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Play is important for the child’s holistic development including their physical, language, social, emotional and cognitive development. Play allows children to learn naturally from the world around them to gain life skills and understanding Play allows children to freely explore the world around them, without adult direction. Play allows the child to create, challenge, imagine, engage and explore satisfying activities for both themselves and others. Children may use equipment; play alone or with others, in energetic or calm manner. Play is a vital component for a child’s development and lives and is essential to be promoted where possible (Play England, 2007).

Play is the primary and natural medium of communication for children (Axline, 1947). Children may not have the capacity to use words to express themselves, but with the assistance of play therapists, communication and understanding can occur between both the child and therapist. As children do not have the same abilities to communicate and express themselves verbally and as effectively as an adult can, play gives children the opportunity to express their emotions and experiences. This can provide a foundation to build relationships with the play therapist and others, allowing their needs and requirements to be known and to gain a better understanding of themselves (Landreth, 2002).

Play therapy then, is a medium of therapy in which play is used, to observe children engaging in play. By providing resources of play materials and knowledge of theory around play therapy, therapists can identify and examine the child’s underlying issues.

Wilson & Ryan, (2005) state that the importance of play therapy is to allow children move from being unaware of their hidden, unconscious feelings they may have as a result of life experiences, and gain an understanding of their emotions and experiences enabling them to come to terms with feelings. O’Connor and Schaefer (1994) maintain “the aim of play therapy is to bring children to a level of emotional and social functioning or level with their developmental stage. This can allow usual developmental process to be resumed.

Play Therapy is an active process between both the play therapist and the child. It allows the child to explore their surroundings at his or her own pace. The child has his or her own schema of their issues which may be current and of conscious awareness or, hidden in the past and possibly buried in the unconscious. These issues whether of conscious awareness or not may affect the child’s daily lifestyle influencing feelings and behaviour. Play therapy is child centred and the play therapist focuses on play as the first and paramount medium of therapy, with speech the second medium of therapy (British Association of Play Therapists, 2008).

The Irish Play Therapy Association (2013) claim, Play Therapy is an effective method of therapy for children who display or encounter many difficulties or issues. Behavioural difficulties may include depression, aggression, anxiety and other issues relating to difficult encounters or life experiences of abuse, death of a family member, divorce or separation and trauma (www.ipta.ie, 2013).

A history of Play Therapy

Play Therapy dates back as far as 1909 in Europe with the work of Sigmund Freud (1909/1955) and the first documented psychoanalytic therapeutic work focusing on a child was the case of “Little Hans”. Freud discovered the child’s phobias through observations of his play behaviours and dreams. This case encouraged further development of Freud’s work and eventually the development of play therapy.

While Freud used interpretation of the unconscious motivation of a child building a relationship with the child, but he came to the understanding that unlike adults, children do not decide to enter into psychoanalysis. Without consent or understanding the therapist brings the child into this analysis. Anna Freud (1946) followed her father’s interest of play, but developed her own theories. She held that adults undergoing psychoanalysis are required to provide the therapist with information to assist the session, however with children the background information is expressed usually, but not always by the parent.

Melanie Klein (1955) believed the use of psychoanalysis could benefit children in a variety of ways, even if their development was atypical. Klein also believed in using observations with children during their play and behavioural actions and not through their expression of speech as is used within adult psychoanalysis. Klein therefore introduced toys into her sessions to promote play and allow observation of actions to occur.

Virginia Axline working in America was influenced by Carl Rogers work on non- directive client centred psychotherapy. Therefore, Axline built on Roger’s theory resulting in a new therapeutic approach for working alongside children, known as non – directive play therapy. As in adult psychotherapy, the relationship between the therapist and the child in play therapy is based on being genuine, on acceptance and trust.

The theory is that if children are given the opportunity to freely express their feelings and emotions they will resolve these issues themselves, using play experiences and the assistance of their play therapist in order to achieve this (Wilson & Ryan, 2005). Axline (1950) stated that non- directive play therapy is “a play experience that is therapeutic because it provides a secure relationship between the child and the adult, so that the child has the freedom and room to state himself in his own terms, exactly as he is at that moment in this own way and in his own time” (p. 68).

Axline based her theory on her work with a young boy called Dibs. Axline held that Dibs healed himself through no direction over a period of time. She said “No-one ever knows as much about a human being’s inner world as the individual himself. Responsible freedom grows and develops from inside the person”. (Wilson & Ryan, 2005).

Axline, unlike Freud and Klein who both focused primarily on psychoanalysis, believed children would do their best to meet their full potential and by providing a therapeutic relationship and approach which would support that development. Many therapists today base their work on Axline’s (1947) eight principle guidelines

Axline’s principles outline,

The importance of developing a relationship between the therapist and client from the beginning.

Accepting the child and who they are without judgement.

Provide the child with a safe environment to express their feelings completely.

The therapist is alert and available to provide the child with feedback to assist the client’s behaviour,

The therapists provides the child with a scaffold to learn how to cope and solve their own problems and to respect their choices.

The therapist is required not to direct the child in any manner, unless where the child’s safety is at risk. The therapist allows the child to lead the session and the therapist follows their lead.

The therapist is patient and understands it is a gradual process requiring time.

The therapist provides limits that are essential to assist the therapy into a sense of reality and provide the client with information in relation to their responsibilities within the relationship (Axline, 1947).

Based on Axline’s theory of non-directive play therapy, Landreth (2002) developed his theory of Child Centred Play Therapy. Landreth (2002) states the relationship between the child and the therapist must be different from other types of relationships the child has experienced. The relationship between the two is to ensure the child feels safe and comfortable to be expressive within their play, allowing natural communication to occur. He believes the true foundation to the relationship within child centred therapy is that of the bond between the therapist and child (Landreth 2002).

Another influential contribution to the area of play therapy is the work of David Levy (1938). Levy’s Release Therapy allows children release their anxieties through controlled play set out by the therapist. Levy provided free play therapy based on Klein’s theory of free play. Toys are introduced into the settings that are related to the event that requires intervention and the child plays freely with the chosen toys.

Growth of Play Therapy

Child psychotherapy has established a strong tradition across Europe and has grown significantly. In Ireland, child psychotherapy has grown more slowly in comparison to American and Europe. However, professionals’ interest in play as a therapeutic intervention has developed gradually over the past decade. Practioners are becoming more increasingly aware of the seriousness of emotional issues experienced by children and the difficulties that may arise. These children are likely to require more serious treatment that may not be available to them.

Play Therapy Theories and Approaches

There are two techniques used within Play Therapy, non- directive Play Therapy and Directive Play Therapy. Non – directive play therapy approaches are referred to as , “child-focused,” “client – centred” and “unstructured”, where components of directive play therapy are described as “structured,” “directive” and “focused” Gil (1994).

Gil (1994), elaborates on various directive play techniques, including behavioural or gestalt, but suggests that non directive play therapy is a more child focused approach. He explains that non-directive play therapy provides the child the freedom to participate in their own way throughout the session, allowing the therapy to move in specific direction required for the session.

Within structured play therapy, the play therapist plans activities adapting a directive play approach. During the formation of a relationship between the therapist and client within directive Play Therapy a less directive technique is used. This allows the therapist to build a foundation to the relationship and over time, directive techniques are weaned into the relationship (Jones, Casado and Robinson, 2003).

Similarly, supporting this concept, Berting (2009) suggests that building on the concept on developing a therapeutic relationship using a less directive approach is best practice, before proceeding with more directive activities in the core area of the play therapy session. He also suggests observing the child’s need to be able to or prepared to carry out directive play therapy.

Non-Directive Play Therapy ( who are the key people in NDPT and explain what you will discuss

With over 60 years of influential work, Axline’s contribution to non – directive play therapy was outstanding. He is known as the founder of non – directive play therapy and his work still influences play therapists in many ways. He believed the play therapist should have very little influence on the clients play and the client should communicate through their play, which is still a core principle today.

The idea of reaching your full potential as a child in play therapy was originally proposed by Axline (1947). He explained the theory of progressing towards full potential occurs because of the formation of the therapeutic relationship, and not that of specialised techniques.

Ray, Blanco, Sullivan, and Holliman (2009) support Axline’s theory by stating the play therapists develops a relationship with the client by building on their acceptance.. In return, the client develops self-acceptance which results in moving towards their full potential.

Today, play therapists continue to build on the foundations of non-directive approach guided by Axline’s creative work, the area of non-directive play therapy continues to progress, more than 60 years later.

Client-centred play therapy.

Developing the ideas of Axline (1947) and Moustakas (1959), Landreth (2002) improved their theories to develop client – centred play therapy. “In Play Therapy Virginia Axline (1947/69) suggests that the individual has within himself the ability to solve his own problems, and that in play therapy, where conditions for growth are optimal, the child reaches for independence” (Axline, 1955). She expressed the importance of the therapist to allow the child to explore and investigate the room and toys with his own initiative with support of the experience and the relationship (Axline, 1955).

Star this section from Moustakas

Moustakas (1959) felt children required the need to feel they were understood gain self – directed skills in order to grow. These skills could be achieved through client – centred play therapy, focusing on the client’s direction throughout the session.

Astramovich (1999) supported the client – centred therapy approach stating it focuses on the growth and development of the child, and this can be achieved by the child directing their own play through the session.

Directive Play Therapy
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McMahon (1992) states directive play therapy aims to prepare children for an event that is about to occur, for example surgery or other unpleasant events. Directive play therapy works towards treating the child’s anxieties they may be unaware of. McMahon (1992) suggests the directive approach is closer to psychotherapy than to Axline’s non – directive theory. She elaborates on the therapist having the skills to deal with unexpected circumstances which may arise, and always be prepared and accept the child’s response.

Oaklander (1978) holds that there are the benefits of fantasy and projective methods to use in directive play therapy. He suggests asking children to draw their family as symbols or animals, directing their play to observe their emotional needs. The use of Gestalt methods is expanding over time, the theory behind this approach is beneficial to the child to deal with their feelings they are experiencing at the present, instead to going too far back towards traumatic experiences (McMahon, 1992).

Cognitive Behavioural play therapy

“Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is a form of psychotherapy originally developed for adults, and aims to identify and modify negative thinking styles that cause negative emotions and the maladaptive behaviours associated with those thinking styles” (Knell & Dasari, 2009).

Cognitive behavioural play therapy is a sensitive approach seen to be effective when working with children based on CBT from 8 years and above with various disorders. Cognitive behavioural play therapy is used to teach children strategies to change their negative thinking and views in order to develop positive thinking and understandings (Knell & Dasari 2009).

Green (2008) elaborates on the various styles of the cognitive behavioural approach used within play therapy including, changing their cognitive development, discussing and eliminating senseless beliefs or ideas and cognitive misrepresentations. The play therapist modifies the cognitive behavioural therapy to suit the needs of the child within play therapy.

Gestalt play therapy

Gestalt play therapy, according to Oaklander (2001), focuses on the holistic views of the child, including their body, their emotional state, and their mind. Gestalt Play therapy focuses on the child’s ability to understand how to express their emotions and is essential for a healthy understanding of their own emotions. Oaklander (2001) supports his theory by developing a variety of ways to express ones emotions. Oaklander (2001) suggests clay, art, crafts and puppets to help assist the expression of emotions through play in a directive manner. “The Gestalt work focuses on the “what” and “how” rather than the “why” as found (Oaklander 2001) found.

Alderian Play Therapy

Within Adlerian Therapy, the therapist focuses on and examines the lifestyle of the client and tries to form a relationship of respect and trust with the client in order to set and reach their goals. Adlerian play therapy is a little different as it sets out to appeal to the child but is focused on the Adlerian method just in a child friendly manner. (Morrison 2009).

Kottman (2001) suggests Adlerian play therapy may use techniques from non- directive and focused play therapy in order to the help the child build confidence, courage and abilities by using the Adlerian play therapy method.

It is believed within the Adlerian method behaviours carried out by the client are intentional and by using the Adlerian method of play therapy, children can learn to develop coping mechanisms and strategies as suggested by Kottman and Warlick (1989).

Psychoanalytic play therapy

Melanie Klein, Anna Freud, studied under the Freudian psychoanalysis each developing their beliefs. Both individuals had a major influence of the development of psychoanalytical play therapy

Melanie Klien believed all play was symbolic; in contrast to this Anna Freud believed it was the replay of real life events. Anna believed play therapy was allowing children to talk about the conscious feelings and thoughts and to act out the unconscious; however Klien in contrast to Anna Freud made interpretations from the unconscious meanings to from their play and felt strongly this was the correct understanding (McMahon 1992).

Freud argues for the importance of building a relationship between the therapist and the client in order to provide adequate therapy to the client. She did not believe in interpreting the clients play until the relationship was developed amongst both parties (Cattanach, 1992). Klien argues against Freud, emphasising the importance to begin interpretation without the foundations of a relationship with the child resulting in delays to the therapy (Cattanach, 1992).

Parental / Primary Carer Involvement

The input and involvement of the primary carer is significant when providing Play Therapy to Children. Involvement provides positive outcomes to both the therapist and the child. The therapist can receive back ground information of the problem, the events and behaviours, the primary carer can provide the therapist with information in relation to the child’s progress. Primary carer involvement provides security, stability and emotional support for the child if the therapy may become distressing for the child. A parent’s emotional availability is suggested to be the tool to success of Play Therapy (Wilson & Ryan, 2005)

Primary carer’s may be unaware of what Play Therapy is, and how it is used. As the primary carer brings the child to the centre weekly it is suggested that the therapist should provide adequate information and assistance in relation to the treatment and their part in the therapy (Wilson and Ryan 2005).

The therapist should ensure they don’t replace the parent – child relationship although their relationship is significant for successful results and progress. Play Therapists can involve parents in a variety of ways, for instance the therapist can ask for the parent to sit in on the therapy to assist the settling period, therapist provide feedback to the parents, after each session or after a particular period of time. This can allow therapists provide parents with advice and ideas of how to bring the therapy into the home and provide consistency (Landreth, 2001 and McGuire & McGuire, 2001).

Training

There are independent organisations that within their own country have their own play therapy training; however they adopt the standards of Play Therapy International’s standards. Their training is recognised and certified. Play Therapy Ireland, Play Therapy United Kingdom and Play Therapy Canada are well developed and link with Play Therapy Ireland through their practice. Other countries are gradually developing their own Play Therapy International standards.

The Children’s Therapy Centre are the only APT approved provider in Ireland. Their courses are recognised by the Irish Association for Play Therapy and have approved quality assurance standards with both FETAC and HETAC.

Conclusion

In this chapter a review of the current literature relating to play therapy was addressed. ……… I will present a small scale study carried out on the perception of Play Therapists. In the next chapter I will outline and discuss methods for gathering data for this study. A

This cross-sectional survey research investigated play preferences of children with and without developmental delays who were between 3 and 7 years old. Parents completed questionnaires regarding their child’s play activity and context preferences. Valid results were obtained for 166 children, 83 of whom had developmental delays. Preference ratings were compared by gender, age, and delay status. Play preference did not differ by gender. Rough-and-tumble play and computer/video game play increased with age, whereas object exploration decreased. Children with developmental delays had higher preferences for rough-and-tumble play and object exploration and lower preferences for drawing and coloring, construction, and doll and action figurine play than typically developing children. This comparison of children’s play preferences across ages, gender, and developmental status enhances our understanding of how these variables influence children’s play.

ABSTRACT

This cross-sectional survey research investigated play preferences of children with and without developmental delays who were between 3 and 7 years old. Parents completed questionnaires regarding their child’s play activity and context preferences. Valid results were obtained for 166 children, 83 of whom had developmental delays. Preference ratings were compared by gender, age, and delay status. Play preference did not differ by gender. Rough-and-tumble play and computer/video game play increased with age, whereas object exploration decreased. Children with developmental delays had higher preferences for rough-and-tumble play and object exploration and lower preferences for drawing and coloring, construction, and doll and action figurine play than typically developing children. This comparison of children’s play preferences across ages, gender, and developmental status enhances our understanding of how these variables influence children’s play.

Play is a primary childhood occupation and as such deserves the utmost attention from the occupational therapy profession. In the past, many authors have written about play as a means to measure other skills (Bundy, 1993) or as a reflection of child development (Sparling, Walker, & Singdahlsen, 1984). Play has been observed, categorized, labeled, and studied by researchers in many fields (Cole & la Voie, 1985; Fein, 1981; Gesell, 1940; Parten, 1932; Saunders, Sayer, & Goodale, 1999). Previous research has clearly demonstrated that children progress through stages and exhibit differing play preferences over time (Cole & la Voie, 1985; Fein, 1981; Lowe, 1975). Recently, occupational therapy scholars have stressed the importance of examining play as an occupation rather than analyzing its component parts (Bundy, 1993; Couch, Deitz, & Kanny, 1998, Knox, 1997; Parham & Primeau, 1997).

Influences on Play Preferences

Many variables (e.g., gender, culture, environment, and age) influence a child’s play occupations. This descriptive study explores young children’s play preferences and investigates how play choices vary according to the child’s age, gender, and typical development versus developmental delay status.

Gender

Research has repeatedly demonstrated gender differences in the play of typical children (Caldera, Huston, & O’Brien, 1989; Connor & Serbin, 1977; Meyer-Bahlburg, Sandberg, Dolezal, & Yager, 1994; Saracho, 1990). In early studies of preferences related to gender, researchers found that girls preferred dolls and house toys and boys preferred blocks and transportation toys (Fein, 1981). Recent research continues to find gender-related differences in many aspects of play beginning at early ages. For example, as early as 1 year of age, children make different toy choices based on their gender (Servin, Bohlin, & Berlin, 1999). At 18 months of age, boys preferred to play with trucks and trailers, whereas girls preferred doll-related activities (Lyytinen, Laakso, Poikkeus, & Rita, 1999).

Gender differences are found in many aspects of play. Boys are more likely to choose physical and block play over dramatic and manipulative play, and girls are the reverse (Saracho, 1990). Although boys are more likely to enjoy vigorous or active play, girls are generally rated as more playful (Saunders et al., 1999) and more likely to enjoy both dyadic interaction (Benenson, 1993) and smaller play groups than boys. Within dramatic or fantasy play, the type of fantasy play performed differs by gender. For example, girls use more verbal pretending and choose different play themes (Wall, Pickert, & Gibson, 1989) and demonstrate less aggressive content (von Klitzing, Kelsay, Emde, Robinson, & Schmitz, 2000). Girls’ fantasy themes tend to be complex and abstract. In contrast, boys’ play is more physically vigorous and they tend to choose simpler fantasy themes, such as playing superheroes (Pellegrini & Bjorklund, 2004).

Boys and girls also differ in play with computers and video games. Boys generally play video games more frequently and for longer time periods (Kafai, 1998), and they tend to play games in which competition is important. Girls like games with in-depth social interactions and character development; they appear to enjoy participating in a story more than participating in a competitive game (Salonius-Pasternak, 2005).

Age

A child’s age is related to both play skills and play preferences for the type and context of play. Developmental changes in play skill have been found in a variety of studies of children’s play. For example, pretend play first emerges between 1 and 2 years of age and increases in prevalence and frequency throughout the preschool and kindergarten years (Fein, 1981). Play preferences have been shown to begin early in life. Infant toy preferences are noted by mothers as early as 3 months of age, and by 1 year of age almost 90% of infants have a favorite object (Furby & Wilke, 1982). Children have also demonstrated changes over time in their preference for specific forms of play, such as physical play.

In one study of physical play, the authors found that preference for each of three types of physical play peaks at a different age (Pellegrini & Smith, 1998). Rhythmic stereotypes dominate during infancy, exercise play peaks during the preschool years, and rough-and-tumble play is most common during middle childhood. Age also interacts with gender to affect the choices. For example, the preferences of young children for gender-segregated groups begin to change in pre-adolescence (Brown, 1990), as do the gender-specific preferences for indoor and outdoor play (Pellegrini, 1992). Age may be less of a factor in play development in children with disabilities (Sigafoos, Roberts-Pennell, & Graves, 1999).

Developmental Delay or Disability

Multiple studies have demonstrated that children with physical disabilities play differently than children who are developing typically. Children with physical disabilities spend more time in passive activities (Brown & Gordon, 1987) and may demonstrate less active involvement with objects (Gowen, Johnson-Martin, Goldman, & Hussey, 1992). Children with physical disabilities spend more time with adults than with their peers and participate more in passive activities, such as television watching, than in active and varied play experiences (Howard, 1996). In addition, children with physical disabilities, cerebral palsy in particular, may be less playful than their typically developing peers (Okimoto, Bundy, & Hanzlik, 2000).

