Social Exclusion and Social Capital Theories: Urban Areas
Introduction
The idea of social exclusion, the forces within society which have contributed to it, and results of social exclusion are all issues that have been described in the following terms by Musterd, S and Ostendorf, W ((1998) p1):
‘The excluded lose the opportunities, the means and finally the ability to participate in society, which is expressed by a lack of labour market participation, low school participation, a weak position in the housing market, limited political participation and restricted socio-cultural integration…[1]’.
Levitas, R (1998) has a slightly different view of social exclusion and her views have been described in the following way: ‘The MUD moral underclass discourse is rooted in neo-conservatism. Levitas describes this discourse as equating social exclusion with the development of an ‘underclass’….[2]’ Therefore, while there are those who question the very existence of social exclusion problems: ‘…..the term does not necessarily imply either a positive or a negative state. It is simply a way of describing the established patterns of human relations in any given society….[3]’, what the arguments of Levitas (1998) and Musterd, S and Ostendorf, W (1998) show is that social theorists have mapped an increasing trend within society which has entrenched wide gaps between social groups in terms of wealth and social status, and this trend has been noticed particularly in regard to urban areas and in terms of low income families. Social exclusion has led to an explosion at both extreme ends of the socio-economic scale, with increases in households that have a low income, seen to expand proportionally with increases in the amount of households with high income and skills that are highly sought after. Those at the bottom of the scale are frequently referred to as ‘excluded’ and those at the top are those who benefit from social inclusion. The broad policy of redistributive justice has been seen as a way to redress this socio-economic imbalance. Redistributive justice refers to a process whereby the political process encourages the distribution of property and wealth, by introducing schemes such as taxation, which can channel wealth from the wealthy to the poor in society. This concept has been associated with Marxism, Socialism and Pluralism.
Therefore, whether one accepts the discourse of an underclass propelling social exclusion, or whether one simply holds the view that social exclusion is mainly caused because of socio-economic reasons, it is plain to be seen that the UK government has recognised social exclusion as a problem which needs to be addressed in terms of policy. The effectiveness and coherence of these policies is of course, open to interpretation and criticism and two government policies will be examined in this essay to highlight the problem of social exclusion and to critique the government’s response to it. Two specific policies have been chosen by the writer with which to use as a focal point in the further discussion of the topic of social exclusion. The first policy is a policy called ‘Programme for Partnership’ which is aimed at narrowing the gaps that social exclusion imposes with regard to those living in urban areas of Scotland. The second scheme within the social capital and social exclusion area is the ‘Tackling Exclusion from Education’ scheme which proposes to see social exclusion as a problem which starts at an early age and which aims at improving the problems of social exclusion through the improvement of the education system in the UK.
Urban and the City
Few people doubt that the problems of social exclusion emanate in a substantial way from city life and problems associated with deprived urban areas. This scenario can be seen to produce an ‘underclass’ that live in these areas. As Martin (2004) has demonstrated underclasses, whatever their construction are a product of post industrialisation. Martin argues:
‘There are various interpretations of the term ‘underclass’. Indeed, Bovenkerk (1984) and Mann (1992 in Mann 1999: 150) argue that Murray’s account of the underclass sounds remarkably like Marx and Engels’ accounts of the lumpenproletariat, and the term itself has been attributed to the work of the Swedish economist Gunnar Myrdal. According to Gans (1995: 2) the ‘underclass’ is a ‘redefinition of an economic term originally introduced by … Myrdal in 1963 to describe the workers being forced out of a new economy, now often called postindustrial’..[4]’
Therefore the first chosen policy which will be discussed in regards to the urban and the city topic is one which is aimed at dissipating the problems of an urban underclass. The scheme has only recently been announced by government and it relates to urban regeneration in Scotland. The scheme itself has been entitled ‘Programme for Partnership’ and it involves formulating ideas which will influence the long term lifestyles and opportunities of those living in deprived urban areas. This programme has held at its core the idea of ‘regeneration partnerships’ which encourages a level of cohesion between agencies charged with the responsibility of dealing with the problems of social exclusion in urban Scotland. For example, through directing resources to target inequality in the healthcare system, the ‘Programme for Partnership’ is intending to indirectly deal with the problems within the educational system such as low attainment which can be linked with poor health. This scheme therefore has been aimed at reducing inter-related problems linked with city life which combine to produce what has been described as: ‘……the horrible reality of being cut out of our credit-based, plastic card economy…[5]’.
