, we replace condemnation or judgmentalism.

To love, we replace hatred.

To share or to be generous we replace selfishness.

To be compassionate, we replace intolerance.

To speak kind words we replace contentiousness and meanness.

3.5 Social wellness and wellbeing

Social health is a part of psychosocial health which includes our interactions with others and our ability to adopt to range of social situations (Donatelle, 2006). Social wellness is a significant part in every person’s life, above all because it helps him be familiar with his normal interdependence with others, despite of the relationship. Donatelle (2006) maintains that people who are more connected to others manage stress more effectively and are much more resilient when they are bombard by life crisis. The shortage of social wellness frequently leads to disruptive behavior and causes incapability to regulate in social environment.

The teachers’ openness to children, parents, and the cultures represented in their classroom influences their overall effectiveness in teaching and their ability to foster children’s social development particularly. When teachers use these strategies, they are more effective in promoting children’s social competence and maintaining a positive learning environment. Therefore, the content of teacher-child interaction should be predominantly related to activities, learning, investigations, and plans (Katz & McClellan, 1997).

3.5.1 Experience of our childcare center

To develop social wellness, behaviours, and attitudes of children we take the following important steps:

Reach out: Offering friendship environment to children as a first step to social wellness- where children of different cultural and social setups interact with each other for knowing and understanding of their mutual needs and develop mutual cooperative attitudes.

Promote chosen relationships: Promoting the relationship built between various children and to stay in healthy relationships. These relationships involve children who care about one another and their wellbeing. Since there is trust and compassion, one feels secure and contented, two vital elements for social wellness.

Communicate effectively: Effective communication is a first step of initiation of relationship – a vital component of social wellness; therefore, we remain in constant interaction with children through play and fun to develop their skills for effective communications.

3.6 Environmental wellness

Environmental Wellness means having an understanding of the exterior environment and the role persons play in preserving and improving environmental circumstances. (Donatelle, 2006). An understanding of these connections can be fostered during the early childhood years through play, productive work and daily routines. (Young & Elliot, 2003).

Opportunities to directly explore the world with all senses are paramount to a child’s understanding of their connections to the environment. The role of the adult is crucial in interpreting these connections, both verbally and physically, and in exploring the values that underpin sustainable lifestyles (Young & Elliot, 2003).

3.6.1 Experience of our childcare center

Our focus on this dimension of wellness and well being is not much thorough; nevertheless we try to give messages to children through play and fun activities relating to:

Don’t leave water running – Demonstrate children about scarcity of water resources and better use of water in daily life.

Use of recycled paper bags when shopping – To realize children to use paper bags and avoid use of plastic bags due to different biodegradable features of both.

Use waste material for play experiences whenever possible – such as cloth for sewing, and polishing etc.

Care for plants by watering as needed.

4. Conclusion

Children change and develop in response to these different health dimensions, so the developmental process plays an important role in shaping and determining their future health and wellbeing.

It can be concluded that intervening early in the life course has the greatest prospective to stop or considerably improve some of the health and wellbeing troubles seen in adult life. The most direct way of improving outcomes in childhood and thus influencing the life course is to ensure that all caretaking environments in the early years are consistently nourishing, stimulating, and organize the health and developmental requirements of young children. Therefore when young children spend time outside the home, the caretaking environment needs to be the best we can make it.

5. Recommendations

Following the conclusion it is recommended that childcare needs to be conceptualised as an opportunity for learning and socialisation rather than child minding. Actions and policies need to focus on creating a quality early learning environment; this means having staff with appropriate qualifications and training, and child/staff ratios that are appropriate to the developmental needs of the child.

Universal and primary care services across the health proportions and education sectors need to be better coordinated with one another, in order to direct various environmental risk factors and respond to the complex needs of children and their families. These services need to be more adaptable, so that they can react to the emerging needs and problems of children’s health and wellness.

The central interest of this essay is to evaluate the role of play in relation to language and communication development. Developmental psychology is the main source to explore and explain this unique interrelation, because it offers vital information about the human behavior. For this reason several developmental theories occur from many scientists such as Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Sigmunt Freud, Albert Bandura and other contemporary scientists, who managed to clarify the aspects of child development from different perspectives.

Initially, this essay illustrates the importance of play by describing its categories. Play theories are briefly demonstrated and divided into classical and contemporary. Thereafter, it mentions the characteristics of language through the aspects of two respectful scientists, Lev Vygotsky and Jean Piaget, in order to understand the correlation between language and play development. It illustrates the existence of nine basic communicational skills and why non-verbal and verbal communication is so important. Also, this essay analyzes research which explains the direct relation between play, language and communication. Through detailed references, the idea that the role of play is salient in child’s development is supported. Next illustrates the importance of finger, mime and rhyme play to explain that even the most common games possess a significant role in language development. Last but not least, analyzes how play reinforces the literacy development and finally demonstrates the opinion of the writer.

The Importance of Play

Arguably, play is a vital part of the development of children which has many implications in their lives. Despite the difficulty of referring a commonly accepted definition, play is a vital part of the developing child (Sheridan & Howard & Aldelson, 2011). It is a fundamental action which occurs throughout children’s life and is divided to two categories, free play and structured play. Precisely, free play is an action where the child can choose the rules and the form of play, without the participation and the engagement of an adult. Hence, the child becomes the leader of the play (Tassoni & Hucker, 2000).

On the other hand, structured play is defined as an action which is directed by adults. Many researchers have claimed that free play offers more opportunities to children for learning than the second category does. At the same time, there are proponents of this view and others who do not adopt this notion. For this reason, Thomas, Howard and Miles proved by a study they conducted, that free play, in other words playful mode play, is capable of fostering children’s ability of learning. They state that through this mode children’s communication is benefited, because that playfulness creates the ability of enhancing miscellaneous types of behaviors. As a result, educational settings use this method to foster children’s language and communication development (McInnes, Howard, Miles & Crowley, 2009).

It is of importance to mention that there are play theories which are separated into two categories, classical and modern theories of play. Concisely, classical theories consist of the Surplus Energy Theory, Recreational or Relaxation Theory, Pre-exercise Theory and the Recapitulation Theory of play (Sheridan & Howard & Aldelson, 2011 & Stagnitti, 2004 & Tassoni & Hucker, 2000). Modern theories concluded by the Arousal Modulation Theories of Play, the Psychodynamic Theories of Play, the Cognitive Developmental Theories of Play and the Sociocultural theories of Play. The last category is divided into two sub-categories which are the Play as Socialization and the Metacommunicative Theory (Stagnitti, 2004). Moreover, there are five types of play, which are cited as physical play, play with objects, symbolic play, socio-dramatic/pretence play and games with rules (Whitebread, 2012).

The above five types of play help children to expand their abilities not only in language and communication domain, but also in the physical, cognitive, social and emotional development (Sheridan & Howard & Aldelson, 2011). According to the constant evolution of language and communication, play and its benefits in this domain must be analyzed in depth, in order to evaluate children’s developmental potentials through play.

Language and Communication

Language is a strong communication tool (Moyles, 1989) which fosters children’s abilities. Through language we can live the past again, evaluate the future and use this vital tool when we face complex situations (Crain, 2000). Also, many developmental theorists tried to explain, how children adopt primal abilities as they grow up and some of them, gave special emphasize to the language and communication development and how is related to play. They evaluate children’s development from birth to adulthood.

Vygotsky, claimed by his social constructivism theory, that language is the cultural tool which facilitates the processes of thinking and learning. It was his firm belief that children must comprehend language, in order to interact in the society. Hence, according to Vygotsky, play and language are interrelated (Moyles, 2005). Due to the fact that through play children master communication skills, they interpret the use of objects and imitate the attitudes and the habits of adults (Gray & MacBlain, 2012). In addition, he stated that children gain knowledge when they participate in social communication and consequently, they adopt new meanings. Therefore, according to Vygotsky, children act in the zone of proximal development (Whitebread, 1996), which means that every child has limited potential when accomplishing an activity but he can expand his skills with a suitable help (Lindon, 2001).

However, another respectful scientist did not lay emphasis, as Vygotsky did, on the importance of language during children’s development. Piaget, a Swiss scientist, stated that language mechanism is used by the young child only to express some basic satisfactions and not to foster more complex functions such as thought and logic (Gray & MacBlain, 2012). Furthermore, Piaget’s opinions did not promote children’s abilities; instead he undervalued them, by applying activities that were too complex for children competences (Whitebread, 1996). On the contrary, some scientists argue that children’s thought, started to function logically as they learn how to use language. This happens because language skills are difficult to be assimilated by young children, but when this gradually occurs, logic develops (Crain, 2000). Nevertheless, Piaget did not support the above notion by mentioning that logic derives from actions (Gray & MacBlain, 2012).

On the grounds that language is an integral part of communication, it is important to pinpoint some of the skills that children develop in this domain. In other words there are nine basic communication skills.

Initially, children learn to request reinforcement, to request assistance, to accept and reject offers. Furthermore, they respond to the order ”wait” or ”no”, they respond to directions, follow a schedule and finally they are able to do a transition from one place to another (Frost & Bondy, 2011). For instance, when children pretend to be a patient in a hospital, they learn when they have to wait their turn in order to be examined by the doctor and they give order such as ”wait”, “stay”, “come”.

Communication is a complex function. Before the emergence of words, children can communicate in a high level before adopting language production and language comprehension (Sheridan & Sharma & Cockerill, 2008). The above aspect describes the non-verbal communication type which is very important. Newborn babies communicate non-verbally to express their needs. Facial expressions, body language, proto-sounds and perception of feelings are the attributes of non-verbal communication (Whitehead, 1999).

Hence, adults start to communicate with children initially non-verbally and secondly verbally. Research argues that conversation between children and adults which contains a large number of open questions is essential because children have the opportunity to respond with spoken language. In other words, when children feel that they are active participants in an adult-child conversation, they feel playful which is salient for the development of language. (Howard & McInnes, 2012).