Based on previous research, it is unclear whether children with disabilities have different play preferences or merely have an inability to access various forms of play. One study demonstrated that children with mild motor disabilities held preferences similar to children without disabilities (Clifford & Bundy, 1989). In a study investigating object play preferences in children with an autistic spectrum disorder, Desha, Ziviani, and Rodger (2003) found that the children (41 to 86 months old) engaged predominantly in functional play and preferred toys with salient sensorimotor properties (toys that produced sound or movement with minimal effort). Other research has suggested that children with autism prefer toys and play situations that are structured and predictable (Ferrara & Hill, 1980).

Contextual Variables

Contextual factors may affect play occupations. Researchers have demonstrated that children have fairly stable preferences for play partners, including the gender of play partners (Hay, Payne, & Chadwick, 2004; Martin & Fabes, 2001), play settings, and play objects (Knox, 1997). Other studies suggest that the physical environment impacts children’s development of play occupations. For example, outdoor play provides children with opportunities for sensory exploration (e.g., in dirt, water, sand, and mud), learning about space, and vigorous physical activity. Indoor play offers opportunities for quiet play, reading, drawing, construction, and computer games (Clements, 2004).

Research Questions

The literature on children’s play preferences suggests that children have clear preferences that are influenced by gender, age, and developmental status. Examining the current play choices and preferences of children is important to further understand the development of play occupations and what variables influence a child’s play choices. This study investigated the play preferences of children with and without developmental delays who were between 3 and 7 years old. The specific research questions that guided our survey research were the following:

1. Do boys and girls differ in their play activity preferences?

2. Do children’s play activity preferences differ by age in early childhood years?

3. Do play activity preferences differ between children with developmental delays who receive therapy services and children with typical development?

Methods

Sample

Convenience sampling was used to recruit parents of children with typical development or with developmental delays (who received occupational, speech, or physical therapy services) who were between 3 and 8 years old to complete a survey describing play preferences. A total of 330 surveys were provided to parents of typically developing children and children with developmental delays in the Northeast and the Midwest regions in the United States. In the Midwest, participants were obtained through a large childcare center and two preschools. All participants in the Northeast were obtained through two large private practice clinics. To obtain a sample of typically developing children in the Northeast, parents of children receiving therapy services in the clinics were asked to complete a survey for a sibling without developmental problems.

Instrument

The survey was based on Takata’s instrument (Takata, 1969) that measures play preferences and the categories were modified to reflect modern play activities. The survey required parents to respond to a list of play activity preferences for one of their children. Studies have demonstrated that mothers can accurately rank play activities (Tamis-LeMonda, Damast, & Bornstein, 1994) and parent report has been used previously in research of children’s play preferences (Finegan, Niccols, Zacher, & Hood, 1991).

The survey listed play activities and contexts and asked parents to rate their child’s preference for each activity and context. Parents were also asked to provide information about age, disability status, and gender. The parents were asked about play preferences within a 3-month period because other researchers have suggested that play preferences remain relatively stable within this period of time (Finegan et al., 1991). Parents were not asked questions regarding their nationality, race, ethnicity, social class, or socioeconomic status because these factors have not been demonstrated to be related to play preferences (Meyer-Bahlburg et al., 1994). To pilot test the survey, two peer reviewers commented on the items and then six parents completed the survey and were asked to comment on its format and clarity and the amount of time it took to complete. Minimal revisions were made to improve clarity.

The final survey listed 37 play activities in 11 categories of play and 11 contextual variables. The survey used a 4-point Likert scale for scoring, with each play activity rated from highly preferred (4) to not preferred (1), and respondents could also select not applicable. Individual activities were listed under broader categories (e.g., gross motor play, creative play, and pretend play). The second part of the survey asked for the child’s preferences for specific play environments, including social context (e.g., friends or family) and physical contexts (e.g., inside or outside). A third section asked for descriptive information about the child (e.g., gender, birth date, diagnosis, if any, and services received).

Data Analysis

Demographic data and preference ratings were summarized using descriptive statistics. Children were combined into age groups by year by rounding to the nearest year. Although specific diagnoses were identified for the children, the children were grouped into those with and without developmental delays for purposes of analysis. To reduce the data, the individual activities were combined into play categories (e.g., gross motor, rough-and-tumble play, and pretend play). The 33 activities were collapsed into 9 play categories and the 11 contextual variables were collapsed into 4 play contexts. The figure identifies how the items were combined into categories.

When computing mean scores, the responses “not applicable” and “not preferred” were combined as a score of “1” because both responses indicated that the child did not engage in that play activity. Using each play category and play context, a three-way analysis of variance with gender, age, and disability status as the independent variables was computed. Scheffe post-hoc analyses were used to compare individual age groups. Effect sizes (Cohen’s d) were calculated for gender and developmental status comparisons. Although a Likert scale produces ordinal data, parametric statistical procedures were selected over non-parametric statistical procedures based on research demonstrating that these statistics result in the same conclusions as non-parametric tests (Glass, Peckham, & Sanders, 1972), they are preferable in most cases, and they do not increase the likelihood of a Type I or Type II error (Nanna & Sawilowsky, 1998; Rasmussen & Dunlap, 1991). Use of parametric statistics allowed us to examine the interactions among the variables.

Results

Sample

A total of 175 surveys were returned. Only five surveys for 8 year olds were returned; therefore these were omitted from the analysis. Of the 170 remaining, 166 were sufficiently complete to use in the analysis. Demographic data for the sample are presented in Table 1.

Gender

The three-way analysis of variance identified no significant differences in play activity preferences between boys and girls (effect size ranged from .01 to .26). Table 2 lists the mean scores, analysis of variance results, and effects sizes for the primary play categories. Play preferences were remarkably similar for boys and girls, with equivalent preference for gross motor play, rough-and-tumble play, video and computer games, drawing and coloring, dolls, and pretend play. The interaction for gender and age was significant for doll play preference. Three- to four-year-old boys preferred play with dolls and action figurines more than 3- to 4-year-old girls. In contrast, 5- to 6-year-old boys preferred play with dolls and action figurines less than 5- to 6-year-old girls. Play contexts were also compared by gender. Boys (m = 2.03) and girls (m = 1.95) were equally neutral about playing alone (F [1,156] = .074; p = .786). Both boys (m = 2.63) and girls (m = 2.60) equally preferred to play with friends (F [1, 156] = .031; p = .860) and equally preferred indoor (mean range: 2.73 to 2.80) and outdoor (mean range: 2.75 to 2.86) play.

Age Groups

Play preferences were compared by age groups. Table 3 shows which play categories were significantly different for age groups between 3 and 7 years old. In this early childhood age span, changes in play preferences were few. Preference for rough-and-tumble play changed significantly from 3 to 7 years old. Rough-and-tumble play was preferred most at 5 years old and was only somewhat preferred at 7 years old. Preference for video and computer games increased significantly in this age range. Video and computer game play was scored between not preferred and neutral at 3 years old and was somewhat preferred by 7 years old. Preference for drawing and coloring and construction increased from 3 to 7 years old, but these differences were not significant.

Preference for pretend play differed significantly across the age groups, with low preference scores at the youngest and oldest ages and higher preference scores at 4 and 5 years old. Doll and action figurine play was also highest at 4 years old; however, changes in doll play preference were not significant across age groups. When play contexts were compared across the age groups, children showed no differences in preference for playing alone (range: 1.88 to 2.23; F [4,156] = 1.3; p = .272) or with friends (range: 2.27 to 2.93; F [4,156] = 1.95; p = .105) or for playing indoors (range: 2.35 to 2.86; F [4,153] = .793: p = .531) or outdoors (range: 2.50 to 2.91; F [4,152] = 1.23; p = .300). The least preferred play context across all ages was alone.

Children With and Without Developmental Delays

Play preferences of children with developmental delays were compared to those of children with typical development. Mean scores, analysis of variance results, and effect sizes are presented in Table 4. Children in the delayed and non-delayed groups equally preferred gross motor play, but rough-and-tumble play was preferred more by children with developmental delays, demonstrating a moderate effect (d = .52). In the quiet play categories, typically developing children preferred drawing and coloring more than children with developmental delays. For drawing and coloring, there was also an interaction with gender: preferences of boys with developmental delays (m = 2.57) were lower than those of boys with typical development (m = 3.42), but girls were equivalent in the two groups (developmental delays m = 3.13; typical development m = 3.19). In children with developmental delays, preference for doll and action figurine play was significantly less and preference for object exploration was slightly greater than for children without developmental delays.

Although pretend play did not differ in these groups, the interaction of age and developmental delay status for pretend play preference was significant. In younger children (3 and 4 years old), those who were typically developing preferred pretend play; this preference reversed by 7 years old when preferences of children with developmental delays were significantly higher than typically developing children for pretend play. Play preferences for these two groups of children are rank ordered in Table 5. The five most preferred play forms for children with typical development were gross motor, drawing and coloring, reading and watching television, construction, and rough-and-tumble play. The five most preferred play forms for children with developmental delays were rough-and-tumble play, gross motor, reading and watching television, drawing and coloring, and construction.

Preferred play contexts also differed for the two groups. Although both groups were neutral about playing alone, children with developmental delays showed a lower preference for playing with friends (m = 2.29) than children with typical development (m = 2.93) (F [1,156] = 13.11; p < .001; d = .57). Children with and without developmental delays were similar in their preference for indoor (range: 2.66 to 2.86) and outdoor (range: 2.72 to 2.87) play.

Discussion

Gender Comparisons

A surprising finding was that boys and girls held the same or similar play preferences. For example, we found no differences between boys and girls in doll and action figurine play or pretend play. In contrast, most of the research literature has concluded that boys and girls prefer different types of play. In older studies (Fagot, 1974, 1978; McDowell, 1937), girls and boys preferred different toys (i.e., girls preferred dolls and house toys, whereas boys preferred blocks and transportation toys). During the preschool and early childhood years, boys are more likely to adopt fantasy and aggressive play (e.g., monsters or fighting) and girls are more likely to play house (Fein, 1981). One possible reason for our finding that boys and girls were similar in play preferences is that we broadly defined doll play to include play with action figurines (e.g., Batman, Spiderman, and robots), which are considered boy toys. With dolls defined this broadly, boys and girls did not differ.

In the research literature, pretend play is not the only play category where boys and girls differ. In two studies of children between 4 and 12 years old, boys preferred rough-and-tumble play and girls preferred quiet play (Finegan et al., 1991; Saracho, 1990). Saracho (1990) found that boys are more likely to prefer physical and block play over dramatic and manipulative play, and girls were the reverse. In a review of electronic play, Salonius-Pasternak (2005) reported that boys spend more time in video and computer game play than girls. Our study found no differences between boys and girls in preference for gross motor, rough-and-tumble play, or video game activities. Gym sets, trikes and bikes, and playgrounds were preferred play activities for both genders.

When genders are compared, preferences of boys and girls were remarkably similar. Boys were slightly, but not significantly, higher than girls in rough-and-tumble play (d = .26), and other areas that differed in previous studies (e.g., preference for video and computer games and drawing and coloring) were equivalent. The equivocal results between our study and those that preceded it may be explained by their different methodologies (e.g., our survey used parent report and listed both boy and girl examples of the play categories). Gender differences may not exist when broad play categories are measured.

Age Comparisons

When the ages of the children were compared, three categories showed significant differences across age groups. Rough-and-tumble play increased from 3 to 5 years old, and then decreased from 5 to 7 years old. As preference for rough-and-tumble play decreased, preference for video and computer games increased.

Other researchers (Salonius-Pasternak, 2005) have documented the increase in computer game play, which begins at 7 years old and peaks in adolescence. As documented in the literature, pretend play increases during the preschool years (3 to 5 years old) and decreases after 6 years old (Fein, 1981), when rule-governed games begin to dominate play (Parham & Primeau, 1997). Other categories showed expected trends, but differences among the age groups were not significant. Gross motor play (defined as bike, trike, tag, and gym set activities) did not decrease across the age groups and was consistently a highly preferred activity. Drawing and coloring, construction, watching television, and reading activities remained somewhat preferred throughout the age range.

The development of play skills has been well documented by researchers (Rosenblatt, 1977; Takata, 1969); however, most research has focused on the first 2 to 3 years of life, which is when play skills change dramatically. Our study captured ages during which play preference is stable for certain forms of play and evolving for others. Takata (1969) conceptualized 4 to 7 years old as one play epoch. Dramatic role playing, social role playing, and realistic construction characterize this epoch. Play preferences appear to change substantially after 7 years old, which is when children prefer games with rules and social play in the context of organized games. Our findings regarding the effect of age on play preferences, which were significant but not dramatic, may reflect that our age range was essentially one play epoch (Takata, 1969).

Differences Between Children With and Without Developmental Delays

In our sample, children with developmental delays were primarily children with sensory integration dysfunction, autism, pervasive developmental disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, or general developmental delays. Children with these diagnoses often have motor planning difficulty, sensory processing problems, and social and communication limitations without frank motor, manipulation, and mobility impairments. The play preferences of children with developmental delays were consistent with the performance limitations associated with these development disorders.

Children with developmental delays preferred rough-and-tumble play significantly more than children with typical development. This preference may reflect the sensory needs of children with autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, pervasive developmental disorder, or sensory integration disorder. Rough-and-tumble play, such as wrestling and rough housing, provides children with deep tissue pressure and joint compression, which is the proprioceptive input that helps their systems organize and calm (Baranek, 2002; Blanche & Schaaf, 2001). In addition, rough-and-tumble play does not demand fine motor skills or precision performance; it is play in which almost every child can participate and succeed.

The other play category in our study preferred significantly more by children with developmental delays was object exploration. Object exploration reflects basic sensory motor play that predominates in children 1 to 3 years old and decreases during the preschool years as more skillful and symbolic play emerges. The higher preference by children with developmental delays probably reflects preference for simpler, lower demand play activities. In other play forms, typically developing children showed higher preference; they preferred drawing and coloring and dolls and action figurines more than children with developmental delays. These play forms require fine motor and manipulative skills, and they require higher levels of cognitive ability, imagination, pretend, and understanding of symbols.

In addition, the interaction of pretend play, age, and developmental delay was significant. At younger ages, pretend play was preferred more by children with typical development; this reversed at older ages, when pretend play was preferred more by children with developmental delays. Therefore, the children with developmental delays developed an interest in pretend play at older ages, which is when interest by children with typical development was diminishing. This finding contrasts with that of Sigafoos et al. (1999), who found that children with disabilities did not exhibit play forms beyond sensorimotor and functional play. Our contrasting findings may be explained because the children in our sample were less severely involved.

Both groups were neutral (mean range: 1.81 to 2.45) for doll and action figurine play and pretend play. This neutral preference may reflect that the time spent in pretend play is minimal when compared to other play forms. Fein (1981) suggested that preschool children spend between 10% and 17% of their time in pretend play, which reflects only a small portion of boys’ and girls’ total play time. Sigafoos et al. (1999) observed that children with developmental delays spent 10% of their time in pretend play. When the types of play are rank ordered by preference, pretend play and doll and action figurine play have the lowest preference scores.

Numerous studies have documented differences in play when children with disabilities were compared to children without disabilities. Research demonstrates differences in play skills (Mogford, 1977), object and social play (Sigafoos et al., 1999), and playfulness (Clifford & Bundy, 1989; Okimoto et al., 2000). Sigafoos et al. (1999) followed preschool children with developmental disabilities for 3 years and documented that they primarily engaged in exploratory (28%) and functional play (57%) and that these percentages did not change over time. Baranek, Reinhartsen, and Wannamaker (2001) described the play of children with autism as lacking in imitation and imagination, containing fewer play repertoires, exhibiting decreased play organization, and exhibiting limited social play. Their play tends to lack flexibility and creativity (Craig & Baron-Cohen, 1999). Functional play seems to dominate in children with autism with minimal evidence of pretend or symbolic play (Libby, Powell, Messer, & Jordan, 1998).

Differences in children with sensory integration dysfunction have been identified by Parham and Mailloux (2005) and may be more subtle than the differences seen in autism (Desha et al., 2003). The play of children with sensory integration dysfunction is often limited in play scenarios because they avoid certain play experiences that cause sensory feedback discomfort and they have restricted action repertoires due to perceptual difficulties and dyspraxia (Knox, 2005; Parham & Mailloux, 2005). Using a sample of preschool age children (4 to 6 years) with sensory integration dysfunction, Clifford and Bundy (1989) did not find significant differences in play materials preferences but did find differences in how the children used toys. Our sample with developmental delays, which included autism, sensory integration dysfunction, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, showed trends similar to the literature in that the children preferred simple play forms (i.e., object exploration and rough-and-tumble play) to more complex and skilled play forms (i.e., drawing and coloring and pretend play).

When all play preference categories are ranked, the order of preference differed between groups, but the top five preferences were the same. The primary difference between the groups was in rough-and-tumble play (ranked first for children with developmental delays and fifth for children with typical development). Object exploration was the least preferred for children with typical development and dolls were least preferred for children with developmental delays.

Consistent with the literature that describes problems in social play in children with developmental delays, children with typical development had significantly higher preferences for playing with friends (d = .57) than children with developmental delays. Playing alone was significantly more preferred in children with developmental delays. Response to these items may reflect the child’s preference or may relate to actual play opportunities and experiences. Delays in communication and social interaction may create barriers for children with developmental delays to play with peers (Baranek et al., 2001; Tanta, 2004).

Clinical Implications

The findings of our study confirm the importance of physical play because, almost universally, the study participants enjoyed, and often preferred, physical play. At the same time, the participants balanced their preference for physical play with more sedentary play forms, such as reading, watching television, drawing and coloring, and construction. The range of preferences may indicate the need for relaxation as one aspect of play (Parham & Primeau, 1997). Children seem to have broad and varied play preferences because 6 of the 11 play forms were rated as somewhat to highly preferred. Individual play preferences appear to be best defined by the player and cannot be assumed based on age, gender, or disability status.

Of concern is the preference of children with developmental delays t

In English preschools, play is an integral part of the curriculum, founded on the belief that children learn through self-initiated free play in an exploratory environment (Hurst, 1997; cited in Curtis, 1998). It was only in the early 1920s that play was linked directly to children’s development. The writings of such early educationists, as Froebel, the Macmillan sisters, Montessori, Steiner, and Susan and Nathan Isaacs, sowed the seeds for play being the basis for early childhood curricula.

According to Froebel, play is “the work of the child” and a part of “the educational process” (ref). The Plowden Report (CACE, 1967) suggests that play is the principal means of learning in early childhood. “In play, children gradually develop concepts of causal relationships, the power to discriminate, to make judgements, to analyze and synthesize, to imagine and formulate” (The Plowden Report (CACE, 1967 (p.193).

In our society, play serves countless important purposes. It is a means by which children develop their physical, intellectual, emotional and social skills. Much has been written about the definitions, functions and characteristics of play, for example Janet Moyles (1989) writes that “Play is undoubtedly a means by which humans and animals explore a variety of experiences in different situations for diverse purposes.” (Moyles 1989, p i).

There are two conflicting opinions on the value of play, Early Years practitioners and some parents consider that play is the best way for young children to get a concrete basis for later school and life success. While other parents, practitioners and politicians believe that play is a waste of time. (quote). As a practitioner it is important to understand the true value of play and to advocate children’s right to play.

This essay analyses the elements of an early years setting that support and encourage learning, comparing it with an alternative early year’s settings, while evaluating the importance of effective communication with babies and young children. It will also debate the importance of differentiation and inclusion in planning the early year’s curriculum. In addition the essay will include compare and contrast different settings to see how they relate to known theories of child development. Furthermore plans of play-based activities will be included to show support of the curriculum in the setting.

Profile of setting.

