Author: Andre Coleman

2. Structure of the tourism and hospitality industry and role of stakeholders:

(Burcu & Ozgur, 2008) The stakeholders’ needs and demands are understood and responded to by organizations, based on the concept of stakeholder management. According to (Svendsen, 1998), the main role of stakeholder management is to protect the organization from the damaging impacts of the activities of the stakeholder. Some techniques like consultation, issue analysis, strategic communications, and formal contracts or agreements should be utilized by the organization.

(Huber, Scharioth, & Pallas, 2004), explained that organizations strive to gain the trust of the main stakeholders, who have a greater influence on them and with whom they have constructive interactions. For any organization, financial success is important and they will use any tools at the expense of the environment, members of staff, and/or local communities. This careless attitude will result in losses and damages in relationships with the stakeholders. The two significant variables for the decision on stakeholders by an organization are a) their possibility of threatening an organization and, b) their possibility of cooperating with an organization. The two relationship variables are cooperative potential and competitive threat. These two relationship variables reflect the capacity of stakeholders’ for cooperation and threat in a specific matter facing the organization.

(Lim, Ahn, & Lee, 2005), stated that companies can adopt four possible categories for stakeholder management: a) reactive, b) defensive, c) accommodative, and d) proactive. Depending on the stakeholder’s potential for threat and cooperation, companies decide their postures and strategies for stakeholder management such as a) leading, b) collaborating, c) involving, d) defending, e) educating, and f) monitoring. (Clarkson Centre for Business Ethics, 1999), developed a list of the essential principles of stakeholder management.

The first principle highlights the requirement of identifying stakeholders’ legitimate interests, which will be used in decision making processes by an organization.
The second principle refers to the need for communication between the organization and its stakeholders. The engagement with the stakeholder is required to reduce conflicts.
The third principle reflects the idea that there could be differences with the involvement of stakeholders in the organization. While the organization may have official relationships with few of stakeholders, other stakeholders are approached in unofficial ways either through direct contact, press release or advertising.
The fourth principle underlines the significance of balancing risks and rewards among various stakeholders impartially and observes the need of distributing benefits to all parties.
The fifth principle highlights the need for cooperation with public and/or private entities with the sole objective to reduce risks related to corporate practices.
The sixth principle relates the aspect of respecting human rights which are threatened by the present and future activities in an organization.
The last principle brings the attention of managers to identify their own difference of interests to normalize stakeholder relationships in order to increase credibility of organization.
3. Strategic Stakeholder Management: Tourism’s Perspective

One of the important generators of revenue is the Tourism sector which is also a job generating sector and serves as a medium of development. Tourism sector has gained great importance as it generates economic development and prosperity even in places which would not be used as an economic source. The industry’s coordinated actions; highly fragmented and diverse structure makes it special and successful.

The tourism sector could be contemplated as a system. As (Mill & Alastair, 2002) mentioned, there are many reasons to view tourism as a system. Some of them are:

Interdependency in tourism i.e., all organizations in this sector are interrelated parts and work together to achieve common goals.
Dynamic and constantly changing characteristics i.e. it be affected by outer influences such as political uncertainty, war, international relations, terrorism, technological developments, epidemics, and changes in demographic conditions.
Complex sector with different types of activities and organizations.
Intense competitiveness of tourism i.e. all kinds of tourism organizations have to vie with each other globally.
Need for responsiveness. Tourism is a sector where many elements which are independent and any change in one element can cause changes in other parts. Therefore, it’s important to maintain harmony of all parts. The stakeholder management practices should be utilized to create the harmony and forge strong relationships between the tourism organizations and their stakeholders.
4. Environmental trends in the global tourism industry:

(Dwyer, Deborah, Nina, Carolina, & Noel, 2008) Tourism is closely connected to the environment. The two main reasons for determining the viability and attractiveness of an area as a tourist destination is the natural environment and climate conditions (Dwyer & Kim, 2003). The developments for tourism are based on features such as gaining easy access for visitors to natural or manmade environments. The concerns of stakeholders of tourism which include researchers has always centered on the ways tourism development may offer opportunities for managing environmentally sensitive areas and the conservation of unique environments. (United Nations Environment Programme ((UNEP), 2002), reported that the focus is on tourism where it can help in reducing environmental pollution and usage of resources.

The main environmental trends include change of climate, depletion of natural resources and loss of biodiversity:

Change of Climate:

The increase in release of concentrations of greenhouse gases influences the change of climate and global warming. Climate change is a global occurrence and its major effects are felt at the local and regional scale. Effects of climate change and warming trends include: rise in sea-level, changes to ocean currents, melting of glacial and polar ice, losing of snow cover, high heat index and high diurnal temperatures, and changes to precipitation patterns (IPCC, 2007).

Climate changes are influential in determining the destinations preferred by tourists and also on the profitability of the industry through increase in costs of energy use.

Policies to lessen emission of greenhouse gas will invariably affect the operator costs and destination competitiveness particularly for longer destinations (Dwyer & Forsyth, 2008).

Depletion of natural resource:

The increasing paucity of natural resources required to steer industrial development will give rise to a number of effects. The factors affecting the availability of natural resources like food production, water and energy, are increase in population and economic development. The result of ‘peaking’ in oil production, commonly known as ‘Peak Oil’, will increase the expenses of fossil fuel based energy sources.

‘Peak Oil’ refers to the maximum rate, i.e. ‘peak’ of production of world oil to a point beyond which it goes to permanent decline. The decline in production of oil along with increase in demand will result in increase of fuel costs. Consequently, the new ‘carbon economy’ is set to push the want for energy efficiency and investment in renewable forms of energy. In future, half of the world’s population will face shortage of water due to scarcity of water resources. The arable land and native bush land will diminish extensive agriculture and broad-scale land clearing due to demands for higher food production.

Loss of bio diversity: (United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2003), reported that the main danger to loss of species biodiversity is habitat loss. Loss of biodiversity is expected to substantially affect those destinations that highlight nature based or eco tourism.

Analyzing Marketing Opportunities & Challenges: The Macro-environment

(Amy, Eliza, & Cynthia, 2009) The major macro-environmental forces recognize and discuss the affect the ability of hospitality industry to market its offerings. All organizations in the hospitality industry function in a constantly changing macro-environment, and thus giving prospect for marketers to conduct business or pose threats to the companies. The environmental changes have to be monitored closed before marketing strategies are considered by companies. The hospitality marketers must analyze and observe the six major forces (demographic, economic, political/legal, social/cultural, technological and natural/ecological), as shown below:

Figure 1: Macro-Environmental Forces

Environment

What it is?

Relevant indicators

(Examples of what to study?)

Demographic

Characteristics of people that structure the geographic unit of analysis as country, state, region.

Population size, density, gender, age structure, occupation, geographic distribution, ethnic mix.

Economic

Issues affecting the nature and path of the economy in which an organization operates.

Disposable income, power of purchasing, interest rate, GDP growth, inflation, consumption pattern, unemployment rate.

Political/Legal

Issues related to electoral politics, legislative and regulations, including regulatory agencies and pressures from interest groups.

Government stability, Control of wage/ price, Implementation of legislation such as equal opportunities, health and safety, tax policy, lawsuits, patents/ copyrights.

Technological

Changes in product/service/process technologies.

Activities in Research and development, applications of knowledge, information management, development of new product / service, improvement in productivity.

Social/Cultural

Values people hold and broad trends in society

Research and development activities, new product/ service development, productivity improvement, applications of knowledge, information management.

Natural/Ecological

Issues pertaining to environmental sustainability.

Water and air quality, solid waste, energy management, conservation, recycling.

Table 1: Macro-environmental Forces

5. Market research

Importance of Psychographic Research

(Yvette & Felix, 2004) (Wells, 1975), defined Psychographic research as “quantitative research intended to place consumers on psychological dimensions.” According to (Gladwell, 1990), this type of research “analyzes consumer’s attitudes, perceptions, needs, interests, opinions, activities, and daily lifestyle.” (Shih, 1986), recognized that “Psychographics is very meaningful and relevant” and (Abbey, 1979) stated that “it’s very important means to provide additional information beyond the demographic characteristics.” Abbey suggested that psychographic variables produce major differences between the groups of consumers, and these differences were bigger than the differences produced by the demographic profiles. (Mayo, 1975), stated that psychographics are useful than demographics in explaining consumers because they differentiate better between them (Ryel & Grasse, 1991).

The market segmentation has found a valuable means in Psychographics. (Gladwell, 1990), observed that psychographic characteristics of tourists have to be examined thoroughly by marketer if their destinations need to be marketed successfully to tourist. Psychographic variables are helpful in recognizing various types of tourists, distinguishing their segments and differentiating between the segments (Schewe & Calantone, 1978). Psychographic measures provide complete profiles of tourists and give the marketers a clear picture of the tourists they are attracting. Psychographics cannot be independent even though psychographics has a comparative advantage over demographics, (Schewe & Calantone, 1978). In order to understand a consumer market better, marketers should use psychographic data along with other criteria such as demographic, geographic, or behaviorist. Psychographic data needs to be incorporated in its research studies of the tourism and hospitality industry to benefit from the knowledge of its customers.

The data was collected through a qualitative research method. Qualitative methods offer varied empirical processes intended to describe and interpret the experiences of participants in a context specific setting. Data was collected from 30 representatives via semi-structured, in-depth interviews. Local residents, governmental, non-governmental and academic stakeholders were considered in order to acquire the opinion locally, regionally and nationally regarding the implementing sustainable tourism development.

The concept of sustainable tourism development became important due to fact that local residents are involved in tourism planning and decision-making. (Jackson, 2000). A sampling strategy was arrived at to ensure residents participating were ambassadors of a cross-section of the community. The sampled residents included those who resided in the tourism/non-tourism zone and were directly/indirectly involved with and/or affected by tourism activities. Many of the interviewed residents and who were involved in the industry were engaged as local guides or owners of home stay lodging and resorts, or souvenir and food catering shops. In-depth interviews saw participation of 20 local residents. Convenience sampling constituted a technique of non probability that attempts to get a sample of convenient elements which is less expensive and less time-consuming when compared with other sampling techniques (Malhotra, 2004).

Governmental institutions had an essential part in sustainable tourism development initiatives. Therefore, they participated in the study and to aid in establishing a swell of other respondents. This was considered the most appropriate method, as the researcher was not well informed about the formal or informal ‘network connections’ locally (Jennings, 2001). The researcher chose a few respondents involved decision making for the destination i.e. Town Council, Sub-District Administration Organization. Other relevant stakeholders interviewed were the local tourist office, a non-governmental organization and academics. Totally 10 governmental respondents were interviewed. Interview questions related to the sustainable tourism development concept and stakeholders were developed. These questions were directed to five local residents in August 2012. The interviews led to alterations in: (1) interview time and how respondents were approached, and (2) the interview questions using simpler and non-technical terminology. Then, in-depth interviews were conducted in September 2012. In order to gain further insights and data, the questions were open ended. The interviews were recorded, transcribed and organized based on the interview questions.

DOES STAFF INDUCTION IMPACT UPON LABOUR TURNOVER IN THE UK HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY?CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview

This dissertation studies human resource management (HRM) and specifically employee induction and labour turnover. It aims to explore, evaluate and analyse the impact of employee induction on labour turnover in the hospitality industry. There is a plethora of literature that supports induction training and promotion of organisational culture, suggesting it can lead to higher levels of commitment, productivity, quality of service and profitability and reduced level of labour turnover (Boella, 2000: Fowler, 1999: Hofstede, 1994: Mullins, 1992: Nickson, 2007: Taylor, 2008: Torrington, 1994: Storey, 2007: Watson, 1995).

1.2 Rationale

It is widely recognised by academics (Boella 2000:, Boella and Goss-Turner 2005:, Cook, 1993: Fowler, 1999: Goldsmith, Nickson, Sloan and Wood, 2003: Meighan, 2000: Mullins 1992: Sommerville, 2007: Storey, 2007) that high levels of staff turnover can lead to lower levels of customer service, reducing customer satisfaction decreasing profitability.

The original reason for undertaking this study stems largely from the authors personal experience of working in the hospitality industry. Experiencing first hand the effect of a high labour turnover through team members either; resigning, being sacked, changing department or coming to the end of their contract. The effects of the high turnover added pressure to existing staff as they had to cover shifts, train new staff whilst also losing shared knowledge and expertise; leading to reduced staff morale, productivity, levels of service and customer satisfaction.

Employee turnover has a research stream that can be traced back to the work of March and

Simon (1958) and was primarily based upon the level of job satisfaction and organisational commitment. Labour turnover has always been high in hospitality, leisure and tourism compared to other sectors (Boella, 1992). This is reinforced with a survey by Roberts in 1995 (cited in Goldsmith et al 2003) found that of the 150 hospitality companies surveyed, where 95 percent identified high labour turnover as a problem. Ten years later and the industry still has a reputation for very high levels of labour turnover (Boella and Goss-Turner, 2005).

The UK hospitality, tourism and leisure industry sector accounts for nearly 5% of the UK’s total economic output, employing around two million people, representing one in 14 jobs, approximately 7% of the total UK workforce (People 1st, 2009). According to research by the Charted Institute of Personnel Development (CIPD), the hospitality industry has the highest staff turnover in the UK. A survey by People 1st (2009) reinforced this point by highlighting the 31 percent turnover figure in 2008/2009, costing an estimated ?414 million. The average cost of filling the vacancy created by turnover at ?219 without marketing, with marketing it would cost ?673 and ?764 for a managerial position.

With the world recession, organisations are looking to save money where ever possible, reducing staff turnover is one area that could be seen as a target.

1.3 Aims and Objectives
1.3.1. Aim

To evaluate the effect staff induction has on labour turnover in the UK hotel sector; looking specifically at operational staff.

1.3.2 Objectives

The objectives for this dissertation are as follows:

To evaluate literature on labour turnover, staff induction, organisational culture and commitment and HRM approaches in the hospitality industry.
To analyse different approaches to induction and its effect on labour turnover.
To evaluate models of best practice in induction and evaluate their use in the hospitality industry.
To make recommendations on a best fit model of induction in the hospitality industry. Concluding the research and identifying limitations to the dissertation.
1.4 Research Methodology

Research can be defined as “an orderly investigation of a defined problem using scientific methods to gather representative evidence and draw logical, unbiased conclusions” (Poynter, 1993-p1). Sekran (2000) defined research as “the process of finding a solution to a problem after thorough study and analysis”. This dissertation is “a review of existing knowledge in a particular area together with the creation of a new slant of this knowledge” (Clark, Riley, Wilkie and Wood, 1998: p.7). The dissertation uses secondary research only. According to Clark et al (1998) and Sekran, (2000) secondary research does not introduce any new data and is based solely on data that already exists. The generic topic of HRM, linked to organisation culture, commitment, loyalty and staff induction has been widely researched and producing many academic journals, articles and theory which can be drawn upon.

There are numerous advantages to using secondary research. As the data has already been published it can save resources such as time and money (Sekran, 2000), larger sets of data can be collected, analysed and evaluated with the effort focused on the analysis and evaluation (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2007). Furthermore, it can present higher quality data than primary research, it provides both qualitative and quantitative research (Sekran, 2000) and it can be checked by anyone at any time. Saunders et al (2007:p.256) stated that additionally it allows “more time to think about the theoretical aim and substantive issues” and can lead to “unforeseen or unexpected discoveries.” However there are some disadvantages to using secondary data. The data could have been collected with a purpose different to the research question it is being used for (Saunders et al, 2007). The data may be out of date, old or unreliable, so first the validity of the source must be verified (Sekran 2000). Clark et al (1998) identified that up to date information may be difficult to obtain.

Types of secondary data that are to be used in this research project uses various sources, including; government publications, industry statistics and reports, book and journals. These will be providing the main source of information, as the majority of this research is reliable and easily available. In order to locate information and sources, Emerald, Brookes Electronic Library, Google Scholar, and Brookes Library will be used. Online resources are quick, simple and easy to access.

1.5 Limitations to Research

The research for this project does not include primary data, and is purely based on secondary research, as explained above this has its drawbacks. The project focuses on the UK as will hte literature however non UK sources will be used.

1.6 Chapter Structure

This section will briefly outline the chapter structure and give an overview of what each chapter entails.

Chapter 1

This chapter outlines the aims and objectives of the research paper, including a rationale justifying the reasons for this enquiry of research along with possible limitations and problems that may occur. It will also give a brief overview of the research methods used.

Chapter 2

This chapter defines and identifies labour turnover in the UK hospitality industry. Exploring the patterns, causes and effects including the induction crisis.

Chapter 3

This chapter aims to define and describe the current staff induction process, highlighting key approaches and models. Exploring the importance of socialization and building loyalty and the benefits.

Chapter 4

This chapter draws on the research and applies it in indentifying a best fit staff induction model to reduce labour turnover in the hospitality industry.

Chapter 5

This chapter aims to evaluate and review the effect staff induction has on labour turnover. This chapter also provides a conclusion with the recommendations and limitations to the research.

CHAPTER 2
EVALUATING LABOUR TURNOVER IN THE HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY AND IT’S IMPACT UPON PERFOMANCE
2.1 Introduction

Labour turnover is an important issue to all employers worldwide; from governments and multinational companies to small privately owned business (Goldsmith, A., Nickson, D., Sloan, D. and Wood, R. 1997). Labour is an essential resource to any business, determining future success (Lucas, 2004). This chapter defines labour markets, explores the concept of labour turnover, defining it and highlighting key methods used to measure labour turnover, along with the effects.