Fostering Language and Communication Skills through Play

To begin with, studies have proved that there is a strong connection between language and play. A research which had taken place in Japan in 1989, showed remarkable signs that play and language are correlated with each other. Specifically, the four children who participated in this research, were observed twenty times each in a free play mode, where the individual had a passive role. The intention of the study was to analyze early language development and play development (Ogura, 1991). Thus, six features of language were illustrated in order to analyze the findings better. These were the emergence of first words, naming words, vocabulary spurts, word-chains, nonproductive two word utterances and the emergence of productive two-word utterances (Ogura, 1991 p.278). Furthermore, that research divided play to thirteen subcategories. The findings showed that children managed to obtain the ability of naming words because they had been involved in preverbal communication. Also, children began to name objects when conventional naming act category of play appeared. Furthermore, words and sounds have a strong relationship each other. It was proved that children through the functional relational manipulation play and the container relational manipulation play, managed to adopt the above important function and the production of first words as well. Moreover, it was stated that the early language development is related to the subsitutional play. Also, this study illustrated that the environment is a major factor in the development of the symbolic play. As a result, language is being influenced by the social interaction. Moreover, children’s vocabulary spurts appeared with the subsitutional play. Word-chains appeared when pretend doll play, subsitutional play and pretend other play took place during the observations. In addition, the fifth language category derived in parallel with planned play and combinatorial symbolic play. The last language category was related to planned play (Ogura, 1991). Undoubtedly, this paper shows the unique interrelation between language development and play.

Researchers evaluated the connection between symbolic play with play materials and symbolic play with play situation. Firstly, during children’s play with unstructured play materials, they found that children who are at the age of three to four years old could imitate the activities of adults. However, in structured play children were able not only to imitate but also to participate slightly in role play. At the age of four to five years old children’s unstructured play evolved and they started to express questions and ideas with the mediate tool of spoken language. On the contrary, in structured play they used more conversation. This study showed that in the first type of play children at the age of five to six used their body language and voice to clarify a situation. Also, both in structured and unstructured play, children preferred to play in sex groups. We can notice that structured materials are better for younger children because they do not offer limitations in their ideas while playing. In other words, younger children need to enhance their expressive ideas by playing with structured play materials to be adequately prepared for school (Umek & Musek, 2001).

At the same time, symbolic play related to play situation showed that phonetic imitation (Umek & Musek, 2001 p. 61) is promoted and that at the age of four children use social speech. Moreover, they use social markers, in order to speak like adults (Ervin-Tripp, 1973). Later, at the age of five children used metacommunication in their play. Metacommunication is very important because children can discuss about play. They stop in order to negotiate the next step of the game. Indeed, it promotes dialogue among peers. It is very important because it can be used as scaffolding to children’s language development (Andersen, 2005). According to this study, metacommunication levels are higher when children are older. Moreover, the same study proposes that is better and more helpful for children to play in mixed groups rather than in groups based solely on their age. Hence, children can play in the zone of proximal development. Therefore, they foster their language and communication skills. Again, this study shows us that play which is depended whether from materials or situation is correlated with language development.

Apart from the above studies there are play activities which enhance language and communication skills. For instance, children are benefited by mime because they develop an alternative thought. This occurs by observing a diversity of individuals demonstrating their thoughts. Consequently, they can think more complicated situations and they are able to express their ideas with an enriched vocabulary. Furthermore, finger play helps children to the counting process (Woodard & Milch, 2012). Moreover, rhymes can provide many opportunities in children to enhance their language skills. According to a study, rhyme awareness helps children to recognize phonemes which are very important for reading skills. The sensitivity to rhyme enables children to group words together with the same spelling features (Bryant & MacLean & Bradley & Crossland, 1990).

Play fosters Literacy

Vygotsky evaluated the role of make-believe play in children development and he argued that literacy is enhanced by play. He describes that children initially act spontaneously when they play, and the process of learning happens with their will. On the contrary, when children go to school they must change their behaviors to a planned and a structured environment. Vygotsky stated that make-believe play is the important mediate tool for children to adopt written language and to succeed in school (Roskos & Christie, 2007).

Furthermore, drawing is considerable as a necessary action for children. Research has shown that children can expand their ‘graphic vocabularies’ and they can represent their meanings, which means that through drawing communication is enhanced (Whitebread, 2012). Besides, Vygotsky’s research has shown that drawings in the early childhood are connected with the ability of writing and spoken language, which means that the meaning of children’s drawings is not only the drawing as a picture but the drawing as an expressive tool of their thoughts (Roskos & Christie, 2007).

In conclusion, it is worth mentioning, that in children’s play the repetition and the renaming of play materials fosters the ability of the direct relation between words and the objects they portray. The above function is called metalinguistic awareness and it has been proven that it is necessary for written language (Roskos & Christie, 2007 p.193).

Conclusions

It is clear, therefore, that the above essay illustrated the direct correlation between play, language and communication. Despite the fact that, it has been proven that play fosters the learning process, there are still opponents of this view, who state that formal learning strategies are better than playful approaches. However, this essay contradicts the notion of formal learning methods by supporting the opinion, that play does enhance language and communication by citing adequate bibliography to prove that. Children can reach high standards in the learning process of language because during play they are motivated and are not possessed with the feeling of fear (McInnes et al., 2009).

To sum up, due to the fact that play has been decreased from school settings, it is salient to ensure that play must exist in the preschool and in the first school years of a child, because “a child is always above his average age, above his daily behavior; in play it is as though he were a head taller than himself” (Roskos & Christie, 2007 p.199).

“Where do babies come from?” This is just one question that children ask their parents as they start to wonder about sex and in return hope to find out the answer. Unfortunately, however, not all parent’s want to answer that question or any sex related question for that matter, or even know how to.

Many parents’ today do indeed want to contribute to their children’s knowledge of sex. However, even though parents, who are comfortable with their own sexuality, don’t always know of the best way to approach the topic with their children or even know how talk to them about it (Crooks, Baur, 2011).

“Research shows that positive communication between parents and their children can help young people establish individual values and make healthy decisions” (Parents Sex Ed Center,” 2010). It is important for adults of school age children to maintain an open relationship with their children in order to provide the ability for them to feel comfortable enough to talk with you about whatever they may ask. Teaching sex to your own children can be a task they may make you feel uncomfortable and something that you may find difficult to do. However, by being honest at an early age can allow for honesty and open communication as your children grow (“Parents Sex Ed Center,” 2010).

As children grow, a process begins that a parent can follow in order to develop a wholesome sexual education relationship with their child. Whether it’s starting off answering questions such as, “where do babies come from,” or talking about being sexually active and how to practice safe sex, it is important to be able to talk to your children about this topic and feeling comfortable enough to do so.

Starting at an early age, usually by around age four, many children will ask where they came from, how babies are made, or by asking the names of their own sex organs (self-discovery). Many parents may just put off these types of questions in hopes that their child will forget about it and the parent feels a sense of relief in not having to answer. Instead, the parent is making a mistake in not answering and thus unknowingly creating a communication block (Crooks, Baur 2011).

When young children ask these types of questions, they aren’t expecting a complete anatomy lesson, but they are looking for some answer. In this case, be honest with them. Use proper names, and perhaps briefly discuss the basics of sexual intercourse (Crooks, Baur 2011). It is important to make sure that after answering your child’s question that not only do they understand but also to make sure they are aware that it is okay to ask questions and that they can come to you and ask for more information whenever they’d like (Crooks, Baur 2011).

Along the way, it is important to teach your children manners, as in we don’t touch ourselves in public and we don’t touch other people’s bodies. It is also good to teach appropriateness and privacy. If by age five or six your child has not started to ask questions, you need to initiate the conversation (Crooks, Baur 2011).

By the pre-teen years, physical changes are going to occur. At this point it is important to talk to your child about the changes that will occur and what they can expect. While this is taught in school, it is good to let your child know that you are there for them, it is not something for them to be embarrassed about, and that what they are experiencing is all a part of growing up and that they are not the only one. Even though children may not have experienced these changes yet, such as menstruation and ejaculation, it is important for them to be aware of it before it happens so as not to worry them (Crooks, Baur 2011).

The teen and young adult age is the hardest for parents to talk about with their children. No matter how much a parent may want to shelter their children, it is vital to understand that your growing child is going to experience sexual feelings.

Teens find it difficult it talk with their parents about sex because of embarrassment, the fact that their parents may not understand them or the belief that their parents will assume they are already sexually active. Parents must remember that a lot of information that children receive on sex is from friends and the media. For this reason, a parent must know that the less information they give, the more misinformation their child is going to acquire.

Some parents worry that by providing sex education to their children they are condoning certain behaviors. However, according to Avert.org, one study showed that in a review of 48 studies of sex and STD education programs, such programs either did not increase sexual activity and in some cases actually showed a decrease with an increase in condom use or other contraceptives (“Sex Education that,” 2010).

In April of 2002, Seventeen Magazine and the Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation conducted a survey. This survey was given to 15 to17-year olds in the United States about sexual health communication between themselves and their parents. Results showed that little over a half had discussed with their parents how to know when they were ready to have sex, 43% of teens discussed with their parents how to talk to a significant other about sexual issues, 52% of teens discussed condoms with their parents and 49% discussed other forms of contraception (“Teens and Sexual Health,” 2002).

Another study of 14 to 17-year olds shows that parents who talk to their children about the use of condoms before first sexual intercourse, had actually increased the likelihood that adolescents would used protection whereas talking about condom use after first sexual intercourse did not (Parents Sex Ed Center,” 2010).

A few important things to remember when talking to your teen:

1) Always remember how you felt and that you once experienced what they are now going through.

2) While conversing with your teen, remain respectful – share your feelings and thoughts but also listen to theirs.

3) Don’t jump to conclusions. Just because they are coming to talk to you or ask

a question, does not mean that they are sexually active

4) Don’t underestimate your teen. A parent should know their child well enough to know that they have their own values, beliefs, and are able to make responsible, mature decisions when they have proper information to go along with it (Parents Sex Ed Center,” 2010).

Before parent’s can be comfortable talking with their children about sex, they must be comfortable with themselves and with one another. It is necessary for parents to become in touch with their own feelings and develop sensitivity to their own sexual feelings. Parent’s who are not comfortable with talking to one another about sex, surely won’t be comfortable with talking to their children about sex. With that said, parents should practice if they feel that may help. They have to be able to be comfortable both saying and hearing sexual words (Gordon). “This is important because children are sensitive to the emotional value parents give to certain words or may pick up what their parents feel rather than what their parents say “(Gordon).

Most often, parents feel embarrassed to talk with their children about sex, whether their child brings it up or it is time for the parent to bring it up. It may be because they just don’t want to or possibly because they don’t know how. While many parents today really do want to contribute to their children’s sex education they just quite aren’t sure how to approach the topic. By being comfortable with yourself and letting your child know that you are able and wanting to answer sexual questions at an early age will allow them to understand that as they become older they know that you can provide accurate information and be someone that they can talk to.