The school where I am currently in placement is situated within a woodland area surrounded by houses in Colchester, Essex. The school is currently providing education for 4-11 year olds and has approximately one hundred and sixty children on role. The school was originally formed in 1890, but was moved to its current site in the 1970s after a fire broke out. The school is a Church of England school and encourages the children to have a Christian view, with assembles and signs around the school. The feel of the school is a friendly, supportive, family originated environment, which is child focused. The type of child who attends the school is on average a child who will always do their best no matter what their background. The schools community is mixed race but has a high percentage of mainly white British families, the school has 38% free school meals, in August ’09 had the highest jobseeker allowance attendance and has a high percentage of families on housing and benefits. The area that the school is situated is a renovation area that the Local Council are trying to regenerate. Within the two wards Essex County council and Colchester Borough Council the community have 2.3% rented housing and 10.5% housing. The Local Authority average is 11.85% which has almost double over the years. The school is above Local authority avenge and above national avenge which explains the percentage of free school meals. Lots of the house holds in the community have no formal education and there is a high percentage of children that are involved in social care. There are 4 children on the child protection register, 3 children which are ‘looked after’ and 1 child on the child in need plan. The school has an equal amount of boys and girls in each class but there are one or two classes that have slightly more boys than girls which can inflict on learning styles and standards.

The vision of the school is:

“We are a welcoming, happy and caring church school, where creativity is encouraged and everyone has confidence in their own abilities. We promote good social skills and participation in the Christian ethos of our school. We value others whatever their background or beliefs and respect our environment. We always aim high and do our best, cherish our friendships and respect everyone’s right to learn. We ensure that the key skills, vital for a successful future are taught to all of our children. We strive for a bright and wonderful future!” (Ref)

The school works with a number of organisations in the community. One is Child First, which is the collaborative name for the three Local Delivery Groups (LDG) of the schools in Colchester. The group first emerged out of the desire of Head Teachers in East Colchester, who wanted to improve the life chances for the children in their schools. With the arrival of the Extended Schools Agenda, it was a natural progression to extend the group to include all schools in Colchester.

Also lying at the heart of the community is the church, which has a congregation of around 100 people. With differing ages, a variety of backgrounds and Christian experiences, the school finds itself strongly united to the church as a reverend from the parish visits the school regularly.

Also the Ormiston Children and Families Trust works with the school to promote the wellbeing of children and young people through projects based around the Eastern Region. The Ormiston Centres work in partnership with Essex County Council, voluntary and statutory organisations, families and communities they are managing the seven Children’s Centres in Colchester.

LO1 – Compare setting with an alternative – analyse the elements of a chosen early years setting that support and encourage learning, comparing it with alternative early year settings.

What does the setting do to support and encourage learning?

Current setting:

The Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) applies to children from birth to the end of the reception year. In our school all children join us at the beginning of the school year in which they are five. At present we have an intake of 28 children. Most have been to settings that exist in our community and many have attended the pre-school located on the school campus.

At the school we recognise that every child is a competent learner who can be resilient, capable, confident and self assured. We recognise that children develop in individual ways, at varying rates. Children’s attitudes and dispositions to learning are influenced by feedback from others; we use praise and encouragement, as well as celebration/ sharing assemblies and rewards, to encourage children to develop a positive attitude to learning.

In the Foundation Stage we set realistic and challenging expectations that meet the needs of our children. We achieve this by planning to meet the needs of boys and girls, children with special educational needs, children who are more able, children with disabilities, children from all social and cultural backgrounds, children of different ethnic groups and those from diverse linguistic backgrounds.

We meet the needs of all our children through:

Planning opportunities that build upon and extend children’s knowledge, experience and interests, and develop their self-esteem and confidence;

Using a wide range of teaching strategies based on children’s learning needs;

Providing a wide range of opportunities to motivate and support children and to help them to learn effectively;

Providing a safe and supportive learning environment in which the contribution of all children is valued;

Using resources which reflect diversity and are free from discrimination and stereotyping;

Planning challenging activities for children whose ability and understanding are in advance of their language and communication skills;

Monitoring children’s progress and taking action to provide support as necessary.

At the school we recognize that the environment plays a key role in supporting and extending the children’s development. This begins by observing the children and assessing their interests, development and learning, before planning challenging but achievable activities and experiences to extend the children’s learning.

We make regular assessments of children’s learning and we use this information to ensure that future planning reflects identified needs. Assessment in the EYFS takes several different forms. These provide information which is then combined to inform detailed pictures of whole individuals.

The classrooms are organized to allow children to explore and learn securely and safely. There are areas where the children can be active, be quiet and rest. The school has excellent outdoor area provision. This has a positive effect on the children’s development. Being outdoors offers opportunities for doing things in different ways and on different scales than when indoors. It offers the children to explore use their senses and be physically active and exuberant. We plan activities and resources for the children to access outdoors that help the children to develop in all 6 areas of learning.

At the school we recognize that children learn and develop in different ways and at different rates. We believe that all our children matter and we give them every opportunity to achieve their best. We do this by taking account of our children’s range of life experiences when planning for their learning.

Active learning occurs when children are motivated and interested. Children need to have some independence and control over their learning. As children develop their confidence they learn to make decisions. It provides children with a sense of satisfactions as they take ownership of their learning.

Children should be given opportunity to be creative through all areas of learning, not just through the arts. Adults can support children’s thinking and help them to make connections by showing genuine interest, offering encouragement, clarifying ideas and asking open questions. Children can access resources freely and are allowed to move them around the classroom to extend their learning.

Different setting:

The Montessori’s’ principle insight was that children are not merely ‘small adults’ they have distinct and different thought processes and desires. What we may call play is a young child’s work. The role of the educator is to provide the child with the opportunity to fulfil their desire to learn, both academically and socially. To use the latest educational catch phrases, Montessori education is “multi-modality, differentiated instruction.” (Ref).

The Montessori method is split into five ‘areas’. ‘Practical Life’, ‘Sensorial’, ‘Mathematics’, ‘Language’, and ‘Cultural’. The Practical Life area improves the child’s coordination and motor control, developing the pincer grip which is a requirement of writing. The Sensorial area refines the child’s senses of the world around them, again preparing for language, and also for maths, serializing length and other physical characteristics. The Mathematics area provides numerical concepts in concrete form, using beads, cards, and spindles. The Language area teaches letters, then their phonetic sounds, and then builds words. The Cultural area extends the child’s understanding beyond the classroom, teaching science, geography, botany, zoology and history.

The teachers at a Montessori school observe their children in great detail asking the questions, what does this child understand? What is the next concept this child needs to learn?

Obviously, a Montessori classroom will not look like a normal classroom. Rarely, if ever, will you find the whole class sitting with their books out looking at the teacher show them how to fill in a worksheet. Instead you will see children, some in groups, some by themselves, working on different concepts, and the teacher sitting with a small group of children, usually on the floor around a mat.

Some people talk about the lack of “structure” in a Montessori Classroom. They hear the word “freedom” and think “chaos” or “free for all”. They seem to think that if all children are not doing the exact same thing at the exact same time that they can’t possibly be working or that they will be working only on the things that they want and their education will be lopsided. Children will be given a work plan or a contract and will need to complete an array of educational activities just like in a more traditional classroom. The main difference being that the activities will be at each child’s “maximum plane of development”, will be presented and practiced in a way that the child understands, and the child will have the freedom to choose which he/she does first.

LO2 – Communication – Evaluate the importance of effective communication with babies and young children.

Communication is a complex and important skill that is fundamental to human relationships, because humans appear primed to communicate from birth and we often underestimate the skills that must be developed if babies and children are to become sociable and effective communicators. The play experiences children need in order to become skilful communicators are those that encourage them to want to communicate with others and include not only verbal but also non-verbal responses such as movement of their whole body.

LO3 – Differentiation

Differentiation is the recognition of and commitment to plan for student differences. A differentiated classroom provides different avenues to acquire content, to process or make sense of information and ideas, and to develop products.

Differentiation can be referred to as an educational philosophy that requires teachers to modify their learning, teaching and assessment whilst adjusting the curriculum to the needs of children with SEN rather than expecting pupils to fit the existing curriculum (Cole 2008 cited in Rogers, 2007).

The history of differentiation in education can be linked to two influential psychologists. Vygotsky proposed that learning can be mediated through the intervention of others. This recognises that by having knowledge of what a child already knows should inform the next stage of learning and what interventions are necessary to enable successful learning. Gardner (1993) proposed a ‘theory of multiple intelligences’ in which people have different intelligences and learn in many different ways. Gardner conceived that schools should therefore offer ‘individual-centred education’ (Florian et al, 2006 cited in Humphreys and Lewis 2008b) in which learning is tailored to the child’s individual needs.

Lo4 – 2 different early year curricula.

The idea behind Forest Schools is that it is a long term sustainable approach to outdoor play and learning. It’s about providing children with holistic development; it looks at every area in terms of their physical development, intellectual development and cognitive skills, also looking at their linguistic and language, both verbal and non-verbal. Forest Schools also looks at their emotional, social development and spiritual development.

What’s interesting about the culture in some Scandinavian countries is being in and out doors are a part of how the family and culture works. But in Britain children are getting more and more isolated from the natural world. Forest Schools is very much about giving children the opportunity to learn in and from nature.

Forest Schools is also about free play, it’s about self directed learning but it’s also about allowing the children to develop freedom and choice in order to be able to become competent and effective adults.

In Every Chid Matters it states that ‘every child should make an equal contribution’. (Ref). The only way that children can do this is if they have sound self-esteem and sound emotional well-being and sound social skills and function in as many social situations as they choose. Forest Schools is about allowing children given their developmental dependant age the ability to be able to achieve social comfort.

Forest Schools is an inspirational process that allows children to access the outdoor space in order to grow and develop into successful, happy rounded individuals. There is a misconception that Forest Schools is for Early Years; some of the most successful projects have been with older young people, adults with mental health problems and children in secondary education. (Ref). The ……….about allowing children and young people to grow with a sense of value of who they are and giving a positive contribution. It’s all about using nature as the teacher as opposed to being adult lead.

LO5 – Activity Plans and Evaluation.

Plan – (see appendix …….), Rationale behind choice of activity and Learning Objective.

This activity was chosen as the reception class were looking at the Handa Surprise book and focusing on healthy foods. The day the activity was carried out a new student was present with his mother which added extra pressure for all the professionals. The learning environment offered opportunities for the children to experience tasting different fruits as the kitchen area was adjacent to the table in which the activity was carried out. It setting also had a large copy of the story so all the children were able to see the story (for Communication, Language and Literacy) and had the provisions to create the masks (Creative Development).

I thought the topic would lend itself to the next day’s topic of healthy lunchboxes, which the whole school were focusing on. I chose to focus on any existing knowledge the children may have of different fruits and try and extend their understanding of way fruits are good for us. This leads into Early Learning Goal (…) of ‘…………………………..'(QCA, 2000).

My main learning objective, therefore, was to introduce the children to new fruits and tastes, using language and listening to each other to find out what each child thought, in an accessible and enjoyable environment, so to encourage respect for each other’s views and turn taking.

What happened?

The week before carrying out the activity, i prepared the resources needed in school and discussed the other activities that my fellow practitioners would carry out. This involved printing, cutting and laminating the necessary pictures and masks. Also finding all the different fruits that were in the story. One fruit in particular i was unable to find but i improvised with a fruit drink that was made from the fruit so at least the children were able to taste the favour.

I carried out this activity with a mixed ability group of 9 children. I began by asking the children to wash their hands as they were going to be eating fruit. When all the children were back in their seats, i gave each of them a bowl and a cup. I asked the children if they could remember the fruits in the story of Hands Surprise which was read earlier. The children seemed to have a positive attitude about being able to remember. With a small copy of the book i asked the children which was the first fruit that the monkey took out of Handa’s basket. When answered in cut the banana in pieces and gave each child a piece and asked questions such as ‘what does the banana taste like?’ ‘How does it feel?’ ‘Do you like the banana?’ The children gave mostly good descriptions of the fruit and used appropriate vocabulary such as ‘creamy’, ‘slippery’ and ‘lovely’. I carried out the same routine of cutting the fruit into sections and passing a section to each child and asking them to describe what it tasted like and how it felt and whether they enjoyed it. With the Guava fruit which was the fruit i could not purchase i informed the children of the situation and showed them the picture of the fruit on the carton of juice. I gave each child a taste and asked their option, the overall option was that the fruit tasted ‘delicious’ but one child said that they ‘didn’t like it’. The most interesting discussion came when i asked the children what they thought the passion fruit would look like inside, one child said that ‘it might look like an orange’, the same child that said the banana was creamy (extension). Overall most of the children enjoyed the fruit tasting apart from one (standard) child who kept giving negative reactions to the fruit saying that he ‘doesn’t eat fruit at home’. I was happy that a least he tried some which i gave great encouragement to.

While the fruit was being eaten i passed around picture cards of the fruit and asked each child in turn to pronounce the name of the fruit after me, most children had no problems with the pronunciations but one child struggled with ‘avocado’.

I encouraged each child to have a little taste of each fruit and if they didn’t like it then they didn’t have to eat it and ‘well done for trying’ was always encouraged. The extension child suggested that ‘trying different fruits was good for us’, ‘as fruit was good for us’. Which then lead a child that was refusing to try a certain fruit, tried it? At one point the dismissive child asked if we were finished and could go and play.

Once all the children had tried all the fruit and we had discussed them and i asked the final question which was everyone favourite and their least favourite, the overall result being orange best, avocado worst. I explained that the children could go put their bowls in the sinks and wash their hands and then go and play.

Evaluation.

I believe this activity resulted in all the children achieving the main learning objective of introducing the children to new fruits and tastes, using language and listening to each other to find out what each child thought and to encourage respect for each other’s views and turn taking. The idea that the children’s peer could influence the decision of another child ……………………………..

An effective learning environment does not leave children entirely to their own devices, but builds on what they can already do and challenges them to try new things. The role of the practitioner is vital in this process and sits within the social constructivist approach to learning. This theory was popularised by Vygotsky (1978, in Smith, 1999), who identified the ‘zone of proximal development’, (ZPD) as being a reason why children’s learning can be helped by others. Smith (1999) explained:

‘The ZPD is the distance between the child’s developmental level and his or her potential level of development under the guidance of adults or more competent peers’ (Smith, 1999: 429).

As this was a ‘hands on’ activity, the children were taking an active part in their own learning progress. It was Piaget (1966, in Smith, 1999) who first postulated that the child is a ‘lone scientist’, processing information and constructing meaning through encounters with their world. Most of the children focused their attention to the fruits they enjoyed using positive language and engaging in the ability to use words to describe what something tasted like or felt. One child tried to extend the activity to see who the fruit sounded when bounced on the table saying ‘ the orange sounded like a ball’, this then encouraged the children to continue testing the sounds of fruit by knocking on them. The (extension) child asked ‘if there was nothing in the fruit would it sound the same’?

The relative success of this activity highlighted that children of this age learn best through concrete experiences. When working with children of this age group it is preferable to adopt teaching strategies which allow for plenty of practical activities and exploration.

The fact that one child lost interest in the activity, implies that I might need to develop this activity in some way to keep the attention of the less able or enthusiastic children. This was particularly notice when asking some children to use descriptive words to describe the fruit, as some children just repeated the word that their peer before them used. The language of one child was not as developed as the other children in the group, and this excluded them from full participation.

On reflection, a different teaching strategy could have been employed to involve them more fully into the activity. It could be that they were more of a kinaesthetic learner than the others, as he keep looking at the children playing, so maybe using an activity that involved movement may have kept his attention.

Also the activity was extended longer than anticipated as i had the cut each individual fruit into segments. If this activity was done again in the future maybe cutting the fruit into segments before the activity took place would be a more successful approach.

As a result of this evaluation, i would have changed my plan to include more opportunities for the children to be involved in the activity in a more physical way, perhaps by using safety acceptable knives the children could help me cut the fruit. This may help some of the children with their fine motor skills as well. Also another way of engaging less able children might include asking them to participate in the preparation of the resources, maybe by asking them to bring their favourite fruit from the story in so they feel they have a more ‘personal’ involvement. Finally, the only thing I would change would be to ask the children to put on aprons, as it got very messy, including me, as i too got very messy.

Conclusion

In conclusion recently there has begun to be a realization in the UK that play is important. There has been a surge of initiatives funded by government , such as Arts Council projects on creativity in schools and communities, the publication of Excellence and Enjoyment by the National Primary Strategy (DfES, 2003). This is putting a major emphasis on the importance of embedding the Foundation Stage and the Birth to Three Matters Framework in the work of local authorities across the maintained, voluntary and private sectors.

Increasingly, research findings indicate the importance of the first years of education. Children’s ability to use spoken and written language fluently and with confidence and for a range of purposes enables them to access at an early age what education has to offer. The adults working in early year’s settings and classrooms have both the opportunity and responsibility to affect the future learning of their pupils in a far reaching and powerful way.

Play is, it seems, about the universe and everything. It often has to function in a hostile environment, but when it is encouraged, supported and extended, it makes a major contribution to, and sophisticated impact on the development of individuals and humanity as a whole.

From 2008, child minders, nurseries, pre-schools and reception classes are required to pursue the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS), and will be checked under this framework by OfSTED. The EYFS has been planned to provide support and direction to all those working with children up to the age of 5 in how best to enable children to feel safe and supported and to extend their learning and development.

In EYFS, stress is placed upon understanding that each child and their family are unique, with different needs and concerns. Effective practitioners should be asking themselves ‘What sort of child is this and how am I going to support their development and learning?’ The EYFS has rightly set the relationship between practitioner and child at its core because we have a very special, influential and vitally important role as we support, facilitate, model, reflect, evaluate and engage with children along their learning journey.

Children’s learning and development is presented in 6 areas (personal social & emotional development; communication, language and literacy; problem solving, reasoning and numeracy; knowledge and understanding of the world; creative development; physical development) which bring together the skills, knowledge and experiences appropriate for babies and children as they grow, learn and develop.

Children’s development is presented under six overlapping phases (birth – 11 months, 8 – 20 months, 16 – 26 months, 22 – 36 months, 30 – 50 months and 40 – 60 months). This overlap is intended to emphasise the fact that there can be big differences between the development of children in different areas of learning, and between children of similar ages.

I particularly like this fact as it reinforces the important principle that children learn and develop in different ways and at varying rates but also that all areas of learning and development are equally important and inextricably interconnected.

E2 –
Forest Schools

The are a number of points where Forest Schools encourage and inspire children of any age through positive outdoor experiences.

Forest Schools aim to develop:

The personal development of the children so that there personal confidence, self esteem, self awareness, and social skills improve

A wider range of physical skills

Understanding of natural and man made environments

Understanding of environmental issues

Self Regulation, Intrinsic Motivation, Empathy, Good social communication skills, Independence and a positive mental attitude.

Forest School create a unique learning environment that is used to encourage a range of individuals, community groups and larger organisations to utilise their local open space for interactive play, health, recreation and personal development uses. The children would be encouraged to learn through play in the forests and develop their imagination through play

Forest Schools originated in Sweden in the 1950s when children started to be taught outside. They learnt about the natural world and the environment through songs, stories and practical activities with woodland materials. The first Forest School in Britain was initiated by Bridgwater College ten years ago.

Forest Schools use the outdoors to help children learn practical and social skills as well as independence. From as young as five years old, children can sit around a camp fire and learn how important it is to treat fire respectfully.

Child Care and Education – pg 289

Reggio Emilia

Started in Italy in the late 1940’s after the war. The aim is based on the ideas that a child is creative competent learner who discover in collaboration with adults and other children so they develop social learning. The basic idea of Reggio is believing in the importance of discovery, both indoor and outdoor, learning environments are stimulating and that children should reflect on their learning and document their own learning.

There are seven points that Reggio is based on

Creative thinking / using their imagination

Exploring and discovery / finding things out on their own

Free play

Following childrens interests / doing what they enjoy

Valuing, encouraging all ways children express themselves

Asking children to talk about ideas and to expand on them

Asking children to re-visit their ideas

There are also some central approaches to the Reggio Emelia approach

Low adult to children ratios

Teachers as learners and reflective practioners.

Child Care and Education – pg 289

Child Development – pg 155

What is child development theories?

Child development theories are an organized set of principles that are designed to explain and predict something. Over the years, psychologists and other scientists have devised a variety of theories with which to explain observations and discoveries about child development.

In addition to providing a broader framework of understanding, a good theory permits educated guesses-or hypotheses-about aspects of development that are not yet clearly understood.

These hypotheses provide the basis for further research. A theory also has practical value. When a parent, educator, therapist, or policymaker makes decisions that affect the lives of children, a well-founded theory can guide them in responsible ways.

Child development theories can also limit understanding, such as when a poor theory misleadingly emphasizes unimportant influences on development and underestimates the significance of other factors.

It is therefore essential that theories are carefully evaluated and tested through research, whose results often lead to improvements in theoretical claims. In addition, when theories are compared and contrasted, their strengths and limitations can be more easily identified.