Other initiatives which have have been borne from this ‘Programme for Partnership’ initiative have been aimed at tackling the problems associated with homelessness, which is another sign of social exclusion. What the Partnership initiative has recognised is that homelessness is not a singular problem which randomly befalls those it affects. Homelessness, a problem endemic in urban areas can often be associated with poverty, low educational attainment, drugs, poor healthcare (particularly for the mentally ill) and family problems including abuse. Therefore, the government has formulated a new Code of Practice which encourages urban social service actors to develop strategies to deal with poverty which incorporate a holistic approach to dealing with the social problems that cause social problems, and not just isolated problems. The Cabinet Office’s social exclusion unit and the Scottish Office work closely to supervise and to help implement the ‘Programme for Partnership’ scheme. The Scottish Executive has recently been quoted as saying:
‘Part of the social justice strategy is the….development of person-centred services (and) involves the breaking down of the old vertical hierarchies, such as the historical division between the UK Benefits Agency and Employment Service, which have recently been merged…[6]’.
Yet, rhetoric does not solve the problem of social exclusion, and this scheme may be of little use if its effectiveness cannot be measured and attuned to the fluid distribution of the problems of social exclusion in urban areas. There is a fundamental problem which arises when one attempts to tackle a broad problem with an inter-agency approach and this problem involves measuring the success and/or failure of the policy, and targeting appropriate solutions within this grey area. The resulting subterfuge may be of benefit to a government seeking reelection, but how far it has gone to reduce continuing problems associated with social exclusion in urban areas is difficult to see through the rising crime rates, the continuing problems of anti-social behaviour and rising poverty, problems which those in urban areas are particularly susceptible to.
Social Capital and Social Exclusion
As we have seen earlier from the explanation of social exclusion provided by Musterd, S and Ostendorf, W (1998), the problem of social exclusion mainly affects those at the lower end of the socio-economic scale. The government has recognised that this problem in many ways reflects the way that poor children are treated in the education system. Statistics have suggested that there are links between a person’s educational and social development and this is particularly true of those who enter the educational system from a deprived background. Commentators such as Archer (2003) have pointed to a core problem relating to social exclusion and the educational system: ‘….educational inequalities not only persist, but in some cases have increased…[7]’. Therefore the New Labour government have recently launched the ‘Tackling Exclusion from Education’ scheme, which is a scheme again aimed at local authorities and which encourages them to develop schemes aimed at improving literacy in young people and teenagers. This scheme therefore aims to facilitate the progression of young people within the education system and one of its objectives is to tackle problems associated with emotional and behavioral difficulties in young people, problems which contribute to the problems that have been described above in an urban context. Truancy is also a big issue in this regard and the ‘Tackling Exclusion from Education’ scheme encourages local authorities to introduce pilot schemes within schools to look at alternatives to excluding children, and to improve attendance records. In this way the problem of failure in the educational system can be seen as a root cause of those problems described in the above urban and city section, as problems in school often persist into later life, and these problems can often be seen within cities.