References

Crooks, R., & Baur, K. (2011). Our sexuality (11th ed.). Wadsworth.

Gordon, S. (n.d.). Why sex education also belongs in the home. Education.com.

Retrieved from http://www.education.com/reference/article/Ref_Why_Sex

_Education/

Parents sex ed center. (2010). Advocates for youth. Retrieved May 3, 2010 from

http://www.advocatesforyouth.org/index.php?option=com_content

&task=view&id=108&Itemid=206

Sex education that works. (2010, May 1). Avert. Retrieved May 4, 2010, from

http://www.avert.org/sex-education.htm

Teens and sexual health communication. (2002, July). Kaiser Family Foundation.

Retrieved May 4, 2010, from http://www.kff.org/entpartnerships/upload/

Teens-and-Sexual-Health-Communication-Summary-of-Findings.pdf

This report discusses and evaluates the role of observation within an education setting. Section 1 details the importance of observing children followed by an evaluation of a range of observational techniques. Section 2 looks at the background of the child being observed in the report whilst section 3 makes reference to the appendix which contains 3 observations demonstrating a range of observational techniques. Section 4 contains an analysis of the child’s learning and developing needs. Section 5 makes recommendations to inform the future practice of the setting and its’ practitioners whilst section 6 reflects on the practitioner’s role in the observational process.

Section 1 : The Importance of observing children.

Observation is a fundamental and crucial aspect of the practitioner’s role and enables them to understand children as learners and as individuals. Observations are an invaluable source of information which allows the practitioner to plan a more appropriate curriculum that supports children’s development according to their individual needs. It is an integral part of the assessment and planning cycle.

Observations involve watching children play and take part in activities both inside and outside the classroom. Observations allow the practitioner to acquire knowledge and understanding of what is interesting and motivating to children both as individuals and as groups. Children respond differently to activities, experiences, and areas of provision. They acquire skills, learning styles, friendships, and behavioural patterns which are individual to each child. Observations give the practitioner an opportunity to record this type of information as well as aiding them in determining where the child is on the learning continuum and highlighting any difficulties they may have. This information can have a very positive impact on children’s learning when used effectively in informing the planning process.

Observations give vital information regarding the effectiveness of provision. The development of areas within an educational setting takes into account their success with the children that use them. Observations are integral when evaluating such areas as they give a true record of how the children use the area and the effectiveness of it. Children’s behaviour, comments, body language and interactivity with their peers and practitioners give an invaluable insight into the effectiveness of the provision. Practitioners are responsible for facilitating a child’s learning. Observations allow the evaluation of the effectiveness of the practitioner’s role and can inform a practitioner of their professional developmental needs.

The planning process takes into account the needs of each individual child and this process is informed through the analysis / assessment of the observations carried out by the practitioner. Without such observations it would be an impossible task to ensure that the planned activities of the setting, the areas of provision, and the methods used by the practitioner were meeting the individual needs of each child. Such is the importance of observation.

As Sharman, Cross and Vennis (2007, p.9) state, ‘children and young people are unique and to be aware of their qualities we need to take an interest in what they are doing, listen to what they are saying, learn from what they are telling us.’

Evaluation of a range of techniques.

There are several different techniques that the practitioner may use when observing children and areas of provision. The observation method used will normally be determined by the purpose of the observation. Observation methods include narrative / free description, checklist / pre-coded, time sampling, event sampling, tracking, pie / bar charts, histograms and sociograms. Practitioners may carry out observations as either a participant or a non-participant observer. Each method of observation uses different techniques which may be more suited to observing particular characteristics or behaviours.

Free Description / Narrative : Free description or narrative observations involve watching a particular child or group of children or indeed an area of provision. The free description observation should record the name of the child, children or area being observed along with the date, time and name of the person carrying out the observation. Clear aims and objectives must be set prior to the start of the observation and should be detailed on the observation sheet. The practitioner should possess a sound understanding of the purpose of the observation and the benefits associated with it to help ensure that it is completed appropriately. It is important for the practitioner to decide whether they should observe as a participant or a non-participant. The practitioner should be aware of the affects their involvement may have on a child’s behaviour if observing as a participant. Similarly, when observing as a non-participant it is very important for the practitioner to draw as little attention to themselves as possible. The observation should also contain a conclusion and an evaluation of what has been recorded. Recommendations should then be made to move the child’s learning forward.

The practitioner records information in the present tense detailing what they observe as they observe it. This is done over a pre-set period of time which may be changed during the observation if deemed necessary. The practitioner should be mindful of the importance of remaining objective when recording details of the observation. It is important for them to ensure that personal opinions, experiences and / or prejudices do not affect their judgement. Each practitioner will however have their own perspectives and therefore it is good practice to use all practitioners within a setting to carry out observations over a period of time. This will help ensure that the information acquired will be balanced and provide a fuller picture of the child, children or area being observed.

Free description observations may be difficult to record as the practitioner may need to write a lot of information down in a short amount of time. There is the potential to miss important information. The practitioner’s judgement may be influenced by outside factors.

Checklist / Pre-coded : Checklist or pre-coded observations may be set out in a variety of formats and are normally lists of particular skills within an area of learning. They require planning and preparation prior to the observation being carried out. Information about one child or a group of children can be recorded using the checklist or pre-coded method. Checklists or pre-coded observations should contain the name and age of the child, the number of adults and children present, the activity being observed, the area where the activity takes place, and the aims and objectives of the observation. The purpose of the observation influences the information contained within the checklist. For example, an observation with an aim of determining the fine motor skills of a particular child may contain such statements as: ‘can hold a pencil with tripod grip’ or ‘can control a pencil.’ (WAG, 2011, p.9)

These skills may be given a code to aid the practitioner carrying out the observation to complete it more easily. This would be particularly helpful when observing a number of children at the same time. Checklists can also be used to record activities and their progress.

It is vital to continuously refer to the aim of the observation when preparing the assessment criteria for the checklist. The practitioner should ensure that the criteria are both relevant and appropriate in aiding the assessment and analysis of a specified purpose. For example, the practitioner must ensure the criteria is age appropriate and provisions available to the child support the skill being observed. As with the free description observation it is extremely important for the practitioner to remain objective. All practitioners should perform similar observations to help ensure that the information acquired will be balanced and provide a fuller picture of the child, children or area being observed. It is good practice for a particular skill or behaviour to be observed several times before an overall judgement is made. The observation should include a conclusion and an evaluation of the recorded information and recommendations should be made.

Checklists and pre-coded observations can be restrictive as they require a simple yes, no or nearly answer to each criteria. The information recorded may not contain much detail or background information of the child.

Time sampling : Time sampling is a technique that requires the practitioner to observe the child, children or area over a matter of time. It can be used to monitor behaviour, social interactions and dynamics within groups, language skills, and usage of areas of provision.

Time sampling observations can be completed using written descriptions or pre-coded criteria. The practitioner should remain objective when completing the observation and a variety of staff should complete similar observations to ensure reliability. It is also important for the practitioner to be aware of their involvement and the affect this may have on the child or children being observed.

This type of observation is very adaptable and can be changed to suit the individual setting. It is a quick method for recording information. It can be used for individuals and groups. There is no requirement for a background knowledge of the child.

Time sampling observations do have some disadvantages. They provide information which can be time consuming to analyse. This type of observation may need to take place over a long period of time. There is a possibility that something significant may be missed if it does not happen within the observation time scale.

Tracking : Another method of observing is tracking. Tracking can be used to record a child’s movements within the setting as well as the time they spend on a particular activity. It is an appropriate method of highlighting the areas of provision a child has a preference for along with the way in which the area is used.

Prior to the observation taking place the practitioner should complete a plan of the area and consider how they will record the movements of the child. A code may be used to aid with this. Times may be recorded if required. If it is necessary to record skills this can be done separately.

Tracking is advantageous as it can be used in any area of the setting, both indoors and outdoors. It supports the foundation phase curriculum which requires the usage of the outdoors as part of the child’s learning and involves less structured, more independent play. It can indicate more popular areas and provisions which allows the practitioner to see the preferences of the child and gives them the opportunity to adapt their planning to suit the child’s needs. It can also indicate the attention span of a particular child.

Tracking can become quite difficult if the practitioner has to track more than one child at a time. The plan may become untidy and hard to follow if the child visits lots of areas. Tracking is not particularly informative for outside professionals. A detailed description of the child’s movements may not be recorded and information can be limited.

Sociogram : Sociograms focus on social development. It shows how the child interacts with other children and adults and can demonstrate their popularity. Social observations can quickly show the social development of children. This information can be used by the practitioner to plan activities and experiences to further develop the child’s social development. Sociograms, however, do not describe the reasons why something has happened. They only detail what has happened.

Event Sampling : Event sampling is used to observe when an event has taken place. This type of observation can be used to record a child’s behavioural or emotional development. It can record any event and includes information detailing how and why the event has occurred. This type of observation can help the practitioner to analyse the cause and effect of certain relationships. The data collected may be produced as a chart making it easier for the practitioner to analyse.

Event sampling is not suitable for observing infrequent behaviour and only records the specific behaviour as detailed in the aim of the observation. The recorded data may be misinterpreted as the observation may not record any preceding behaviours. Event sampling can be used within an early years setting as it is adaptable and it provides evidence of a particular behaviour.

Pie / bar charts : Pie or bar charts can be used to give a visual representation of information recorded by the practitioner. It is an effective method to use with both individual children and groups and makes data easy to read. This type of observation is suitable for early years settings as it is very adaptable and can be used to record information such as: areas of provision used by girls or boys both indoors and outdoors (highlighting children’s preferences), which children participate in a particular activity (e.g. physical), or what children eat during snack time. This information can then inform a setting’s planning to make it more suitable to the children.

Pie or bar charts do not indicate why a particular event has taken place, only that it has happened. They may require a longer set up period than other types of observations and data may be more difficult to interpret.

Histogram : Histograms can be used to plot the development of a child over a given period of time. The information gathered is detailed on a bar graph where each type of activity is shown in a continuous fashion. Histograms allow the practitioner to focus on a particular behaviour over a longer period of time. As with sociograms and pie / bar charts, histograms show that a particular behaviour has occurred but does not give the reason why it has happened.

Other types of observation may require slightly different formats. Samples of work are sometimes included for assessment purposes. Photographic and video observations are an effective way of documenting the child’s learning process. Photographs should always be annotated or cross-referenced to relevant written observations. Practitioners should request written parental permission for using photography and video devices to record and document children’s learning.