There are four primary child development theories: psychoanalytic, learning, cognitive, and sociocultural. Each offers insights into the forces guiding childhood growth.

Each also has limitations, which is why many developmental scientists use more than one theory to guide their thinking about the growth of children.

Below are some major child development theorists and their theories.

Arnold Gesell
Main Theory

Development genetically determined by universal “maturation patterns” which occur in a predictable sequence.

Gesell’s classic study involved twin girls, both given training for motor skills but one given training for longer than the other.

There was no measurable difference in the age at which either child acquired the skills, suggesting that development had happened in a genetically programmed way, irrespective of the training given.

A child learns to whether or not an adult teaches him/her, suggesting physical development at least is largely pre-programmed.

By studying thousands of children over many years, Gesell came up with “milestones of development” – stages by which normal children can accomplish different tasks. These are still used today.

Sigmund Freud
Main Theory

Experiences in early childhood influence later development. Assumes sexual factors are major factors, even in early childhood.

Freud’s work was heavily criticised for lack of substantial evidence. He regarded basic sexual instincts as being the driving force behind virtually all behaviour.

He regarded the development of personality as being the balance between the Id, the Ego and the SuperEgo. The Id strives for unrealistic gratification of basic desires, the SuperEgo strives for unrealistic moral responsibility and conscience while the Ego acts to compromise these two opposing forces.

There are many unproven aspects to Freud’s work, for example Freud theorised that characteristics like generosity or possessiveness were related to childhood factors like parental attitudes to toilet training.

B.F.Skinner
Main Theory

Reinforcement and punishment moulds behaviour. Children are conditioned by their experiences.

Skinner maintained that learning occurred as a result of the organism responding to, or operating on, its environment, and coined the term operant conditioning to describe this phenomenon.

He did extensive research with animals, notably rats and pigeons, and invented the famous Skinner box, in which a rat learns to press a lever in order to obtain food.

Alfred Bandura
Main Theory

Learning takes place by imitation. This differs from Skinner’s “conditioning” because there is more emphasis on inner motivational factors.

Bandura’s theory known as “Social Learning Theory” has been renamed “Social Cognitive Theory” to accomodate later developments of the theory.

Bandura is seen by many as a cognitive psychologist because of his focus on motivational factors and self-regulatory mechanisms that contribute to a person’s behaviour, rather than just environmental factors.

This focus on cognition is what differentiates social cognitive theory from Skinner’s purely behaviouristic viewpoint.

Lev Vygotsky
Main Theory

Development is primarily driven by language, social context and adult guidance.

Lev Vygotski was a Russian psychologist who died prematurely. His most productive years were at the Institute of Psychology in Moscow (1924-34), where he developed ideas on cognitive development, particularly the relationship between language and thinking.

His writings emphasised the roles of historical, cultural, and social factors in cognition and argued that language was the most important symbolic tool provided by society.

Jean Piaget
Main Theory

Development takes place in distinct stages of cognitive development. Adults influence but the child is building their own thinking systems.

Jean Piaget is known for his research in developmental psychology. He studied under C. G. Jung and Eugen Bleuler.

He was involved in the administration of intelligence tests to children and became interested in the types of mistakes children of various ages were likely to make.

Piaget began to study the reasoning processes of children at various ages. Piaget theorized that cognitive development proceeds in four genetically determined stages that always follow the same sequential order.

Erik Erikson

Theorist Erik Erikson also proposed a stage theory of development, but his theory encompassed development throughout the human lifespan.

Erikson believed that each stage of development is focused on overcoming a conflict. Success or failure in dealing with conflicts can impact overall functioning.

E3 –

The guidance states that “Play underpins the delivery of all the EYFS” and there are constant reminders throughout the guidance for practitioners to facilitate child initiated learning through play. As the keystone to being an effective practitioner is tuning into children’s interests and thoughts so that we can tap into what they know and love to stimulate and inspire, play is also at the heart of the EYFS’s delivery and can be so motivational for everyone involved. Just as an onion adds essential flavour to hundreds of recipes, so too can the EYFS. By using it, delving deep into the many layers and learning from all of the supporting materials we can enrich young childrens’ lives by being reflective and well equipped facilitators enjoying the learning journey with them!

The Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) is about improving life chances for all children, by giving them the opportunity to have the best possible start, regardless of their family circumstances or the setting they attend. The EYFS will be designed to deliver improved outcomes for all children, across every area of learning and development. We know that there are particular gains for disadvantaged children from early access to high quality care and education and we will focus on closing the achievement gap between those children and others.

2. Through the Childcare Bill, we seek to establish a single coherent phase of development for all young children, as announced in the 10 year strategy for childcare ‘Choice for parents, the best start for children’. We will provide a flexible system that fosters and supports their development from birth, where they will interact with adults that are appropriately trained and experienced; in environments that are safe, caring and loving. The approach of practitioners will be age appropriate, ensuring that there are different activities for children of different ages and at different stages of their development. Through the EYFS parents can feel secure knowing that all settings will allow children to progress at a pace that’s right for them as individuals, taking account of any particular needs they may have.

3. For young children, care and learning are indistinguishable. Care cannot be considered to be of good quality unless it provides opportunities for children to learn and develop. Learning cannot be considered to be of good quality unless it is provided within an environment where all children feel safe, secure and included. By applying the same system to all providers we will ensure a level of consistency and quality across all settings. The child’s needs do not change depending on the setting and nor should the standards and quality experienced by the child

The Early Years Foundation Stage – is a central part of the ten year childcare strategy:

– Ensuring a consistent approach to care and learning from birth to the end of the Foundation Stage.

– Incorporating elements of the National Standards.

– Has a play-based approach

– Focuses on stages of development rather than chronological, age based teaching and learning

The overarching aim of the EYFS is to help children achieve the Every Child Matters five outcomes:

1. Staying safe

2. Being healthy

3. Enjoying and achieving

4. Making a positive contribution

5. Achieving economic wellbeing

The EYFS aims to help children achieve the 5 outcomes by:

1. Setting standards

2. Promoting Equality of opportunity

3. Creating a framework for partnership working

4. Improving quality and consistency

5. Laying a secure foundation for future learning and development

PRINCIPLES

The EYFS principles are grouped into 4 themes

1. A unique child.

Principle – Every child is a competent learner from birth who can be resilient, capable, confident and self-assured

2. Positive Relationships

Principle – Children learn to be strong and independent from a base of loving and secure relationships with parents and/or a key person

3. Enabling Environments

Principle – The environment plays a key role in supporting and extending children’s development and learning

4. Learning and Development

Principle – Children develop and learn in different ways and at different rates and all areas of learning and development are equally important and inter-connected.

WELFARE REQUIREMENTS

There are 5 Welfare Requirements

1. Safeguarding and promoting children’s welfare

2. Suitable person

3. Suitable premises, environment and equipment

4. Organisation

5. Documentation

LEGAL REQUIREMENTS

For each Welfare requirement there are:

General requirements

Specific requirements

Statutory Guidance to which providers should have regard (Further information is provided in the Practice guidance)

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

There are six stages of development and each one is matched, in all 6 areas of learning, to a photo of a baby or child in the practice guidance. The stages overlap:

1. Birth to 11 months

2. 8 to 20 months

3. 16 to 26 months

4. 22 to 36 months

5. 30 to 50 months

6. 40 to 60 months (can be 71 mths for a September born child)

Stages are more important than ages and every area of development IS EQUALLY IMPORTANT;

Physical, cognitive, linguistic, spiritual, social, emotional.

In order for children to learn successfully they need to be in a secure environment which is physically comfortable. Children can spend long days in a setting and need to have space where they can relax and rest.

Babies and young children make learning connections in their brains faster and better in an enriched environment. Adult interactions which help support and extend their learning make a big difference to learning, as does physical activity during the session.

E4 and B1 –

The theorists, Piaget, and Vygotsky, both had views on the significance about the role of play and learning in the early years, and both found it to be a crucial part of a child’s development. Piaget’s idea of self discovery proposed that children needed minimal adult interactions to help them learn through life, this was his lone scientist theory’ (Lindon 2001). He believed that the children tried, without adult help, to make sense of the world and understand what was going on around them. He had similar thoughts on his theory of child language acquisition. Not only this, but he had a notion that play was a window that reflected the goings on in the life of a child. However, Vygotsky argued differently. He proposed that children are social learners, and liked to explore and discover new things with the help of adults, not without. This was his scaffolding theory and the zone of proximal development’, the ZPD (Whitebread, 2003). Furthermore, Bruner argued that when the children are older they stop learning new things, and start to build on what they already know (Lindon, 2001). If children were left to teach themselves, as Piaget suggests, the children may not learn all they need to know, such as Maths. The subject of Maths needs adult interaction and teachings thus making sure that the children understand correctly, and that the necessary information is being learnt. Furthermore, some children, even in a play situation, will continually return to the same area and objects because it is their comfort zone. Evidently this way the child will fail to benefit from the learning

A number of ‘popular theorists’ had different approaches to a child’s learning and development which is linked to intellectual and social development.

Bowlby popularised the ideas that a baby must have an emotional bond with its mother during the first two years of its life. He said that if this bond was not developed during that time there would be a negative impact for the child and would lead to a lack of ‘social, emotional and intellectual’ development. Bowlby was the first theory to focus on the formation of parent-child relationships. It explained the connection between relationships that occur early in our lives and those that happen later, including romantic ones. Attachment theory has generated thousands of scientific studies, and has led to changes in many childcare policies, such as those allowing parents to stay with their children in hospitals.

Bandura took a very different approach to developmental psychology and demonstrated that children learn development from role models. Bandura’s approach is an extension of behavioral theories which emphasise the way we learn behaviour from others, our environment, experiences and so on. Bandura was particularly interested in the way children learn new behaviours through observing and imitating role models. They learn from sibling, brothers, sisters,friends.

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory modified traditional learning theory which was based on stimulus-response relationships. It considered learning to be no different among infants, children, adults, or even animals. Bandura’s approach is influential in the treatment of problem behaviors and disorders.

Piaget was cognitive development. His influential approach to child development is called the structuralist approach. He argued that younger children do not have the capabilities to think in the same way as older children and those children have to go through a process of cognitive development in order to achieve the abilities of an older child or adult. Piaget believed that there are a number of stages that all children go through in the same order. Piaget argues that these stages are instinctive.

Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory created a revolution in human development theory. He proposed the existence of four major stages, or “periods,” during which children and adolescents master the ability to use symbols and to reason in abstract ways.

Learning can be based on a spiral approach (Janet Moyles 1989) which starts with free-play which allows children to explore e.g. To explore water using equipment provided. If the child is ready the model progresses to structured play where the teacher uses his/her observations of the children’s freeplay to direct the children’s exploration e.g. To explore how to change the size of a splash. Can you make a small splash, can you make a big splash? It is important to allow children the opportunity to practise the skill they have mastered through lone and peer supported play.

When the child is ready i.e. can change the size of the splash, the model moves on. The child can then have the opportunity to make sense of what they have learned by making their own decisions and choices to apply the skill to solve a problem e.g To apply their understanding of changing the size of a splash to make a controlled splash. Can they have a competition to see who can make the biggest splash and smallest splash? Children who have not developed the skill to control their splash may need more free-play and directed play. Further opportunity should be given for the child to master their skill. The child can then be further challenged by applying their skill to a different context and/or resources. Which ball/object do they think will makes the biggest/smallest splash? Predict and test. Sequence objects according to the size of splash they make.

“Children’s play reflects their wide ranging and varied interests and pre-occupations. In their play children learn at their highest level. Play with peers is important for children’s development.”

Through play our children explore and develop learning experiences, which help them make sense of the world. They practice and build up ideas, and learn how to control themselves and understand the need for rules. They have the opportunity to think creatively alongside other children as well as on their own. They communicate with others as they investigate and solve problems. They express fears or re-live anxious experiences in controlled and safe situations.

Active Learning

“Children learn best through physical and mental challenges. Active learning involves other people, objects, ideas and events that engage and involve children for sustained periods.”

Active learning occurs when children are motivated and interested. Children need to have some independence and control over their learning. As children develop their confidence they learn to make decisions. It provides children with a sense of satisfactions as they take ownership of their learning.

E5 –

Observing children is different from being alert and noticing what is happening around you. Observations have to be focused and carried out in an order to plan for and assess children in a purposeful manner

The information below gives advice on the following on some principles for observational assessment, and how to put them into practice:

1. Assessment must have a purpose.

2. Ongoing observation of children participating in everyday activities is the most reliable way of building up an accurate picture of what children know, understand, feel, are interested in and can do.

3. Practitioners should both plan observations and be ready to capture the spontaneous but important moments.

4. Judgements of children’s development and learning must be based on skills, knowledge, understanding and behaviour that are demonstrated consistently and independently.

5. Effective assessment takes equal account of all aspects of the child’s development and learning.

6. Accurate assessments are reliant upon taking account of contributions from a range of perspectives.

7. Assessments must actively engage parents in developing an accurate picture of the child’s development.

8. Children must be fully involved in their own assessment.

However observations are only as good as the importance of record keeping as a tool to help practitioners, children and their parents reflect on children’s attainment and progress.

E6 –

A multi professional approach when working with children and parents is important as it helps children not ‘to slip through the net’.

Communication is the biggest part of the multi – professional team, as everyone needs to know what is going on.

The multi professional approach team is made up of a lot of different agencies, they are agencies including Schools and teachers, Hospitals and doctors, Social workers, Police and many more. They all work together to help parents and children to stop tragic cases such as death, child abuse, etc.

Multi professional approach allows professionals share knowledge about a family needs so that the parents don’t have to ask the same questions over and over again.

The professionals are aware of each others roles in supporting the family so that conflicting advice can be minimise. It is essential that each agency communicates well and understands not only there role and responsibilities but the others agencies as well.

Parents/guardians are the most important people in a child’s life, and recognise the importance of this. We have a responsible role that involves sharing care of the child with parents/guardians; listen to parents/guardians, as they are the ‘expert’ on their child.

E7 and D1 –

Every Child Matters is a fundamental part of the curriculum. The new aims for the curriculum – agreed by school leaders, teachers and other education professionals – and the new emphasis on personal development are closely linked to Every Child Matters, promoting learners’ wellbeing and enabling them to develop their potential as healthy, enterprising and responsible citizens. The new personal, learning and thinking skills framework seeks to develop the qualities and skills that learners need for success in learning and in life.

Every Child Matters states that every child, whatever their background or circumstances, should have the support they need to: be healthy, stay safe, enjoy and achieve, make a positive contribution, achieve economic wellbeing

These five outcomes need to be at the heart of everything a school does and reinforced through every aspect of its curriculum – lessons, events, routines, the environment in which children learn and what they do out of school.

The following sections, which can be accessed via the links on the left-hand side of this page, look at the place of Every Child Matters within the whole-school curriculum, and at the types of learning experience – both in and outside lessons – that schools can design to meet each outcome.

ECM in the curriculum

Be healthy

Stay safe

Enjoy and achieve

Make a positive contribution

Achieve economic wellbeing

Early Years Curriculum

Early Education

Providers involved in the care and education of young children from birth to five follow statutory guidance from the Department for Children, Schools and Families. This guidance is intended to support practitioners to meet the diverse needs of all children, enabling them to enjoy and achieve.

Children birth to three years

Care, learning and development for babies and children up to three is available at a variety of settings including day nurseries, registered pre schools and childminders. Practitioners use the Birth to Three Matters Framework to support the young children in their care. The Framework:

values and celebrates babies and children

recognises their individuality, efforts and achievements

recognises that all children from birth develop and learning though interaction with people and exploration of the world around them

recognises the ‘holistic’ nature of development and learning

The child is at the centre of the Birth to Three Matters Framework. It identifies four Aspects, which celebrate the skill and competence of babies and young children and highlights the links between growth, learning, development and the importance of the environment in which they are cared for and educated.

These four ‘Aspects’ are

A Strong Child

A Skilful Communicator

A Competent Learner

A Healthy Child

All children, whichever provision they attend, will experience a play based curriculum of planned, independent and adult led activities. These experiences may take place indoors and/or outdoors and will aim to develop knowledge, skills and understanding in the following areas:

Personal, Social and Emotional Development

Helps children to mix and form relationships with individuals and groups, playing and learning co-operatively. Children are supported to develop a positive sense of themselves and an awareness of the needs and feelings of others

Communication, Language and Literacy

Children are supported to develop skills in talking and listening, reading and writing. They are introduced to a rich learning environment where these skills are valued.

Mathematical Development

Mathematical understanding is developed through a variety of practical activities based on every day situations. Children are supported to develop mathematical ideas and use related vocabulary while taking part in sorting, matching, ordering, counting, pattern making and working with numbers, shapes and measures.

Knowledge and Understanding of the World

Children are encouraged to be curious, to ask questions, to experiment and solve problems to help them make sense of the world they live in. A variety of practical experiences build the foundation for later learning about science, design and technology, information and communication technology, history, geography and religious education.

Physical Development

Young children are supported to develop physical control, co- ordination and manipulation, confidence and ability to move in different ways and handle large and small equipment. Children learn how their bodies work and how to stay active, safe and healthy.

Creative Development

Children have opportunities to take part in a range of creative experiences. As their imagination develops they have opportunities to communicate and express their ideas and feelings in a number of ways through artwork, music, dance and role play.

These six areas of learning are of equal importance and through activities and experiences children learn and develop in a holistic manner.

E8 –

We recognise that p

b. The basic concept of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.

As we know, the famous theory of cognitive development was found by Jean Piaget. He was born in 1896 (Newkirk, 2009). Newkirk also mentioned that Piaget was a theorists and also a biologist. Besides,the author reported that Piaget did observing his own children and attracted to changes that occured and developed in children’s mind and the factors behind these changes. In addition, Gartrell (2011) also stated that Piaget’s method by questioning the children is called as clinical method. Children started to develop their understanding through their surrounding based on four stages of cognitive development. As mentioned by Gartrell the stages are the sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage and lastly formal operations stage.

The first stage is sensorimotor stage which starts when the babies were born until age of 2 years old while second stage starts around the age of 2 to 7 years (Santrock, 2011). The author also claimed about the other stages, that are the third stage, concrete operational stage which lasts from 7 until 11 or 12 years old and lastly moving to the fourth stage is formal operations stage. Compared to the other three stages earlier which involving babies and children, this last stage is involving with the adolescence and adulthood. This is the highest stage in cognitive development because this is where a person can make such reasoning and hypothesis (Santrock, 2011) for example, not only concrete events but also towards abstract events such as feelings or inferencing scientific experiments.

Furthermore, Santrock (2011) proposed that there are two basic tendencies that will go together with these four stages, which are organization and adaption. Ormrod (2011) stated that organization is possibility of a person to handle their process of thinking. It is also called as schemes which means the building block of intelligent behavior. Next, adaption is the process of an individual to adapt to the environment (Ormrod, 2011). In the same way, Ormrod stated that there are two basic processes in adaption which are assimilation and accommodation.

According to Krause, Bochner and Duchesne, cognition is the mental processes involved in perceiving, attending to, understanding and recalling information’ (2007, p43). Piaget’s theory of cognitive is underline into the consciousness of mind and thinking. As children are developing, their way of thinking started to change from time to time accordingly to the four stages. Piaget was not really interested into the knowledge having by the children but he was more fascinated by the way of children think, observe their surrounding and how they express it into speeches (Krause et al., 2007). The authors too found that Piaget and his theory are important because he is the first theorists that came out with such theory about development of children from the aspect of cognitive and his idea is still be using untill now even though it has been years.

c. Discuss how the Piaget’s theory apply to child development.

Self development is very important in children’s life because it develop in them while they are growing up. In Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, he focused of four stages of children development that are, sensorimotor stage as the first, secondly is preoperational stage, next concrete operational stage and last but not least formal operations stage.