Linked with this Education initiative are schemes aimed at improving confidence among young people, and these schemes include out of hours activities which are funded by the National Lottery. As Majors (2001) has argued, ‘England is experiencing an education revolution. Few would deny that in the four years since the Labour government came to power they have made major advances in education and social inclusion.…[8]’. Yet, again, this scheme suffers from the same inadequacies as the later scheme. The difficulty again lies with separating rhetoric from success. While it is true that the problem of social exclusion can be tackled in the ways described above, it is not clear whether these schemes are actually effective, in light of the poor comparison Britain makes with other Western European educational systems. An intrinsic problem which has dogged other areas of political life is recognised as ‘political spin’. This New Labour propensity to cloud problems with ‘spin’ has permeated the social sector as much as it has the political sector. This leads to a problem of measurement and of recognition and the increasing inconsistency that can be seen from looking at what the government says it is achieving and reconciling this with poor educational attainment, truancy and other problems which afflict poor, young people in British state schools.
Conclusion
This essay has looked at the idea of social exclusion both in urban areas and in terms of social capital. In many ways social exclusion, begs questions about the definition of freedom; questions about redistributive justice which Marx and Engels have asked many years ago. Therefore, few could argue that the problems of social exclusion emanate in large part from industrialisation and this has been a theme of the essay. While Bashford and Strange (2003) have argued that: ‘…new political imaginings of ‘freedom’… (and)…the invention of ‘liberty’ as an inalienable right…[9]’ have improved the situations of many, the problem of social exclusion persists, as it argued by Rosenfeld and Tardieu (2002): ‘The very poor are shut out; the social institution is shut in. Both live with a sense of defeat and mutual misunderstanding … To the extent that there are overtures from either side, these seem doomed to failure and make no sense to the other side. Nothing is going on; there are no surprises, no exchanges, no meeting points. There is no story to tell….[10]’. Therefore government policy which aims to target these problems must address social exclusion, not just in terms of description, but in terms of effectual strategy which measures success and failure in a fair and unbiased way.
Bibliography
Books and Articles
Archer, L. et al. (2003) Higher Education and Social Class: Issues of Exclusion and Inclusion. Publisher: RoutledgeFalmer. Place of Publication: New York. Publication Year: 2003.
Bashford, A. and Strange, C. (2003) Isolation: Places and Practices of Exclusion. Publisher: Routledge. Place of Publication: New York. Publication Year: 2003.
Bollens, S. (2002) Urban Planning and Intergroup Conflict: Confronting a Fractured Public Interest. Journal Title: Journal of the American Planning Association. Volume: 68. Issue: 1. Page Number: 22+.
Johnson, M. (2001) It May Not Grab the Headlines, but Tackling Financial Exclusion Is Social Democracy in Action. Magazine Title: New Statesman. Volume: 130. Issue: 4530. Publication Date: March 26, 2001.
Majors, R. (2001) Educating Our Black Children: New Directions and Radical Approaches. Publisher: RoutledgeFalmer. Place of Publication: London. Publication Year: 2001.
Martin, S. (2004) Reconceptualising Social Exclusion: A Critical Response to the Neoliberal Welfare Reform Agenda and the Underclass Thesis. Journal Title: Australian Journal of Social Issues. Volume: 39. Issue: 1. Publication Year: 2004. Page Number: 79+.
Musterd, S. and Ostendorf, W. (1998) Urban Segregation and the Welfare State: Inequality and Exclusion in Western Cities. Publisher: Routledge. Place of Publication: London. Publication Year: 1998.
Riddell, S. and Tett, L (2001) Education, Social Justice, and Inter-Agency Working: Joined Up or Fractured Policy. Publisher: Routledge. Place of Publication: New York. Publication Year: 2001.
Rosenfeld, J. and Tardieu, B. (2002) Artisans of Democracy: How Ordinary People, Families in Extreme Poverty, and Social Institutions Become Allies to Overcome Social Exclusion. Journal Title: Social Theory and Practice. Volume: 28. Issue: 3. Publication Year: 2002.
Internet Sources
The Scottish Stationary Office (Undated) Social Exclusion in Scotland: A Consultation Paper. Available at: << http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library/documents1/socexcl.htm >>.
United Nations Research Institute for Social Development. (1994) Social Integration: Approaches and Issues. Available at: <
Anonymous (2002) Social Inclusion/Exclusion. Available at: <