Section 2 : Background to the individual child.

The child is 2 years and 3 months old. She has attended the setting since the beginning of September 2012. She attends 5 morning sessions per week for 2.5 hours each session. She has 1 sibling which is 3 months old. The child’s mum has informed staff that since the arrival of the new baby the child’s behaviour has become much worse than it was previously. The child has exhibited such behaviour as biting, kicking, hitting, pushing, and screaming when she is at home and also outside. This behaviour is displayed when the child does not get what she wants.

The child lives on a council owned estate which is within a Communities First area. Communities First is a community focused programme that supports the Welsh Government’s Tackling Poverty agenda. It supports the most disadvantaged people in the most deprived areas with the aim of contributing to alleviating persistent poverty. Communities First works alongside other programmes with an aim of narrowing the education/skills, economic and health gaps between the most deprived and more affluent areas. (http://wales.gov.uk)

The area has also been highlighted as a Flying Start area. Flying Start is the Welsh Government targeted Early Years programme for families with children under 4 years of age in some of the most deprived areas of Wales. The core elements of the programme are drawn from a range of options that have been shown to influence positive outcomes for children and their families. These include free quality part-time childcare for 2-3 year olds, an enhanced health visiting service, access to parenting programmes, and early language development. (http://wales.gov.uk)

The child’s place at the setting is fully funded by the Flying Start Programme. The child’s mum does not work and is at home with the children during the day. The child’s dad works full time during the week and spends evenings and weekends at home. The child’s mum has informed staff at the setting that the child has many cousins. The child sees them on a regular basis. The child is not able to share or take turns with other members of her family and frequently exhibits the inappropriate behaviour mentioned above.

Section 3 – Evidence of 3 observations using different techniques.

Appendix 1 – evidence of a free description observation.

Appendix 2 – evidence of a time sample observation.

Appendix 3 – evidence of an event sample observation.

Analysis of the child’s learning and developing needs.

Child A’s mum informed staff at the setting that she does not share or take turns and exhibits inappropriate behaviour when she does not get what she wants. Mum has noticed that Child A’s behaviour has worsened since the arrival of their new baby.

As Dowling (2005, p.105) states, ‘we expect a child to show mixed behaviour when faced with the excitement, but also the threat of a new baby in the family.’

The free description observation highlighted the behaviour of Child A when she was placed in a position of taking turns and sharing a toy. Child A was observed snatching a doll from child B whilst playing in the home corner of the setting. When Child C tried to push the pushchair which was being played with by Child A, Child A began to scream and pinched Child C on the face.

Following a discussion with a practitioner within the setting Child A apologised to the affected parties however, Child A was then observed a short time later displaying the same behaviour.

As Dowling suggests children aged 2 – 2.5 years old are still developing their sharing and turn taking skills. They need to be encouraged and given opportunities to practice these skills through carefully planned activities.

Child A is not able to share or take turns. She does not communicate appropriately with her peers when she wants to play with something. She is not able to wait until the other child has finished playing with the item before taking it. Child A is able to apologise when supported by a practitioner.

The time sampling observation was carried out 1 week after the free description observation. Child A displayed similar behaviour during this observation as they did during the free description observation. Child B was playing with a plastic box in the maths area. Child A had attempted to take the box from Child B and when she was not given the box Child A hit and pinched the arm of Child B. Child A looked around the setting and made eye contact with one of the assistants. Child A lowered her head and looked at the floor. After the practitioner spoke to Child A she apologised to Child B. With help from the practitioner Child A collected a sand timer and waited until the sand had finished running into the other side. Child A was prompted to ask Child B if she could have her turn with the box. Both children complied with the practitioner’s requests and received praise. Child A smiled and took the box to the carpet area where she had her turn to play with it.

As Sharman, Cross and Venice (2000, p.130) states ‘the developmental milestones indicate that a child aged 2 – 2.5 years is egocentric. They see the world from their point of view. They are not able to share and will hold onto things with determination.’

Child A is not able to take turns. She is not prepared to wait for her turn. Child A exhibits inappropriate behaviour when she is not given what she wants when she wants it. Child A is able to apologise when supported by a practitioner. She is also able to wait for her turn when supported by a practitioner and a visual timing device which in this case was a sand timer.

The third observation was an event sampling observation. This was carried out 2 weeks after the initial free description observation. The observation recorded the behaviour and social interactions of Child A during a morning session. Child A displayed inappropriate behaviour at several times during the day and in several areas of the classroom. She took what she wanted without asking and screamed when a child tried to take an item back or when they tried to take something that she was already playing with. Child A did not speak very much to the other children or to the practitioners in the setting. She apologised when prompted to do so by a practitioner. Child A was not always responsible for the incidents that took place.

As Dowling (2005, p.108) says ‘before children start to regulate their behaviour they must begin to learn about cause and effect’. ‘Children need to be able to empathise – to understand how others feelaˆ¦aˆ¦..’

Recommendations to inform future practice.

The first observation which was a free description concluded that Child A was not able to share. Child A showed very little understanding of this concept. She exhibited inappropriate behaviour to her peers when presented with a ‘sharing’ situation.

It is important for practitioners to understand how frustrating it can be for young children to share and to understand the concepts. The ability to share is developed over a period of time. Young children find it difficult to understand how others feel as they are not yet able to empathise.

Having more than one type of toy can be beneficial for young children as it gives them an opportunity to play in parallel with the same type of provision. Where possible, more than one of each provision should be made available to the children in each area of the setting.

As Fisher (1993, p.29) states ‘appropriately resourced and supported, child-initiated activity can bring about some of the most creative and innovative learning in the classroom”

Planning activities which encourage turn taking will allow the child to practice this skill and would also allow them to begin to realise that they will have their own opportunity to play with a particular item.

The second observation, time sampling, concluded that Child A cannot communicate her needs appropriately. Child A has not yet learnt to ask for what she wants. Instead she exhibits inappropriate behaviour such as pinching. Child A is able to apologise to the affected party when prompted to do so by one of the practitioners. She is also willing to wait for her turn when supported by a practitioner and a visual aid demonstrating a set amount of time – a sand timer.

Encouraging Child A to ask for a particular item and rewarding her with praise when she does will reinforce to the child that it is appropriate behaviour. Skinner suggests that reinforcement of a particular behaviour will prompt a repeat of the same behaviour at a later time. Sharman, Cross and Vennis (2007, p.11) state, ‘children need adults to notice their achievements and provide an environment to support their further development.’

Games such as dominoes or snap cards will strengthen and support turn taking skills. Other activities which encourage turn taking will allow the child to decide when they have finished playing with a piece of equipment. Some children may be happy to give the item to someone else when they feel they have finished using it.

The third observation, time sampling, recorded some similar behaviours as the previous observations. Child A was not able to take turns when using the pencils. It also provided evidence that Child A is able to carry out some instructions such as tidying up. Child A was following an instruction and putting the cars away. She snatched one from another child to put it in the appropriate box. Child A was not able to ask for the car and just took it. Child A was also not able to share the parachute and she screamed when another child tried to hold it.

Where a child is not able to take turns, the practitioner should support them by explaining why they should take turns and will use an item to display a set amount of time, for example, a sand timer. Whilst a child waits for their turn the practitioner should support them by suggesting an activity to do. The practitioner will give the child simple choices to allow them to choose an item, game or activity for themselves and this will allow them to feel that they have made their own choice.

Reflect on your role in the observational process.

Through observations the practitioner is able to learn what the children know, evaluate their needs and plan appropriately to facilitate their learning. Staff training is an integral part of the setting’s self-evaluation process and allows the practitioner to consider the importance of observing children and developing the necessary skills. The practitioner will organise an allocated observation time and is more aware of the need for incidental observations.

The practitioner has a better understanding of the importance of gathering information from a range of contexts, both inside and outside the setting. Observations should be a constant source of vital information concerning both the children’s and the setting’s development. They should form a fair, rounded and holistic record over a period of time. The practitioner will address their observations during the setting’s weekly planning meeting and will share information between practitioners.

The practitioner further understands the need for the effective implementation of observations and their impact on the future planning of the setting to facilitate the learning needs of all the children.

As Fisher (2000. P.19) says, ‘ensure that the planned curriculum is appropriate. This leads to planning that is tailor-made for each child because the foundations of learning are unique.

The evaluation of the setting which involves all staff helps to ensure that the learning environment supports children in initiating their own learning. The practitioner is fully aware that observations must be fed into the assessment process for individual children. Parents will be further encouraged to contribute to observations through informal and formal discussions with the practitioner. Proformas will be used to ensure consistency of information within each type of observation. Photographic evidence will be annotated to support observations to document the children’s learning.

Sharman, Cross and Vennis (2007, p.2) cites the work of CACHE (2005) who states that ‘play workers exist to support children’s natural play and they do this by creating spaces where play can happen. Then they unobtrusively observe, intervene very occasionally, and then reflect on what they have seen and done.’

Appendices.

Appendix 1

Observation 1 : Free Description / Narrative.

Date : 23rd October 2012

Time Commenced : 09:40 Time Completed : 09:45

Number of Children : 3 Area : Ty Bach Twt

Name of Child : Child A Age : 2yrs 3mths

Aim : To observe the behaviour of Child A during ‘free play’.

Objectives : To observe and record Child A’s ability to share.

Child A is playing in the home corner of the setting with 2 other children. Child A snatches a doll from Child B. Child B does not attempt to take the doll back. Child A puts the doll in a pushchair. Child C takes hold of the handles of the pushchair and tries to push it. Child A begins to scream and grabs the handles of the pushchair. Child A pulls the pushchair away from Child C. Child C keeps hold of the pushchair. Child A keeps one hand on the pushchair and uses the other hand to pinch Child C on the face. A practitioner intervenes at this point. The practitioner speaks to Child A.

‘Don’t do that. It isn’t nice. You mustn’t pinch. It hurts. Child B was playing with the doll. Can you give the doll back to child B please. Would you like to play with this doll instead?’

Child A lowers her head. The practitioner asks Child A to look at her. Child A does not respond. The practitioner asks Child A to look at her again. Child A makes eye contact with the practitioner.

P-‘Can you give the doll back to Child B please. You can play with this doll if you want to’.

Child A gives the doll back to Child B.

P-‘Can you say sorry to Child B for snatching the doll?’ Child A ‘Sorry’. P-‘Da iawn Child A.’