As explained earlier, sensorimotor stage is occured from the birth untill the age of 2 years. According to Krause et al.,(2007), infants in this stage will begin to develope their reflexes by doing some motor activities and senses. They are trying to understand the world around them. For example, infants will show happy expression or laughing when we are teasing and cuddling with them, this shows that infants started to make sense things around them but with limited abilities because it is only based on what they get through their senses. In sensorimotor, there are sub-stages that divided into 6 categories, that are reflexes, primary circular reactions, secondary circular reactions, coordination of reactions, tertiary circular reactions and early representional thought (Brenda, 2010). The first sub-stage is reflexes, according to Brenda (2010) this sub-stage is occured from the birth of the infants until 1 month old. During this stage, infants understand their surrounding by using simple reflexes for example they will starting to smile. Next, primary circular reactions sub-stage is when the infants are 1 to 4 months. Variety of actions will be perform. For instance, infants are sucking his or her thumb, and as a result they will repeat the same actions because it pleasure them. As it goes on, third sub-stage is secondary circular reactions which occured during 4 to 8 months. Brenda (2010) mentioned in this sub-stage, the infants will be doing the same actions but it extends out to the environment such as replacing sucking their thumbs with rubber toys. In other words the infants are having improvement in their reactions. Moreover, in fourth sub-stage which is coordination of reactions from the age of 8 to 12 months. They will begin to show clear actions and observe others behavior other than starting to develop ability in recognizing the things that had been shown to them. As example, instead of sucking thumb, infants will replace it with their toys. They may squeeze their rubber toys, when it goes “mooo mooo”, they will get excited and squeeze it again. Krause et al.,(2007) proposed that the infants also will understand that their toys are exist even though they cannot be seen or touch it or called it as “object permanance”. For example, a doll at first was played by infant, when we put and hide it under blanket the infant will be able to look for it. Infants who do not reach this sub-stage will not be able to look for it, but they will just not realize it. As the infants are growing up to become toddlers, the sub-stages also moving to the next, tertiary secular reactions where occured during toddler age 12 to 18 months. This is the time where toddlers will learn the concept of trial-error experiments with the purpose of getting attention (Brenda, 2010). Specifically, one of the activity might be doing by toddlers is hitting fork and spoon on the dining table, just to know what will happen, what sound will come out, and what are the reactions they will get from others. Krause et al. called this process as ‘goal-directed or intentional action’ (2007, p46). Last but not least sub-stage is early representional talk, from the toddlers at age of 18 until 24 months old (Krause et al., 2007). Based on the authors, this last sub-stage is where we can see the toddlers start to imitate others. During this stage, people around them need to be careful and only if possible showing them the good side especially their parents. This is because since parents are the closest people in toddlers life, they will observe what their parents are doing. For example, if the mothers usually sweeping the house at the morning, the toddlers will observe it and will do the same action of sweeping the house even though it is without the broom. As I experienced this too, during my visits to my auntie’s home, she has a 19 months old toddlers. I realized that her child keep following my way of reading magazines and drinking coffee from my mug. Even though the objects are not with the baby, but she followed my actions. In my opinion, parents need to get close with toddler to help their growth and try to play game with them such as peek-a-boo game because this will help the children to strenghten their “object-permanance” ability and moving to the next stages as Piaget had observed.

The second stage that apply to child development is preoperational stage, which occured within the age of 2 to 7 years old. Newkirk (2009) proposed that children in this stage will develop from several aspects. They will be more capable in the usage of language skills for instance they can explain the objects by replacing it with pictures or words. But they still not be able to speak like adult, they can at least use one or two-words sentences to delivered messages. According to Newkirk, imagination level of children in this stage will usually increase and they are more curious to all things instead of being logical. Unlikely the first stage, in this second stage children will spend more of their time by putting role while they are playing. For instance, children always pretend a box is a house for them to shelter. Even myself experienced that during my childhood. I built my so-called ‘home’ by using boxes and I create my own ‘family members’ using my dolls to stay in that house, I even pretend cooked meals for my ‘family’. This prove that children’s imagination during this stage is very high but they still need supervision from parents in case they are exposed to unappropriate elements. Krause et al. (2007) noted that there are three main characteristics of preoperational stage which are egocentrism, centration and animism. The author define egocentric as the person who is unable to share another person’s idea or view because the person considered that all view are the same with he or she. Piaget’s had done with the Three Mountain Tasks model experiments, and as the result the children expects that the person on other side of the model is seeing the same view as them (Krause et al., 2007). Next is centration, the authors described the meaning as the children focus on one feature of problems while ignoring other features. For example, children will not understand if we tell them “Your sister is my daughter” because their ability is limited. Moving on, the last characteristic is animism. In this characteristic, the authors claimed that children belief that all things have lives. They considered inanimate objects have emotions and feelings like them. For example, a girl who age 3 years old always talk with her teddy bear as the teddy bear is alive and answers her.

Piaget’s third stage in child development is concrete operational stage which is from the age of 7 to 11 years (Santrock, 2011). During this stage, children are able to logically think about the concrete events and starting to eliminate their egocentrism which means they started to learn to view other’s perspective too. Even though they are getting capable in the usage of logic but they still having the difficulty in understanding the hypothetical concepts (Krause et al., 2007). The authors also claimed that there are several processes in this stage that involve in child development, that are reversibility where the children have the ability to think about the reverse event such as in mathematical solving problems where they need to add and subtract and add it back, secondly is seriation which menas the ability to mentally put things in order according to its features for example size, weight, and height. Next is compensation, where the children have the ability see that something is increase because of something is decrease such as the height is increasing because of the width s decreasing and vice versa. Besides, the fourth is classficiation which means the ability that children have to name and identify the sets or group of the objects by its features such as size, colours and appearance. Class inclusion is the fifth processes mentioned by the authors which bring the meaning of ability to understand that a small amount of groups can be combine to form a large group as Krause et al. called it as ‘multiple classification’ (2007, p53). For example a car can be include into it’s brand name such as Proton or under large group of vehicles. Last but not least the processes found by Krause et al. (2007) is conservation, whereby children at last know that quantities, or lenghts are not related at all to the arrangement or appearance of the things. For example, a child is presented with two same sized of bowls filled with flour, but when one of the full bowl flour is pour into jar with different sized he and she or he will still know that the quantity of the flour is the same either it is in bowl or jar.

Lastly, the fourth stages in Piagetian is formal operations which occur to 11 years old children and beyond (Santrock, 2011). As we can see, this is the highest level of child development in Piaget’s theory as it goes until our adulthood. Santrock stated that in this stages people continue to develop ability of thinking with presence of abstract concept. Logically, children begin to take notes about the possibility of the consequences of every events they experienced and also started to think in a formal way. Besides, Krause et al. (2007) suggested that children in this stage are already know how to use deductive and inductive reasoning. As the author define deductive reasoning as the potentiality of children to use a general principle to determine a specific outcome, on the other hand inductive reasoning is using and observing specific outcome to include general principles. In this final stage also children will develop their problem solving activities. When entering adoloscence, they are able to do systematic planning in their life and also make a hypothesis, inference far better than stages before (Brenda, 2010). Overall, that are the four stages that involve in child development until adolescence.

d. Discuss how the Piaget’s theory apply children in preschool and early primary levels.

Preschool children are basically who are still develop their cognitive abilities in stage two, preoperational. As stated by Krause et al. (2007) regarding applying Piaget’s theory into preschoolchildren who are still in stage two, there will be at least two parties that involved in helping to apply this cognitive theory to children firstly parents, secondly educators or teachers.Moreover, by introduce to children this concept means we are letting them to be independent and explore their world by themselves.

Preschool children who are basically age between 4 to 6 years are in preoperaional stage. As I explained in previous sub-questions, children in this stage has become more capable in obtaining language skills and using it to represent objects but still limited because they cannot reached the events where explanation need to relate with concrete logic. Firstly as parents, they must give freedom to their children especially preschool children to play with their friends since children in this stage will spent more of their time with playing (Krause et al., 2007). Nowadays, majority of parents always having misconceptions, they think that they cannot let their children play too much, in fact they should not too strict in controlling their children. What parents should do is by letting their children play with their friends but make sure to supervision who are their friends. Logically, according to Krause et al., by giving children chance to play, they will explored their world while interacting with friends (2007). Create a safe-mode place for them to play so that they feels your attention towards them, during this process children will encounter some problems. This is the right time to let them be independence by solving their problems but with supervision. Even though at first they might not really capable in solving it but it will be better as they go through this process and get knowledge from what we called as hands-on experiences (Krause et al., 2007). Besides, Ormrod suggested that parents should always communicate with their children especially who are in this stage. This is because children may feel left out if their parents are too busy and even do not have time to spend with them. In other way, this also a good opportunities to increas the level of self-esteem of the children.

On the other hand, teachers also play an important role in applying preoperational stage towards preschool children. Newkirk found out that since children during this stage will usually be in egocentrism state, they do not realize about other perspectives (2009). So, as a teacher need to know how to handle this situation for example letting the children having conversation with the peers in class will enhance their understanding of others’ world or teachers can create a questions and answers session with the preschool students. The purpose of doing that is because to increase the self esteem of children and to let them hear others views too so that their level of egocentrism can be decrease. As an educators,creactivity is needed to attract preschool children in learning such as by using visual aids to stimulate the children’s mind (Newkirk, 2009). Examples of visual aids are like bringing props such as the real fruits if teachers want to teach about type of fruits in class. After finished teaching, teachers can serve the students with the fruits, and let them have the hands-on experience. The author also did mentioned that in order to develop preoperational stage between the children, use things that are different for examples cue cards written words and ask them to create sentences based on cards that they have or teachers can ask the preschool students to work in a group. In addition, interactions with peers will help the preschool children to improve their cognitive development or it is called as disequilibrium (Ormrod, 2011). Why talking with peers can help the children? This is because, logically the children and peers are at the same age level, so they can be more understanding between their group.

How can we know if the children are applying preoperation stage in their cognitive development? Krause et al. (2007) described that the development at each cognitive stages is called as milestones. In this preoperational stage, Krause et al. also reported the children’s milestones development is from the aspect of thinking and language skill whereby they know to replace objects with drawing, words or gestures. As for instance, when children are at shopping mall, they are able to tell their parents by pointing to the things that attract them such as toys and dolls. Besides children also learnt to produce sound for example while they are playing with their soldier toys, they can make sound like “dush dush” to indicate the soldier toys they are playing with are fighting. In contrast, children who do not develop well in this stage will no be able to differentiate between the living things and inanimate objects. For example, they are treating the real cats and cat doll the same as both have feelings, emotions and know how to feel hungry whereas only the living things can feel all that.

In a nutshell, children will reached each stages when the readiness come and they still need to be taught to guide to the right path. Krause et al. (2007) did proposed that teachers and parents should not teach their children the highest level of stages if it is not the right time by means the children are just not ready yet.

e. Summary.

In conclusion, I agreed with propose suggested by Ormrod (2011), Piaget’s theory have its own benefits and disadvantegous. As Piaget’s idea was the first to talk about cognitive development among children, his idea is the famous one and still be used even until today. In my opinion, Piaget’s theory had changed people’s view about children development. Even though as reported by Newkirk (2009), children development are not always moving from each stage according to the age that Piaget’s planned, but they still will moving according to the stage either it is fast or late. Last but not least, implementation of cognitive theory in children development is very effective as it will be very helpful towards the children themselves as this theory help to influence children in the aspects of biological maturation, activities, social experiences and equilibration.

The aim of this assignment is to discuss critically the principles of working with vulnerable children or young people by using an anonymousness case study. The plan is to illustrate the key concepts of vulnerability and resilience, consider the impact on the child’s mental health and to look at different legislations.

Scenario

Mary is a five-year-old child who lives at home with her Mum and Dad. In view of the recent recession, Mary’s Dad has lost his job and is displaying negative emotions and this is causing friction with his wife. Mum has mild learning difficulties but is able to hold down a part time job, taking on more hours to compensate for the loss of earnings and leaving Dad to attend to Mary. Mary attends school but recently her attendance has been erratic, on several occasions Mary’s homework as not been done. School staff has noticed Mary turning up to school dirty, smelly and appears to have lost weight in recent weeks. The teacher has tried on several occasions to arrange a meeting but Mum claims to be too busy with work and Dad shows no interest.

Vulnerability

An explanation by Appleton (1994) describes vulnerability as a complex concept where there are many interacting factors. Appleton (1994) suggests vulnerability can be viewed as a scale where families at different periods in life can be more susceptible to both “internal” and “external” stress factors. In comparison, The United States Agency for Health Care Policy and Research (USAHCPR 1998) suggests that the environment may contribute to the vulnerability of people through various phases of life. More specifically different people may be vulnerable in a variety of ways due to health issues, age, communication problems and the house and community where they live. Equally important a recent concept of vulnerability suggests that parents or carer’s inability to provide basic needs, such as love, warmth, shelter and a healthy diet may affect the child’s all round development. (Cleaver et al 2007).

One cannot deny that everybody at some point in his or her life may be vulnerable. However, according to some experts how old you are can also be an influence. In other words, infants and children are considered more vulnerable because they rely on parents or carers to provide their basic needs. The reason for this is young children do not have the verbal language to communicate for their own needs (Aday 1993, Gitterman & Shulman 1994, Miller 1995). Nevertheless all concepts advocate a similar meaning and according to the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1990) article nineteen, states that every child has the right to be protected. Young children need to be nurtured and guided by parents or caregivers to provide them with the basic needs to develop into participating young adults in society (Cleaver et al 2007). So it is vital that all nurses, midwifes and health visitors should have the skill and knowledge to identify indicators of vulnerability in children and be responsible to pursue any concerns with the appropriate person (Stower 2000).

Resilience

In the science of human development, resilience has comprehensive and different meanings, including recovery from traumatic experience, overcoming divorce and withstanding stress to function well in the tasks of life. It is clear from those facts that resilience refers to patterns of positive adaptation or development manifested in the context of adverse experiences (Masten& Gewirtz 2006). Masten and Gewirtz (2006) suggest that resilience is a dynamic balance between risk and positive factors. In addition, how individuals, children, and families cope in the face of adversity. This led us to believe through research that early childhood is a significant time where parents can nurture the characteristics of the children in promoting and understanding resilience (Masten & Gewirtz 2006). Furthermore, Masten and Gewirtz (2006) suggest that resilience may come naturally to some children where other children may need help in acquiring those skills. One should, nevertheless consider resilience from another angle where existence of protective factors may explain why one child may cope better with adverse life events than another (Getting it Right for Every Child 2008).

Protective factors are those variables that safeguard against the effects of risk factors, the presence of one or more factors of negative outcome for a child or young person. Protective and risk factors can be divided into four groups, child, family, school, and community factors (Durlak 1998). An example of a risk factor would be insecure attachment and the protective factor would be attachment to a family (Durlak 1998). With new information and understanding of resilience in individuals there seems to be a shift from the emphasis on factors and variables to mechanisms and processes. This shift looks at how well an individual processes and copes in the face of adversity (Rutter 2007). Furthermore, this refers to mental operations, for example coping skills, as well as individual characteristics and experiences (Rutter 2007). On reflection, it seems more accurate to say that considering not only characteristics and experiences but also the age and stage of development of the child. In addition, for example children aged five and less has a reduced repertoire of coping mechanisms. Similarly, Schoon (2006) suggest resilience is not only dependent on the characteristics of the individual but interactions from the family and the wider community may also play a part. On the other hand, Brooks (2006) points out that the family is at the centre of providing care and this has the greatest influence on the development of resilience in children.

In relation to the scenario, Mary’s all round development at this moment may be vulnerable. As highlighted above how old you are can also be an influence because children aged five and less has a reduced repertoire of coping mechanisms and the increased of vulnerability in this age group in terms of physical and emotional development. Mary is dependent on her parents to provide her basic needs, food, warmth, shelter, and love. The effects of neglect can have a long-term influence on Mary’s quality of life. However, some children cope with and overcome the socio-emotional effects of child neglect. Mary may have protective factors within the family, such as a Grandmother, who may help to reduce the effects of neglect and foster resilience.

The family dynamics have changed within the family where Mum is now working full time and Dad is the main caregiver. In view of the recent recession, Mary’s Dad has lost his job and is displaying negative emotions. This may have an impact on Mary’s all round development and her mental health because are social skills and needs is not being met.

Mental Health

In relation to the scenario, Mary is showing signs of neglect. To begin with, according to Horwath (2007) there have been many publications about neglect. However, not one was able to give a clear definition on what is neglect. In addition, analysis from these definitions agrees that neglect is an omission, or failure on part of the parent or carer to provide the basic needs for the child, such as healthy diet, and love (Horwath 2007). Likewise, the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC 2007) agrees that neglect is difficult to define and describes it as a “complex phenomenon”. However, both the NSPCC (2007) and Horwath (2007) agree that neglect in practice can present short term to chronic and severe neglect. Furthermore, periodic failure or one-off incidents can have a significant effect on a child. These periodic and one-off incidents may be indicative of developing neglectful behaviour. Another possibility it may be an indication that the family is suffering from stress, or a temporary crisis because of parenting issues (Horwath 2007) such as Mary’s Dad has been made redundant.

When people hear the word neglect, they usually think of parents not providing their children with food, clothes, or a safe environment to live in. Alternatively, parents can neglect their children (Horwath 2007) in other ways. Furthermore, Horwath (2007) suggests that there are a variety of parenting behaviours that may be classed as forms of neglect such as, medical, nutritional, education and emotional. Parents or carers who emotionally neglect their child fail in providing physical or emotional affection and do not develop the child’s sense of self-worth and positive identity (Horwath 2007). More specifically, it affects the child’s all round development including their mental health.

Mental health can mean different things to different people. For children to be mentally healthy they need to be loved, healthy diet, and opportunities to make choices, protection from risk, and shelter. However, the list is exhaustive but more specifically according to young minds (2002) children who live life to the full, creative and sociable lives, cope with difficulties and frustrations are mentally healthy.

The foundation for building emotional understanding skills has been found to develop within the parent-child relationship (Parke et al 1992). According Edwards, Shipman, and Brown (2005) through the parent-child relationship children learn from their parents how to label and interpret motions in different situational contexts, when it is appropriate, how to show and evade emotional experiences as culturally indicated. The ability to interpret the emotional behaviours of others may mean reading their facial expressions, by the tone of voice or body language, not necessarily words (Edwards, Shipman, and Brown 2005).

In addition, children who developed emotional development at a young age are more likely to settle well into school, work cooperatively, confidently and independently, and behave appropriately (Townley 2002). A child with poor social and emotional development is at risk of poor relationships with peers, academic problems (Horwath 2007). There is a difference between emotional neglect and emotional abuse. According to Iwaniec (1995) suggests that emotional neglect is non-deliberate where abuse is deliberate. Furthermore, parents or carers can emotionally neglect their children in a number of ways such as, inadequate attention to the child’s needs, need for affection, and lack of emotional support (Iwaniec 1995).

All children are individuals and may experience mental distress in different ways, such as the inability to cope with problems and feelings, low self-esteem and self-confidence, worsening school performance, and social withdrawal (Honeyman 2007). Emotional resilience is a valuable skill for all children. It is about being in control and believing in one’s ability to work through setbacks and risk situations in a capable, effective manner. This capacity for resilience empowers the child to develop coping behaviours, to persist in the face of failure, to bounce back with confidence and a healthy self-esteem (Townley 2002).

Children need a certain amount of resilience to be able to cope with the difficulties that occur as part of living and other strong emotions, in order to do this children develop a number of coping strategies (Landy 2002). For the first five years, children rely on their parents or caregivers to provide support in dealing with intense negative emotions and eventually learning to control or manage their emotions alone by using a range of emotional resilience or coping strategies (Landy 2002). Therefore, children need to understand how to regulate their emotions, recognize emotions in others, and handle relationships with others if they are to be well-adjusted, contented, positive, and resilient individuals (Townley 2002). They need to learn that all emotions are okay, and that they are entitled to their emotions (Cassidy et al 1992). However, it is also important children recognise that other individuals’ emotional needs can differ from their own (Horwath 2007). Another aspect to consider is how the parents socialize with their children and display emotions. If the parent or caregivers display positive life skills rather than displaying anxiety or depression therefore the child’s capacity to emotionally regulate would not be impaired (Landy 2002).

Mental health affects all aspects of life how Mary forms relationships, interact with her peers and how she copes with the rough and tumble of life. A child who is ignored may seek other ways to draw attention, and the ability to cope may be hinder leading the child to have a strong tendency to use externalizing and maladaptive coping skills. Mary’s life is loaded with tension, negative moods, unpredictable parenting at this moment in time. In addition, the school have contacted both parents to discuss issues relating to Mary’s education and well-being however, her father is not interested and Mum claims to be busy with work. The expression both parents are portraying now about school is indicating to Mary that school is not important and she may be less likely to seek emotional support from teachers or her peers. On the other hand, up to now one may assume Mary has had a stable upbringing and with additional support and with protective factors in place may help her through the present crisis within the family.