2.2 Labour Markets

The starting point for all strategic activity in HRM is to understand in which an organisation operates (Goldsmith et al, 1997). It is only possible to formulate accurate policies and practices once its keys features have been identified and their importance understood (Torrington, Hall and Taylor, 2005). The labour market is the source that provides the fuel for labour turnover.

Riley (2000) refers to the labour market as a pool of available talent in which employers compete to recruit and subsequently retain staff. Labour markets are not organised, centrally planned, structure co-ordinated machines, rather a free flow or movement of employees in and out of jobs (Goldsmith et al 1997). Riley (1996) summed up the free flowing, erratic nature by stating that the market consists of thousands of individual decisions by employees and employers independently. Over time these small, singular choices provide a pattern or trend of the labour market, meaning the supply and demand in a labour market can be determined by the independent unconnected decisions (Torrington et al, 2005).

One model created to help understand the labour market within the hospitality industry is the ‘dual labour market theory’ (Goldsmith et al, 1997 p16). They state the labour market is ‘made up of two distinct but related groups or markets’, a primary labour market and a secondary labour market. Below in Table 1 is an outline of each theory.

PRIMARY LABOUR MARKETS

SECONDARY LABOUR MARKETS

1. Jobs are supplied by large, highly profitable firms.

1. Jobs are supplied by mainly small firms where profitability is not easily assured.

2. There is a high capital to labour ratio in these firms and high productivity.

2. There is a low capital to labour ratio and productivity tends to be low.

3. Production is usually large scale in nature and based on substantial proactive investment in technology.

3. Production is usually small scale and intensive in nature, and in commercial personal service industry at least, technological requirements are based on clearly defined needs.

4. There is a stable demand for products arising from national and international markets.

4. Demand for products and services is subject to irregular and/or seasonal fluctuations rooted in local and regional markets.

5. Wages and skill levels are relatively high.

5. Wages and skill levels are relatively low.

6. Opportunities exist for training and advancement.

6. Training opportunities are limited as are opportunities for advancement.

7. Employment is stable.

7. Employment is unstable.

8. Unionisation is often high.

8. Unionisation is low or nonexistent.

Table cited in Goldsmith et al (1997) p17.

Woods (1997) agreed with the dual labour market theory, summarising the primary market as consisting of highly profitable large firms, relatively highly skills jobs with the opportunity for training and development. It is widely perceived that the majority of the hospitality industry is similar to the secondary labour market; with profitability not guaranteed, relatively low paid, low level skilled jobs that are intensive (Goldsmith et al, 1997).

2.3 The UK Hospitality Labour Market

The UK hospitality, tourism and leisure industry sector accounts for nearly 5% of the UK’s total economic output, employing around two million people, representing one in 14 jobs, approximately 7% of the total UK workforce (People 1st, 2009). However as highlighted by Lucas and Wood (2000) the hospitality industry id highly reliant on young part time and casual labour. The State of the Nation Report 2009 by People 1st reinforces their point with 16 percent of the hospitality workforce aged between 16 and 19 years old, whilst only 5 percent are over 60 years old. Of the total workforce 59 percent are female of which 55 percent are part time employees, compared with 31 percent male.

Boella (2000) identified that the common hospitality employee is typical of the secondary labour market; seeking short term employment, with relatively low or no skills. They have no desire to create a career and consequently leave after a short term of employment. This constant turnover is part of a vicious cycle, whereby employers are reluctant to invest in employees and as they leave soon after training (representing a loss of investment) and the employees leave due to little or no training (Goldsmith et al, 1997; Mullins, 2001).

2.4 Labour Turnover

As already established the hospitality industry has a high level of turnover. Boella and Goss-Turner (2005, p178) define labour turnover as ‘the total number of leavers expressed as a percentage of the total number of employees in a department, unit or organisation’. Lashley and Lincoln (2003) agreed by highlighting labour turnover simply as the movement of labour out of and into a working organisation.

To understand how ones organisations faring it is possible to compare to industry averages. It is clear that hospitality had a higher than average figure in 2007. This high level of turnover is widely accepted as normal (Mullins, 2001).

Industry

Average Turnover 2007

Hotels and Catering

32.6%

Retail and Wholesale

27.5%

Media and Publishing

27.1%

Construction

27.1%

Call Centres

24.6%

Communication

23.5%

Manufacturing

20.95

Table: Turnover Rate. Cited in Taylor (2008 pp434).

2.4.2 Benefits of Labour Turnover

It is highly debated in the literature as to whether turnover is a positive or negative within a business. Carrel et al (1995) in Taylor (2005) present the notion of functional versus dysfunctional turnover, suggesting that functional promotes innovative ideas and methods. Boella (2000) agreed and stated that with new employees ‘comes a breath of fresh air’, a necessary change to prevent stagnation. Torrington et al (2005) also draw attention to research by Hom and Griffeth (1995) that has shown function turnover exists greater than dysfunctional. The net results is an improvement in productivity as the poorer employees quit, leaving a higher proportion of good employee enhancing organisational effectiveness.

2.5 Reasons for High Labour Turnover

People leave employment for a variety of reasons, many of which are outside the power of an organisation to influence; such as leaving is retirement. Highlighted below are some of the key reasons of labour turnover.

2.6.1 Induction Crisis

Mullins (1998) cited staff turnover to be at the highest level during the first few months of employment as the induction crisis. A report in 1984 by the HBTIB states that in the specific sector of guesthouses and hotels almost 45 percent of all new workers left their employment within the first three months, and 15 percent within the first month. This has reduce slightly over the last 20 years, with the People 1st (2009) survey highlighting that over 10 percent of turnover came within the first six months of employment, with bar staff at an average of 30 percent. This trend is disruptive and expensive, especially as the investment of training and time have been lost (Mullins, 1998). Torrington et al (2005) go further and identify more costs lost, such as marketing and interviewing, although these can be saved if the next employee is hired internally as opposed to externally.

2.6.2 Outside Factors

Outside factors relate to situations where someone leaves for reasons that are largely unrelated to their work (Torrington et al, 2005). One of the most common reasons is relocation, whereby an employee moves cities or countries. Others might include the lifelong passion to travel, illness, and family issues (Meighan, 2000). To an extent this type of turnover is unavoidable, however is may be possible to provide childcare or flexible working hours (Torrington et al, 2005).

2.6.3 Push and Pull Factors

With push factors the problem is dissatisfaction with work or the organisation, leading to unwanted turnover (Torrington et al, 2005: Lashley and Lincoln, 2003). Causes could include a range of issues from; insufficient development opportunities, boredom, ineffective supervision, poor levels of employee involvement or personality clashes (Goldsmith et al, 1997, Fowler, 1999: Mullins, 1995 and Torrington et al, 2005). If there are no opportunity to voice these concerns an employee’s tend to look elsewhere for work.

Pull factors are the opposite, the attraction of a rival employer. Salary levels are often cited as the main cause, when a rival offers a better employment deal (Fowler, 1999). However it could also be; better opportunities, a chance to work with a particular person, or location issues such a commuting distance (Torrington et al, 2005). The two main aims for employers are to take are to ensure they know what the competition is offering, so they can be realistic and competitive (Meighan, 2000). It’s also important that an employee understand what he has and appreciates it.

2.7 Understanding Labour Turnover

Torrington et al (2005) stress that there is very little an organisation can do to manage turnover unless they understand the reasons for it.

2.7 Costs of Labour Turnover

In monetary term labour turnover cost the industry ?414 million in 2008/2009 (People 1st, 2009). However this has a decreased since 2000 according to Boella (2000) who stated that labour turnover was ?430 million. The formula used to calculate labour turnover is the number of employees who left during a period divided by the average number of employed during a period, times by 100 and represented as a percentage. Boella (2000) identified that although the results of this formula givers a labour turnover percentage, it does not give any indication of productivity of the staff, so it is best to monitor both.

Lashley and Lincoln (2003) state that there are a number of ways to determine the cost of labour turnover, yet the prevalent statistic used compares the number of leavers to the number to the normal component of staff. Whilst this is easier and quicker to calculated, it is less accurate and doesn’t take into consideration the seasonality of an organisation, and giving no indication of the amount of time spent by an employee at the organisation Meighan (2000).

Torrington et al (2005) suggests that labour turnover represents both direct and indirect costs. Direct costs include advertising, travel expense, marketing, additional staff overtime pay, interview time (Boella, 2000: Lashley and Lincoln, 2003 and Mullins, 1998). These cost are easily calculated and visible.

Indirect costs associated with labour turnover include loss of leadership, low levels of staff expertise, reduced productivity, increased wastage and reduce customer satisfaction (Boella, 2000: Mullins, 1998: Taylor, 2005 and Torrington et al 2005). These intangible costs affect the remaining staff more, and are difficult to put a price on.

2.9 Conclusion

The three common reasons stated by Torrington et al (2005) for leaving include:

Dissatisfaction with the conditions of work, especially house.
A perception that they were not being given sufficient career development opportunities
A bad relationship with their immediate supervisor.

The nature of the industry itself (seasonal, limited career structures). The nature of individual units (location, size, staff/work ratios). The nature of individual managers (lacking formal management training, acceptance of high labour turnover). High proportion of worker from the secondary labour market. Torrington et al.

CHAPTER 3
AN ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENT APPORACHES TO INDUCTION
3.1 Introduction

The following chapter provides a definition staff induction and socialisation and its importance, highlighting the key areas and effectiveness. The aim is to investigate the theories behind the induction process and its requirements.

An employee is an ambassador to their organisation, representing them through their attitudes and behaviour, how they act is partly down to the organisational culture (Sommerville, 2007, p 47). How employee’s understand and learn these attributes begins with staff induction and socialisation. In HRM literature, organisational socialisation is widely recognised as a key process ensuring new employees can be efficient and effectively integrated within the organisation (Taylor, 2006). Both induction and socialisation are entwined together. Staff induction practices govern unconsciously or deliberately organisational socialisation (Torrington et al, 2005). With the continuous process whereby new recruits are brought into the firm is an important element of HRM practice. If executed well it can help to retain the new employee and reduce staff turnover (Lashley and Best, 2002).

3.2 Performance Management Systems

There have been a significant number of studies over the last 15 years investigating the link between HRM and organisational performance. These have focused on the extent to which (if at all) high commitment or best practice HRM may lead to improvements in worker or organisational performance (Taylor). The idea is that particular bundles of HR practices have the potential to contribute improved employee attitude and behaviours, lower levels of absenteeism and labour turnover, higher levels of productivity, quality and customer service in all types of organisations (Sommerville). Performance management aims to directly link together individual goals, departmental purposes and organisational objectives (Torringon et al). Examples of performance management systems include; recruitment and selection, training and development. Armstrong and Baron (2007, p7-8) defined a performance management system:

Communicates the organisation vision and objectives to all employees
Set departmental and individual performance targets linked to organisational objectives.
Uses formal review procedures to communicate performance requirements.
Conducts formal reviews of progress
Uses the review process to identify training, development and reward outcomes.
Evaluates the whole process.
3.3 Induction Training

Starting a new job can be a stressful process, wondering if you will fit in with your new co-workers, if everything is as good as advertised. Whilst some nerves are inevitable, helping to reduce them and making the new employee feel welcome are vital in retaining new comers (Lashley and Best, 2002). The term ‘induction’ can be interpreted in several ways, however in the generally used in the context of the workplace to describe the entire process of an adjusting to their new working environment and jobs (CIPD, 2010).

Whenever new employees join an organisation there is always a period of learning and adaptation before they become fully effective (Meighan, 2000). Partly, this involves finding out about the practicalities of the job and facts about pay, other employee benefits and the organisation’s rule and regulations (Fowler, 1999). But there is also the need to understand the less tangible but very powerful influence of ‘the way we do things around here’ or culture (Meighan, 2000). Every organisation has its own culture and new employees are unlikely to be fully effective or feel comfortable in their work until they have absorbed this cultural influence and adjusted to it (Taylor, 2006).

Induction has a number of distinct purposes (Armstrong, 2007), all of which are concerned with preparing the new employees to work as effectively as possible and as soon as is possible in their new jobs. The induction is the initial process of learning and adjustment (Fowler, 1999). Meighan (2000, p5) went further and defined induction as ‘a planned, systematic process to help new employees settle into their jobs, quickly, happily and effectively’. Marchington and Wilkinson (2008) suggest that induction covers a variety of informal and formal programmes. From simple greeting and showing a new employee to their work station to personalised programme away from the immediate place of work.

However some academics (Lashley and Rowson, 2000: Marchington and Wilkinson, 2008: Skeates, 1991: Storey, 2007: Tayeb, 2005) believe that the induction process begins with recruitment and selection. Here the employee and employer can discuss expectations and understand what’s realistic, assisting in reducing a mismatch the job role, benefits and expectations. In accordance with these views induction (Skeates, 1991, p16) has been describe as being any arrangement made to familiarise the new employee with the organisation, safety rules, general conditions of employment and the department in which they are involved in. Boella (2000) reinforces this point by suggesting that the induction processes also involve welcoming the new recruit and introducing them to their new colleagues, and that the process starts from the initial contact with the employer.

Irrespective of whether or not a structure process is in place, all employees go through an induction phase. In many organisations especially those that do not have a specific human resource department or manager, this may be little more than greeting before being shown to their workplace. New employees may be told to ask questions if needed and are left to get on with the job as it is assumed they already posses the skills to complete the task. Sometimes a rite of passage may consist of a joke, (go and get me a long weight), with little attempt to explain anything about the company from its mission statement to direction. Even information regarding health and safety or disciplinary procedures. However this can leave the employee feeling isolated and confused, unaware of the rules, causing them to leave. Each problem represents a cost to the employer; poor quality of work, unproductive new starter, time spent on disciplinary issues, re advertising the job. In these circumstances it is unlikely the employer will develop commitment and loyalty (Taylor, 2006).

Organisation socialisation is one of the fundamental processes that define how cultures emerge (Tuttle, 2002). It underpins the social structures (Cable and Parsons, 2001) that shape not only how social actors interact but also the boundaries of action and the rules of engagement. In the context of organisations, socialisation is a process that significantly shapes their way of core practices shape how things are done and why they are done in a particular way (Torrington et al, 2005). Staff induction and socialisation (Ardts et al, 2001) are central to the replication of an organisation because they enable new individuals to become functional members of a group.

Ardts et al (2001, p159) defines organisation socialisation as “the learning process by which newcomers develop attitudes and behaviour that are necessary to function as a fully fledged member of the organisation”. This extends the process of inducting a new employee to the organisation by imprinting the norms, expectations and behavioural patterns. It focuses on the interaction between a stable social system and the new members entering it. Successful socialisation is the transformation from an outsider to participating effective insider (Copper-Thomas and Anderson, 2006, p492).

3.3.1 Psychological Contract

One of the major influences on behaviour at is the psychological contract (Boella, 2000). The contract refers to the unwritten expectations (Taylor, 2006) of the employer and employees have of their relationship. What each other expects to be delivered, what they expect from the working experience, how they expect to be treated (Marchington and Wilkinson, 2005: Meighan, 2000: Taylor, 2006). These expectations exist only in the head of employees, but this does not mean they should be underestimated (Torrington et al, 2005). Like written contracts they can be breached, broken or changed without consent, resulting in dissatisfaction, de-motivation, and higher levels of staff turnover (Armstrong, 2007). The loyalty and commitment from the employee are lost because of a perceived injustice or a disloyal breach of their contract (Boella, 2000).

Riley (2000) stated that the old contract characterises the yester year workforce; focusing on building long term relations, job security and career progression in exchange for loyalty. The ‘new contract’ has modified to typify the current flexible, transactional workforce (Taylor, 2007). The employer offers employment for a limited period, with some development opportunities in exchange for the employee completing a set of defined duties to an agreed standard until a better offer arises. As a result there is greater flexibility with less commitment (Tanke, 2001) and loyalty, as employees see their employment as short term and an opportunity to make money, develop skills and experience (Torrington et al, 2005), increasing the likelihood of staff turnover. In recent years much debate has been raised on the subject of the old versus the new contract (See TABLE *****)

The Old Psychological Contract

EMPLOYEE OFFERSEMPLOYER OFFERS

Loyalty

Security

Commitment

Future career

MICE industry is increasing rapidly and create tremendous amount of profits worldwide in tourism sector. MICE stand for meeting, incentives, conferences and exhibition which driving ahead as a key growth driver. The MICE industry plays a very important role and economic contributor in Singapore’s tourism industry.

There are many factors that makes Singapore become a major MICE destination in the world. Singapore is working hard to stay on top of the competitive business event arena and now Singapore is ranked as the top convention city in Asia for ninth times.

Singapore has the first class conventions venue such as Singapore Expo. Besides, Singapore’s pro business environment, multi-ethnic landscape, strategic geographic location and multi lingual populace has attract many business travellers prefer to do their business tourism in Singapore.

With its strategic location, government support and all those strengthen factors; it makes Singapore boost them to hit the highest achievement in this sector. The influencing factors are divided into few different categories.

1.2 Problem Statement

This research is about how Singapore develops themselves to become a major MICE destination among the world. At the moment, they are doing a very great job as a MICE destination in Singapore. In fact, there are several factors that influence Singapore as a MICE destination.

1.3 Research Question

– What is MICE industry all about?

– What are the major factors that influence Singapore as a major MICE destination in the world?

– What makes Singapore become a major MICE destination in the world?

– The forecast be for this sector in Singapore and why?

– What makes Singapore continuously attracts high profile and highly rated international business events?

– What have Singapore’s government done in order to boost up their MICE industry among the world?