You can have a turn of that doll when Child B has finished playing with it.

P-‘Child C wants to play with the pushchair with you. He is your friend. You will make Child C sad if you pinch him. Can you say sorry to Child C please for pinching him.’

Child A ‘Sorry’.

P-‘Da iawn. Merch dda. Can you push the baby together? That’s a nice thing to do. Mae’n neis i rannu.’

Child A nods. Child A and Child C push the pushchair across the room. Child A grabs Child C’s hands and pinches them. Child C lets go of the pushchair and Child A runs across the room with it. The same practitioner intervenes.

Conclusion : Child A wanted to play with a doll that was being played with by Child B. Child A snatched the doll from Child B and did not ask if she could play with it. When Child C attempted to use the pushchair that Child A was playing with, Child A screamed and pinched Child C on the face. Later, Child A agreed to allow Child C to push the pushchair with her, but after a very short period of time Child A pinched Child C’s hands. Child A ran across the room with the pushchair when Child C let go of it.

Evaluation : Child A is not able to share or take turns. She does not communicate appropriately with her peers when she wants to play with something. She is not able to wait until the other child has finished playing with the item before taking it. Child A is able to apologise when supported by a practitioner.

Recommendations :

Give opportunities to practice sharing and turn taking skills through carefully planned activities.

Encourage the child to share and remind them that it is nice to share with their friends.

Give immediate praise when child shares or takes turns.

Appendix 2

Observation 2 : Time Sampling.

Date : 2nd November 2012

Time Commenced : 10:20 Time Completed : 10:27

Number of Children : 2 Area : Maths Area

Name of Child : Child A Age : 2yrs 3mths

Aim : To observe a target child interacting with a child of similar age whilst playing in the maths area.

Objectives : To observe and record Child A’s social interactions.

Child A has just entered the maths area and looks at the jigsaw puzzles on the table. Child A approaches the table and starts to take the pieces out of the jigsaw. Another child is already playing in the area. Child B takes a plastic box from a shelving unit and begins to shake it. Child A looks at Child B and the box. Child A approaches Child B and attempts to take the box from her. Child B does not allow Child A to take the box. Child A hits Child B on the arm then pinches it. Child B starts to cry. Child B continues to hold the plastic box. Child A looks around the setting and makes eye contact with a practitioner. Child A lowers her head and looks at the floor. Child A lets go of the plastic box. The practitioner walks over to Child A and kneels down. The practitioner asks Child A to look at her. Child A does not respond. The practitioner again asks Child A to look at her.

Before an assessment of a child can take place to plan their learning and development, we need to observe them. Observation is vital for early year’s practitioners to find out what stage a child is currently at, what their needs are and what interests them. You can learn a lot about the children you work with simply by stepping back and watching them. This may at first seem to be a waste of time, but if you study the children, you are going to be more likely to meet their needs. Childcare workers automatically watch the children in their care they want to know that the children are safe, happy, healthy and developing well. Watching or observing closely can often reassure them that everything is alright but may also alert them to problems or illness. Any discussion about a child usually relates what has been seen , heard or experienced and leads to conclusions about personality , likes , and dislikes etc. anyone who works with children needs to develop the skill of observing them (sometimes to be written/recorded to check that a child is:

Safe – not in any danger from the environment, from themselves or others.

Contented – there are many reasons a child might be miserable , some may relate to physical comfort ( e.g. wet nappy , hunger , thirsty) or emotional discomfort (e.g. main carer is absent, or comfort object lost ) or lack of attention or stimulation.

Healthy – eats and sleeps well and is physically active (concerns about this may indicate that they are unwell)

Developing normally – in line with general expectations for his/her age in all areas, there will be individual differences but delays in any e.g. crawling/walking or speaking may show a need for careful monitoring and perhaps specialist help.

Any particular strength or talent may also be identified and encouraged. observing is one of the most important daily aspects involved in childcare without observation the overall planning and assessment in the setting will be affected. Early years practitioners need to base their planning on their observations so without observations we cannot be entirely sure that overall planning will meet their needs. By carefully observing the children we can learn their needs and know when they are ready to move on to the next stage. By adapting experiences, routines and activities to include things that are particularly important to every individual child we can build on their attention span and curiosity. Likewise we can use observation to pinpoint areas where a child needs additional help. There are 5 main skills associated with effective observation.

Looking – we need to look at our children and analyse what they are doing and what responses to give in certain situations.

Listening – it is vital we pay attention to the children and listen to how they interact with both children and adults.

Recording – we should accurately record any important things in which we have observed.

Thinking – we must use our observations to think how to plan effectively for each child and maybe involve the child’s parents for activity planning.

Questioning – sometimes our observations need to be clarified, confirmed or rejected. If the child is at an age to respond to questions you should involve them directly.

Do not let preconceived ideas or assumptions cloud our observations, they must be done with an open mind and judgement of the child should not affect the way an observation is carried out. For example observing children in a group and in the past one child has had difficulty in mixing with others , do not let your past assumptions hinder the observation as it will be pointless to carry out any observation if you have already decided the outcome.

4.2 Main ways in which observations can be recorded.

There are many ways in which observations can be recorded , each have advantages and disadvantages and most early years practitioners need to be familiar with several of these . The most frequently used recording methods are written notes such as

Free description (also known as narrative description or written record) – this method records the behaviour of a child over a very short period of time, often less than 5 minutes. The observer notes down what they are seeing which gives a portrait of the child’s activity during this time.

Checklists and kick charts – these are mostly used to assess the child’s development, specific activities are looked for either during a structural assessment (i.e. where a child is asked to do activities) or by observing children over a period of time.

Time sample – this is used to look at children’s activity over a predetermined length of time for example, a morning. Children are observed at regular intervals during the recording, say every 10 minutes and the observation is recorded on a prepared sheet.

Event sample – this is mostly used to look at a child’s one aspect of development or behaviour, such as how frequently a child sucks their thumb or shows aggression towards other children. Every time a child shows the type of behaviour or activity it is recorded on a prepared sheet.

Target child – this is used to record one activity over a long period without any gaps in the recording process. Several codes or signs are used during this process to allow the observer to maintain the recording.

Some methods of observing children provide more information than other methods that give plenty of info are referred to as “open methods”. For more objectivity ‘closed’ methods are useful. A checklist is an example of a closed method of recording. With all these methods available for use whilst observing it is important that you choose one to suit your purpose. For example the free description method is good for examining closely how a child achieves. Something, but it will not tell you about a child’s general activity over a long period. Other ways in which an observation can be recorded or by taking photographs of a child doing certain activities and catching developmental milestones, permission is always needed by the child’s parents to allow photographs to be taken and also to use a video camera which can used to record development milestones or just to record an activity which the children are involved in so the child’s parents/carer can also see the child doing the activity or milestone, as some parents don’t like to miss out on anything. Whichever method of recording is chosen to be used, all observations must contain sufficient information so that they are useful and that they are understood by anyone else who may need to look at them.

4.3 Analyse the 3 types of planning that can be used in early year’s settings

The observation, assessment and planning cycle assists early year’s practitioners to collate effectively the information they have gathered and to plan what to do next. There are 3 types of planning.

Long term – long term ensures the early years practitioners cover all the areas of learning and development and the principles of the early years foundation framework, the first of these frameworks published in England is called “birth to three matters “, this framework was published by the department for education and skills in 2002 and is for use by all professionals who are involved in the delivery or planning of services for young children in England. The pack comprises of an introductory booklet, poster, video, cd-rom, and 16 a4 component cards relating to four areas or aspects that have been identified as necessary for the development of all children. Long term planning enables the early years practitioners to think about the key areas necessary for supporting babies and young children and encourages them to consider ways to balance the opportunities for supporting older children which will enable them to enjoy both free play and well planned adult activities which will stimulate and interest them, long term planning needs to take into account how you will plan activities to ensure a suitable balance between indoor and outdoor experiences and quiet and active times, and needs to ensure a broad and balanced curriculum. A long term plan should usually cover a 3 month period, a term or a year; it should provide a curriculum overview. It should be based on principles of good early years practice; it should review what children need to learn and how this will be implemented. All areas of learning should be considered and that it meets the development plan or school improvement plan (sip) as required by Ofsted, it should relate to all policies and procedures of the setting and ensure advance planning and consideration of specific activities (e.g. festivals or outings ).

Medium term – this should outline an overall program over say, one to two weeks. Medium term planning take into account the overall daily routine early years practitioners, such as feeding time , school runs, playgroups, outdoor play, quiet time sleep or rest time and individual interaction . medium term plans will need to be adjusted constantly because it will be influenced by the observations made of individual children it needs to include reviews of care routines, key worker relationships and the way the day is organised to offer play and experiences including the materials and physical resources; whilst observing children, getting to know them and their characters, you need to match observations to your medium term plans. The staff planning together should look at how to create a rich learning environment which links the long term plans to each child as an individual. The medium term plan should grow gradually and must be flexible, open to changes and moderations and all observation profiles of all the children need to be looked at. Many early years settings now target particular children on particular days. This means each child is observed regular and the curriculum is planned in a differentiated way to cater for the interests and needs of individual children.

Short term plan – this includes the day to day activities, outings, resources specifically relating to the children in the setting on a daily or weekly basis. It is often helpful to use observations of the children from the previous day to enable to focus on their specific needs and to build on what they have learnt for example, the children might have asked to bake, you will need to consider ingredients and equipment will be necessary and how much time is needed to complete the task.

4.4 describe why planning is essential in the early years setting

Planning is key to the effectiveness of any early year’s settings. Settings plan curriculum in many different ways, most find a way of planning which suits their needs, plans will also vary according to the objectives or areas of development /learning to be considered. Each child will need to be considered and observed in order to be provided with appropriate activities and experiences in the setting. Good planning is essential if practitioners are to make children’s learning effective, exciting, varied and above all progressive. Planning enables us to look at each child individually and build on our knowledge of them in order to see how they learn, what motivates them and how they make progress. Plans don’t often need to be written down although recording things provides us with future reference which can be shared with others. Written plans allow us to look back so we can plan for the future.by doing this we can plan activities in which they are suitable for what we know they can already achieve and build on their interests and experiences, for example by constructing a written plan to help a child recognise the no 1-20 we would be able to see at the end of the long term plan,

The child knows the name of the numbers
The child can recognise the numbers in a variety of contexts
The child can write the numbers successfully

If at the end of the long term plan the child as reached all the goals set for them, then you know your planning has been effective. Effective planning is challenging but it is essential, it is not always easy for practitioners working alone to carry out observations of individual children when they are responsible for the care and safety of others. Observations need to be carried out regular and not just at set times you should be observing the children in your care all the time and noting how they react to certain circumstances and everyday occurrences. Keep a diary handy to jot down anything which you observe which is of particular interest or information which may help you plans for your child’s development.