Legislations

There are different legislations in place to protect children and young people in today’s society. Such as, Protecting Children and Young People: Framework for Standards (Scottish Executive 2004), The Children (Scotland) Act 2004, and Sharing Information About Children at Risk of Abuse and Neglect: A Guide to Good Practice (Scottish Executive 2004). There are many more policies but advocates that all children have the right to be protected. According to CAMHS Standard, National Service Framework for Children, Young People, and Maternity Services (2004) suggests multi-agency services work in partnership to promote children’s mental health, provide early intervention, and meet the needs of the children that are identified with problems. It also goes on to say that, staff who are working with children and young people have sufficient knowledge, training and support to promote the psychological well-being of children, young people and their families and to identify indicators of difficulty. However, this seems not to be the case and according to Honeyman (2007), it is a much-neglected subject in child health. The Nursing and Midwifery Code (2002) states that this lack of knowledge in mental health may be seen as a barrier

When making decisions about a child it is paramount, they are at the heart of the discussion in all considerations and decisions. Professionals throughout the planning and actions taken must demonstrate this (Edinburgh and Lothian’s Inter-agency Child Protection Procedures Section 2, 2007). Furthermore, working with a family where they may be issues of the child or development professionals must co-operate to enable proper assessment of the child’s circumstances, provide any support needed, and take action to reduce the risk to the child. Sometimes this may require sharing information with other professionals. In addition, all professionals or agency’s are required to keep confidential information given by parents and must not be shared without the person’s permission (Edinburgh and Lothian’s Inter-agency Child Protection Procedures Section 2 2007).

Getting it right for every child (2008) is a network of support to promote the well-being of every child or young person to get help at the right time. This network will also include the family or carers. This may involve other agencies to be involved and if this is the case a lead professional will be nominated and they will co-ordinate help, such as making sure the family, child or young person understands what is happening and to promote teamwork between the agencies and with the family, child or young person.

The Getting it right for every child Practice Model consists of three elements, Eight Well-being Indicators, My World Triangle, and The Resilience Matrix.

The Eight Well-being Indicators, this identifies all areas where a child or young person needs to progress in order to do well now and in the future. This enables professionals to structure information that may highlight areas of concerns and needs and to structure planning (Getting it Right for Every Child, Section 4, 2008).

My World Triangle introduces a mental map, which enables the professionals to understand the whole world of the child or young person. In relation to Mary, using My World Triangle can be used at every stage to think about Mary’s world. Information may be used from other sources, possibly school, to identify the strengths and pressures in Mary’s life. This will not only identify the negatives but also the positives as well. My World Triangle looks at the whole child, physical, social, educational, emotional, spiritual, and psychological development (Getting it Right for Every Child, Section 4, 2008).

Using My World Triangle, the professionals can consider systematically how Mary is growing and developing, what Mary needs from the people around her, and the impact on Mary in the wider community, family, and friends.

To conclude the professionals may use The Resilience Matrix. The Resilience Matrix can be used in a single or multi-agency environment. This allows the professionals to gather the information on Mary, from My World Triangle and other sources and plot it on a blank matrix so that the balance between vulnerability and resilience, and adversity and protective factors can be weighed.

The City of Edinburgh Council, Guidelines for Pupil Support Groups (2004) are committed in working in partnership with the parents, Social Work, Education and others to provide integrated support to children or young people and their families. Mary is in Primary one at school and the teachers and staff are in a good position to observe Mary in her education, socialising with her peers and her general well-being.

Conclusion

Many researchers have highlighted that vulnerability and resilience are difficult to define. Through my research for this assignment, I have been introduced to a number of concepts in relation to vulnerability, resilience, and mental health in relating to a young person or child. It is the job of any paediatric nurse not to diagnose but be able to recognised symptoms of children with mental distress in order to refer them to the appropriate professional or agency. In addition, how important it is for the nurse to understand the age and stage of development the child goes through. Prolonged emotional neglect or any type of abuse may be harmful to the child. It has been highlighted through research that it may affect the child’s all round development and the presence of protective factors may explain why some children are resilient and why others are not. Resilience can be enhanced through extensive and appropriate practical and emotional support, intervention, and life chances. In order to enhance resilience professionals must establish the vulnerabilities and protective factors that exist for the child them consider the course of action to take to enhance resilience.

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This chapter looks at the major perspectives that form the basis for personality and sociocultural development during early childhood. Topics covered include coping patterns, aggression, prosocial behavior, the effects of peer interactions, and continuing development of self. Children learn to manage a wide range of feelings and emotions. The important to emotional development is the child’s ability to cope with fear and anxiety. Fear is a response to a specific situation and anxiety is a generalized emotional state. A child may experience regular and continuous feelings of unease, often without knowing why. Children can be help cope with fear and anxiety by parents reducing unnecessary stress, being a role model, seeking professional help.

Children can also cope with fear and anxiety using defense mechanism such as identification, projection, denial, reaction formation, displacement, regression, rationalization, repression, and withdrawal. Children are expected to inhibit the display of some emotions such as anger, distress, affection, joy, sensuality and sexual curiosity. Children experience developmental conflicts their needs to depend on their parents and their desire of independence dealing with compliance, mastery and competence which Erikson identified as autonomy verse shame and initiative verse guilt.

According to Erikson, children either become more independent and autonomous if their parents encourage exploration and freedom or they experience shame and self-doubt if they are restricted and overprotected. In addition, children view of themselves undergoes major change as they face conflicts between the desire to act independently of their parents and the guilt that comes from the unintended consequences of their actions. Parents who react positively can help their children avoid experiencing guilt. As children develop, their play becomes more social and engage in social pretend play involving the use of imagination, sharing of fantasies, and the inclusion of agreed upon rules. This help children deal with fears, provide companionship during periods of loneliness, and provide reassurance. Research indicates that 65% of young children have imaginary companions. Imaginary companions help children social skills and practice conversations. Children who are adept at imagination may be better at mastering symbolic representation in the real world. Children who are rejected by their peers in early childhood are likely to be rejected in middle childhood as well. They are also more likely to have adjusting problems in adolescence and adulthood. Rejected children may be aggressive or withdrawn and may be out of sync with their peers’ activities and social interaction.

Children learn to incorporate the values and morals of their society into their understanding of themselves through internalization. Children develop a self-concept, their identity, or their set of beliefs. Young children tend to describe themselves in terms of their physical characteristics, possessions, or activities. The tendency to describe themselves in terms of social connections increases. Children tend to imitate their parents. Children self esteem enhance by parent praising their children, encouraging and giving them responsibilities, allowing them to explore their potential freely, and showing them unconditional love. The sense of being a male or female is well established by the time children reach the preschool years. Children learn gender-related behavior and expectations from their observation of others’ behavior as well as from books, media, and TV. Parents play an especially important role in the development of young children, particularly with respect to how parents exert control and express warmth. Authoritarian parents tend to produce children who are withdrawn, fearful, dependent, moody, unassertive and irritable. Permissive parents tend to produce children who are rebellious, aggressive, self-indulgent, socially inept, creative and outgoing.

Authoritative parents tend to produce children who are self-reliant, self-controlled, socially competent with high self-esteem and do better in school. Indifferent parents tend to produce children who are free to give in to the most destructive impulses. How parents manage discipline is an important aspect of the effect that parents have on their children’s development. The aim of discipline is not only to control children behavior but also to help them develop emotional self control.

CHAPTER 8

Middle childhood is the span of years from age 6 to 12. At age 9, growth spurt for girls and 11 year olds for boys. Growth is influenced by activity level, exercise, nutrition, gender, and genetic factors. Gross motor skills such as running, jumping, and hopping and fine motor skills continue to develop and improve. Children begin to develop interest in sports. During middle childhood, children in developed world receive good nutrition so most height and weight differences among children are due to genetically determined factors. Children in developing world grow smaller than their counter parts in affluent advance world.

Obesity is defined as body weight that is more than 20% above the average for a person of a given height and weight. In United States, about 17% of children are obese. Most of children who are obese continue to be seriously overweight as adults. Obesity leads to high blood pressure, diabetes, and other medical problems. The cause of obesity can be a genetic factor, environmental factors, television viewing, lack of exercise and parental encouragement. The leading cause of death in middle childhood is accidents and associated injuries.

Psychological disorders and mental illness can begin in middle childhood, raising concerns about accurate diagnosis and treatment such as autism and attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder. Piaget referred to middle childhood as a period of concrete operations and encourages the use of concrete objects for teaching such as blocks, rods and seeds. Piaget stress that teaching should be through showing rather than telling because children learn by doing and they are active learners who construct their own theories about how the world operates. During middle childhood, short-term memory capacity improves significantly and understandings about the processes that underlie memory emerge and improve during middle childhood. Children’s memory strategies and techniques enhance with age and develop the process of monitoring their own thinking. When children attend school, school teach facts or concepts, give directions for a particular lesson, state general rules of behavior, correct, discipline and praise children and introduce children in other miscellaneous activities. Children learn more in classes in which time on task is maximized, in which the teacher spends at least half the time on actual teaching and less on such concerns as maintaining order. The main emphasis on school are teaching learning and thinking skills, tailoring instruction to the child’s individual learning style and developmental level, and fostering independent, self-regulated, self paced learning, learning in small groups and cooperative rather than competitive learning.

School success is influenced by many factors including achievement motivation which is an acquired culturally based drive, gender, and parents of successful children who have realistic beliefs about their children, have high expectations, are authoritative parents and talk to, listen to, and read to their children. Developmental and intellectual disabilities such as mental Retardation, depression, attention deficit disorder, and learning disabilities children and other special needs children all have afforded educational opportunities in least restrictive environment.

CHAPTER 9

During middle childhood, according to Erikson, the central task focuses on industry versus inferiority. Children at this stage are characterized by a focus on efforts to attain competence in meeting the challenges related to parents, peers, school and other complexities of the modern world. Children self concept and self esteem continue to develop. The development of self esteem is a reciprocal process. Parents can positively influence their children’s self esteem by offering realistic praise and by encouraging them toward activities in which they can be successful. Children use social comparison to themselves to abilities, expertise, and opinions of others. When objective measures are absent children rely on social reality such as how others act, think, feel, and view the world. In middle childhood, most friends are of the same gender, and friendships during middle childhood serve many functions. Peer relationships provide emotional support and help kids to handle stress, teach children how to manage and control their emotions, teach about communication with others, foster intellectual growth and allow children to practice relationship skills.

According to Selman, friendships develop through four stages: as playmates, then awareness of another’s feelings emerges, then trust develops and finally children can look at relationship from another’s perspective. Prejudice is a negative attitude formed without adequate reason which is directed at a defined group of people. As children grow older, they become capable of thinking with greater complexity and prejudice can be reduce by enhancing through cooperative activities that are important to children and promoting equality and disconfirm negative stereotypes. Popular children are helpful and cooperative, have a good sense of humor and emotional understanding, ask for help when necessary, not overly reliant on others, adaptive to social situations, and social problem solving skill competence. Unpopular children lack social competence, are immature, are overly aggressive and overbearing, withdrawn or shy, and are unattractive, handicapped, obese, or slow academically. Several programs teach children set of social skills that underlie general social competence. Although peers become very important in to children in middle childhood, the family continues to be children most important socializing force. Effective parenting in middle childhood can involve in increasing children’s social competence through encouraging social interaction, teaching listening skills to children, making children aware that people display emotions and moods nonverbally, teaching conversational skills, including the importance of asking questions and self-disclosure and not asking children to choose teams or groups publicly.

In addition to other changes, children experience in early relationships between siblings can shape how children relate to others and choices made in later life. Also, in most cases, children fare quite well when parents are loving, are sensitive to their children’s needs, provide appropriate substitute care, and are good adjustment of their children. When parent divorce, children are most likely to exhibit behavioral difficulties, anxiety, depression, and low self esteem and they often have more problems with school. School-age children tend to blame themselves for the breakup. Twice as many children of divorced parents require psychological counseling as do children from intact families. For some children, living in a home with unhappy marriage and which is high in conflict has stronger negative consequences than divorce. Blended families include remarried couple that has at least one stepchild living with them. Living in blended family involves role ambiguity, in which roles and expectations are unclear.

CHAPTER 10

Adolescence is a remarkable time of growth and development; in just a few years, children transition dramatically towards adulthood across multiple domains. Adolescence is physically the healthiest period of the lifespan. There is a dramatic body parts grow at different rates due to higher levels of testosterone boys experience greater increases in muscle growth; girls experience an increase in body fat. Body shape differentiates as boys develop wider shoulders and girls develop wider hips. These biological, as well as cultural, factors can cause depression and anxiety in females at this age; an emphasis on exercise may help to keep females active and combat negative self-images. Primary sex characteristics include sex organs in males and females grow significantly to allow room for sperm and egg production. Secondary Sex Characteristic for both male and female includes growth of pubic hair, underarm hair, facial hair, and arm and leg hair. Skin becomes rougher and oilier, bones become harder, the voice becomes lower, and the chin, nose, and ears become more pronounced.

Hormones have a powerful effect on the brain, influencing its development. However, the emotionally often seen in teenagers results not only because a hormone action but also because of complex sociocultural and environmental factors. Adolescents have the ability to begin moving from childhood toward adulthood due to their cognitive development. This is the ability of the brain to begin processing more abstract thoughts. Some of these thoughts, indeed many of these thoughts, are focused on themselves. By being able to think abstractly, which is a new developmental ability. Now, as adolescents, the journey toward self-reflection and self-identity, may begin. By asking clear self-identity questions, they may find answers that will be enlightening, even insightful and complex. They will strive to learn to make good choices and decisions toward their future as a responsible citizen. This process is often difficult for adolescents. They may change periodically in terms of their self-concept. According to Piaget, adolescent gain the ability to think about intangible objects and methods and have the ability to see multiple aspects of one idea. As adolescents enhance their understanding of themselves, they actually become more aware of their own emotions and feelings and how these feelings affect their daily lives. By gaining some emotional understanding of themselves, they are able to change their self-identity. This is how they perceive their characteristics and abilities fit with the opportunities that are available to them. These changes are now known to continue in our American society well into emerging adulthood. But many of the identity issues that begin during adolescence determine the paths an adolescent may take including future college, vocational or career choices, as well as other aspects of their lives.

Adolescent constantly views themselves as the center of attention and certainty of an individual’s distinct personal experience and fate. Adolescence also belief that unfortunate occurrences only happen to other people which encourages risky behavior. Adolescence today continue to be highly sexually active and about 20% of sexually active teenagers have sexually transmitted disease. Teenage mothers and fathers are associated with difficult economic circumstances and personal challenges. Marriage under such circumstances generally does not produce positive outcomes in part because early marriage often leads to dropping out of school.

Chapter 11

During adolescence, young people reach physical maturity, develop a more sophisticated understanding of roles and relationships, and acquire and refine skills needed for successfully performing adult work and family roles. The developmental tasks of this period–coping with physical changes and emerging sexuality, developing interpersonal skills for opposite-sex relationships, acquiring education and training for adult work roles, becoming emotionally and behaviorally autonomous, resolving identity issues, and acquiring a set of values are all tied to successful functioning in adulthood in one way or another. The movement toward adulthood colors our expectations of adolescents, and hence our treatment of them. One expect adolescents to move away from the adult-directed activities of childhood toward the autonomy, responsibility, self-direction and independence from their parents and forming an identity.

Consistent with these expectations, adolescents are granted increased freedom of choice to varying degrees, adolescents select their academic courses, choose their friends and activities, and make plans concerning post high school education, employment, and family life. Many of these decisions have important implications for young people’s subsequent life course.

Educational decisions, such as whether to attend college or not, affect future career opportunities and vocational development. Similarly, becoming an adolescent parent often limits educational attainment and employment opportunities. Erikson viewed the critical developmental task of adolescence as identity verses identity confusion which requires the teen to sort through various choices in order to answer to questions “who am I?” Adolescents who go out with friends rather than study for an important test, who engage in unprotected intercourse or experiment with a new drug, or who ride home with an intoxicated driver may unknowingly affect the direction of their future lives. Moreover, short-term choices may evolve into regular patterns of behavior or lifestyles, which, in turn, influence future development. Thus, the choices that adolescents make and the developmental course they define can profoundly shape their later lives. Therefore, the adolescent’s movement toward autonomy entails both growth and risk. On the one hand, adolescents need to experience greater freedom of choice so they can begin to exercise self-direction.

Successful parents must provide support to teenage children. Maintaining communication helps reduce serious conflict. Parental monitoring is based on open communication and adolescent willingness to disclose the details of the adolescent’s life. The most importance of peers increases enormously during adolescence. Through social comparisons, teens compare themselves to their peers as a means of defining themselves. Early on, dating serves to give young adolescents experience without deep emotional involvement. Later, adolescents who date may develop emotional closeness and serious romantic relationship. Adolescence and emerging adulthood is often characterized by risk taking behavior. Because the brain region related to judgment and emotional control are still developing, adolescent may take risks without fully appreciating the consequences. Suicide is the third leading cause of death during adolescence, and the rate of suicide in this age group is rising. To support positive adolescent development, we should support and strengthen families, provide then with activities in which they can be successful

Chapter 12

The young adult stage is full of major changes in both physical and cognitive attributes. The body has finished fully developing and the thinking process is carried out in a more complex manner. It is during this development stage that the young adult can contemplate the views of others and put themselves in their place to gain a better understanding. Many key events in adulthood occur at relatively predictable times for most people in an age cohort. An age clock represents our internal sense of time for when major life events should occur. Physically, it is a time when one is at his or her healthiest. The brain is still increasing in size, although new neurons are no longer forming. One sense is also the keenest during this time of life. Full maturation has been reached, as well as full height. This is also the time when this age group learns to live comfortably in their own.

The young adult years are often referred to as the peak years. Young adults experience excellent health, vigor, and physical functioning. Young adults have not yet been subjected to age-related physical deterioration, such as wrinkles, weakened body systems, and reduced lung and heart capacities. Their strength, coordination, reaction time, sensation, fine motor skills, and sexual response are at a maximum. Additionally, both young men and women enjoy the benefits of society’s emphasis on youthfulness. They typically look and feel attractive and sexually appealing. Young men may have healthy skin, all or most of their hair, and well-defined muscles. Young women may have soft and supple skin, a small waistline, and toned legs, thighs, and buttocks. Early in adulthood, neither gender has truly suffered from any double standard of aging, mainly, the misconception that aging men are distinguished, but aging women are over the hill. With good looks, great health, and plenty of energy, young adults dream and plan. Adults in their 20s and 30s set many goals that they intend to accomplish, from finishing graduate school, to getting married and raising children and to becoming a millionaire. Young adulthood is a time when nothing seems impossible; with the right attitude and enough persistence and energy, anything can be achieved. Some individuals begins habits that likely will produce health problems later in life such as overeating, overuse of alcohol, drugs and lack of exercise. Physical change may come in the form of weight gain for this age group. This is the time of settling into careers which can be sedentary, compared to the activities that are done in college and high school. For many, this is the first time in taking sole responsibility for providing nourishment. Many young adults move away from home. Food intake may now consist of fast food and frozen dinners, which can really rack up the pounds. Early adulthood is often the time during which people are most sexually active, and many plan to have children. Sexually transmitted diseases affect most of the young adults such as Chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis. Aids may be least partly responsible for a shift to more caution sexual behavior.

Many young adults have developed the skill to reason logically and solve abstract problems. This is also the age when they are able to solve theoretical problems. This age group scores higher than any other on the fluid intelligence section of an IQ test. Fluid intelligence is not only the ability to think abstractly, but to deal with novel situations. This is the age that awareness of consequences develops. Piaget argued that cognitive development reaches its highest level, their thinking becomes more complex.

Chapter 1: Problem and Its BackgroundINTRODUCTION:

Savings has always been an important issue for the people to consider. People usually save some money from their income after incurring necessary expenses for the future needs. The cause of saving was not under attention in the developing countries previously, so measures to ask people to save money were very difficult to be taken. But now as time is passing by, youngsters are more into saving money and realize it to be an essential part for transforming their lives more luxurious ahead. Our elders use to tell our youngsters about the importance of money savings and that’s the reason some youngsters also prefer saving for their future needs and for other entertainment purpose. But if we ask our elders and parents regarding the youngster saving habits, we generally come to know that they don’t pay attention towards savings. And to some extend it is correct. Some of the questions arise here are: Why don’t they prefer saving? Do they know the importance of saving? Do we have the right perception regarding our youngsters saving habit? In this research we will be finding out our youngsters saving habits, its reasons and its effects.