1.4 Research Objective

This research is going to find out the factors that influence Singapore as a major MICE destination in the world. By carry out this research, the MICE industry in Singapore has growth rapidly and future lifestyle as well.

Besides, there is also the understanding of how importance MICE industry that could affect Singapore’s tourism sector and to find out the reason why business travelers’ loyalty toward Singapore as their favorite MICE destination.

Lastly, this research also show the evaluate business travelers’ benefit and interest by organizing an event in Singapore.

1.5 Conceptual Framework

Define MICE industry in Singapore

Strategic Location

Critical Mass

Communication Infrastructure

Stability political and economic in Singapore

The major factors that influence Singapore as a major MICE Destination in the world

Excellent transportation system and telecommunication connectivity.
Excellent meeting and conference venue.
Pro Business environment and government’s support
The forecast be for this sector in Singapore

Figure 1.1

According to this figure 1.1, it illustrates the major factor that influences Singapore as a major MICE destination in the world. The purpose of showing this figure is to demonstrate the topic of this report. The theory framework will show the reason why Singapore can become a ideal MICE destination to the business travellers. Firstly, this research shows aspect that could influence Singapore as a major MICE destination. Besides this, the report also shows how Singapore develops their MICE industry in tourism sector. Lastly, will be the evaluation of forecast for this sector in Singapore.

1.6 Scope and Limitation

The scope for this research is to focus on Singapore MICE industry. Besides that, is to observe how Singapore’s MICE industry growth rapidly within these few years, how they develop their MICE industry in order to increase the amount of tourist and to predict Singapore’s MICE industry in the future.

The time constraint will be the limitation as this research paper due to the study period of time which is from January 2010 to June 2010. It s about half year time, due to the limited time the researcher may face the difficulties when finding the resources and getting the information from journals, online journals, newspaper, websites, books and etc. There is only limited and restricted literature for Singapore MICE industry that is related in the journal databases such as EBSCO Host, Ebrary, and Google Scholar, and some of the sources that provided were not up to date. But this is a challenge for me to do more on this research.

Significance of the Study

This research aims to gain an understanding on how Singapore’s MICE industry growth rapidly in tourism sector. To carry out this research, Singapore is working hard and put themselves out on top of the challenging business event’s field.

This research is very important and very useful. Through this research, the targeted readers which are interested in organize a conference event in Singapore can refer to and to find out the reason why Singapore can be a major MICE destination in the world by maintains their quality and their MICE facilities. Other than that, this research could recommend targeted readers to choose Singapore as their ideal MICE destination.

Chapter 2
Review of the Related Literature
2.1 MICE Industry in Singapore

MICE industry is increasing rapidly and create a tremendous amount of profits worldwide in tourism sector. MICE are acronym of meeting, incentives, conferences and exhibition which driving ahead as a key growth driver. Europe and North America has been stated as one of the front MICE destination but Asia also one of the country that involves a lot in this industry. Singapore is not an exception. The MICE industry plays a very important role and economic contributor in Singapore’s tourism industry. A new era of tourism development and attractions will be gearing up for major revitalization by Singapore’s tourism sector; it will also re-define Singapore’s tourism landscape.

Singapore has the first class conventions and exhibition facilities such as SINGAPORE EXPO and SUNTEC Singapore international convention & exhibition centre. In addition, Singapore has outstanding communication infrastructure, it provides more convenience to tourist travel from one place to another domestically and internationally. Singapore’s pro business environment, multi-ethnic landscape, strategic geographic location and multi lingual populace has attract many business travellers prefer to do their business tourism in Singapore and accompaniment by MICE facilities, infrastructure, expertise and proficient in event management.

Singapore put themselves out on top of the challenging business event’s field. Singapore MICE industry has grown rapidly and now Singapore is ranked the world top three cities for meetings by the Unions of International Associations (UIA). Apparently Singapore has been stated and positioned as the Top Convention City all around Asia for ninth time and the Third Top Convention City around the world for the second consecutive year by ICCA Ranking. Singapore has leapfrogged two score to reach on top of the ranking, defeating Paris and Vienna and providing its goal to be the top of the universe an improvement.

2.2 The factors that could influence Singapore as a major MICE destination in the world.

There are many factors that can manipulate Singapore to become a major MICE destination in the world and it also could affect their tourism sector by increase MICE events in their own country. The factors also can be consider as their strength mean while it is a positive factor that can enhance their MICE sector to becoming the Best City for MICE events among the world in the future.

2.2.1 Critical Mass

The most important factor is it has critical mass; it has been awarded by the Union of International Association (UIA) and Asia’s top convention city for several years. By developing a critical mass of MICE event is this industry, this will helps to create an eco-system of business event that harmonize one another’s existence. Business event not only generate enliven of MICE industry in the mean time it’s also build up Singapore’s value intention as a MICE destination. For the past few years, Singapore has increase the amount of international meetings. These shows from the creativity and quality of the Singapore MICE industry and construct Singapore constantly catch the attention of high-profile international business event.

2.2.2 Strategic Location

Secondly, Singapore has a strategic geographic location which is central location in Asia and also a connection between east and west. It also acts as key district hubs for Asia. This strategic location makes Singapore exert a pull on global businesses and it smoothly links around the world. There were few big events of different industries was held in Singapore such as Asia Aerospace, Food & Hotel Asia, Communic Asia and Broadcast Asia and etc. The feedback was great. Singapore is a safe hospitable country; this is also one of the reasons that event organizers choose Singapore.

Beside this, Singapore Changi Airport is also one of the busiest airlines in the world, which connects to over 180 cities in 50 countries and is categorize as a premier International Maritime Centre. It’s wide ranging air and sea linkages allow ones business to allowed 2.8 billion people within a seven hours flight radius. Singapore Tourism Board claims that “Singapore position attest to its appeal as a premium business travel and meetings, incentive travel, convention and exhibition destination”

2.2.3 Stability political and economic in Singapore

Singapore has a good reputation of efficient, honest and politically stable government compare to other countries. Singapore’s stability of political gives the trust of safe for business travellers to decide to organise events in Singapore. Singapore is a knowledge-based economy and attracts worldwide investments. This may attract foreign investors flock its shores because of their open trade procedure, social stability, world class infrastructure and international communication links. The stability of Singapore’s economic also will raise the amount of business travellers invest in promoting their product in Singapore. The IMD World Competitiveness Yearbook 2008 stated that Singapore as the world’s second most competitive economy. The stability political and economic growth is sustain by the government of Singapore, it helps to attract more business travellers to held their event in Singapore with no burden compare to their competitors such as Malaysia and Hong Kong.

2.2.4 Communication Infrastructure

Singapore is well known by their efficiency and good communication infrastructure have allow it to attract a whole train of international events including the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) meetings in 2009 and the forth coming event will be the first-ever summer Youth Olympic Games which falls on 14th August 2010 to 26th August 2010. Singapore also attracts business travellers to contribute to its achievements as a main destination for both business and entertainments.

Singapore has rated the top in terms of basic infrastructure and technology infrastructure in the World Competitiveness Yearbook. Its efficiency through latest technology and modern infrastructure makes Singapore MICE industry speedily grow in tourism industry.

2.2.5 Pro Business environment and Government Support

Singapore is recognized as a PRO business environment and it’s recommended as the most beneficial place in the world for businessman to start their business there. In facts, Singapore has been noted as No 1 in terms of Ease of Doing businesses for the past four years by the World Bank. Singapore is one of the lowest corporate and income tax rates among the most of the countries. The government has improves the firm environment to help business manage more efficiently.

Singapore has effectively reached a good amount of association meetings by its well-built business basics and plans to assemble a active ecosystem of business events. Singapore Tourism Board (STB) said “All vital signs are pointing towards the return of business confidence in the Singapore business event sector, fuelled by dynamic developments taking place within the tourism landscape. Leverage in our sterling track record and a sound business fundamental, Singapore has secured a robust pipeline of business events, including key international association meeting in coming years”. The general pro-business environment gives Singapore a competitive boundary as a major MICE destination in the world. There is another reason that makes Singapore become a PRO business environment and MICE destination because of the strongly government support through Singapore Tourism Board (STB), government support was the key to make an event successful.

Singapore’s government give fully support in this sector and contributes Singapore as a vibrant business environment. Singapore devoted a lot in promoting the MICE business and also their tourist attractions because conventions and event have the ability to make more profits and jobs in short term and it can increase the interrelated investment and the amount of visitation on longer term. The Singapore Exhibition and Convention Bureau (SECB), a group of the STB has develop the “Business Events in Singapore (BE in Singapore)” its help business events organizers release a higher amount of events. Besides, Singapore Tourism Board (STB) also launched another campaign “Make It Singapore” and it helps to offer marketing support and motivation to potential MICE business. Furthermore, Singapore is has the professionalism in the MICE industry that can makes Singapore to be a global exchange core where people can gather and share their ideas and knowledge.

2.2.6 Excellent meeting and conference venue and offers venue

Singapore is a global core for business and leisure and it is also a best option for convention and events. The excellences of hotel ballrooms and with the first class convention centres, Singapore has continuously recreates with new event location and attraction such as Marina Bay Sands Singapore. Marina Bay attractions will create a unique MICE venue that we cannot found elsewhere in Asia with international standard MICE facilities and services.

MICE facilities in Marina Bay Sands, Singapore Expo, Suntec International Convention and Exhibition Centre are amalgamate to boost Singapore’s attractiveness as a business and leisure destination. Suntec Singapore International Convention and Exhibition Centre and Singapore Expo are defined as a favourite choice for all find of business event due to their huge exhibition spacious. A good convention centre, exhibition halls and meeting venue plays a very important role when we organize an event.

2.2.7 Excellent Transportation System and Telecommunications Connectivity

Singapore posses of efficiency and excellent public transportation system, which includes cabs, buses and the modern Mass Rapid Transport (MRT) rail system same goes to their air transportation. Tourists can get around in Singapore with no burden due to their excellent transport system. An outstanding network of railway system and buses connect travellers to reach any point of the city and the public transportation prices are reasonable to everyone. Singapore provides convenience for foreign business travellers to reach any destination, conference venues and attractions with their public transport system on time due to their punctuality of railway systems. The newly opened MRT network has made ease of access to conference venue such as Suntec Singapore and Singapore Expo, it made convenient for those business travellers. Beside this, Singapore’s bus network is tremendously frequent and extensive and it does not only bring convenient to Singapore’s citizen and also tourists.

Singapore is well recognized for their public transportation and telecommunications connectivity. According to a survey carried out by Singapore’s Land Transport Authority in year 2006, 8 out of 10 Singaporeans were satisfied with their public transportation system such as buses and also railway system, Singapore has 21 Tbps of installed international communication infrastructure capacity, adequate for every business require in telecommunications connectivity. They are one of the more aggressive telecommunication hubs around Asia Pacific. They also provide excellent telecommunication links with broadband network all around business hotels, so those business travellers can surf the internet anytime when inside the hotel room.

2.3 Forecast Singapore MICE industry in the future.

From my point of view, I strongly believe that Singapore will finalize to the top spot and becoming the Best City for MICE venue in the future. Singapore will also be leading ahead of other countries. Singapore’s tourism background is going through a dynamic transformation. On year 2010, there will be more cityscape that gives off more vibrant and enthusiasm on the atmosphere. Singapore are still innovating themselves by introducing newly, modern venue and outstanding facilities to give their foreign business travellers and demonstrators a pleasure knowledge and ambience. They will also keep up their status as Asia’s premier MICE destination through recommending new transportation system and entertainments. The Asia-Pacific is likely to attract over 100 million business travellers and MICE visitors by 2015 with the growth prospective in the region. Therefore there will be no surprise that Singapore to become a bigger slice of this MICE market.

With its stability political and global economy shows signs of reflect, the business event sector is in good chance of taking advantage of on business opportunities. In the upcoming years, Singapore will keep a strong pipeline of business occasion, including the key international association meetings. Ms Melissa Ow, Assistant Chief Executive, Business Travel and MICE Group, Singapore Tourism Board (STB) said: “As we move into 2010, and climate of economy recovery the STB will continue to work closely with our industry partners to meet business event organisers’ evolving needs, explore new business leads and strengthen our international marketing and channel development efforts.”

Marina Bay sands will be one of the improvement into an amalgamate MICE venue which offers 200,000 square meter of convention and exhibition space which create and grow strategic business occasion. These developments will redefine Singapore’s downtown and central business region. There are estimate more than 150,000 meeting attendees are to stopover Singapore for those events that already booked at the Marina Bay Sands. Besides, Resort World Sentosa has accommodated 35,000 attendees at a single event. Marina Bay Sands said that it has secured more than 30 events development to be held there from this year to 2012.

On the year of 2010, the world’s first -ever summer Youth Olympic Games will be hosted by Singapore. With approximately arrival of 15,000 overseas participants and visitors bring about 180,000 or more visitor to Singapore. Beside this, Singapore is also hosting a series of upcoming events and meetings in these few years, such as International Cruise Terminal 2010, Gardens by the Bay 2010, Sports Hub 2010, National Art Gallery 2013 and many more.

Singapore will continue to expand their abilities and upgrading their infrastructure to provide business event travellers in order to guarantee their position as one of the top Asian. Singapore Tourism Board (STB) has planned to upgrade the facilities of Singapore Expo to make sure Singapore Expo is well-organized to sustain the development of MICE industry. The upgraded facilities will ensure Singapore Expo retains their excellent venue for business events.

There are many growing competitors out there from other country such as Malaysia, Hong Kong, Thailand, Macau and etc. But Singapore is making every chance to offer good facilities and services to their business event travellers. Besides, STB are working continuously closely with the events industry. The main purpose is to increase the amount of the business event at Singapore and to make sure that the MICE sector continues to move ahead as a key driver of tourism development in Singapore.

Lastly, I personally think that Singapore has performed well in this industry and lead Singapore to be on top of the MICE industry, because during the staging events in Singapore, the event organiser can be assured of their quality service, accompanied by its tremendous transportation and professional workforce. Although Singapore has obtain a lot of awards but they don’t feel self-esteem, they keep on their good work and maintaining their facilities to achieve and make them the best MICE destination in the world. Furthermore, Singapore’s MICE industry is on the roadway and I strongly believe that if Singapore put in more efforts on this industry, it can leapfrog to reach the top and becoming the Best City for MICE events among the world in the future.

Chapter Three
Research Methodology
3.1 Research Method

For the methodology, this research will be using questionnaire. Among quantitative method and qualitative method, I use both of the method for my research. It is also known as a mix of approaches. The first method is quantitative method which is a technique to gather quantitative data such as information dealing with numbers and anything that is measurable. While for the qualitative method is to understand the meaning of the numbers produced by quantitative method. We have to observe case analysis with given research imply to qualitative methods and quantitative methods to request respondents to rank their perception about these particular topic.

3.2 Research Design

There are two types of research method which is qualitative method and quantitative method. Qualitative method is more on observation and quantitative method is subjective. Qualitative method need to collect date based on quality and is difficult to generalize because everyone’s perception is different; meanwhile it may affect the quality of the result.

For the quantitative method, it is more objective compared to qualitative method because the data must be fact and logic. And it will be in numbers and also in statistics such as graphs or tables. It is essential to use both methods to understand the core of this research.

3.3 Data Collection

Apparently the data in this report is collected from the secondary data which is online database. Secondary data can be easily found at journal, articles, websites, textbooks, books and etc. The researcher gets the journal from the college library website and it is mainly taken from the Google Scholar and EBSCO Host.

1. Sri Lanka is an island country and god has given to Sri Lanka blessings of nature blue seas, green hills, sandy beaches, abundant wildlife, cascading waterfalls, a riot of flowers and fruits, coconut groves, tea estates, spice gardens. Here ones day can be gloriously lazy by a palm cool lagoon or full of joy, swimming, snorkeling, and fishing or sailing like a brilliant jewel in the sparkling waters of the Indian Ocean. Sri Lanka is located in a strategically considered naval spot on the world map. This significant situation creates a path for a major sea route. In addition it creates a strategic naval link between West Asia, Africa and East Asia. Sri Lanka entered the international tourism arena in the 1960s. Since then, government involvement has been the key factor in tourism development in Sri Lanka. The Ceylon Tourist Board (CTB) was established in 1966 in order to provide direction and leadership to this promising sector of the developing economy. The country is famous for healthy and cultural heritage. Hospitality, tropical forests, natural and fascinating beaches, archeological sites and the tropical climate are the more attractive features. These factors make Sri Lanka a wonderful tourist destination. Over the years tourism in Sri Lanka has developed significantly. Today tourism has become the sixth Foreign Exchange Earner (FEE) in Sri Lankan economy.

2. Tourism can make a great impact on development of the Sri Lankan economy. Tourism is a fast growing industry which has been identified presently. Employment opportunities and regional development are playing significant role with regard to the tourism industry development. It can be considered as the most important industry in the country as a whole. The government’s vision is to make the tourism sector as Sri Lanka’s most innovative and profitable income generating source.

3. During past three decades Sri Lanka’s tourism industry had few draw backs. This was mainly due to the security situation which prevailed in the country. Further the tourism industry was also affected due to the Tsunami catastrophe which occurred in 2004. Approximately 2/3rd of the coastal area including tourist infrastructure facilities was destroyed. The immediate post war period gave rise to a dramatic increase of tourist arrival from end May 2009.