4.5 critically explore the importance of assessments

Whilst assessments need to be handled extremely sensitively it can be a way of recognising whether children need additional support or challenges. They are also used as a way of learning more about groups of children so that the curriculum can be adjusted to meet their interests and needs. It is also important to realise that assessing children is not an exact science and we should see any assessment as only a guide. Young children are ever changing and their development and interests reflect this; but assessments are extremely important and have many uses

To review and check children’s overall development
To extend children’s learning
To support special needs
To resolve a particular concern
To evaluate activities and experiences
To review children’s progress
To share with other professionals
To share information with parents
To help with planning
To evaluate routine strategies to gather all the information to assess a child’s needed to be observed.

Although a lot is learnt from simply spending time and observing assessing what you have observed will enable you to deepen your understanding of what you have seen. There are no set ways in which assessments need to be written, although the following points should be considered,

The assessment should be based on what you have recorded
The link between the child’s actual stage of development and expected stage are noted
Supported evidence should be provided

Your assessment will help you collate this information so that it can be used in effective planning. For observation and planning and assessment to be effective they need to be carried out regularly, you need to get into the habit of observing children on a daily basis and assess the observations to enable you to plan the next stage for every child in your setting. Records need to be kept for each child (in a form of diary or scrapbook) and ways of extending on what they can already do to get to the next level need to be looked at. The more practice you have at observing, assessing and planning, the better you will become until it becomes second nature to you.

The transformation of mans life from the primitive being to the civilized one has occurred from the turn of the 18th century. The start of the 19th century witnessed more scientific discoveries. Techno-science is credited with these discoveries, and what this has done is that it has improved life on earth and made it better. We now live a world whereby all ages have some form of scientific discovery that makes life better and more sophisticated. It is true that sophistication is the principal reason behind all scientific discoveries. Moreover, the nature of man is that man is a creature that seeks to improve its own existence by bringing forth a myriad of scientific discoveries

Techno- science has brought with it a lot of discoveries, and this has made life on earth to be better and more comfortable. One such field is that of entertainment. Be it music, videos, video games or even sports, techno- science has ensured that electronic gadgets have been created, thereby improving people’s lives. The chief beneficially to technological advancements in entertainment is children and young adults/adolescents. Video games are a top mode of entertainment among this young group of people. Video games are the creation of computers, and while even adults play these games, the market segment is children and young people. However much technological advancement are on the rise, techno-scientists have been accused of creating products without having to care about the potential effects of these products to the market segment. For instance, violent video games are immensely entertaining to children and young people, but what is puzzling is that, innovators of these products do not have the slightest care concerning the effect that these games have on the users (Anderson & Bushman, 39). For years, video games have been accused of poisoning the minds of young people and children, which is detrimental to their development as they ape what they see in these videos. This essay analyses violent video games as being a contributor to aggressive behavior, especially in children and teenagers. By analyzing violent video games and their correlation with aggressive behavior, the study will establish how this issue can be reduced and surmounted, and how the behavior of young people is maintained to noteworthy levels.

Violent video games

Video games have been in existence from the 70s. Video games were created as a mode of entertainment by all age groups, but the principle market segment is children and teenagers who spend most of their free time indoors. These games have been seen as a way of enhancing the creativity and learning abilities of children, and are recommended for parents for their children. The popularity of action-hero movies triggered video game manufacturers to inject a new perspective into video games; violence. By doing this, they hoped to grasp larger audiences and entice younger ages more with their products. This was a marketing tool that was meant to revolutionize their business and make it more real. In these games, the users take the form of action-heroes who engage in violent confrontations with others. These heroes must keep winning duels so that the game advances to the next level. This pumps the adrenaline in game users until they become addicted as they want to advance to the next level and be “winners” in these violent duels. To the manufacturers, video games are created to entertain and please the users, but apart from entertaining them, violent video games have been accused of behavioral modification especially in young users by giving them aggressive and violent traits.

In an era where action movies and thrillers fascinate young people and adults alike, video game manufacturers are taking advantage of this craze by coming up with video games with an injected bit of violence. The problem that has cropped up is that, video games being mostly used by children and young teenagers influence the behavior of this group of people. An adult views these games as a form of entertainment, but to a young person, it is both entertainment and a site to mimic behavior. While adults and senior teenagers play violent games, they do not seem to be affected much due to their perception. While an adult sees these games as a way of entertainment, a child may not understand why someone goes around the street shooting others or causing bodily harm to others. To them, it seems normal, and with this perception, behavioral modification is bound to occur. These children easily become aggressive and engage in endless confrontations with their peers.

The debate concerning violent video games and ways in which they lead to aggressive behavior has been around for years. Steinfeld (27) writes in his book “”It becomes clear to me that the major causal relationship between the televised violence and the antisocial behavior is enough to warrant immediate and appropriate remedial action. aˆ¦ There comes a time when the data are sufficient to justify action. That time has come.” From then, more studies have been conducted and as Anderson and Bushman found out in their 2002 study “there is a direct correlation between violent media exposure and aggression”. Studies have shown that there is a link between violence in electronic media and real life aggression. This stretches into video games. Violent video games are analogous to violent media exposure.

A study by Gentile, lynch, Linder and Walsh (2004) has shown that relative growth of these games has made American teenagers more aggressive in nature and to have terrible behaviors and attitudes. In this study, research was carried out from six hundred and seven students from four schools to confirm the violence that these games bring out in pupils attending the eighth grade. Teenagers who were exposed to many video games of a violent nature were reported to be hostile, and they could get into arguments with teachers easily and more frequently. They were involved in physical fights with fellow students at a higher rate and were poor performers in school.

By comparison, violent video games bring more harm than violent TV programs. Unlike TV watching, playing video games is more involving and engaging. Whenever someone plays as a violent character in a video game, they try to identify with that particular character. In case they play as the same character over and over, it is easy for these traits to be transcribed into their behavior (Deselms and Altman, 1562). Finally, when players play as violent characters, they are awarded bonus points or, they advance to the next level. This motivates them to continually take part in these games. They become obsessed with the characters, and it can easily lead them in committing a crime.

Sales of video games in America have risen over the years with the electronic entertainment market raking more than seven billion dollars back in 1999. This surpasses the revenues of film production for the first time in American history. The sales have surpassed twenty billion American dollars. This has been fuelled by the existence of more than 200 million game boys and 80 million play stations that have been sold on the video game market. An average American kid from age 2 to 17 is able to play and stay on a video game for 7 hours or more in a week. This masks the enormous difference between the girl child and boy child with different ages. A recent study by Anderson et al in 2010 established that most teenage girls engage in these games for more than five hours in a week while boys do it for more than thirteen hours in a week. This is an average playtime of nine hours in a day that teenagers spend on games.

Studies have been conducted over the last 25 years, and most of them have looked at the final effects of video games of teenagers (Anderson and Bushman, 449). Most of these studies have managed to outline a link between these violent games and aggression. Some have even gone further by determining how video games affect school performance, and what has been established is that school performance has been compromised as a result of video games. This is a tremendous setback on the American education since the numbers of such students is on the rise. The impact of violent video games extends even to institutions of higher learning as evidenced by research done by Gentile, lynch, Linder and Walsh in 2004. In their research, they established that there are negative impacts in college students who spend most of their leisure time on violent video games instead of concentrating on studies. The grades of these students have been reported to drop drastically and they attain aggressive behavior.

Study Review

Video games have been in existence for the past 30 or so years. They are a noteworthy and unique form of entertainment in that; they encourage the player to be part of the game. Video games have become so sophisticated to the point of ensuring that the player must pay close attention to what is going on. While video games have positive and negative effects, empirical studies continue showing that there are more drawbacks than advantages, especially by contributing to aggressive behavior in people, especially children and young teenagers.

Studies have shown that aggression in children and young people is determined by the time spent by playing these games. For example, a study by Walsh in 2000 revealed “most teenagers have admitted that their parents do not impose time limits on the hours they use to play video games”. A good number of parents also take no notice of the content of games that their children play. Therefore, the long playing hours coupled with parents’ profligacy in imposing their monitoring has made the teenagers aggressive. Another study by Gentile, lynch, Linder and Walsh in 2004 subjected adolescent boys and girls to long periods of video games. These researchers proved that, young people who engaged in violent video games for an extended time period are more aggressive, engage in constant confrontations and score low school performance (Gentile et al, 21). Another study finding reveals that aggression develops in game users when they engage in games that are beyond their level. Games are accorded levels corresponding to particular age groups. This needs to be followed because; young children may play games that are many levels ahead. These children happen to witness shocking scenes to a point that their young minds become affected. These children easily become aggressive.

Picture a modern video game about an assassin who is going around the street killing rival gang members. When a child or any young person mimics the assassin in the game, images of such a video game are inscribed in this their mind, and they are for sure going to become more aggressive. The child first starts mimicking the shooter with even sticks, and later they become aggressive. In most video games, players progress to the next round, and the more they play, the more they become addicted, and they more aggressive they are likely to get.

Empirical data has shown that violent video games supersede even violent films (Pollard et al, 10). The results of the study confirmed that people who engaged in violent video games became more aggressive when compared to those who were merely watching. While a few people assert that violent games are harmless, studies continue to show the opposite. There is evidence that violence video games make the players cathartic in that, they vent their angers aimlessly. In their work, Anderson et al (2010) assert that approximately 130 researches have been conducted on the same topic using over 130,000 subjects and the study findings were that; violent video games enhance aggressive thoughts and behavior, and increase one’s physiological arousal by increasing one’s pulse and blood pressure.

Anderson and Bushman conducted extensive research in 2002, and from that, they were able to come up with evidence for the topic in question. The research was aimed at investigating the link between media violence and aggression. From their study, it was revealed that players who continually engage in violent video games become aggressive since violent behavior is repeated in the games over and over. Besides, video games ensure that players are active participants instead of being passive as in movies. Moreover, players in video games identify with a particular character they adore. This is what is known as the “first person video game” (Anderson & Dill, 788). From this, players imitate the characters of these video games, which trigger them to become aggressive. For instance, a player who engages in a violent game develops aggressive thoughts. In their study, bushman & Anderson concluded that when a player who was previously exposed to violent video games encounters confrontation, they respond with an enhanced rate of aggression.