Nowadays the youth is more aware about saving money where social media plays a vital role. Apart from this, due to the recession, parents as well encourage their children to save more and more as expenses are being incurred. Moreover, due to increasing opportunities, youngsters try to save and are well aware as to where they have to spend and where they have to stop themselves. Plus when youngsters move towards savings and are motivated towards it, so they try to adopt different ways to invest their money and for this they usually prefer to open up their bank account which also assists them to create long term relationship with the banks and become their loyal clients. This is the time when it has become our essential responsibility to know the perception of youngsters regarding money saving and what they really think about it and what makes them to save money or spend it. Here I would like to describe the meaning of perception through the definition.

According to the business dictionary website, Perception has been defined as “The process by which people translate sensory impressions into a coherent and unified view of the world around them. Though necessarily based on the incomplete and unverified information, perception is equated with reality for most practical purposes and guides human behavior in general.”1 (Business Dictionary)

Perception usually differs from person to person and also affects the behavior of a person. It could be in the favor as well as against the situation. Moreover, perception is defined as the process of interpretation and giving meaning to that interpretation by organizing it.2 (Lindsay and Norman, 1977)

From an article regarding the saving practices a person said when he was of the age 18, his parents used to advise him to save money for future from his pocket money3 .They used to bring ceramic pots for saving the cash in it. But now more and more other alternatives have been developed for saving money like UBL Young Savers Account, Bank Al Habib Young Savers Account, and Bank of Punjab Young Lions Account etc. Moreover it not only for the adults, but youngsters’ even childe of the age two can be benefited with the services of the bank to open up an account for savings.

Now a days, progressively more banks are focusing and becoming a centre of attraction in order to enlighten people to save money especially youngsters are being targeted in this regard. Different campaigns are being made for attracting the youth for awareness. Banks like ABL and HBL are among the banks that are motivating the young generation to save money.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:

The statement of the problem is to know as to what the perception of youngsters is towards savings. What they really think about it whether beneficial or not. Due to the increasing expenses can they easily save money for themselves?

The objective of my of my research is to know their money saving perception. The second objective is to know the challenges faced by them in order to save money. The third objective is to know whether they feel good and comfortable to get opportunities in saving money in the current crucial time of economic shifts.

The problems on which I have worked upon are listed below:

To know the opinions and the insights of youngsters towards savings as to what is their perception regarding it?

What are the reasons they come across that don’t let them to save money?

Does saving leads them to become materialistic or gaining power is their desire?

Can their savings provide support to the economy?

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY:

This research would really be helpful for the people who are working for the youth of Pakistan especially. Moreover, the Banks and other financial institutions can get advantage through it because these entities are now focusing youth and inviting the youth to save more and more for their future, for the country and for the humanity as a whole. Moreover, the saving schemes can also get advantage through this to know the behavior of the youth towards these campaigns. Since this research covers the perception of youngsters, related to their saving practices, so they will get to know their opinions, their requirements, their point of views and their insights towards saving.

SCOPE:

The scope of this research is prospecting. It will help us to know the beliefs of youngsters aging from 18 to 26 years. This is the age limit for the respondent that was positioned. Many banks are now working to improve and make better educational programs for the youngsters which will affect them when they would become young adults. The reason for these programs is to create awareness among the people and to help them in establishing themselves.

LIMITATIONS:

While working for this research, I got to know that most of the respondents have made up their minds to go abroad and work their instead of being a part of their country and strive for it. Some of them are more inclined to depart from here and grab the opportunities to settle abroad due to having more chances to make them able and prove themselves competent.

Many of them have got negative views for saving money.

In order to have the correct balance of the sample, I came about some problems in finding the actual respondent level.

The time period was limited and the survey size was small which would have affected the results.

Some of the respondents were uncomfortable to share their information in their information in the questionnaire which also affected the results.

The results of youngsters saving perception are not totally representative. Since it contains the replies of limited people so the results are dependent on it.

DELIMITATIONS:

Some of the delimitations of the study are s follows:

The perception of the youngsters with regard to saving may change in future

Due to access of new technology and other attractions for the youth they are likely spend money even if they plan to save it.

DEFINITIONS:
Perception:

Youngsters: It includes youngsters aging form 18 to who have enough knowledge of how to save money.

CHAPTER # 2
Chapter 2: Research Method and Procedures
Introduction of the chapter:

Chapter two of the study starts with the research design that describes the central part of the thesis. This chapter then includes research methods which explain the nature of the study conducted, after this it includes the respondents of the study which are the people who responds to the queries asked. After this comes the research instruments which are the tools needed to conduct the research. Then the sources of data which are the means through which we can get appropriate data for the study and to get actual results.

Research design:

The research design shows the type of research conducted. The type of research carried out here is causal in nature. In the causal research the relationship is proves with respect to the relationship with the variables. The reason to use this kind of research is to know the perception, behavior and insights of the youngsters towards money saving. For this certain interviews and surveys were prepared.

Research methods:

The study was carried out through both the primary and secondary data collection methods. The study conducted was causal research. From the primary data collection method, quantitative and qualitative study was conducted to present in the numeric form on the basis of opinions and survey conducted through the questionnaire from the respondents. As far as secondary method is concerned, internet and other publications were used to complete the study.

Respondents of the study:

The primary respondents of the study were the young adults who filled the questionnaire to let us know their opinions and perceptions and apart from this, the interviews conducted from bank managers also come under our primary respondents.

Moreover, I did conduct one in-depth interview. It was conducted in such a manner that the six people were in the group having the age bracket between the ages 18 to 26. They discussed their issues and perceptions in detail.

Sample:

Random sampling was done among the young adults under the age bracket of 18 to 26 years of age. The respondents could be from high school, college, university or any other level. The main reason to select this age is to know their money saving perception and to know what their opinion is regarding different factors that motivate them to save money. A total of 105 respondents were taken on to account for the survey. The sample size was 105.

Research instruments:

The research instruments are basically the tools needed to conduct the study which eventually helps the researcher to get the prior and appropriate data according to his or her preferences. The tool used in this study is the usage of a questionnaire which was filled up by the respondent who was maximum the age limit required.

Sources of data:

In order to complete the study the data requirement was one of the main constraints. So for the completion I had to conduct survey from the youngsters aging 18 to 26. Moreover, different articles, books and internet links were the sources of data. Apart from this interviews from different individuals were carried out.

Treatment of data:

The data collection was analyzed through the statistical tool of SPSS. Along with this bar charts and graphs are used to clearly discover the differences.

CHAPTER # 3
Chapter Three: Review of Related Literature and Review
INTRODUCTION OF THE CHAPTER:

In this chapter, review of all the related writings is considered. Here these writings are summarized and explained. In this chapter, local and foreign literature is included. In the local literature, reviews of the writers are written along with the sources from where they have been extracted which belongs to the local writers. In the foreign literature, reviews are added of the foreign writers.

RELATED LITERATURE:

It contains the reviews and other theories that supports the topic and tell about the pros and cons of the study through the research conducted by the researchers previously.

FOREIGN LITERATURE:
“Money, money, money – how do attitudes toward money impact vanity and materialism? – the case of young Chinese consumers” 4

A study was conducted in China among the young and the main reason to conduct the research was to know their perception regarding the money and what are the main factors that led them to save money. It is very important now to know the perception of the youth because it helps he strategists and other marketers to shape strategies for them to help them get the best out of life and provide opportunities to them by providing a platform.

Through this research paper the author wanted to know the increased materialism among the youth of China. The factors outlined in the research paper were power and prestige, anxiety and distrust. These are some of the motivational factors that motivate the youth to save money. It stimulates them and encourages them to think about money saving.

The power and prestige factor explains that the youth save money and would like to have it because it provides them a sense of authority and they feel reputed and classy. The other factor is the anxiety factor that relates that people who don’t have enough to spend money but even then they go for purchases in order to reduce their worries. They do shopping and spend their money which provides them a feeling of relief and leisure. The distrust factor explains that they are cautious when are asked to spend money for different purchases. They think several times to spend their wealth.

As time is passing by the possession to keep the money among Chinese youth is increasing rapidly. They usually see the high class status people and learn from them that they should also acquire money because through having money and saving it, they would be regarded as powerful and role models for others.

Apart form this recent studies show that a new subculture is emerging in China by the name of Bobo which indicates that people save money and acquire it only to become an icon which reflects their personality and where they can attain the luxuries of life easily. The Chinese youth is becoming more and more materialistic in the sense that due to modern era and coming up of new attractions in the society motivate the youth to have money and then acquire things they want. They think that if they will have enough money to spend then they would be able to purchase things of their interests. Moreover in the past, the perception was not have money for spending it on the luxuries of life but now the trend ha changed and they feel good when they spend their money on the means that make them feel happier.

Apart from this other attractions to get money and save it is though the credit cards and loans provided. Different promotional campaigns can help the youth to be taught the importance of saving and having money which can assist them to take active and strong decisions as to where and how to spend their money and how they can save it for different situations.4

4Srinivas Durvasula, Steven Lysonski, (2010),”Money, money, money – how do attitudes toward money impact vanity and materialism? – the case of young Chinese consumers”, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 27 Iss: 2 pp. 169 – 179

According to Berti & Bombi, Human Development theory states that:

“Children start saving money when they grow and progress. When they get the awareness and identify the advantages provided by saving money they gradually begin to save more and more. Moreover, during their growth stage, they come across biological, psychological and cognitive stages that let them learn to save, which helps them to get the clear concept of saving money”5 (Berti & Bombi, 1988 ; Strauss, 1952)

http://csd.wustl.edu/Publications/Documents/WP12-23.pdf 5

“Saving for the Future- Trends, Patterns and Decision-Making Processes among Young Americans”6

The personal savings rate has been dilapidated very rapidly in the U.S. Due to the recessionary period, the situation is becoming worse day by day. People there are in debts and it has become very difficult for them to pay off. Because of this, now extreme attention is being given to the young generation of US. They are being encouraged to save money and accumulate it for their bright future. One of the main costs is for the expenses incurred by the college tuitions.

The financial highlights previews that it has now become very difficult for the people to cope up with financial catastrophe around. Some years back, people used to save money mainly to fulfill their necessities, but now the trend is changing. Apart from this much other responsibilities have emerged that include the repayment of credit card bills, tuition fees etc. But people can’t help themselves to swallow this bitter truth that whatsoever be the result, they have to undergo through such period where there is so much of difficulty and complications.

Keeping in mind the existent trend, the young generation should be aware of the consequences and should get a lesson from it. They should be taught to save money for their present and ultimately future for a better and enhanced outlook of life.

In this piece of the literature, it points out to the three main objectives for conducting the research. Firstly the form of the savings done by the young adults, secondly how do they do it, and thirdly, what policies could be implemented for the young adults to help them understand the financial knowledge and encourage them to save more money.

According to some of the findings, it was seen that young adults are more into debt than the income they get. The reason for this is the attractions that let them to spend money. They focus on their wants additionally rather than controlling themselves to spend money. They have little control over things to spend money on. It was also found that the young adults had to go through the decision making process where they have experience the five phases of decision making. As time passes by, the need of these young adults arises which inquires for more accounts to buildup their portfolio. The vigor to have more money and accounts for it remains same, but as time surpasses the characteristics or the performance progresses.

According to this literature it states that, many of the facts are available from those young adults who have already saved money, but there is no or less data available of young adults that show the challenges they face when thy have to do the money savings.

In order to educate the young adults’ proper training should be provided to them and it is very important at this point in time. It would require uphill effort to instruct them. The larger entity and other financial bodies should pay attention to it to provide counseling to the young adult and to encourage them to save money for their better future.

6Sarah Outcault, (June 2012); “Saving for the Future- Trends, Patterns and Decision-Making Processes among Young Americans”, Pardee RAND Graduate School

“Testing an Asset-Building Approach for Young People-Early Access to Savings Predicts Later Savings”7

The literature includes three parts. Firstly it includes the young people’s saving behavior towards the asset management practice. Young people are less knowledgeable regarding the strategies promoted for enhancing the asset management. Second part of the literature talk about the behavior of young people savings with regard to the models and concepts presented by the authors earlier. Mainly the neo classical theory, economic socialization theory and institutional models are quoted. Third part of the literature proves whether the money saving practices adopted by the parents in the adolescent brings out better results or when the money saving programs are in touched later in life or when time in need. For the most part the low income household’s behavior was analyzed.

Economic socialization theory talks about that if parents teach their children the money saving pattern, then eventually by their warmth and attention the children would be benefited in the later stages of life. They will have more information, more benefit and more opportunities. If parental attention towards letting child save money by giving them allowances and becoming a role model or an example for them, then they will also adopt the behavior parents commit which will eventually help them shaping their lives. It is stated that if young adults are taught to save money from their younger ages, it would not only improve their habit of saving but they will also be aware of the financial information and other concepts and programs that can help them save money for their future. Institutional model relates that if young people are made conscious of the external facilities at the earlier stages of life like money saving programs, services and products then they will also become good decision makers of their future.

From the literature it was sorted out that young adults, who are emotionally involved with their parents with regard to adoption of money saving behavior, are more experienced and know the inns and outs of it. Apart from this asset management techniques are also well learnt by those young adults whose parents are involved in it and explain to their children about it. Young adults having saving accounts can accumulate more wealth when they have appropriate knowledge about it and other products and programs if transferred to them accordingly can bring a positive impact for them.

7Terri Friedline, William Elliott, Gina Chowa, (2012), Testing an Asset-Building Approach for Young People-Early Access to Savings Predicts Later Savings, George Warren Brown School of Social Work, Washington University in St. Louis, CSD Working Papers No. 12-12

“Contributions of Qualitative Research to Understanding Saving Theory for Children and Youth” 8

U.S and world is paying more attention towards Asset-Based programs. The main purpose of these programs is to encourage financial security and to offer positive effects throughout the life of person. But very little or no attention was paid towards children’s saving and the effects of saving for youth and children in this regard.

There are many reasons of the importance of asset accumulation for children. Some of the reasons include the saving in childhood is of longer period of time which can be invested as well as can provide greater financial return even if the amount is smaller and these returns are likely to help the children in their education as the cost of tertiary education have increased and shifted to parents and students. Second, the process of asset accumulation in early childhood helps in child development. Third, these practices not only help the children to understand complex financial knowledge and skills but also shape their money management skills. Above all it provides the security for their future needs especially educational needs.

There are several theories that provide insights on process and effects of money savings on children. These theories include human development, structural approach, socialization, behavioral economics, and institutional theory.

According to the development theory young children are capable of understanding and know that saving is beneficial for them.

Children’s cognitive abilities, increases during transitory period from childhood to adulthood but socialization increases form exposure and encouragement to gain knowledge about the financial world.

Moreover behavioral economist suggests that vigilant design of financial services and products can increase the chances of making good financial choices regardless of individual characteristics.

This paper sheds the light on how children saving are being affected by these theories and examines the evidence to understand the effect and relationship between children’s age and economic socialization.

This article’s aim was to contribute to saving theory for youth and children by using qualitative studies of three different Child Development Accounts. These accounts provide the opportunity to accumulate savings for the benefit of child. These accounts include, I Can Save a college saving program in school for elementary age children, Opportunity Passport program which provides incentivized saving account, and SEED for Oklahoma Kids, a randomize experiment of incentivized saving plan for children at birth.

1st study explored that most of the children who participated in ICS program belong to the families whose average educational level was 11th grade and reported family income were below $25000 despite the fact that the school where the research took place was racially and economically diverse.

2nd program study (Opportunity Passport) was developed by Jim Casey Youth Opportunities (JCYO) a part of JCYO Initiatives 2009 program for whole country. The participants of this study had received training in financial literacy and upon completion of training, they were provided with an Individual Development Account and a Checking Account. The participants were aged14-24 years and vary from site by site among all four sites.

The 3rd study was the large-scale study of universal Child Development Account with randomly selected babies born in Oklahoma in 2007 an experiment known as “The Seed for Oklahoma Kid (SEED OK)”. This study also reveals that most of the families who save more were having a reported income of less than $30,000 and were African Americans.

All these three studies had common theme and differences and paying particular attention we could learn about savings of different age of people. Moreover these studies can also provide the insights of how people of different age group think about saving.

The ability of participants was affected by circumstances and individual characteristics as described in three studies. Their savings abilities were also affected by some institutional factors. Individual level factors reveal that ICS participants had very low understanding of financial matters because of their elementary age but they were excited about learning it whereas in OP most of the participants had better understanding of money as compare to younger children. Despite having limited income they were engage in much higher level of saving participation for their future needs.

On the contrary, looking back to their childhood, younger children in OP and mothers in SEED OK had not learn about how to save during their transitional age towards adulthood. And because of that in OP young children had receive no or little guidance in money management and savings from their families.

Although the participants and their families learnt about saving and money management during those studies but they also identified some obstacle to saving. These obstacles include low income, high expenses, and low support in all three studies. Moreover they also identified some institutional factors as bad experience with financial institutions which also hindered them to save.

These studies found that the participant appreciated the incentives given to them for savings and had influenced them to save more and pay attention towards money management. Moreover the restricted access to their accounts forced them to save although they didn’t like it. That means incentives can take youth and their families towards saving.

Effects Of Saving

The participants of all three studies discussed their perceived effect of savings on their lives. In all three studies participants positively accepted savings but it can be tempered according to their need and desire. Some of the effects they discussed include enhanced understanding of saving services and product and its use, Savings provides positive vision of future and sense of security, improved financial skills and knowledge as they received training of financial skills and money management during Opportunity Passport program. Moreover participant provided improved understanding between future education and savings. They used their IDA accounts to pay their educational expenses or to purchase attainable assets (e.g. Laptops etc.)

These studies show that some program features have greater impact on savings depending on development stage and age group. Foster youth perceived it more positively than other groups as they face greater challenges as, higher poverty, more prior negative banking experience tenuous relationship with family. They appreciate the financial boost provided by OP program. But at the same time they required more guidance about saving and money management and the restrictions helped them to understand development task and importance of accumulation some saving. Study showed that they need more ways to generate money to deposit in to CDAs.

The U.S. internationally has never been quicker in moving towards electronic and cell-phone based financial services. Moving towards it and making innovation in it may encourage youth and children to save more. Moreover, children and youth should pay more attention in accordance with their development stage. Saving campaign and information can be designed in a way that appeals particular age groups.

As OP youth and mother of toddlers in SEED OK articulated frustration and difficulties in meeting immediate expenses programs shall be made to overcome these obstacles.

8Margaret Sherraden , Clark Peters, Kristen Wagner , Margaret Clancy , Baorong Guo (2012)- “Contributions of Qualitative Research to Understanding Saving Theory for Children and Youth” , University of Kansas School of Social Welfare and the Center for Social Development at the George Warren Brown School of Social Work, Washington University in St. Louis, CSD Working Papers No. 12-23

Areas further studies:

The areas of further studies are to know that whether youngsters will be motivated if they would be provided with some educational campaigns regarding it. Will they save money for there futures keeping in mind the crucial economic downturns? They should help the country as well by saving money and investing it in areas where the country get benefit as well the person himself.

Variables:

Independent:

Income level, economic shift, prom campaigns

Dependent variable:

Purchasing power, word of mouth,

HYPO:

Youngsters who save money learn more patience

Youngsters who save money for their education

Youngsters get the motivation to save the money from their parents

Among youngsters’ reasons for saving less money are increased expenses

Youngsters feel that in the current economic situation they can get more opportunities to save money

youngsters who think saving money is beneficial

REC:

INSTAED OF BRANSHCES, MAKE A SECTIONFOR TAREGTING THE YOUNSGTERS AND PROMOTE THEM TO CREATE AEARENESaˆ¦ THEY SHOULD GO TO C=SCHOOLS, UNI CONDUT ROAD SHOWS. TEACH THEM HOW TO SAVE FROM EARLY SATGESaˆ¦ TEACH THEM HOW TO COPE WITH THE RECESSIONARY PERIOD. AND HOW TO MAKE BUGET AND MAKE FINANCIAL.THIS WILL HELP THEM TO BE INDEPENEN. THORUGH THIS THEIR COMMUNICATIIN SKILLLS WOULD ALSO INCREASE.

THERE IS S MUCH POENTIAL AMONG YUNGSTERS, BUT SINCE NO PROPER PLAFORM IS BEING PROVIDE TO THEM SO THEY ARE EFT BEHIND. IT S ENGROSSED WITH THE TALENT. THEY SSHOULD BE MOTIVATED AND ENCOURAGED.