4. In order to support the efforts and to develop the tourism sector in Sri Lanka there should be hotels with exclusive facilities which are in par with the international standards to accommodate a large number of visitors. In the year 2010 approximately one million tourists visited Sri Lanka. Unlike in the past, the inflow of tourists is increasing day by day as a result of the end of the 30 year civil war which destroys the whole country. Following graph indicates how tourism increased from 1966 to 2011 in Sri Lanka. The government is expected to receive 2.5 million tourists in 2016. To cater for this increase tourist hotels in Sri Lanka must be developed. Similarly other facilities should also be increased to meet the desired economic goals.

AIM

5. The aim of this paper is to analyze the development of Sri Lanka tourism -challenges and opportunities

GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE OF SRI LANKA

6. Sir Lanka has a various terrain but it mainly consists of flat lands but south-central portion of the country’s step sided river, canyons interior features and mountain. The compliment regions are the areas where most of Sri Lanka’s agriculture takes place, aside from coconut farms along the coast. Sri Lanka’s climate is tropical and the southwestern side of the island is the wet test. . The northeastern side of Sri Lanka is drier and most of its rain falls from December to February. Most of the rain in the southwest falls from April to June and October to November Sri Lanka’s average yearly temperature is 86°F to 91°F. An important geographic note about Sri Lanka is its position in the Indian Ocean, which made it vulnerable to one of the world’s largest natural disasters. On December, 26, 2004, it was struck by large tsunami that hit 12 Asian countries. Around 38,000 people in Sri Lanka were killed during this incident and much of Sri Lanka’s coast was destroyed.

7. Sri Lanka is situated in strategic location near major Indian Ocean sea lanes. It has a total area of 65,610 km?, with 64,740 km? of land and 870 km? of water. Its coastline is 1,340 km long. Sri Lanka’s climate includes tropical monsoons: the southwest monsoon (June to October) and the northeast monsoon (December to March), its terrain is mostly low, flat to undulating plain, with mountains in the south-central interior. The highest point is Pidurutalagala at 2,524.13 m. Resource include limestone, mineral sands, gems, graphite, phosphates, clay, and hydropower.

8. Adam’s Bridge, a land connection to the Indian mainland, is now mostly underwater with only a chain of limestone shoals remaining above sea level. According to temple records, this natural causeway was previously complete, but was breached by a violent storm (probably a cyclone) in 1480.

SRI LANKA’S COMMITMENT TO TOURISM

9. Tourism is a vital area in the policy structure has been identified as capable of efficiently driving the country’s socio economic development. The programme’s vision for the tourism sector is to make Sri Lanka foremost freedom destination in the South Asian Region. The programme believes the human resources and natural and cultural endowments values and nation will be essential in transforming Sri Lanka into a centre of excellence and offer tourists the highest values of real experiences in its unique setting.

10 The One Stop Unit – Unit for National Investment in Tourism is a Centralized promotion and facilitation center Established Thurs assist potential tourism investors interested in investing in Sri Lanka Tourism Industry. Specialist staff from various government agencies helps investors Identify possible projects, Obtain information possible, Regarding Investments, submit applications, and Provide support in obtaining investment promotion privileges, trade licenses and other approvals Requested for project clearance. OSU Prevents the need for investors Thurs spend time in search of answers and ensures all queries are handled by its specialist staff.

11. Serious civil disturbances starting in July 1983 and the subsequent violence badly affected tourism. Total arrivals were 230,106 in 1986, down 43 percent from 1982. To ease the dilemma of the industry, the government provided various concessions to hotels, such as the rescheduling of loans and the reduction of the turnover tax from 10 percent to 5 percent. The Ceylon Tourist Board also undertook a crash promotion program in an attempt to restore the island’s image in world tourist markets. Tourist arrivals in the first six months of 1987, however, showed a decline of 23 percent compared with the same period the previous year. In early 1988, the outlook was for further contraction.

12. In 1988 it remained unclear whether the policies of economic liberalization Sri Lanka has pursued since 1977 would succeed in their principal goals of employment, wealth creation, and economic diversification. Although increased rice production, the growth of textile manufacturing, and an improved infrastructure were successes that could be attributed to the post-1977 policies, these gains came at the cost of a mounting foreign and domestic debt and declining living standards for the poor.

POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT TOWARDS TOURISM

13. The One Stop Unit – Unit for National Investment in Tourism is a Centralized promotion and facilitation center Established Thurs assist potential tourism investors interested in investing in Sri Lanka Tourism Industry. Specialist staff from various government agencies helps investors Identify possible projects, Obtain information possible, Regarding Investments, submit applications, and Provide support in obtaining investment promotion privileges, trade licenses and other approvals Requested for project clearance. OSU Prevents the need for investors Thurs spend time in search of answers and ensures all queries are handled by its specialist staff.

14. Serious civil disturbances starting in July 1983 and the subsequent violence badly affected tourism. Total arrivals were 230,106 in 1986, down 43 percent from 1982. To ease the dilemma of the industry, the government provided various concessions to hotels, such as the rescheduling of loans and the reduction of the turnover tax from 10 percent to 5 percent. The Ceylon Tourist Board also undertook a crash promotion program in an attempt to restore the island’s image in world tourist markets. Tourist arrivals in the first six months of 1987, however, showed a decline of 23 percent compared with the same period the previous year. In early 1988, the outlook was for further contraction.

15. In 1988 it remained unclear whether the policies of economic liberalization Sri Lanka has pursued since 1977 would succeed in their principal goals of employment, wealth creation, and economic diversification. Although increased rice production, the growth of textile manufacturing, and an improved infrastructure were successes that could be attributed to the post-1977 policies, these gains came at the cost of a mounting foreign and domestic debt and declining living standards for the poor.

PROMOTION OF TOURISM INVESTMENT

16. The Board of Investment has introduced incentives in the form of tax exemptions, duty-free imports and the relaxation of controls on foreign exchange holdings. The incentives provided by the government have mainly attracted investment in the hotel sector. The present hotel capacity is 13,670 rooms. That figure is projected to increase to 21,000 rooms by 2004, which will accommodate the target of 1 million tourists. Five regional domestic airports to be restructured at a total cost of approx. Rs. 2bn: Rathmalana, Koggala ,Ampara , Trincomalee & Jaffna (Rathmalana will be developed as a “City Airport”) Previous year. This denotes that tourism industry is one of the core sources of foreign exchange earner in economy of Sri Lanka. Due to the development of tourism improved accessibility via new highways and conversion of military to domestic airports may make high-end hotels in the Deep South and the East of Sri Lanka viable alternatives to the Galle area.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR TOURISM INDUSTRY

17. Tourism directly affected to economy of a country. The momentum of growth in tourism, as result of the post conflict peaceful environment, the tourist arrivals grew to 654,476 in 2010 surpassing the previous record of 566,202 in 2004. Tourist nights one of an important indicator in measuring the volume of tourist traffic, has recorded 6, 544, 760 in 2010. It shows 60.6 per cent increase compared to 2009. Total receipts in 2010 amounted to US $ 575.9 million as against US $ 349.3 million recorded for the year 2009. It indicates a vast increase of 64.9 per cent than

THREATS FOR TOURISM INDUSTRY

18. Development of tourist hotels in Sri Lanka will extremely support the rapid economic development. Developments of tourist hotels, increase room capacities, increase occupancy rates and develop the condition of rooms and upgrade the service provided in the hotels are the key factors to be mainly focused on if to develop tourism. It indeed contributes to the development of tourism and in turn development of economy of the country. Tourist hotel industry should be developed in most of the famous city for tourism with sufficient amount of tourist hotels

19. As political risk introduces additional elements of uncertainty into the rules governing tourism investment projects, the risk of capital loss is raised for longer- term projects. Political risk also negatively influences the timing and pricing of the tourism production process. Negative images, lack of foreign exchange for tourism development, lack of skilled manpower, weak institutional frameworks for tourism planning, political instability caused by communal violence, civil war conflicts are inhibitors to tourism development. However, little is known about how international tourism firms perceive political risks and other general barriers and threats to tourism promotion in Sri Lanka.

20. Common political factors which affect the tourism industry are revolution, civil war, factional conflict, ethnic violence, religious turmoil, widespread riots, terrorism, nationwide strikes, protests, cross- national guerrilla warfare, world public opinion, repatriation restrictions, bureaucratic politics, leadership struggle, high inflation, border conflicts, high external debt service ratio and creeping nationalization. Last thirty years Sri Lanka also faced the civil war and it affected the tourism industry of Sri Lanka. Organizing elections frequently also create threat to the tourism industry because during the election period in some places to control the situation cur hews are implemented.

21. This will create negative image in the mind of tourists. Some of the foreign countries have reject Sri Lanka’s products in their country due to the violation of human rights during the war time. For example government invested and spent on IIFA programme but it was not a successful event for Sri Lanka because the big stars have boycotted the event. They didn’t visit Sri Lanka because of the protests held in their country by asking them not to visit the place. Currently Sri Lanka is having negative relationship with some foreign countries therefore the export and import of Sri Lankan products will be decreased and it affects the tourism industry as well.

FUTURE TRENDS, CHALLENGES

22. Source markets in Asia and Middle East to drive demand: Sri Lanka’s proximity to source markets such as India and its connectivity to the Middle East and China will help in sustaining tourism growth. The rise in per capita income and therefore consumer spending in these source markets will aid the growth in tourism.

23. Infrastructure growth to fuel tourism growth: To ensure rapid growth of tourism in the future, tourism projects will need to be balance with infrastructure development. We expect that with improvements in road infrastructure and development of the new airport in Hambantota, various new destinations will emerge in the country, especially to the north and the east, as these areas have abundant natural beauty to attract tourists but currently suffer from poor connectivity. We expect more airlines to operate in the country as the second airport develops.

24. Greater competition will facilitate growth: We also expect greater competition with the introduction of new hotels in popular destinations such as Colombo, Kandy, Bentota, and Sigiriya, and Galle. We expect the existing hotels to undertake phased renovations to effectively compete with the upcoming hotels. Also, with the increase in income from hotels over the past few years, we expect an increase in the number of hospitality related transactions and mergers and acquisitions.

25. Challenge of attrition to other destinations: Currently, the hotel industry witness’s significant employee attrition to countries in the Middle East and to the Maldives and India. However, with a more stable political environment and improvement in quality of living in Sri Lanka, we expect the attrition to gradually

26. Shortage of skilled labor: As new players enter the market, the projected growth in tourism will be accompanied by shortage of skilled labour. We anticipate the need for relive hospitality education institutions as the contribution of the tourism sector to the overall economy increases.

SUMMARY

27. Sri Lanka is located in a strategically considered naval spot on the world map. Sri Lanka entered the international tourism arena in the 1960s. Since then, government involvement has been the key factor in tourism development in Sri Lanka. Over the years tourism in Sri Lanka has developed significantly. Today tourism has become the sixth Foreign Exchange Earner (FEE) in Sri Lankan economy.Tourism can make a great impact on development of the Sri Lankan economy. Employment opportunities and regional development are playing significant role with regard to the tourism industry development. The government’s vision is to make the tourism sector as Sri Lanka’s most innovative and profitable income generating source.

28. During past three decades Sri Lanka’s tourism industry had few draw backs. In the year 2010 approximately one million tourists visited Sri Lanka. Following graph indicates how tourism increased from 1966 to 2011 in Sri Lanka. To cater for this increase tourist hotels in Sri Lanka must be developed. Sri Lanka’s climate is tropical and the southwestern part of the island is the wettest. . Around 38,000 people in Sri Lanka were killed during this incident and much of Sri Lanka’s coast was destroyed.

29. Total arrivals were 230,106 in 1986, down 43 percent from 1982. The Ceylon Tourist Board also undertook a crash promotion program in an attempt to restore the island’s image in world tourist markets. This denotes that tourism industry is one of the core sources of foreign exchange earner in economy of Sri Lanka. Tourism directly affected to economy of a country. Development of tourist hotels in Sri Lanka will extremely support the rapid economic development. Developments of tourist hotels, increase room capacities, increase occupancy rates and develop the condition of rooms and upgrade the service provided in the hotels are the key factors to be mainly focused on if to develop tourism. Tourist hotel industry should be developed in most of the famous city for tourism with sufficient amount of tourist hotels

30. Negative images, lack of foreign exchange for tourism development, lack of skilled manpower, weak institutional frameworks for tourism planning, political instability caused by communal violence, civil war conflicts are inhibitors to tourism development. However, little is known about how international tourism firms perceive political risks and other general barriers and threats to tourism promotion in Sri Lanka.

31. Last thirty years Sri Lanka also faced the civil war and it affected the tourism industry of country. Some of the foreign countries have reject Sri Lanka’s products in their country due to the violation of human rights during the war time. Currently Sri Lanka is having negative relationship with some foreign countries therefore the export and import of Sri Lankan products will be decreased and it affects the tourism industry as well.

32. Sri Lanka’s proximity to source markets such as India and its connectivity to the Middle East and China will help in sustaining tourism growth. To ensure rapid growth of tourism in the future, tourism projects will need to be balance with infrastructure development. We expect the existing hotels to undertake phased renovations to effectively compete with the upcoming hotels. We also expect the hotel companies, especially the domestic companies located in the country to undertake long and medium term hospitality training programs and regularly undertake competition benchmarking for compensation to retain the talent.

RECCOMONDATIONS

33. These are the recommendations which we can produce in related to tourism.

Develop a marketing strategy: Emphasizing the creation and sustaining of a positive image of Sri Lanka as a substantive and well-established tourist destination offering facilities experiences that are distinct Sri Lankan products.

Establish a domestic tourism strategy: To expand the existing product base and encourage a greater level of holiday movements in addition to pilgrim movements.

Develop goods and services: To meet the increasing needs of the tourism industry, and thus optimize the economic benefit of tourism development to Sri Lanka.

Modify the organization of tourism activities: In order to bring about related improvements in the private sector, increase coordination between tourism and interrelated sectors, and introduce streamlining to facilitate the development of the tourism sector.

Emphasize the environmental, social and cultural aspects: Tourism Development Planning is the only way to solve many issues related to tourism in development. Therefore the tourism planning process should be designed to produce goals and objectives for the destination area related to tourism development. The tourism development plan provides overall guidelines for development and identifies development opportunities. Many development countries are involved in tourism planning.

Financial Assistance: Financial assistance for hotel owners and any other profession in tourist sector would help to create more employment opportunities.

Domestic Airport: Airport also more than 100 km away from the tourist destination it is needed have domestic airports.

Surfing Training: This will create more employment opportunities and generate good income. Among the tourists there are some people they love for surfing and keen to learn.

Conduct Language Teaching: Language barrier should be overcome by conducting specially job oriented language training.

Employ Combat Divers: Surfing is risky and adventure sport it don’t take much time for some to happen therefore as precautionary measure it is needed some combat divers close to the surfing area it would enhance the confidence of people who do surfing.

Proper Taxi Service: Taxi service should be reformed introducing good vehicles fixed with meter system and giving training for drivers.

Improve Infrastructure Facilities: Infrastructure facilities such as Power, Highways, Railways, Airports, Ports, Water Supply, Telecommunications, Accommodations, and Recreational, Shopping and Banking to be improved.

Awareness Programs: Tourists should be informed on specific social, cultural and religious environment programmed.

GAD ALWIS SLE

Maj

STUDENT OFFICER -DSCSC

SPORT TOURISM: FACTORS INFLUENCING MOTIVATION FOR SPORT TOURISM.

OVERVIEW AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY………………

Introduction……………………………….3

Purpose of the Study ………………………….3

Aims and Objectives………………………….3/4

LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………..

Defining Sport Tourism…………………………4

Event Sport Tourism………………………..4/5

Motivation Theory………………………….5

Fan Motivations…………………………..5/6

METHODOLOGY………………………………..

Questionnaire based interviews……………………6

Street Surveys……………………………..6/7

Focus Groups……………………………….7

Introduction & purpose of study

The purpose of this study is to provide an insight into visitor motivation for sport tourism. The proposal will investigate the importance of sport to individuals and the motivation to travel for sporting purposes. Sport tourism is an ever growing industry which has continued to thrive in all aspects, particularly of late. This is highlighted by Gibson (1998) who states that “the concept of sport-related tourism has become more prominent in the last few years as both an academic field of study and an increasingly popular tourism product”. The definitions of sport vary between authors with “some critics insisting that an all-embracing definition is impossible because sport is a socially constructed activity that has varied across historical eras, societies and cultures” (Ritchie & Adair, 2004). Others have suggested that “sport has specific and timeless characteristics, such as being goal-oriented, competitive and a forum for the creation of winners and losers (Rader, 1979, Paddick 1975,Goodman, 1976)”. Furthermore, it is evident that like various other topic areas, sport tourism has a vast and broad research base.

Sport and tourism are currently two of the most important industries, with a significant increase in tourists travelling for sport related purposes in recent years. However, researchers such as Delphy (1998) and Gibson (1998) have recognized that people have been travelling to participate or watch sports for centuries”. Furthermore, Hall (1992) postulates that “sport tourism falls into two different categories, travel to participate in sport and travel to observe sport”. Sport tourists choose to travel to either participate or spectate. With regard to this, particular focus of this study will be placed on spectators and what motivates them to travel, attend and observe at various sporting events.

Visitor motivation is a significant topic area which will be investigated rigorously within this study. The research will focus on the factors which influence motivation for sport event tourism. According to Mullins (2008) “motivation is a force which drives any person to show a specific behaviour towards any condition or situation or things”. Motivation is perceived by various authors as being either “Intrinsic or “Extrinsic”. Intrinsic motivation is widely regarded as a self generated procedure which encourages an individual to act in a particular way. Extrinsic motivation on the other hand is perceived as an external influence which encourages an individual to act in a certain way. In other words something is done for an individual to motivate them to behave in a specific way. Specific examples of motivation within businesses include freedom to act and responsibility (Intrinsic) and also promotion and praise from others (Extrinsic). Visitor motivation will look at tourist’s behaviour, profiles and the motivation they have to attend various sporting events.