However much scientific evidence has shown that video games that are violent cause aggressive behavior especially in young people; other theorists have opposed this citing various reasons. For instance, people who engage in violent video games have claimed that even though they play video games, they have never killed anyone. This is true especially from the United States’ FBI murder figures for 2010. From the survey, it was revealed that the murder rate in the US per year is 6 in 100,000. This is a low rate implying that murder from events like violent video games is highly unlikely. But this does not mean that violent video games do not lead to aggression. Secondly, the media have contributed to the denial that violent video games do not cause aggression. This is because; media personalities have failed to admit that the product they are marketing is dangerous. This is analogous to the tobacco industry; even though the manufacturers of tobacco know that the product is harmful, they have been reluctant to admit that their product is harmful.

The role of parents in curbing aggression in their children cannot be underemphasized. Psychologists have identified that parents have a role of cautioning their children concerning violent media. Stopping your children from engaging in violent video games is unrealistic as a person is not able to supervise all the time, but it is necessary to regulate what children engage in. There are many ways parents can help (Pollard et al, 89). For one, they need not install violent media at home. Secondly, parents need to know the rating of all video games available at home, so that young children do not play games way above their level. Parents should also limit the time spent online and in playing these games. It is necessary for parents to monitor media consumption of their children.

Violence in video games is impacting negatively on the users of these games. Significant harmful effects have been reported some of these effects are short term, but others are long term and affect the gamer for the rest of the life. The effects become harmful when parents who are supposed to monitor their children when they engage in these games become careless and leave the children to continue playing video games without limit. The endgame with this is that the child starts to be a psychopath and is likely to try and experiment what was being played in video games on the real world. The child will start to be aggressive when offended in a small way and may hurt everyone in the vicinity. Electronic media have the probability of enlightening the social and learning behavior of students by replacing reading activities, time for family interactions and social time with friends. If an average child spends 7 hours in a week to engage in these games, the child is not able to engage themselves in any form of homework or reading. This results to the child becoming lazy and stubborn which may increase the aggressive nature of the child.

Summary of Findings

From the analyses of various studies and researches made, it is evident that more boys engage in violent video games than girls. Those who engage also acquire aggression with time, which leads them to engage in confrontations in school and landing in trouble in most times. These young individuals also grow up into aggressive people when their game time is excessive. Many researches also shows that, a majority of parents do not monitor their children and teenagers on the game time, making some young game players overindulge in violent games. A majority of parents also do not check the rating of the violent games, which allows even younger children to access games that are beyond their level.

Study Interpretation

Content analysis carried out by Walsh (2000) shows that more than 90% these games in the American market have some form of a violent nature and more than 60% in the global market have serious violence amongst those who take part in the game. The study concludes that a good proportion of games bought by gamers contain serious violence and the popularity of this form of games is mostly determined by the violence content that is developed among the characters. Pollard, Bushman & Anderson in their 2011 research found out that,” violence has spurred a lot among adolescents and children; this violence is mostly a result of violent video games.”

Bushman and Anderson (2002) conducted a Meta-analysis of 54 tests, which were independent about the relation between the violence of video games and physical aggression. This analysis involved more than four thousand participants and five results, which were consistent, among these gamers in relation to violent video games were derived from the analysis. Playing of violent games increases the aggressive cognitions of the participants. Violent games increase the arousal, physiologically aggressive emotion is increased by playing such games. Aggressive behaviors are increased among the gamers, and the pro- social behavior of the gamers is decreased with immediate effect. These effects termed as robust, and they are found in all ages of people in society, be it adults or children, females or males and non-experimental and experimental studies. Most of studies have been done out and results found with more than sufficient evidence that explains about the impacts of violent video games, but so far little has been done to avert this problem in the American society. Age restrictions have been imposed on accessing different kinds of video games with certain levels of violence, but somehow the young people end up getting the games from sources that are unclear.

Gamers who are born aggression seem to have increased violence while and after playing video games of a violent nature. A study by Gentile, lynch, Linder and Walsh (2004) found that the physiological impacts of engaging in these games is worse in children who had developed a violent nature before they started playing video games than those who have no violent traits. These children are more likely to start excising the violent activities that they experience in video games, in real life. Gamers with the violence trait from birth showed increases in epinephrine levels in their blood and their arterial pressure increased too. This was the reverses of the gamers who did not have this trait.

Moderation

In moderating people who have the violent trait, parents and guardians should be able to notice this issue earlier when the child is growing up, and they should be able to help the child by restricting video games of violence nature. Children with this trait are not supposed to be exposed to any violence at all as they have a high probability that they will imitate the violent conditions that they experience. Parental monitoring should be able to play a significant role in ensuring that the children are safe, and they do not interact with violent videos. Instead, parents should ensure that they buy their children video games of an educational nature to motivate their children to think out of the box and increase their studies. When parents impose limits on television, the children tend to understand, the same should be done on video games and give children tight rules on accessing the games. Parents should be active in promoting positive messages that are brought with the entire video games and shun the negative messages conveyed by the violent video games. They should be the role models and convey a positive message to their children.

Gentile and Walsh (2002) carried out a study about the ability of parents to input their control on video games that are accessed by their children. More than 55% of the parents allowed their children to take play video games of their choice including the ones that have a violent nature. 40% of the parents have the ability to control what their children play, they have the ability and responsibility of checking the regulations of the game before giving the children the opportunity to play, and 5% of the parents are never at home, so children are free to engage in any form of games of their choice and desire. This study shows how most of the parents have underestimated the damage that these games are doing to their children and perhaps it is because most of the parents nowadays are workaholics and do not have adequate time to be with their children and know about their lives. Some of the parents are not even able to name the game type that their children are playing which most children take advantage of since the parents are not concerned to know what the favorite things their children like. If only parents could step up and become active in the moderating process of these video games, then it is highly likely that the children could be saved from becoming aggressive. Active parents also know what to do when their children are not performing according to standards in school. They are able to consult with teachers and tutors so that the child is given additional motivation that is required to perform better in studies.

Conclusion

The importance of innovation is that it makes life enjoyable and modernized. One such aspect of modern innovation is the advent of video games. Video games have revolutionized the entertainment industry. It is entertainment for all age groups as one can relax and pass time especially during one’s free time. Even though they are used by all age groups, the target market segment is young children and teenagers. Manufacturers of video games target the young market segment as they are the group that is easily enticed and enthralled by games, and one that can spend almost the whole day playing the games if it were possible. Children and teenagers of the modern world are spending much of their free time playing these games, unlike adults who have an aspect of moderation in video game playing. Despite teenagers and children spending most of their time engaging in video games, these games have a positive attribute in their development. These games are seen as a way of improving the reasoning and intelligence of children, and for this reason they are encouraged in all home settings. Through these games also, parents are able to occupy their children during the free time. Therefore, instead of engaging in mischief and wandering about the neighborhood, video games engage children by keeping them busy. As they are addictive, children remain glued to their seats playing these games.

Despite technological innovations making life easier and better, one major problem associated with them is that, techno-scientists are obsessed with furthering their innovations to the point of coming up with principles that are bringing more harm than good to the users. When a product is liked in the market segment and the sales are always on a high, innovators always want to maintain this trend even though the product may be harmful to the market segment. One such is the discovery of violent video games. Violent video games are just the normal types of games, but they have aspects of violence by incorporating characters who engage in physical duels and confrontations with devices like guns. Initially, video games were a way of entertainment, but over time, the innovators wanted to introduce action movie concepts into these games as a marketing tool and as a way of adding appeal to video games. Manufacturers of violent video games aim to pump up the adrenaline of its users by introducing violence concepts in the games. Children and teenagers become elated by such concept. Video game manufacturers have succeeded to considerable degree because violent video game purchases have been on the rise recently. In every region of the world, video games are becoming the craze of children and teenagers. Even though violent video games cannot harm teenagers directly, the effect that is being noted is psychological and behavioural alteration. Through engaging in these games, teenagers and children start aping and copying what the games portray, and this alters their behavior. What has been observed is that, aggressive behavior has been noted in those who engage in violent video games. Being young children and teenagers, one can only wonder what individuals are going to emerge from these aggressive personalities.

Most researches as outlined above reveal that video games that contain violence continue impacting negatively on its users, especially children and teenagers. This is related to the time-frame for games and the level of violence compared to the age group. Young people spend an average of nine hours per day to play violent video games, and this time has been determined to be too much, thereby affecting them negatively. Moderation is necessary in games so that teenagers and children are not obsessed with violent games. Video games were created to be a form entertainment source, but not as a negative influence. In order for violent games to be purely a form of entertainment, then parents and guardians need to moderate the use to a few hours in a day. Children also need to be investigated so that they do not engage in games that belong to higher age groups. The human brain develops with time, and in every age group, there is a degree of what an individual can handle. The younger the individual is, the more likely they are to be affected by violent games. Older children are able to handle violent games when compared to younger ones. For this reason, every game should be used by the age group that it is created with. When this is done, coupled with moderation on the time spent playing the games, then aggressive behavior will be reduced by those that engage in violent games. However, as long as this does not happen, then violent games will continue causing the development of aggressive behavior in people, especially young users.

Recommendation

From the various studies conducted on the impact of violent video games study conducted, the following are the conclusions:

a) More boys engage in violent video games than girls.

b) Those who engage in violent video on a regular basis acquire aggression with time, derived from the characters they mimic in those video games

c) Teenagers who have a history of video games are led to engage in confrontations in school and landing in trouble in most times.

d) Young individuals grow up into aggressive people when their game time is excessive.

e) A majority of parents do not monitor their children and teenagers on the game time, making some young game players overindulge in violent games.

f) A majority of parents also do not check the rating of the violent games, which allows even younger children to access games that are beyond their level.

g) Most modern households have video games, and with internet games, violent video games are easy to download

These are appalling statistics. Something needs to be done to change this trend. Many products are being released into the market, and there is no one who has the right to control their release. People have the liberty to use products, but when these products start affecting users, then something needs to be done. Game manufacturers have the moral obligation to manufacture games that are not overly violent. But in a world where emphasis is on marketing and profit accumulation, no one can blame them. The onus is on parents to moderate game-time. Teenagers should understand that violent games correlate to aggressive behavior and moral decadence. They should restrain themselves and should treat games as merely an entertainment source and not as a behavior modifier. Parents will not always spend time with their children; hence, it reaches an age where teenagers need to do the right thing.