Commercials and posters flood our daily lives by projecting images of helpless children who are in desperate need. Many people are aware of the children living in poverty, orphans, and abusive households. The media portrays neglected children who suffer from malnutrition, starvation, and the absence of love. In return, the advertised organization seeks for a small contribution of a dollar a day to help make a child’s life better. However, what about the child who endures the exact opposite of neglect? Less attention is veered towards the silent abuse of parents who control their child to the extreme that they are actually hindering their development and performance by not allowing their child to grow and experience life healthily. Does a child who is overly cared for and overly protected by their extremely overprotective parent still possess a better life than the child who is neglected? Or is the overprotected child just as helpless as the neglected?

Significance:

The children today are the future and faces of tomorrow. A child’s future is greatly influenced by his or her parents. A parent who is abusive restricts a child from possessing a healthy lifestyle and developing healthy relationships with other individuals. However, a parent who is over controlling will limit a child from developing essential skills necessary to govern and direct their own life in a positive and healthy manner. Yet many fail to acknowledge this and assume that parents are just being loving and caring; emotions that all parents and guardians are expected to express. Therefore, many people do not listen to these children and believes that their problems are not as severe as the children who suffer from physical or verbal abuse. This is significant to human development because many children suffer from the limitations their overprotective parents impose and do not have access to the same amount of help and assistant as children with abusive parents.

Problem Statement:

Through my research, I hope to raise public awareness of this silent abuse. Most importantly, I hope to reach out to parents who are over controlling, as well as abusive, and have them place their child’s interests before their own. If a parent, who is over protective of their child, cares about their child deeply, then they should care more about their child’s wellbeing rather than their own personal desires and expectations of their child.

Literature Review:

Parents who overprotect their child to the extreme can prevent their child from acquiring the basic fundamental skills of life. As a result, the child can become emotionally handicap and rely on his or her parent throughout their life. As stated by Cossentino, “children in this situation are not able to develop a knowledge of independence and remains bound to the parent while the parent is bound in a cycle of overprotection” (The Overprotected Child). This dangerous cycle leaves the child and parent bonded together in such a way that it is unhealthy for both members. The child relies on their parent immensely that the parent is responsible to attend to every single matter of the child’s life; from basic chores, resolving a conflict, to communicating with acquaintances of the child. This often stifles the growth and development of a child, who cannot live without authority. Thus, the parent cannot leave this cycle because the parent raised the child in this manner.

“Children lack a knowledge of resolving conflicts and have a high chance of being rejected by their peers due to low confidence and an inability to stand up for oneself” (Cossentino). With parents always protecting them, the child will never be aware of how to stand up for oneself and is unable to confront the realities of life. These children have the inability to be very social among others besides their own parents, which causes them to develop a low self-esteem as well as low self-confidence.

The inability to make decisions on his or her own can cause a child to be unprepared for the future and is unable to live without a parent or authority figure. As stated by Cossentino, “children will lack life-experiences of decision making, life skills, age appropriate freedom, and conflict resolution”. An overprotected child becomes bound to a parent in a way that is similar to how a baby is bounded to its mother for the rest of its life. The child is completely unprepared for freedom and responsibility, finding it hard to exercise self-discipline and is more vulnerable to getting emotionally hurt.

As argued by Guthrie and Matthews, “Overprotecting parents can lead children to develop Peter Pan Syndrome” (No More Push Parenting, 44). The ‘Peter Pan Syndrome’ affects people who do not want or feel unable to grow up. In other words, people with the body of an adult but the mind of a child. Peter Pan was a fictional character who refused to grow up and had a never-ending childhood. Those with this syndrome do not know how or do not even want to stop being children and start being adults. These people are unable to grow up and take on adult responsibilities; they see the adult world as very problematic and glorify being a child, which is why they want to stay in that state of privilege.

Children who have been neglected on the other hand are in complete control of their life and are forced to survive on their own. Neglected children do not have an authority figure and may be more likely to replace the unknown feeling of love with hate and anger. “Children tend to try and please their parents to gain affection. However, when they cannot please their parents, they become filled with rage and take their anger out destructively” (Nguyen). The violence neglected children seek for may be towards other individuals or other substances, but for some, they seek to hurt themselves. “Children repress rage only to become depressed and suicidal” (Watkins, A3). These children possess a great amount of emotion built up inside them that it becomes unbearable and hard to deal with. Thus, they try to fill the void of love in their life with other things or someone’s acceptance. As Andron stated, “Children with low self-esteem search for someone’s acceptance, which usually winds down a damaging path eventually set up for death or become life-threatening” (23). More than likely, they fall under peer pressure or experiment with drugs and alcohol, anything to make them feel accepted. Because they lack a knowledge of what is normal or who to trust, they are more vulnerable to perpetrators and are often abused by their peers.

One form of violence an individual may express is through school. For example, the University of Texas massacre in Austin left 18 dead while the Columbine High School took a death toll of fifteen, and the highest toll of thirty-three lives was the Virginia Tech massacre (Watkins, A3). When an individual commits a crime, he or she is questioned for the reason of their action. However, few people turn to the parents or even glance at the child’s home life. “Children turn to destructive manners for coping as a way to test if their parents really care for them or not” (Nguyen). By hurting oneself, an individual tests the love of a parent, or to see if anyone else bothers to really care.

Many parents are incapable of seeing the damaging effects of placing their own needs before their child’s. They fail to see the atmosphere and living situation they created and forced their child to endure. Most importantly, they fail to treat and raise their child healthily. By overprotecting to the extreme, a parent not only shields a child from pain, but also robs the child of their adulthood by keeping them from developing friendships, intimate relationships, and independent skills along their journey of life. Thus, through neglect, a child is forced to learn how to survive through life on their own without the protection of a parent, without the love and guidance a parent has to offer, and without the comfort of a real family. Therefore, what is worse: overprotection or abandonment?

Methodology:

By listening to the personal stories of my volunteered subjects, I hope to obtain data that reflects whether or not both children, who are on opposite ends of the spectrum, share the same difficulties. The individuals I will choose will be children and their parents who reside in Cambodia.

Cambodia is a poverty-stricken country and the home to many neglected children who roam the streets begging for food. Sadly, because of this, it will not be difficult to find a neglected child to speak with. The difficulty will be trying to find the parent or guardian of the neglected child and persuading him or her to share their own personal story.

In addition, families who are wealthy have higher expectations for their children and try to mold their child into what they want by controlling every aspect of their child’s life. Because of this, I will listen to the stories of a child is in a more well-off family and his or her parent’s story .

Moral fester can be further attested by looking at some examples of real life problems. For instance, according to Dr. Ted (2006) the Chairman of the Christian Film and Television Commission, when Dakota was 12, she appeared semi naked and shot some rape scenes in her movie, Hounddog. In addition, a famous actress, Lindsay Lohan now is one of the famous town’s party-girl. Due to alcohol and drug-induced hospitalization, she misses film shoots and this irresponsible action causes a huge loss to the company. Furthermore, cases of unwanted babies being killed by their young mothers are being published in local newspapers almost every single day. It is found that hundreds of thousands of Malaysian teen girls are having premarital sex and eventually, abandon and kill their child after labour.

In a sum, a society is actually destroying itself from the inside if they overlooked its moral code (Carter 2003).

1.2 Research Question

This epidemic as well as due to different views from diverse parties regarding the causes of moral decay among youth has led to a research question:

‘To what extent are parents to be blamed on moral decay of the youth?’

Since children’s behaviour reflects the parents’, this research report is focusing on parents who being the subject of the arguments. Parents, who are workaholic, fail to discipline their children, and endow their children with less emotional attention are the ones who end up raising the moral flawed children. However, should 100% blame be placed on the parents? Some of the other undisputed factors include mass media influences, unsuitable educational system, and less futile actions by the government also have to be taken into consideration.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
2.1 Definition

Moral can be depicted as pertaining to good manner or the distinction between right or wrong behaviour (Bullough and Bullough, 1994). Its synonyms include righteous, just, virtuous, and good while decay is the gradual destruction of a society, an institution, a system and etcetera (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 7th Edition). From that, definition of moral decay relevant to this research can be identified as perish of the moral values or fading of the righteous deeds or moral decline.

2.2 Statistics

Moral decay can obviously be perceived in this era. According to statistics, teen is a group of people who portray bad habit the most. Dr. Ted Baehr (2006) revealed the US entertainment poll in his article where sexual materials in movies and in television programs has affronted 58% and 74% teen boys and girls respectively whereas Dhammananda exposed the upshot from a study that have been conducted by the Youth and Sports Ministry of Malaysia among 5,860 youths was 71% smoke, 40% watch pornographic videos, 28% gamble, 25% consume alcohol and 14% take drugs. Additionally, ten out of eleven juveniles from assorted detention centres throughout the nation are confirmed HIV carriers which cause AIDS are below age 20 (2001). These statistics which illustrate a part of the moral decay among teens at present shows that we are going to be downgraded and if this problem is not resolved, we will lose our future leaders to rule and handle this world with justice and good manner.

ARGUMENTS FOR:

Parents are the ones who are supposedly be the closest person to the children. Parents should become the child’s idols, best friends, and motivators who can implant moral principles in children thus producing a first-class society with successful adolescences. Thus, there are some arguments from several parties who blame the parents on the moral decay of our youth nowadays when they fail to play their roles well. Workaholic parents, parents who fail to discipline their youngsters as well as parents who give less emotional attention to the children are the argues for rising up spoilt teens.

Parents are workaholic

The author of ‘Life Interrupted: The Scoop on Being a Young Mom’, Tricia Goyer thinks that parents are not spent their time with their children due to the busy lifestyles. Hence, parents cannot provide loves that being craved by the children making their offspring look for it in each other (Hatch, 2010). As a result, these children opt to spend most of their times with their peers rather than their families due to lack of love and if they are exposed to a wrong group of friends, they will be influenced by the unhealthy activities. Lule and Naigino (2010), writers of the New Vision paper, point out the Vision Group CEO, Robert Kabushenga’s view that the increase in moral decay nowadays is due to the failure of the parents to shape their children’s principles. This is because the first idol children should have is their parent however; many of the parents are botched up to be one as they do not even have time to chat with the kids. Consequently, the children will feel abandon and pushed aside. Additionally, according to Roy Chapman, the headmaster of Malvern College, parents bore a superior accountability than schools for a child’s conduct but paradoxically, material goods and money are supplied as a substitute for love and concern (FRAN ABRAMS, 1996). It is believed that most of the parents think that by granting all the child’s wishes, they consider themselves as good parents. However, their hard work to earn money for the child should not be misjudged. If the child could have spent the money wisely and the parents themselves does not overlook into moral aspects, the moral decay among the youth can be reduced.

Parents are failing to discipline their children

Besides that, there are also parents who are not bother about their children’s life and future but more apprehension on their status and popularities. Referring to Baehr’s writing (2006), a bright and naive kid, Dakota, has been surrendered to the golden statue of the Academy Awards. Her own mother said that “Dakota’s ‘gritty performance’ will win her an Oscar”. In addition, some parents think that immediate school text books and maid are responsible to educate their children to be an all around entity, but in fact they cannot teach the children about morals and social values. Other than love, the form of discipline and conveying ethics should always be thought by the parents. Sadly, parents these days prefer not to discipline their children and unintentionally, spoiling them rotten and think that their children will become better as they grow older and more mature. It is alleged that a child’s behaviour can be simply corrected as long as it is done from an early age. By allowing the child to do as he wish is likely to let him end up having a messed up adult life (Yin, 2008). So, parents should be held accountable for growing up ill-bred individuals of society as parents are the one who supposed to raise children with great responsibilities. Reporter of the Canberra Times who is known as The Independent (2005) noted that some parents used to blame other parties for almost everything that is wrong in their life. Instead of willing to support teachers in enforcing discipline, they see teachers as another outside force that is letting them down when it should be making life easier for them. This proves that adults are not mature enough to take responsibility for their children. As opposed to behave professionally and portraying a good example to the kids, the parents pointing and blaming others for spoiling their kids.

3.3 Parents are endowing their children with less emotional attention

It is also true that most of the juvenile delinquents receive less emotional attention (i.e. love and care) from their parents. In Dhammananda’s piece (2001), it is stated that children can be easily preyed to unhealthy influences if their parents guide them incongruously. Those teens will involve in more serious crime as they think that they are free to do whatever they like. Therefore, parents must strengthen the family institution to withstand the demands of a changing society. This can be done by spending more time for each other in order to construct a close knit relationship among the family members. Additionally, it has also been alleged that parents do not even have little control over the negative influences assaulting their children: gangs, drug and alcohol abuse, premarital sex, and the risk of getting sexually transmitted diseases. Furthermore, it is a proven fact that kids love to watch an excessive amount of unbeneficial programs on television and eventually exposing themselves to the negative influences by the characters in such programs. Those precious times should be spent with parents, teachers, or other positive role models (The Natural Law Party, 1996). Moreover, Rob Jackson believed that parents do not evaluate the form and quantity of media permitted at home without knowing that their kids have a propensity to absorb the messages that bombard children in popular media. They ignore what the children have been listening and watching to albeit the foundational principles of sexuality and dignity of a person can be scraped by the media (2004). On the other hand, it is undeniable that there are some parents are trying their best to supervise their children but some kids do all the bad things behind their parents and portray angelic behaviour in front of them. There are also some parents who are over protective and as a result, the kids opt to rebel. Thus parents should know how to protect and monitor their children effectively yet give them some space to enjoy their teenage life.

4.0 ARGUMENTS AGAINST:

Parents cannot be blamed 100% for shooting up of moral decay among youth as there are also a lot of cases whereby a well bred, smart, and virtue kids are being raised up by workaholic or ignorant parents. If parents are the only party to be blamed, such exceptional cases would not be occurred. This shows that other factors such as mass media influence, ineffective educational system, and less futile actions by the government should also be weighed.

4.1 Mass media influence

Technologies particularly television and internet has promoted to needs from desires. Televisions and movies frequently show violence and causes trauma in some children while others tend to watch them persistently. As they grow, those actions contribute in shaping their personalities, values and beliefs. As a result, the kid will become aggressive or lose a sense of differentiating reality and fiction of what they are seeing (Rayuso, 2008). In addition, Dr. Ted Baehr explained about Lohan’s behaviour that malformed by the characters from ‘Sex & the City’ whereby those girls often change their sex partners. Lohan once mentioned that she wants her boyfriend to be loyal but she wishes to keep flirting. The author observed that young stars are trying their best to maintain their reputation and willing to do whatever it takes even if they have to appear horny in almost every movie just to be seen as celebrities as they wish to be idolised unremittingly (2006). Additionally, according to Rob Jackson (2004), amelioration of the internet has make it very difficult for parents to shield their children from pornography as most of the children spent more time online for homework or entertainment purposes. The ex-attorney general of Unites States, John Ashcroft estimated that 9 in 10 teens have been exposed to pornography and many of them are crave for porn images. Thus, indubitably internet is the fast ramp to sex addiction and as children’s minds are still in progress of maturing, addiction can happen quicker than what the parents might think. Hence, to made media possible to rise youths with high virtue, media should revolutionize their contents (Crewes, 2009). It is strongly urge that mass media have to censor their movies before release them. They must rate the movies accordingly because most of the PG or lower rated movies show things that should not be watched by small kids.

Ineffective educational system

Besides that, according to The Natural Law Party (1996), our educational system fails to instil core values in students, such as mutual respect, civility, honesty, and social responsibility. Government Chief Curriculum adviser claimed that teachers spent too little time educate children conventional moral principles. They said that they are boosting their self-esteem too much and already teaching right and wrong. However, they blamed the national curriculum and public seize for the stunting children’s spiritual development. On the other hand, neophyte teachers were so bothered about being accused of racism or sexism that they were reluctant to edify any values. Additionally, it has been reported that The Liberal Democrat education spokesman, Don Foster have been visited to schools and he found that students encounter problems in familiarizing with what they see around although they know how to differentiate between good and bad (FRAN ABRAMS, 1996). Accordingly, to resolve these issues, the educational system should provide a compulsory moral and ethics classes to all students. The teaching method should not just exam oriented based but also should incorporate some practical. A continuous education and evaluation will help too. This is because if the lesson is just for exam purposes, the students would not take the lesson seriously and they tend not to practise what they have learnt in their daily life.

Less futile actions by the government

In addition, enlargement of government has brought a politicized life and this has weakened the moral fabric of society as the government is more focus on their issues rather than the society. In Dorn’s text (n.d), it is stated that individuals lose their moral bearing and they become dependent on welfare as they are not held accountable for their behaviour. For instance, to overcome the abandon children from unmarried couples’ problems, government (particularly Germany, Japan, Pakistan, and Malaysia) has introduced a centre which allows mothers to leave their babies incognito. Supporters for this baby hatch centre claims that unmarried couples now can opt to seek for aid after having unwanted child instead of abandon them (France-Presse, 2010). However, this project is actually dwindling social moral values as it teaches couples to be irresponsible for their actions. Eventually, such implementation will contribute to custody problems, degenerate the counselling services, as well as promote a retarded emotional development of the infants (Reuters, 2007). Consequently, the internal moral compass that normally guides individual conduct and is supported by loving parents, religious teachers, and community standards will no longer function when the government ‘has pointed the needle in the wrong direction’. With a conscious effort to make public education a moral, government rewards dysfunctional behaviour by sending the message that people have a “right” to welfare (that they are entitled to other people’s money), educate children that premarital sex is all right as long as it is safe, implies that underprivileged groups should be held to a different set of moral standards than other groups because they are victims of past injustice, and tries to cultivate virtue by the force of law, moral state of the public is sure to decline (Dorn, n.d). Hence, to control the moral decay, the government themselves should portray good exemplar to the society along with introducing new legislation on ethics.

CONCLUSION:

To recapitulate, mostly all the ill bred teens are raise up by workaholic parents, having poor disciplinary exposed by the parents, and receive less emotional attention from their parents. After considering all the above arguments, it can be concluded that parents should be blamed on moral decay among youth as parents are the one who carry the responsibility to shape up the children. However, other factors that are also accountable to the shooting up of moral decay among youth comprise of mass media, ineffective educational system, and less futile actions by the government cannot be neglected. Nevertheless, if the parents are keen enough on what their children watch and listen to, such media cannot manipulate the kids. For the ineffective educational system, parents can take several actions and one of the alternative is by sending their children to extra classes (classes to deepen the religion, belief and moral of the kids) and parents should not depends on the school only. It is crucial for the parents to spend their time to teach the kids at home and show a good example and by doing this, the children can learn faster. Parents should bear in mind that not all education happen in classroom. To conclude, every party should play their important roles in order to reduce, and if possible, to overcome moral decay among youth starting by the very basic group of individuals; family.

To surmount moral problems, it starts from each and every individual himself. Limbaugh claims that as long as Americans are unwilling to take an honest look at them and shape up good society, the nation will continue its moral decay. According to Dr. Ted Baehr (2006), Melina Erkan decided to not watching MTV and VHI anymore because she cannot tolerate with women in the music video who dress really cheap as women do not actually look and act like that while Hannah Montes has stopped watching television because of all the crudity she saw. Nonetheless, parents should take the first action when there is something strange happen to their teen; illicit sexual behaviour, addiction regardless of the discomfort; awkward, embarrassed (Jackson, 2004). Adults should try listening to youth instead of laying blame on others. A proven fact – when adults listen and there is an open dialogue between parents and teen, matters are better resolved and compromises more readily reached provided adults must have to be truly honest about choices and consequences and stand behind their warnings with actions. Hence, both sides have to work toward change. Other than that, guardians should be more concern and become media wise so that young celebrities for instance Lohan and Dakota would not bring tremendous negative influences to their youngsters (Baehr, 2006)

For the government, they should legislate against media operators who publish indecent action in their publication. This is to ensure that only appropriate type of broadcasting will be televised and eventually reduces the stress of moral decay. Besides that, government should priory intend to address this moral defect rather than introducing a welfare to cover the stories behind for the sake of someone’s reputation. For instance, sex education which based on religions perspectives should be seriously implemented as opposed to baby hatches programmes. Furthermore, mass media should pay more attention on the mind control issue rather than number of viewers. Movie producers should modify at least 50% of their new family movies rated PG or lower rating and disclose in detail for any movies rating beyond PG on all packaging, movie posters, web sites, and movie trailers (Carter, 2003). It is sturdily recommend that the New World Order should be reconstructed as it promotes a lot of moral perished.

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