Aims & Objectives

The main research question will be to ascertain what motivates individuals to travel for sporting events. The following aims and objectives will be pursued throughout the study in order to critically examine the topic area.

To analyse visitor motivation theory
To discuss the importance & understanding of Sport Tourism
To discuss factors of influence on travel motivations for spectators
To attend numerous sporting events in order to get a feel of the influences on travel motivation

The scope of research will be primarily focused on the relationship between motivation and sport tourism. In order to meet the aims of the study the following objectives will be set to enable a successful investigation into the research area:

Assess the concepts, theories and models related to motivation & Sport Tourism
Examine previous studies related to sport event travel motivation
Conduct primary and secondary research to understand the “spectator experience”
Critical Literature Review

The following literature review will provide an introduction on sport tourism, highlight the key authors related to the field and also provide a deeper understanding of the factors influencing people to conduct sport related tourism.

Sports tourism is defined by Gibson (2006) as “leisure based travel that takes individuals outside of their home communities to participate in physical activities (Active Sport Tourism), to watch physical activities (Event Sport Tourism) or to venerate attractions associated with physical activities (Nostalgia Sport Tourism)”.On the other hand, Standevan and De Knop (1999) define sport tourism as ” all forms of active and passive involvement in sporting activity, participated in casually or in an organised way for non-commercial or business/ commercial reasons, that necessitate travel away from home and work”. The key authors related to this field of study include Heather Gibson, James Higham, Mike Weed and Thomas Hinch to name a few. Notable academic books and journals include Sport Tourism: Concepts and Theories (Gibson, 2006), Sport Tourism – Interrelationships, Impacts and Issues (Ritchie, B. & Adair, D. 2004) and also The Journal of Sport & Tourism.

Although both definitions mentioned are very similar it is interesting to note that Gibson (2006) has separated sport tourism into three different segments. This includes Active Sport Tourism, Event Sport Tourism and also Nostalgia Sport Tourism. However, Standevan and De Knop (1999) have opted on a more broad definition stating that sport tourism is “all forms of active and passive involvement in sporting activity”. The definition provided by Gibson (2006) illustrates a clear and concise understanding of what sport tourism is whilst also depicting the different types of sport tourism specifically.

Robinson and Gammon (2004) like Gibson (2006) have also separated sport tourists into different segments. They depicted that “sport tourism could firstly be divided into two areas of focus, differentiating between those who travel primarily for sport (sport tourists) and those where sport is perceived as a secondary consideration (tourism sport). This study however, will focus on what Gibson (2006) describes as “Event Sport Tourism”. This refers to tourists who travel to spectate physical activities or events. Event tourism includes travelling to attend a range of different events although it is interesting to note that sporting events have had the most significant impact on the industry. This is backed up by authors Chalip and McGuirty (2004), Turco (2003) and Saayman and Uys (2003) who state that “Although event tourism includes arts festivals and cultural activities as well as sport events, the latter have played a key role in the growth of the event industry. One reason for this is that sport events have been seen to make an effective contribution to the economic development mix of cities and regions”.

Furthermore, this study will aim to ascertain what motivates tourists to travel to watch sporting events. In order to determine this successfully the literature related to motivation theory will need to be critically discussed. According to the Journal of Sport (2004) “The motivation(s) of the sport tourist has been a regular source of discussion within much of the sport tourism literature (Gammon and Robinson, 1997; Gibson, 1998a; Hinch and Higham, 2004; Kurtzman and Zauhar, 1995a; Standeven and De Knop, 1999)”. Every year there are numerous events taking place with increased numbers of tourists travelling. Tourism is conducted domestically as well as outbound in order to actively take part or spectate at sporting events. Hollyforde & Widdett (2002) postulate that motivational theory “outlines a researchers answers to questions such as “why do people make the choices they make? Or what makes someone persist at one activity and yet quickly give up another “.

Abraham Maslow is a renowned psychologist who proposed the motivational theory the “hierarchy of needs”. This theory has been an important framework related to motivation and assumes that human motivations proceed through various stages of needs. The hierarchy of needs starts off with the more primary basic needs such as physiological and safety needs at the foundation further leading to belongingness & love and esteem needs and lastly ending with self-actualisation. According to Gibson (2006) “psychologists such Maslow and also Murray have long postulated that behaviour is a function of needs, indeed, much of their work has provided the theoretical foundation for studies that have investigated the relationship between leisure or tourism and need satisfaction”.

Fan motivations are an important aspect when determining the reasoning behind “Event Sport Tourism”. Tourists love for the game/sport provides a big influence in them wanting to travel in order to watch their favorite team/player or event live rather than from a television set. A good example of this would be Football, where individuals purchase season tickets in order to watch their team play on a regular basis. This includes home games only but first option on away games is usually provided. Tourists will also be motivated to attend the away games especially on the big European nights away from home in order to support their team. This relates to Simon Hudson’s theory that “sport events away from can have an appeal based on their uniqueness or their quality that, when combined with escaping from the familiar and routine, generates personal and interpersonal benefits which make it a worthwhile expenditure of time and resources.

Sport event tourism also provide a range of positive impacts for the consumer, destination and also the events. This is backed up by Hudson (2003) who states that,

Special events can attract more tourists than regularly scheduled games.
Sport events attract corporate sponsors.
When sport facilities are built, they become permanent event venues.
Major sport events can be catalysts for new facilities and new or improved infrastructure.
Sport events can assist in destination branding by providing powerful, active lifestyle images and making cultural themes come alive. (Hudson, 2003)

It is envisaged that this study will further strengthen the current body of literature related to sport tourism. A conceptual framework will be used in order to meet the aims and objectives of the research, placing particular focus on “Event Sport Tourism”.

Methodology

The following section will provide details of how the planned research will be conducted, what method(s) will be used and how long it may take to obtain relevant data.

According to the research methods workbook “the research process or methodology is the approach to the entire study – it is the master plan. It is the blueprint for achieving objectives, one of which is the production of the dissertation” (Workbook, 2014). There are generally two main processes of conducting research, the qualitative approach and the quantitative approach. Quantitative data is primarily concerned with assessing numerical data and conducting statistical tests. Conversely, qualitative data focuses on descriptions that can be observed and includes methods such as participant observation and unstructured interviews. In simple terms the main difference between the two approaches is that quantitative data collection deals with ‘quantity’ of research whereas ‘qualitative’ data collection emphasise quality research.

The methodology section will emphasise how the research will be conducted in order to attain relevant information regarding sport tourism and motivational theory. Within this study it is envisaged that the research process will consist of questionnaire based interviews with tourists that attend sporting events. This will be completed in order to determine the factors which influence their decision/desire to attend. It is believed that interviews can have a number of positives including “the encouragement of participation, clarification of any confusion regarding questions and also the inclusion of people who are incapable of reading (Long, 2007)”. By mixing the two concepts of questionnaire and interview it will in a sense provide the “best of both worlds” and enable the researcher to gather sufficient data. Authors such as Kendall (2008) postulate that “while questionnaires can provide evidence of patterns amongst large populations, qualitative interview data often gather more in-depth insights on participant attitudes, thoughts, and actions”.

Furthermore, alternative research methods will also be taken into consideration in order to determine the most efficient and effective way of obtaining information. Street surveys and focus groups will be the other two approaches in question, they will be looked at in detail as potential research methods. Street surveys are a quantitative research method whereas focus groups provide a qualitative approach to data collection.

Street surveys are a tempting research method considering it is an efficient way of gathering data from individuals. According to Long (2007) “street surveys are a quick and cheap route to gathering survey data. The ‘street’ in this may represent any convenient location for ‘capturing’ respondents (e.g. the mall or refectory/canteen). Street surveys will be conducted outside specific sporting events in order to receive data from relevant sport tourists. However, there are disadvantages like any other method, including relatively low response rates due to the typical locations in which surveys are conducted. The lack of quality of data gathered and the overall amount of data collected are also negatives of using this method. Conversely, surveys can also have various positives including the ease and efficiency of conducting the process. According to March (1982: 147) “Surveys have a lot to offer….since experimentation cannot be used to investigate a wide range of macro-social processes, there is often no alternative to considering variation across cases in a systematic fashion”.

Focus groups will also be taken into consideration when depicting the ideal research method to use in order to conduct research for this study. Focus groups are a traditionalist method of research, enabling the researcher to obtain information on a face to face and personal basis. Therefore, the researcher is able to obtain descriptive answers rather than numerical or statistical data. It is envisaged that “Qualitative research is generally based on the belief that the people personally involved in a particular (leisure or tourism) situation are best placed to describe and explain their experiences or feelings in their own words. They should be allowed to speak without the intermediary of the researcher and without being overly constrained by the framework imposed by the researcher” (Veal,2006) . With regard to this, focus groups should be high on the list of potential research methods. However, there are also disadvantages of using this method like any other. Focus groups can become difficult to control, analyse and conduct. It is easy to get a group of people together but it is not as easy to avoid disagreements, conflicts between individuals and irrelevant discussions. Transcribing a focus group is also a very time consuming process due to the amount of people involved within the discussion. Participants may also feel under pressure to follow the lead of a dominant individual within the group therefore succumbing to peer pressure and holding back their own views.

Regardless of which research approach will be used, significant methods will need to be included within the process of obtaining information. This includes personally attending various sporting events in order to get an idea of the “spectator experience”. It is interesting to note that Weed (2008) postulates that in order to ascertain ‘why’ sport tourists travel, researchers need to focus on participation experiences underpinned by ontological research. Furthermore, significant library based research will need to be conducted as well as the visitation of numerous libraries and archives. Fieldwork will also be conducted during event visitations in order to broaden knowledge in relation to the topic area. The subjects of research will include randomly selected individuals with an interest in “Event Sport Tourism”. Conversely, small groups may be required if focus groups are chosen as the most suitable research method. The timeframe for the research to be conducted is yet to be finalised however, it is understood that the following research will take several months to complete in order to obtain the relevant data required.

Bibliography

Books

Altinay, L and Paraskevas, A (2008) Planning Research in Hospitality and Tourism, Butterworth

Heinemann, London

Clark, M et al (1998) Researching and Writing Dissertations in Hospitality and Tourism, International Thomson Business Press, London

Delpy, L. (2003). An introduction to sport and adventure tourism. In Hudson, S, Sport and

Adventure Tourism (pp. 1-25). Haworth Hospitality Press Inc: Binghamton

Gibson, H. (1998a). Active sport tourism: Who participates? Leisure Studies, 17, 155-170.

Gibson, H. (1998b). Sport tourism: A critical analysis of research. Sport Management Review, 1,

45-76.

Gibson, H (2006) Sport Tourism: Concepts and Theories, Oxon: Routledge

Hall, C. (1992) Hallmark tourist events: Impacts, management and planning,

London: Bellhaven Press

Higham, J. and Hinch, T (2011). Sport Tourism Development. Bristol: Channel View Publications

Hinch, T. & Higham, J. (2008). Sport tourism: A framework for research. In Weed, M, Sport and

Tourism: A Reader (pp. 40-56). New York, NY: Routledge.

Hollyforde, S & Widdett, S (2002) The Motivation Handbook. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development

Hudson, S (2003) Sport and Adventure Tourism. New York: Haworth Hospitality Press.

Hudson, S. & Ritchie, B. (2001). Cross-cultural tourist behaviour: An analysis of tourist attitudes

towards the environment. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 10(2), 1-22.

Long, J (2007) Researching Leisure, Sport and Tourism: The Essential Guide, London, SAGE Publications.

Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper

Ritchie, B. & Adair, D. (2004) Sport Tourism – Interrelationships, Impacts and

Issues, London: Cromwell Press

Robinson, T. & Gammon, S. (2004). A question of primary and secondary motives: Revisiting

and applying the sport tourism framework. Journal of Sport Tourism, 9(3), 221-233

Standeven, J. & De Knop, P. (1999). Sport Tourism. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Vernon, M.D (1969) Humanmotivation.London : Cambridge U.P

Veal, A (2011) Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism: A Practical Guide, Longman, Essex (4th edition)

Weed, M (2008). Sport & Tourism. Oxon: Routledge.

Weed, M and Bull, C (2012). Sports Tourism. 2nd ed. Oxford: Elsevier

Journals

Harris, Lois R. & Brown, Gavin T.L. (2010). Mixing interview and questionnaire methods: Practical problems in aligning data . Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 15(1). Available online:

http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=15&n=1.

International Journal of Sport Management, Recreation and Tourism

Journal of Sport & Tourism-Abingdon Taylor & Francis Ltd

Kotze, N (2006). Urban Forum.Cape Town and the Two Oceans Marathon: The Impact of Sport Tourism. 17 (3)

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Cyprus is unique destination for tourists from all over the world. The island has great advantages for visitors such as sun, sea, fine weather conditions, services, hospitality and professionalism of staff. “Tourist Arrivals in Cyprus decreased to 357194 in October from 421201 in September of 2016. Tourist Arrivals in Cyprus averaged 190802.91 from 1990 until 2016, reaching an all time high of 482132.00 in July of 2016 and a record low of 16748.00 in February 1991” (Tradingeconomics.com, 2017)

.

Cyprus also has great potential for development sport tourism. According CTO “Sport tourism is most valuable assets when it comes to alternative forms of tourism”.

The constant fall of arrivals and tourist revenues during the last decade (Cyprus Tourism Organisation-CTO, 2010) that resulted in the decrease of the island’s competitiveness as a destination (Boukas and Ziakas, 2012), made the Cypriot tourism policy-makers to seriously consider golf tourism as a means to counterbalance the negative climate and the serious chronic problems of the island’s tourism (i.e., seasonality, low service quality, mass tourism) (Archontides, 2007). Hence, the Strategic Plan for Tourism 2000-2010 and 18 its second version, the Strategic Plan for Tourism 2003-2010 prepared by CTO, put emphasis on the development of a number of golf courses as major tourism infrastructure projects in order to help enrich the image of the island’s tourist product (CTO, 2000; CTO, 2005; CTO; 2010). Even though the value of golf for Cyprus tourism was recognized since 1993, serious interest for golf by the tourism policy was noted during the beginning of the new century (Boukas et al., 2012). In 2003 the government granted permission for the construction of eleven more golf courses on the island (added to the already three completed golf courses until then) for the enrichment of the tourism product and in harmony with the synchronized development of property and tourism (Archontides, 2007). Finally, in 2009 the Council of Ministers refined the golf courses policy in Cyprus: the final number of golf courses was determined to fourteen and given to the dry climate of the island and the water shortage problems, each golf course should not use water from the public tanks and draining system but should use individual desalination plants that would produce the amounts of water needed for maintaining golf operation via renewable means (Ministry of Finance, 2009). Until today, five golf courses operate on the island, most of them located in Paphos and are accompanied by other types of development such as real estate and hospitality units.

Event: International Golf Tournament, 3 days event to introduce Cyprus as golf destination to international tour operators from Austria, France, Finland, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Holland, Germany, Sweden, Lithuania, UK and Switzerland. Golf tourists will be primary sport tourists where will be experienced participants and learning participants( beginners). To perform in the event guests will need specific resources and facilities, collecting places, always affluent& independent and golf for them is like lifestyle appeal.

Mission statement: Also the main purpose of this event is to attract tourists from different countries to participate or to support their favorite team.

Aims: The main aim to present Cyprus as a golf destination during the winter season and holidays period. The event will happen in order to increase more sport tourists to Cyprus.

Objectives: SMART ( Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time- Bound)

With one purpose to generate sustainable growth of golf tourism
Different tourists coming for business purposes and thereby they represent and secure the long term interest of the golf tourism
The primary objectives of the CGF are to promote, administer and encourage amateur golf in Cyprus.

Organisational Profile

Maps:

The event’s physical layout and the resources required:

All Year Round Golf at Aphrodite Hills, the first ever leisure and golf development of its kind in Cyprus, Aphrodite Hills Golf Resort is home to a magnificent 18-hole championship golf course, dedicated 3-hole Golf Academy and magnificent Clubhouse, designed for golfers of all standards and ages. Spreading out over 6,289 metres and overlooking the site where Aphrodite, the goddess of love, is said to have emerged from the sea, our golf course is truly a unique location in which to test your skills with friends.

The award-winning golf course was officially opened in 2002 and was designed by the acclaimed architect, Cabell Robinson. Robinson has designed Aphrodite Hills to be the perfect mix of challenging pot bunkers, manicured fairways of lush Bermuda grass and generous tiered greens.

Visually spectacular, the course expands through indigenous olive and carob trees and is built on two plateaux, separated by a dramatic ravine with outstanding views over the Mediterranean. And the staggering 130 metre gorge dividing tees at the 7th hole is an enticing challenge for all lovers of this beautiful game.

Format: The luxurious 234-hectare Resort which is located 15 km from Paphos District and magnificently positioned on two plateaux divided by a dramatic ravine and commands breath-taking sea views of the legendary birthplace of Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love.Aphrodite Hills is home to a number of integrated facilities, again for the pleasure and use of all guests to the Resort. Facilities include the majestic and visually spectacular 18-hole championship-standard Golf Course, with 3-hole Golf Academy that caters for all ages and abilities. A team of resident PGA-qualified Golf Professionals provide valuable tuition. A driving range, pitching and chipping green, an impressive Golf Clubhouse, Lounge and Pro Shop complete the outstanding world-class golf facilities.