Video games have become very popular in the contemporary world, and for parents it has become difficult for them to eliminate the games from their children’s lives. Research has shown that video games are important for children development. The problem comes in when they are overused and when young people play violent video games. These have been observed to cause aggression in young people. This research has proved that analogy.

As it is difficult to eliminate videogames from the life of children and young people, the way to protect them is to reduce their negative effect through the following ways;

a) Parents need to ensure that they are aware of the rating of the violent games played by their children. The ESRB considers the sex, violence, language and substance abuse contained in a game. From this, they give the age recommendation. Each game has a rating symbol for that particular age group

b) Parents need to regulate internet usage in the homestead so that teenagers do not continually access violent games

c) Parents need to set limits of video playing do that they do not overplay

d) Parents need to monitor the media consumption of their children and guide them instead of according them too much freedom

e) Guide children on the games they should play. A parent needs to take interest in video games so that they are able to offer guidance to children. Parents need to be free with their children and ask them about their feelings about the video games. By doing this, parents grow closer to their children.

Therefore, the role of parents in curbing aggression in their children cannot be underemphasized. Psychologists have identified that parents have a role of cautioning their children concerning violent media. Stopping your children from engaging in violent video games is unrealistic as you cannot be with them all the time, but there is need to regulate what children engage in. There are many ways parents can help. For one, they need not install violent media at home. Secondly, parents need to know the rating of all video games available at home so that young children do not play games way above their level. Parents should also limit the time spend online and in playing these games. It is important for parents to monitor media consumption of their children

“We are never more fully alive, more completely ourselves or more deeply engrossed in anything than when we are playing”. -Charles Schaefer

Play is the primary way that children learn about the world, understand how different things work, express their thoughts and feelings, develop their physical skills, develop their mental skills, and develop effective social skills and bonds. As children grow, their use of language becomes more sophisticated, but throughout childhood, they usually express much more of themselves in their play. We can understand children better if we understand their play. Rather than engaging in verbal communication, we often learn more about their thoughts, feelings, motivations, and struggles by watching children play. Children more effectively communicate their thoughts and feelings through play than they do through verbal communication. As the child plays, the therapist begins to recognize themes and patterns or ways of using the materials that are important to the child. Over time, the clinician helps the child begin to make meaning out of the play.

The Association for Play Therapy (APT) defines play therapy as “the systematic use of a theoretical model to establish an interpersonal process wherein trained play therapists use the therapeutic powers of play to help clients prevent or resolve psychosocial difficulties and achieve optimal growth and development” (www.a4pt.org). Although the idea of play therapy was introduced over 80 years ago, this therapeutic approach has only begun to experience major growth and development within the last 20 years and is still considered to be relatively new in modern therapy practices. Within the past 10 years, play therapy has become more recognized as an effective intervention to reduce challenging behaviors associated with social, emotional, behavioral, and learning difficulties in adults, children and adolescents. While researching this approach, I found it increasingly difficult to find information relative to the proven clinical practice of play therapy as most of the information pertaining to play therapy still focuses widely on reliability and studies to prove that it is even an effective practice.

Because play is so familiar to children, it is a zone of comfort that permits counselors to approach clients in a nonthreatening environment. When children play, they feel safe. They don’t respond to simply talking and listening to an adult conversation. Play Therapists use play to help children express feelings about many issues. Children can use play to address feelings about loss and divorce. Children who have been victims of abuse or have experienced a trauma can also benefit. Even a child who is having trouble with peer relations or conduct in school can benefit from play. Children often express their feelings behaviorally and this can be misdiagnosed as ADD/ADHD resulting in these children being medicated unnecessarily. Effects of trauma, loss, and divorce can mimic the symptoms of ADD/ADHD. Instead of using medication as the first option of treatment, children and their therapists can utilize play therapy to work on those feelings. The main goal of play therapy is to eliminate behavioral and emotional difficulties that prohibit a child to function normally, especially in regards to improved communication and understanding between the child and his parents, family, and peers. By using play therapy techniques, the therapist can allow a child or adult to become more aware of their emotions and eliminate any negative behavior that may be a direct result of their emotional and behavioral difficulties. Less obvious goals of play therapy include improved verbal expression, ability for self-observation, improved impulse control, more adaptive ways of coping with anxiety and frustration, and improved capacity to trust and to relate to others. Although play therapy has been proven to be effective for children with various kinds of disorders, it is not as helpful for certain types disorders or illnesses, such as children with the most severe degree of autism and schizophrenia (Landreth, 2002). These two types of children live so exclusively in their own world that they cut off interaction with the outside world completely. Because they lack the ability and/or willingness to interact with people and objects, I believe that play therapy might not be the best therapeutic approach for these children.

Play Therapy involves the use of role playing, toys, blocks, dolls, puppets, and games to help the child recognize, identify, and verbalize feelings and to communicate what has happened to them and how they feel about these events in their lives. Often, a child will allow a doll or puppet to say things that the child does not feel they are free to tell to anyone. Skilled therapists also use drawing and art work to allow feelings to flow and become expressed. The therapist observes how the child uses play materials and identifies themes or patterns to understand the child’s problems. Play therapy is particularly effective with children who cannot, or do not want to talk about their problems. Through a combination of talk and play the child has an opportunity to better understand and manage their conflicts, feelings, and behavior. Sand play therapy is one form of play therapy which allows greater exploration of deep emotional issues. Sand play therapy is suitable for children and adults and allows them to reach a deeper insight and reconciliation of a range of issues in their lives such as internal conflicts that manifest as anxiety and depression, as well as penetrating the depths of personality to experience the self directly. Through a safe and supportive process, clients place miniature figurines in a small sand box to express confusing feelings and inner experiences. This creates a visual representation of the unconscious and reveals concerns that are inaccessible any other way. As materials contained in the unconscious emerge visually and symbolically, it is integrated into a person’s sense of self and can be activated to elicit behavioral change. Sand play therapy is an expressive and creative way of working which does not rely on traditional “talk” therapy.

Two major approaches of play therapy are Non-directive (Child-Centered) play therapy and Directive (Cognitive Behavioral Model) play therapy. A skilled practitioner will adopt a mix of both approaches according to each individual child and their circumstances. In non-directive play therapy, the therapist remains supportive, but non-intrusive, and responsibility and direction are left to the child, which emphasizes empowering the client, self-awareness, decision-making, and acceptance of the client’s self. In directive play therapy, the therapist aquires responsibility for guidance and interpretation of the therapy by taking an active role in the play and structuring the session for assessment, diagnostic, and treatment purposes. One key concern of non-directive techniques is that young children may not necessarily have the cognitive skills and emotional capacity to repair and master traumatic experiences on their own. Upon researching the information that I found on the different ways to apply play therapy to therapeutic sessions, I personally found directive play therapy to be the most efficient. I like the idea of having more control over sessions and getting the information I need to successfully identify problems and issues for the child. Though both practices use similar ways of play and creative expression for the child, in my opinion directive therapy seems to be the best approach for my own personal counseling style.

One issue that comes up most often in regards to the boundaries of play therapy is hugging and/or physical contact. In any therapeutic relationship, it is important for the client to realize that the therapist cares. Therapists accomplish this in traditional “talk” therapy by attentive listening, reflecting, and empathy with little to no touch involved. This can be quite different when working with children in a play setting. Children can be naturally very impulsive, and may hug the therapist in response to a positive or negative feeling. It is important for the therapist to be aware that hugging and touch are used in many different types of relationships and have a variety of meaning. An ethical response to this issue is to abstain from hugging all clients, especially child clients (McGuire & McGuire, 2001). On the other hand, if a therapist is hugged by a child, remaining stiff may send a negative message to the client (Landreth, 1999). Although I found the literature on ethical issues in play therapy to be lacking, the information I did find was illuminating. It certainly caused me to think more in-depth about the many ethical situations that are specific to working with children and to play therapy. This means being aware of potential ethical issues before they arise and planning in advance on how I would react to those situations. I liked the direction that the literature appears to be heading, which is providing play therapists with more effective and universal guidelines for ethical problem solving.

The practice of play therapy requires extensive specialized education, training, and experience. A play therapist is a licensed (or certified) mental health professional who has earned a Master’s or Doctorate degree in a mental health field with considerable general clinical experience and supervision (www.a4pt.org). Unfortunately, according Dr. Garry Landreth, who is one of the major key contributors to the field of play therapy, many therapists practicing play therapy do not have the specialized training needed with less than half of the therapists currently practicing play therapy having taken a graduate course in the field. Children are a special client population, and simply having a degree in counseling or another similar field does not qualify a person to provide therapy for them (Corey, Corey, & Callanan, 2007).

When Dr. Landreth (2001) outlined what play therapy can do for children he also told us what areas of development are often a struggle for children and adults alike. Children start their lives with an amazing skill to play that far too often gets lost in the confusion of the adult world. Many adults still cannot claim responsibility for their actions or to accept themselves for who they are as people. Play, whether with games, puppets, drums, clay, sports, motion, drawing, drama, dolls, sand, or whatever else is available, invites a cascade of positive effects. There are endless possibilities for the use of play therapy with adults (Schaefer, 2003). Play therapy for adults can also allow the bonding with others to form healthy relationships for people who may have experience only with serious dysfunctional interactions. When adults enter into play therapy, they are able to gain access to their inner child. Very often, emotional repression and unhealthy feelings are formed in childhood and adults learn to ignore surface exhibition of these emotional traumas. However, with adult play therapy the person has the space to realize and act out those feelings and they can reach a resolution and closure, allowing them to become happier, healthier people.

In the limited amount of research that I found on the topic of play therapy, it seems as though there is a lack of consistency among the definitions and its implementation. Some articles and texts clearly defined play therapy; others seemed to distort a traditional definition to fit their purpose. I honestly do not know if there truly is a pure form or definition of play therapy. I did however, through my research, find that the various techniques of play therapy used seemed to be quite effective at helping children to deal with a wide array of issues.

In conclusion, I believe that play therapy is a fun, innovative, valid, and effective means of helping clients to express feelings that they have unconsciously repressed or avoided. It can be a very healthy outlet and can be useful at times when traditional talk therapy simply doesn’t work. Dr. Landreth (2002) states that “play is a child’s language and toys are his/her words.”