Timing: The date of this sporting event in Cyprus will be running during winter on 25^th of December at 10:00. The average of people expected to participate from abroad is approximately 30 people

Stakeholders: Tour operators specialising only in golf, or with a golf department, range in size from small companies, some handling only 250 golfers a year, to mass-market tour operators such as TUI, Thomas Cook and Hana Tour, each of which has a sports or golf division. More than half of the sales of small golf tour operators are non-golf, but the percentage of golf sales increases with the size of company. Or looking at this another way, the larger golf tour operators (excluding the mass-market operators) focus entirely or predominantly on golf.

Gantt chart:

Marketing and promotion:

The main objective of the CTO is the organization and promotion of tourism in the Republic by making full use of all existing possibilities. An effective promotion requires a delicate balance between giving your audience what it wants and convincing them of whatever it is you want – whether to buy your product, order a service, or attend an event. If you’re selling golf products, however, your job is much easier. Rather than convince your audience they need your club, bag, or shirts, you are simply presenting an already interested crowd with things they likely already buy. First way of advertisement is online advertising – heading straight to the World Wide Web to catch your customers may seem like an obvious strategy, but it’s one you don’t want to miss – the sheer numbers of potential consumers online make the Internet a massive world of opportunity. Second way is golf infomercials. They show your audience exactly how they can benefit from your product. A golf infomercial is an excellent way to provide a captivating and informative visual explanation as to why your product is better than the rest. Third is a Live demonstrations – These can be performed at any number of golfing events, conventions, and merchandise exhibitions. The advantage of a live demonstration is similar to that of an infomercial – letting people experience the unique benefits of your product -while taking it to the next level of advertising by putting your product literally in front of the consumer. And the last way is Print ads – advertising in magazines or newspapers is a classic, time-tested strategy for reaching your desired population of golf enthusiasts. Whether placing an ad in a monthly golf publication or the sports section of the local newspaper, you are marketing to a select group who is already inclined to buy your products.

Is it financial viable? It is very important to have financial opportunities of service, and a good relationship with the public sector, such as national, state / provincial, regional and local authorities. This will help tourism, ensure the safety of tourists (and the safety of the event itself), sustainability, financial assistance and much more. And also very important to maintain contact with the specialized agencies, which provide sports tourism policy at the national level (different types of Director) and provide funding, technical support, etc. The most important thing is to provide sports facilities at the local level tourist port companies. For such an event, the dancers need a place to speak (stage closed / open), a place for training, opportunity (musical, technical, water, light) . Another one of the main points is the administration and policy. It is very important to have good and strong relationship with them, as they solve complex and intertwined problems frequently encountered attitude sports tourism in our increasingly globalized world. Often organizers faced with the transfer date of the event (weather conditions, etc.), and in this situation they refer to policy and management

What are the risks? (Risk management, operational risks, marketing risks, financial risks) This section shows the project’s early understanding of risk. Naturally, the project size and complexity will be the main drivers of this activity. The objective at this stage is to identify the risk response development that you want to formally build into the project execution processes. In order to do so, the project team must identify and quantify the risks as normal. In the quantification step, it is important to develop common probability and severity criteria so that all risks can be objectively evaluated to the extent possible. Event has two important phases. It is initiation and planning.

Initiation creates a project charter that minimally contains a description of the business need, the desired deliverables, and a formal approval to proceed by appropriate management. They must to inform the people from different countries about the event (from internet, TV, blackboard ).Planning creates an integrated plan outlining in greater detail the var- ious projected aspects of the proposed effort. Articles in this section will deal with these topic areas in more detail. A major point in this chapter is that the initiation process and its related planning activities are fundamental activities that should not be shorted to save time.

The social, environmental and economic impact: On the one hand, there is evidence that golf has adopted organizational citizenship practices and become an environmentally friendly sport (Husin et al., 2012; Limehouse et al., 2010). On the other hand, it is argued that the growth of golf tourism engenders considerable risks to the sustainable development of destinations, and hence, raises serious controversies in local communities between proponents of golf’s beneficial effects on tourism and economy and opponents who call attention to the adverse environmental, economic and socio-cultural impacts of golf (Boukas et al. 2012; Briassoulis, 2007, 2010, 2011; Davis and Morais, 2004; Neo, 2010; Palmer, 2004; Perkins et al., 2010; Wheeler and Nauright, 2006)

In conclusion, it is very hard to create an event. Everything must to much each other the weather, people, date of event, time, place, hotel, transportations, tourist, stakeholders, budget. You should plan an interesting event in order managers, sponsors and stakeholders liked it .

References:

Anon, (2017). [online] Available at: http://cyprus-mail.com/2015/11/22/golfing-touristors-last-year/ [Accessed 4 Jan. 2017].

Anon, (2017). [online] Available at: http://tgaproductions.com/golf-infomercial.html [Accessed 6 Jan. 2017].

Anon, (2017). [online] Available at: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/29018459.pdf [Accessed 6 Jan. 2017].

Aphroditehills.com. (2017). About Aphrodite Hills Resort, Cyprus. [online] Available at: http://www.aphroditehills.com/Aphrodite-hills/resort/ [Accessed 6 Jan. 2017].

Boukas, N., Boustras, G. and Sinka, A. (2012) ‘Golf tourism in Cyprus’, in Mufakkir, O. and Burns, P.M. (Eds.), Controversies in Tourism, CABI, Oxfordshire, pp. 144-159.

Cgf.org.cy. (2017). Cyprus Golf Federation | CYPRUS GOLF FEDERATION | NICOSIA | CYPRUS. [online] Available at: https://www.cgf.org.cy/about-cgf [Accessed 5 Jan. 2017].

Cyprus Mail. (2017). Sports seen as way to boost tourism – Cyprus Mail. [online] Available at: http://cyprus-mail.com/2014/02/12/sports-seen-as-way-to-boost-tourism/ [Accessed 4 Jan. 2017].

Cyprus Tourism Organisation – CTO (2000) Strategic Plan for Tourism 2000-2010. Available at: http://www.visitcyprus.com/media/b2b_en/Strategic_Plan/STRATEGIC_PLAN_ FOR_TOURISM_2000_2010.pdf (Accessed 26 July 2011). 40

Cyprus Tourism Organisation – CTO (2011) Cyprus Tourism in Figures 2010, Cyprus Tourism Organisation, Nicosia.

Cyprus Tourism Organisation – CTP (2005) Annual Report 2005. Available at: http://media.visitcyprus.com/media/b2b_en/CTOAnnualReports/Annual_Report_ 2005.pdf (Accessed 26 July 2011). Cyprus Tourism Organisation – CTO (2010) Strategic Plan for Tourism Development 2003-2010. Available at: http://www.visitcyprus.com/media/b2b_en/Strategic_Plan/Stategic_Plan_for_tour ism_development_2003-2010.pdf (Accessed 26 July 2011).

Husin, S., Chelladurai, P. and Musa, G. (2012) ‘HRM practices, organizational citizenship behaviors, and perceived service quality in golf courses’, Journal of Sport Management, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 143-158.

Tradingeconomics.com. (2017). Cyprus Tourist Arrivals | 1990-2017 | Data | Chart | Calendar | Forecast. [online] Available at: http://www.tradingeconomics.com/cyprus/tourist-arrivals [Accessed 4 Jan. 2017].

Under the fast development of the events industry, holding sports events is growing continuously. More and more cities hold sports event to attract tourists or business investments, and then to become a sports destination. One of the biggest impacts of holding a sports event is to increase the image of a city. Also, it could improve facilities (Marketing Manchester, 2003). Amount of researches have suggested that sports events have developed continuously and have become powerful catalysts of the economy of a city over the years.

Sports events are one of the oldest kinds of events dating back to ancient Greek Olympics. Sports events are becoming part of a strategy that is more and more being used by governments in their destination marketing programmes (Law, 1995). Very often the destination of events is linked to strategies of urban regeneration and tourism development. This is why cities staging major events have a unique opportunity to market themselves to the world. One of the characteristics of sports events is the media coverage or the ability to change the image of a city (Gratton et al, 2005). The fact is, to hold a sports event, a city must have facilities, the environment, the economic supports and the staff required. Getz (1997) declares that sporting events are rapidly increasing in popularity as a means of attracting attention to particular geographic locations. As sports events are becoming so important, organizations have been created to support sports all around a country. For instance, in England, the association UK Sports has been developed “to lead sport in the UK to worldwide class”, and it has adopted the term major sports events (UK Sports, 2009).

The use of sport events as a reimaging tool is an established tradition with precedents dating back to classical civilizations (Favro 1998). With the impactive example, which is the 2002 Commonwealth Games, Manchester had made an indelible contribution on the positive image of the Manchester city. During the years, the city also tried to bid for the Olympics Games by building new venues and developing new facilities. Till now, Manchester is proud to have been voted the world’s leading Sport City in 2008, a recognition for the city’s commitment to delivering a comprehensive sporting programme that connects major events to community sport, elite performance, facility development, volunteering, training and education (Northwest, 2009).

The study focuses on the city of Manchester, in which one of the most famous sports event held was the 2002 Commonwealth Games. The game was held in Manchester from July 25 to August 4, 2002. It ranks as the third largest sports event in the world after the Olympic Games and the Word Cup. In UK, it was the largest sports event to be held after the Olympic Games in1948. 72 nations involved in 14 individual sports and 3 team sports events (The Commonwealth, 2009). Seven years later, the impacts and legacies of this grand sports game still exist. Marketing Manchester (2003) issued that it created more than 300,000 additional visitors per year as a direct result of the games. The positive image of Manchester continues to grow. This is then reflected in real economic benefits for the city-region. The government became an active partner at all stages of the Games in 1999 as Sport England is providing capital funding (Games Legacy, 2003). Dating back from 1996 to 2000, the bidding for Olympic Games resulted in a series of new facilities, including the National Cycling Centre (NCC) and the Manchester Evening News (MEN) Arena (Smith, n.d.). When organizing the Commonwealth Games, Manchester wanted to leave a sport legacy in the city, not only for its citizens to have access to sports facilities but also from an economic point of view. It did not take into account that the Games influence themselves but also the impacts after the Games. This event promoted the city with developing a new economy and offering new social aspects for Manchester City (Games Legacy, 2003).

Therefore, based on the existing researches and the opinions of sports associations and events organisations, this study will focus on the capacities of a city to become a sports event destination and its impact on Manchester city. Meanwhile, the importance of the destination management and the key principles of being a sports events destination will be discussed.

On the other hand, different researches undertaken on the reimaging of a city lead to a common agreement that it is not clearly identifiable, and can even be negative. Queuing, ways to enter the town, the site, toilets or seats, can generate negative responses from the audience (Derret, 2004). It may generate bad behavior, loss of amenity, environment damage, or even direct financial loss. Therefore, in this study, both positive and negative impacts will be analysed concerning the sports events in Manchester.

1.2 Aim

The aim of this study is to evaluate the capacities of Manchester to become a sports events destination and its impact on Manchester city.

1.3 Objectives

1. To seek the critical reasons of the importance of the destination management.

2. To critically evaluate the key principles of being a sports events destination.

3. To analyse the capacity of Manchester as a sports event destination, and to assess the impacts and legacies of the sports events in Manchester.

4. To conclude and recommend from the findings of the dissertation.

1.4 Structure of the dissertation

In order to establish a clear background of this research, a literature review will explained more precisely and more detailed with key numbers of related conceptions and notions of sports event destination. The methodology part will then explain the research methods, which were used and how they react on the whole studies. Furthermore, the study will analyse and then present the results and data that have been found all over the research. Finally, it will draw a conclusion, and further recommendations will be suggested.

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter will explain more precisely and detailed conceptions and notions that used in the study. It develops the topic through a number of different ranges of resources about the destination management, sports event destinations and its impacts and legacies in Manchester city.

The importance of the destination management

Destinations are places that attract visitors for a temporary stay, and range from continents to countries to states and provinces to cities to villages to purpose built areas (Pike, 2004). Manager a destination could generate millions of profits and thousands of employment. (Parry and Shone, 2004).In order to know the importance of managing a destination, several concepts and notions will introduced to support it.

The destination management was initially defined by Janeckova and VaA?tikova (1999) as “a system of managerial skills and activities used for coordinated planning and organizing of tourism for a particular destination”. Several years later, Parry and Shone (2004) added that the destination management was not just a case of managing the physical products such as the venues, hotels or transports systems, but was also very much to do with building partnerships and collaboration across destinations. The destination management plays an important role in the venue sector such as ensuring facilities, approaching potential investors, protecting products and balancing visitor experiences.

Smith (2008) illustrated that destination management is about coordinating all the activities and services, which impact on the visitor and their enjoyment of the destination. This covers a very wide range of things including marketing and information provision, traffic circulation, the warmth of the welcome, signage, accommodation and attractions, local distinctiveness, transport, environmental quality and cleanliness etc. Moreover, destination management can include land use planning, zoning controls, environmental issues, regulations, business association initiatives, and a host of other techniques to shape the development and daily operation of event-related or tourism-related activities (Srinivas, n.d.). Manente (2008) highlighted that the role of destination management is to manage and support the integration of different resources, activities and stakeholders through suitable policies and actions. It implies both governmental and functional competences, which should be generally performed by the public sector.

In addition, DMOs (Destination Marketing Organisations) should take responsibilities for all aspects of destination management in their areas, including tasks currently performed by local tourism partnerships, local authorities and others. In simple terms, DMOs will take the lead on the development of the destination, providing a membership offer, communicating with industry, providing ICT services, running tourist information centres, marketing the destination, providing information to visitors, businesses and others, foster excellence, carrying out research and providing support (Marketing Manchester, 2003). Key DMO goals can be summarized as relating to the following four themes, which are enhancing destination image, increasing industry profitability, reducing seasonality and ensuring long term funding (Pike, 2004). Furthermore, the role of DMO is to sell the destination and highlight all strengths and facilities, generate and convert enquires into confirmed business. They act as intermediaries, serving as a custodian of the destination information, to be the official voice of the destination and the facilities, services and overall ‘product’ (Davidson and Roger 2006). The British Tourist Organisation, is an example of DMO. Lohela (2008) pointed out that DMOs negotiates with several authorities such as the country administration boards and government, in order to improve, for example, infrastructure to and within the destination. DMOs work towards development of larger and better quality accommodations. Target market definition is an important factor for DMOs to determine as well as to consider the impacts and effects of destination development.

However, the needs, expectations and anticipated benefits of tourism or events industry vary greatly from one destination to the other, and there is certainly no “one size fits all” approach to destination management. (Srinivas, n.d.)

Principles of sports event destination

Every destination has a unique mix of characteristics, which are determined by its geographical location, culture and history (Getz, 1997). According to Highman (2005), a general lack of knowledge is associated with the definition of sports event destination. However, he explained that the particularly dynamic and powerful domain of tourism, which offers tourist destinations of scope, scale and diversity, is related to sport.

The strong growth of the sports event industry is part of a general economic change. Whereas the economy tends to be more product base, it is increasingly becoming service based. This is the reason why governments increasingly use events as economic development strategies. The government plays a key and leading role in events. Increasingly, governments use events strategy to plan the use of resources and to improve and measure the outcomes of programmes and service (Bowdin, McDonnell and O’Toole, 2002).

Sports destinations range from sports purpose-built resorts, where all the functions are focused on the dominant activity, to capital cities and entire country (Law, 1995). Derret (2004) stated that a sports events destination can be defined as a city or a country having the facilities and staff required as well as the government’s support to hold a major sports event. As a successful sports event destination should comprise, efficient transport, well-signed directions and cost-friendly events are undoubtedly essential for a great attraction to audience. Meanwhile, the appropriate accommodation, transport infrastructure, tourist activities, secure parking, pathways, access to amenities like automatic teller machines, phones, first-aid and emergency service are all related to a successful event (Parry and Shone, 2004).

The main ability of sports event or sporting event is to attract tourist visitors, media coverage and economic impact (Highman, 2005). Moreover, the holding sports event goals for a destination should address following issues (Parry, and Shone, 2004):

The extent to which existing events are to be developed and promoted as sports attractions.

The extent to which support will be given to develop or assist the creation of new sports events and bidding for sports events.

The role events are to play in creating and enhancing images, particularly a destination area or attraction theme, and in correcting negative imagery.

The acceptable costs associated with development, and who is to pay for them.

The means to identify, prevent, ameliorate, or remove negative impacts.

The need for organizational development at the level of interest groups, communities, destination areas and government agencies/departments to support event tourism.

A key element directly link to sports events is the image of the city and how this kind of event can influence it. Indeed, sports events can help a city or a country to promote a specific image and thus to attract tourist (Westerbeek et al, 2002). Jennings (1996) early explained that the staging of sports events does not only attract tourist but also political and commercial business interests, which also help to change the image of the city. Furthermore, according to Smith (2005), more and more cities use sports events to present an attractive image to potential tourists. Sports events are able to influence the reputation and change the image of a city.

In addition, Kasimati (2003) explained that the long-term benefits of major sports event lead to re-build the event facilities and the infrastructure, enhance the international reputation, increase tourism, improve the public welfare and add employment. Long-term impacts are the longest ones to evaluate. This is the reason why there is very often a lack of information about them. Moreover, Ritchie and Adair (2005) declared that even if a city experiences image advancement, it does not mean that this will directly lead to the increase of tourism or to the economic development. The change of the image of a city cannot be a direct impact after the event. This is the long-term legacy that a major sports event can leave. Also, Sport’s mega events are both too powerful and too costly to justify staging for reasons of generating sports tourism alone (Sports Business 2009). Therefore, sports events generally have both positive and negative impacts as there will always be uncontrollable elements. However, negative impacts can be managed if the event could be carefully planned with a complete strategy.

Capacities of Manchester

Manchester identified the sports development and major events as good postindustrial prospects in the early 1990s (Jones, 2001). Braham (1999) had already regarded the success of Manchester United football club and the regular hosting of international sports events as major factors in the enhancement of Manchester’s image for a visitor destination.

Manchester City has a wide range of sporting facilities that are equally capable of catering to World Class competitions as well as serving the casual needs. It is the home for two top class football clubs, Manchester United Football Club and Manchester City Football Club. These two clubs each has its own museum that provides guests with opportunities to relive past glories and trophies. Manchester also features Britain’s National Cycling Centre and the primary indoor Olympic cycle track that is known as the Manchester Velodrome. It also offers other sporting facilities that include courts for basketball, netball and badminton. The Aquatics Centre was constructed so that the city of Manchester could host the 2002 Commonwealth Games. Today the centre is also the home of the City of Manchester Olympics Team. Golfing enthusiasts can visit Heaton Park Golf Centre that offers visitors to the city of Manchester the opportunity to golf on any day of the week (Millennium, 2009).

The success of Manchester airports as an international hub makes Manchester uniquely placed to act as an international gateway to Britain. The city-region’s comprehensive regeneration, combined with the success of the 2002 Commonwealth Games and the rise in urban tourism, means Manchester now has the capacity to truly compete as a destination on a national or international stage (Marketing Manchester, 2003).

Adaptable Travel (2009) stated that recent years Manchester has become a world player in hosting large scale sporting events. From the 2002 Commonwealth Games to the 2008 World Track Cycling Championships, Manchester has become a world-class sporting host. With a range of sporting venues, Manchester demands audiences’ attention with a warm, no-nonsense welcome and a liberating open-mindedness place.

Manchester has been crowned the best ‘Sports City’ in the world for its successful hosting of six international sports events in 2008, including three world championships. A group of industry experts including representatives from FIFA, the International Olympic Committee, the All England Lawn Tennis & Croquet Club and the International Cricket Council selected Manchester the winner ahead of other leading world sport destinations. Throughout the year, Manchester World Sport 08 has hosted the UCI Track Cycling World Championships, the 9th FINA World Swimming Championships 2008, the BUPA Great Manchester Run, the UEFA Cup Final 2008, the Hi-Tec World Squash Championships 2008 and the Paralympics World Cup. One of the key campaign objectives for Manchester World Sports 08, which was coordinated by Manchester City Council in partnership with Marketing Manchester, the Northwest Regional Development Agency, UK Sport and M.E.N. Media, was to raise Manchester’s position in the global hierarchy of ‘top world cities’ (Manchester City Council, 2008).

Manchester is now continuing to present international sport in 2009 with major events, including (Sports Business, 2009):

– BUPA Great Manchester Run;

– BT Paralympics World Cup;

– Standard Bank Cup Argentina vs. England Rugby Union International;

– LEN European Women’s Water Polo Trophy;

– BTCB British International Taekwondo Open Championship;

– Co-operative World Netball Series;

– UCI Track Cycling World Cup Classic

– UCI Paracycling World Championships.

Simon Morton, Senior Events Consultant at UK Sport, said: “The city of Manchester will continue to play a key role in our World Class Events Programme throughout the coming years, as we prepare British athletes, volunteers, and officials for our home Games in London in 2012” (Sports Business, 2009). Besides, Paul Simpson, managing director of Visit Manchester, the tourist board for Greater Manchester said: “Sport is one facet of what makes Manchester and being able to show the world we stage events enhances the appeal of Manchester, particularly from the international visitor perspective. The year 2008 has seen Manchester’s credentials as a sports destination reach even new heights.” (Sports Business, 2009)

The following lists are the venues for the 17 sports events (Marketing Manchester, 2003):

Manchester Aquatics Centre- Diving, Swimming,

City of Manchester Stadium- Athletics, Rugby 7s.

National Squash Centre, Sportcity- Squash.

Table Tennis Centre, Sportcity- Table Tennis.

International Convention Centre- Weightlifting.

Bolton Arena- Badminton.

Wythenshawe Forum Centre- Boxing.

Manchester Evening News Arena- Boxing, Netball.

National Cycling Centre- Cycling.

G-MEX- Gymnastics, Judo.

Belle Vue Hockey centre- Hockey.

Heaton Park- Lawn Bowls.

Even though Manchester ranks third only behind London and Edinburgh in terms of overseas British visitors, there is a considerable gap behind the leader. There is still a real potential for growth. In order to more clearly understand the present position Manchester is currently in, along with the future of direction it should pursue in its tourism policy, two SWOT analyses were undertaken by Marketing Manchester. The first analysis examined the physical tourism product and the conurbation’s tourism infrastructure. The second one looked at public perception and the brand identity of the city region. Not all conclusions reflect the position across the Great Manchester conurbation. There are wide ranges of differences within these districts. But they are issues that emerged as of significant relevance Source (Marketing Manchester, 2003):

Infrastructure:

STRENGTH

WEAKNESS

Manchester Airport Plc;

Metro link tram service;

New attractions;

High number of budget hotels, nightlife; Shopping;

Entertainment;

Rebuilding of the city centre;

Large pool of skilled graduates.

Lack of budget airline service to Manchester; Lack of high capacity conference facility; Coach parking facilities; Visitor service infrastructure; Poor taxi service; Lack of iconic attractions; Signage in city centre; lack of disabled access facilities.

OPPORTINUTIES

THREATS

Proximity of Liverpool Airport; Opportunity to expand and grow the convention market; Enhancement of visitor areas; Improvement of public transport network; Development of waterway network.

Continued failure if rail service; Fragmented political structure; Oversupply of hotel accommodation

Brand:

STRENGTH

WEAKNESS

Leading UK city; Sport (particular Manchester United and the 2002 Commonwealth Games Legacy); Self-confidence;

Friendliness;

Value for money in the view of domestic tourist.

Negative perceptions of the city; Lack of unique reasons to visit; Perception by overseas visitors that the city is expensive; Perception that the city is unsophisticated

OPPORTUNITIES

THREATS

Opportunity to change the negative Perceptions (e.g. via achievement of World Heritage Site status); Development of brand identity in terms of culture; Activity promote Manchester as an international conference and convention destination; Promote city events programme

Other UK regional cities; Fear of crime

Source: Marketing Manchester, 2003

Impacts and legacies of sports events

It is important for a city organizing a major sports event to get as much feed back as possible to find out what this event can bring to a city. The hosting of sports events provides a short period of excitement for resident and causes the long-term awareness of the host destination, which is about creating a long lasting legacy or impact Kasimati (2003).

According to Cashman (2005), there is no clear and evident definition of this notion, because legacy is often assumed to be self-evidence so there is no need to define. However, Ritchie and Adair (2005), a legacy planning can help to ensure the hosing of a major event and can contribute to the development of facilities and programmes that will give profit to the residents for many years. If considering about the Manchester 2002 Commonwealth Games, when being organised, it had been planned for a leaving legacy. The legacy activities were funded under the 2002 North West Economic and Social Regeneration Board Programme, operating from 1999 to 2004. The objective was to attract more business like national and international sports events. Concerning the sporting legacy, the new investment created by the games aimed to give Manchester a unique opportunity to redevelop its existing sporting venues and also to fund the construction of new ones (Games Legacy, 2002).

Moreover, Manchester Event Volunteers was designed to build upon the success of the XVII Commonwealth Games Volunteer Programme. Manchester Event Volunteer service has proved successful in developing and maintaining a volunteer database of over 3000 enthusiastic individuals who have supported more than 400 communities, regional and national events during the providing thousands of volunteering opportunities. Also, strong links with event organisers have been developed and the excellent reputation of the service can be evidenced by the fact that organisers now approach the service directly (MEV, 2006). This could be seen as one of the biggest legacies that the sports events left in the city of Manchester.

Sports events are short-term events with long-term consequences for the cities that stage them. So they will have impacts either positive or negative on the holding destination. The benefit of holding sports events includes sharing opportunities in access to new funding, as well as the development of new sporting infrastructure. Moreover, the economic activities associated with the staging of major sports event can give significant economic benefits for the host destination (Westerbeek, Turner and Ingerson, 2002). The constructions of new sport buildings represent a net addition to the local economy. The remaining facilities after events that can lead to future activities can generate additional tourist expenditure. Furthermore, major sports events can create a network between the event organization and other managers working on the event (Chalip and McGuirty, 2004). When the authors list the positives impacts of a major sports event, very often they also list and explain the negative ones. The majority of them are linked to the finance loss. Westerbeek et al (2002) explained that it is a significant financial burden on the host communities. It needs to require assistance from the community such as public funding. Ritchie and Adair (2005) stated that sport tourism bring modification to cultural experiences and lead to crowd disorder. However, in the case of the 2002 Commonwealth Games, Manchester did not invest a lot of money in the development of capital projects. The funding came from both UK Government and private sponsorship. Also, most people in Manchester are encouraged by this grand sports festival. In this case, Manchester managed to produce many important benefits from the event (Carlsen and Taylor, 2003).

Recently, the completed research has confirmed that the biggest year of international sport in Manchester in 2008 attracted over 317,000 visitors to the City and generated ?23 million of net economic impact to the Manchester area, along with providing social and participatory benefits for community and youth groups across the city and the Northwest. Peter Mearns, Executive Director for Marketing and Communications at the NWDA said: “This level of economic impact shows just how important major sporting events are to the regional economy. It is a fantastic figure obtained from Manchester hosting a unique number of high-quality international sporting events and world championships” (Manchester City Council, 2009). Moreover, Viamanchester (2009) described that the year 2008 was the single biggest year of world sports in Manchester since the Commonwealth Games in 2002. With holding 6 international sports events, it is no wonder the city has just been crowned ‘Sports City of the Year’. Therefore, the hugely positive impacts of Manchester World Sport 08 demonstrated the government objectives to deliver benefits to residents by maximising opportunities for inclusion and participation, while improving the considerable contribution that major sports events can make to the local economy.

Councilor Mike Amesbury, Executive Member for Culture and Leisure at Manchester City Council said: “Manchester is renowned for its incredible sporting legacy and to be recognised internationally for our achievements are a great honour” (Manchester City Council, 2009).

According to Brown and Massey (2001), if Manchester is seen as a sports destination, balancing the need to attract tourists and the need to provide community use will be important as to the impact of the facilities in sports development in the region. Likewise, if the 2002 Commonwealth Games is successful in re-imaging Manchester, and if the benefit from the increased visitors is distributed, the event perceptions that discussed above in terms of legacy will be draw.

In conclusion, this chapter has set the background of the research and explained the different concepts and notions linked to sports events. To completely understand how it is possible to evaluate the capacities of Manchester to become a sports event destination, it was necessary to seek the critical reasons of the importance of the destination management first, then to evaluate the key principles and influences of being a sports event destination including the impacts and legacies of the hosing city. As the 2002 Commonwealth Games played an important role, which links to the study. It was analysed by different aspects to support this chapter. Also, the year 2008 was described as the best sports year, and generated millions of pounds for the regional economy. Besides the literature, the primary research will be conducted based on the key notions and conceptions reviewed here to make a further proof of the whole study.

Literature Review

An extensive literature is review essential in order to define the concept and key terms of spiritual tourism. In order to understand spiritual tourism in more detail, the characteristics of the spiritual activities by that tourism can affect positively will be discussed. It further introduces of various authors defining spiritual tourism. Literature review is further used to assess current situation of spiritual tourism development. The researcher will analyse the literature to help build a theoretical frame work on the definition and concept of spiritual tourism. Hence definition of spiritual tourism is discussed followed by characteristics of spiritual tourism and lastly attempt to justify spiritual tourism as a sustainable tourism and authentic tourism has employed. Cottrell (2005, p. 127) states

“when looking for evidences to support an argument one needs to consider whether anything has been written about it already, where the information could be found and which are the most relevant and authoritative sources for the subject.”

Spiritual tourism is a tourism that is motivated by faith or religious reasons has been in evidence for centuries (Sharply and Sundram, 2005). In more recent times, however, it has been suggested that modern tourism has become the functional and symbolic equivalent of more traditional spiritual practices, such as festivals, pilgrimages, yoga and holy places. To date, however, little work has been undertaken to explore this position (Sharpley and Sundram 2005). The purpose of this literature review, therefore, is to contribute to this debate.

Spiritual tourism

It has been long recognised that a variable relationship exists between the institutions of spirituality and tourism. Research proves that conceptual discussions of leisure or tourism often have spiritual overtones or link leisure with spirituality (Doohan, 1990; Godbey, 1989; McDowell, 1986). Authors above shows that spiritual tourism area has been in research for many years however people’s awareness of spiritual tourism is still an area to study. Conceptual discussions of leisure and tourism have made references to spirituality however there is a rarity of theoretical reflection and empirical study on how these two concepts may be related (Heintzman, 2002).

On the one hand, spiritual tourism may be identified as a specific type of tourism whose participants are motivated either in part or exclusively for peace reasons (Rinschede, 1992 p.53). On the other hand, tourism may be considered as a spiritual activity. (Vukonic?, 1996). Smith (1992a) refers to as the ‘mission in guest’. At one extreme it is prescribed as sacred pilgrimage, a journey drove by faith, religion and spiritual fulfilment; at the other extreme it is prescribed as a tourist who may seek to satisfy some personal or spiritual need through tourism. Between these two points can be found different forms and intensities of spiritual tourism are motivated to a greater or lesser extent by religious or, conversely, cultural or knowledge-based needs. As Smith (1992a) puts it, some religious tourists may be ‘more pilgrim than tourist’, whereas others may be ‘more tourist than pilgrim’.

Brown (1998, p. 1) defines spirituality as

“has become a kind of buzz-word of the age . . . an all-purpose word, but one that describes what is felt to be missing rather than specifying what is hoped to be found . . . The spiritual search . . . has become a dominant feature of late twentieth-century life: a symptom of collective uncertainty.”

Vukonic (1996) explains that it is an opportunity for human being to recognise and encourage their spiritual needs, but also tourism, as a particular use of such free time has come to seen as a spiritual journey.

Aggarwal el, al. (2008) explains that Spirituality means having understanding with deep, often religious, feelings and beliefs, including a person’s sense of peace, purpose, connection to others, and beliefs about the meaning of life. The essence of spirituality is inner feeling through love. Spirituality is one word which puts a human being on the highest pedestal of life. Spirituality is living life as it was meant to be not as we may have desired or wanted living it. It is a certain fact that only the true seekers of Spirituality become the masters of their destiny. Knowingly or unknowingly many people who have a materialistic goal in life travel the path of Spirituality and become successful in life. These highly acclaimed individuals unknowingly tread the path of pure Spirituality and achieved the goal of their life. Spirituality in other terms means that before we ask God the Almighty for material riches to be bestowed upon us we need to compensate by giving something equivalent or more back to the community. In terms of Spirituality we are not supposed to get anything unless we promise to do something in return in the system of God.

Smith and Kelly (2006) define spiritual tourism as one that provides the visitor with activities and/or treatments aimed at developing, maintaining and improving the body, mind and spirit. Ali-Knight (cited in Mintel, 2009) defines spiritual tourism similarly as involving travelling to a destination to engage in the practice of yoga and related activities that enhance physical, mental or spiritual well-being. And however, takes a step further, exploring spiritual tourism in the context of expanded definitions of cultural tourism, as it embodies and incorporates many of its wider elements and involves a learning experience. It was noticed that the most notable difference between cultural tourists and yoga tourists is the greater maturity of the yoga tourist, perhaps because of the spiritual and self-reflective part of the holiday experience, which may not be as accessible or appealing to a younger age group (Mintel, 2009).

New age spirituality is now a religion in the formal and organisational sense. Instead it represents a personal spiritual quest that typically eschews traditional monotheistic to concentrate on what is not associated to closely with traditional theologies and churches (Hanegraaff, 1999). O’Neil (2001) describes new age spirituality as a movement rather than a division, because in common with other natural religious, there is no structural religious institution, but instead an explosion of classes, worships and seminars focusing on some aspect of new age teaching.

Journeys can be regarded as “spiritual”

When contemplating spiritual tourism, there is an inclination to just include those journeys that correspond to one’s personal understanding of spirituality. The following can be subsumed under the heading:

Yoga-

A 5,000-year-old spiritual discipline, which originated in the South of India, yoga is by far the most popular holistic pursuit, and the one to have most fully entered the mainstream, aided by a celebrity following. Yoga has proved to be helpful in the treatment of lifestyle conditions, including stress, obesity, diabetes and depression, and is practised as part of ayurveda. Of the variety of styles, hatha yoga and ashtanga (power) are most common (Mintel, 2007).

Ayurveda

‘Science of life’ in Sanskrit – is a complete medical system with its origins in northern India 5,000 years ago. By diagnosing and balancing the body’s humours, it is effective in treating a variety of conditions including lifestyle diseases. However, it is most commonly chosen as a ‘detox’ and ‘rejuvenation’ therapy. Yoga is a constituent of ayurvedic therapy. Barberry Reef, which opened 25 years ago off the west coast of Sri Lanka, pioneered the offering of ayurveda to westerners(Mintel, 2007).

Meditation

Although only 6 percent of the world population are Buddhists, most of whom live in Asia, Buddhism is a rapidly growing religion in the West and an interest in Buddhist meditation has increased in the last decade. The number of Buddhist organisations in Australia, for example, increased by 211 or 126 percent in almost seven years from June 1995 to April 2004. In the UK, in the 2001 Census, 15,000 people – or 1 in 400 – declared themselves as Buddhist (Mintel, 2007).

Cultural activities

Visiting sites of history, Archaeological digs, cities up to battlefields, the interest in an epoch or specific historical events having prominence. Visiting places where historical figures or famous personalities lived and worked. Visiting places of religious significance (pilgrimages), reflection, meditation for the sake of soul-searching. This involves the cultivating and practicing of religious beliefs or the performing of religious duties (Melchers, 2006).

Religious activities

Religious travel is not a new phenomenon. Religion has been an integral motive for undertaking journeys and is usually considered oldest form of non economic travel (Jackowski & Smith, 1992). Every year millions of people travel to major pilgrimage destinations around the world both ancient and modern origin (Timothy & Olsen, 2006). There is small but important literature that focuses on the characteristics and travel pattern of religiously motivated tourists. Rinschede (1992) differentiates between different forms of religious tourism based on time involved and distance travelled namely short and long term religious tourism. The short term type involves travel nearby religious attractions, while long term means travelling the world. However the motive for such travel is a journey towards the perfection (Timothy & Olsen, 2006).

Adapted from Melchers (2006)

Melchars (2006) further argues that Spiritual tourism isn’t just religious tourism like pilgrimages. A wide spectrum of travel forms deserves this name. Given the current “inflation of meaning”, spiritual tourists seek something that is worth being interested in, that can give their lives new richness or even a new direction. They want to “visit meaning” and investigate on the spot whether they experience anything sustainable here. In order for such expectations to be fulfilled, appropriate destinations are subject to special demands on marketing and organization of the visit. Journeys concerned in a wider sense with experiencing culture, art and religion are understood as “spiritual” although the travellers seldom use the term “spiritual tourism”. They themselves speak of educational trips, hobby trips, meditative journeys, art trips.

Spiritual tourism is also viewed from different aspects. However the concept of spiritual tourism has been viewed from very narrow prospective. To summarise above arguments about spiritual tourism it simply means linking peace of mind with leisure for an annual holiday. According to union tourism minister Renuka Chaudhri (cited in Gaur, 2006 p. 43)

“The concept of spiritual tourism has been viewed in a very narrow sense. People think that is all about visiting temple and all other holi sites. We are looking at it from a wider perspective now.”

She explains spiritual tourism as visiting a temple, visiting cultural sites, practicing yoga or just simply relaxes in your hotel room and listens to the vedic chants. As an example where this is practiced in India is a land of spirituality. People across the world are showing interest in yoga. It can provide healing touch particularly to the busy urban people living in the concrete jungles.

Motives for spiritual travel

Spiritual holidays seek to address the interdependence of physical, emotional, mental and spiritual, often referred to as ‘mind, body and spirit’. Inextricably connected, dynamic balances of all three are seen as essential for wellbeing. Spiritual tourism is a more abstract, multi-faith and eclectic one in which tourists seeks meaning, engagement and peace through activities such as meditation. Eco- and sustainable tourism is also tied closely to holistic tourism. (Mintel, 2009).

Chaline (2002) states spiritual tourism as an extraordinary experience. What is anticipated in spiritual tourism destination is not holiness or divine visions. It is however something even more miraculous – the opportunity to feel different from the way we feel at home. It is as if the act of travelling to a certain place in the world entitles us to feel happier and more alive.

Spiritual tourism is a journey, not a destination. One of the key themes to understand on spiritual tourism is that the journey towards wellness is far more important than the destination in spiritual tourism is often an alternative space in which one can engage in self analysis without the stresses and distractions of home (Wright state university, 2003).

According to Brass (2006), is authenticity linked to goodness, and exploring one’s inner potential is another aspect of authentic-seeking that of searching for a non-material, authentic and deeper experience. An increasing number of people are undertaking activities which incorporate creating something new.

The spiritual traveller wants to establish or document “intimate” closeness and attachment to and with the subject of their journey. Purpose and destination of the journey are experienced as something special – at least compared to trivial vacations and the usual places that are visited without any particular ambitions. To come close to something, it’s still best to make our way to the spot. A place is visited that has been “consecrated” and so is suitable for soul-searching. There is a desire to become intimate with a piece of history, the Art of the Renaissance, Saint Francis or the current musical culture. Such a trip shows others that you are already close to such themes (Melchers, 2006).

Spiritual tourism as a sustainable tourism

Carey (2006) of Tourism Concern notes that sustainable tourism will be a core driver in the future as destinations shape their image. Carey states that, when sustainably developed, tourism can create so many social and economic opportunities for the destination community.

Sustainability and authenticity go hand in hand where communities build a tourism product which belongs to their community, for example, the Kawaza Village tourism project in central Zambia where tourists can stay in an authentic African village, learn about environmental issues, collect wild honey, and find out about apiculturists (Schlesinger, 2006).

Tourism can be a powerful tool of development, but its potential can also be wasted. Too often tourism enterprises see each other only as competitors, and end up frustrating visitors. Every destination talks about quality and exceeding visitors’ expectations, but what is the spark that transforms a destination into something remarkable? It is a destination that has pride and is passionate about celebrating its heritage, its food, landscapes and its people. Of course, authenticity does not guarantee sustainability, but without the celebration of ‘local distinctiveness’ it is just ‘another resort’ Carey (2006).

There is increased demand for such kind of tourism as Stueve et al. (2002) claim their ‘‘geo tourism study” indicates that there are at least 55.1 million Americans who could be classified as ‘sustainable tourists’ or ‘geo tourists” and in particular specify a ‘‘good citizen” demographic segment.

Spiritual tourism as an authentic experience

Boyle’s (2004) appraisal of authenticity means that tourists are searching for a connection with something that is real, unsullied and rooted within the destination. Hence the connection to ‘spiritual experience’. These visitors increasingly hark back to ‘the good old days’, despite the fact that the quality of life has significantly improved since the ‘good old days’. Here, tourism destinations have an opportunity to create something real, what is termed a sense of place. Yeoman and Beattie state that destinations which have no history have no anniversaries or festivals to celebrate. It is a destination’s image that is shaped by its history, which then creates its sense of place. It is a destination’s food, people and places which make up its heritage and its character (Yeoman & McMahon- Beattie, 2006).

Authenticity as a concept is nothing new (Brass, 2006; Chambers, 2005); destinations such as Australia, Canada and China are promoting authentic experiences. There is a growing desire to obtain experiences and products that are original and the real thing, not contaminated by being fake or impure. This movement away from impurity, the virtual, the spun and the mass-produced in a world seemingly full of falseness needs further explanation (Yeoman et al., 2007). There is a dearth of literature about authenticity and tourism from different philosophical approaches such as positivism, constructivism or post-modernism (Wang, 1999). But whatever your approach, the importance of authenticity is paramount.

It is a fulfilment of moving beyond goods and services to experiences. At one level it means increased spending on holidays, eating out, the theatre and so on. But it also includes special experiences such as white-water rafting or spending a weekend at a health spa (Yeoman et al., 2007). Pine (2004) also observes that, as the experience economy matures, a shift is identified towards authenticity. Consumers decide to buy or not to buy, based on how real they perceive the product/service offering to be. Thus the rendering of authenticity emerges as a selection criterion for tomorrow’s tourist.

The trend of authenticity is a close fit with the proposition of Spiritual tourism, based upon its nature and offering (Yeoman et al., 2005). The cornerstones of authenticity are quintessentially linked to David Boyle’s (2004) writing and more. So, to conclude, authenticity should be:

Ethical

An authentic experience should be founded on the principles of community, sustainability and ethical consumption.

Natural

Tourism should be a natural phenomenon which is pure and not tainted nor manufactured. Natural tourism products are those which are quintessentially associated with the destination or region.

Honest

Be honest with your visitors; the tourist industry shouldn’t promise something which can’t be delivered or produce something tainted by falseness that will spoil the authentic proposition.

Simple

An authentic experience should be simple to understand in which the visitor can see the benefits. The more complicated the experience, the more unbelievable it will be. As the world is full of complications, an authentic experience should be simple, pure and consumed in an inconspicuous manner.

Beautiful

Authentic destinations have a beauty about them, whether this is a magnificent view which creates a sense or place, or the feeling that experience cannot be copied as it belongs there and only there.

Rooted

Authenticity has some sense of past which is rooted in the destination or community. India is often known as a home of spirituality especially for yoga.

Human

A human experience is something that is living and people-focused. This means that the tourist wants human contact which is local and real.

Adapted from Yeoman, et al. (2007)

The importance of all of the above is to understand how this trend is developing and whether it will last. This can surely provide an opportunity for tourism industry—especially for those providers who are trying to be authentic and appeal to visitors whilst also undertaking niche marketing. As long as technology and virtual life continues to develop at the pace they are, the need for human contact and for traditional activities will increase. As consumers become even more empowered and cynical of fake promises, they will continue to seek out the authentic in their own way (Yeoman et al., 2007)

The role of tour guides in providing authentic experience

Authentic tourism refers not to consumption of the real or genuine (Reisinger & Steiner, 2006) but rather to individual and personal tourist experiences that contribute to one’s sense of identity and connectedness with the world (Steiner & Reisinger, 2006). The authors suggest that the individual and personal dimension of authentic tourism should extend to people making up their own minds about how they experience and interpret the toured world. This could certainly mean that tour guides in their current incarnation might be largely superfluous in authentic tourism. But it might be a worthwhile philosophical exercise to examine what tour guides do, see what that tells us about the concepts of meaning-making and interpretation, and perhaps recast their role to find a place for them in authentic tourism. Finding a role for tour guides in authentic tourism calls for a rethink of what tour guides most commonly do. It also calls for a reconceptualisation of interpretation as a tour guide responsibility (Reisinger & Steiner, 2006).

According to Ap and Wong (2001), mediating and culture broking are two interpretive functions of the tour guides’ work. Tour guides mediate between tourists and locals and the environment. Mediating moves beyond telling tourists how to think and feel about their experiences; it is about leading them to their own conclusions and letting them learn. Culture broking is the act of bridging, linking or mediating between groups or persons of differing cultural backgrounds for the purpose of reducing conflict or producing change (Jezewski & Sotnik, 2001).

Ap and Wong (2001) believe tour guides’ interpretive work plays a vital role in enhancing visitors’ experience and understanding of a destination and its culture. Ap and Wong (2001) say tour guides, through their knowledge and understanding of a destination’s attractions and culture and through their communication skills, transform tourists’ visits from tours into experiences. Moscardo (1998) identifies three main ways in which interpretation can contribute to the quality of visitors’ experience. These are: (1) providing information on the available options so tourists can make the best choices about what they do and where they go; (2) providing information to encourage safety and comfort so tourists know how to cope with and better manage encountered difficulties (e.g. sea sickness) and understand messages given by the warning signs (e.g. ‘you cannot swim here’); and (3) creating the actual experience so tourists can participate in activities such as guided walks, ecotourism, visit art galleries, fauna sanctuaries or zoos, and learn in areas of educational interest.

Summary

Smith and Kelly (2006) conclude that, as with other specialist tourism interests, spiritual tourism faces challenges related to authenticity, practice, regulation and management, as well as definition problems and categorisation challenges. Consumers and the industry alike currently experience confusion as to what spiritual tourism is. In the short term, its true meaning is unlikely to become any clearer, as ‘spirituality’ becomes a commercial buzzword, and hotels get into the game. They caution that finding a balance between provisions of care, economic development, and meeting the needs of a diverse set of consumers in an erratic world will prove an enormous challenge.

However, there is no doubt that a wave of interest in holistic holidays has stirred the mainstream, moving the sector on to a new phase of development. The WHO warns that depression and mental health problems will be the second-largest disease burden by 2020 (cited in Mintel holistic report), and this would indicate that stress, and the need to cope with increasingly fast-paced modern lives, is not going to go away. Going to an alternative therapist or doing a yoga class for exercise is one thing, but signing up on a yoga retreat, or to engage in life coaching while on holiday, is not yet mainstream practice. However, demand is increasing, as evidenced by the amount of new businesses entering the market, and has shown accelerated growth in the past five years. In particular, growth at the top end, and in holistic spas, is bringing the alternative world to an increasingly discerning clientele. Previously almost non-existent, luxury spiritual holidays is one of the fastest-growing sectors within holistic tourism (Mintel Holistic report).

Spiritual tourism
AuthorSourceConceptualisationMotivationAuthenticitySustainability

Aggarwal el, al. 2008Report

understanding with deep, often religious, feelings and beliefs, including a person’s sense of peace, purpose, connection to others, and beliefs about the meaning of life

Boyle 2004Book

that tourists are searching for a connection with something that is real, unsullied and rooted within the destination.

tourism destinations have an opportunity to create something real

Brass 2006Research Paper

The spiritual traveller wants to establish or document “intimate” closeness and attachment to and with the subject of their journey

Authentic-seeking that of searching for a non-material, authentic and deeper experience.

Brown 1998Book

an all-purpose word, but one that describes what is felt to be missing rather than specifying. The spiritual search . . . has become a dominant feature of late twentieth-century life: a symptom of collective uncertainty

Spiritual tourism
AuthorSourceConceptualisationMotivationAuthenticitySustainability
Carey 2006Web article

can be a powerful tool of development, but its potential can also be wasted

sustainable tourism will be a core driver in the future as destinations shape their image.

Chaline 2002Book

the opportunity to feel different from the way we feel at home

states spiritual tourism as an extraordinary experience

Doohan, 1990Book

spiritual tourism area has been in research for many years however people’s awareness of spiritual tourism is still an area to study

Godbey, 1989Journal

conceptual discussions of leisure or tourism often have spiritual overtones or link leisure with spirituality

Heintzman, 2002Journal

Conceptual discussions of leisure and tourism have made references to spirituality however there is a rarity of theoretical reflection and empirical study on how these two concepts may be related

McDowell, 1986Journal

It has been long recognised that a variable relationship exists between the institutions of spirituality and tourism.

Spiritual tourism
AuthorSourceConceptualisationMotivationAuthenticitySustainability
Melchers 2006Journal

a movement rather than a division, because in common with other natural religious, there is no structural religious institution, but instead an explosion of classes, worships and seminars focusing on some aspect of new age teaching

“visit meaning” and investigate on the spot whether they experience anything sustainable here

A place is visited that has been “consecrated” and so is suitable for soul-searching.

Mintel 2009Report

spiritual tourism similarly as involving travelling to a destination to engage in the practice of yoga

Introduction to Special Interest Tourism/Niche Tourism

Special Interest Tourism/ Niche Tourism is defined as the provision of customised leisure and recreational experience, experiences driven by the specific expressed interests of individuals; a special interest tourist chooses to engage with a service or product that satisfies particular interests or needs, so special interest tourism is undertaken for a distinct and specific reason.

This essay will be focusing in three sectors of the niche tourism, Gastronomy, Volunteer and Medical Tourism.

Gastronomy Tourism

According to Callanan.M & Thomas.S (2011) “food is one of the essential elements of the tourist experience”.

Gastronomy is becoming an important attribute in the development of niche travel; many tourist main interest for travelling is gastronomy according to Kivela.J & Jonh. C (2006) gastronomy is often referred to exclusively as the art of cooking and good eating, however Kivela.J & Jonh. C (2006) states that that is just part of it flowing with, someone that is seriously interested in gastronomy is often involved in tasting, preparing experiencing, experimenting, researching, discovering, understanding and writing about food. The word gastronomy is derived from Greek gastro meaning “Stomach, and gnomos, knowledge or law”. According to Home and away rentals (2006) the top five gastronomic break destinations are the following: France, Belgium, Florida, Portugal and Italy.

However tourist behaviour is changing over the years they are requesting more than sun, sea, beach, they want to experience something new and take part in other activities, such as gastronomy tourism as any individual could experience that in any day, anytime of the year and anywhere as they do not need to rely on anything to take part in gastronomy tourism. Kivela.J & Jonh. C (2006) believes that “travel in order to search for, and enjoy prepared food and drink and a unique and memorable gastronomic experience”. When travelling to a destination dining out is very especial and attractive as these become transposed into experiences that are often are very personal and no one will be able to take that from you.

According to Cohen (1984) phenomenological categorization of tourist’s lifestyles, following Kivela.J & Jonh. C (2006) follows- offer a phenomenological model of culinary tourism experiences. The model of tourism and gastronomy lifestyles depicts tourist attitudes and preferences for food according to four categorizations-recreational, existential, diversionary and experimental gastronomy tourists. However there are three types of gastronomic tourist, the experimental gastronomy tourist-these tourists symbolise the lifestyle through food, usually trendy, they will actively seek the destinations luxury restaurants and cafes that serve innovative menus and provide equally chic service, they keep up with up to date trendy and fashionable foods, latest growths, ingredients and recipes. Following with recreational gastronomy tourists are the more conservative type- they appreciate and actively seek while on holidays the familiarity of the home foods. And the diversionary gastronomy tourists are the kind of tourist that want to escape from the mudanity of everyday life that includes day to day shopping and preparing food for the family, according to Poon ( “Gastronomy is a form of a new tourism”.

According to International Culinary Tourism Association –

-Almost 100 per cent of tourist dines out when travelling, and each dining opportunity is a chance to get familiar with local food which if the restaurants satisfy them, they will return and pass it on (word of mouth)

-Dining is consistently one of the top three favourite tourist activities

-Gastronomy art and wine tasting is the only art from that affects all five human senses-sight, sound, smell, taste and touch which is a unique experience

-there is a high positive correlation between tourist who are interested in gastronomy and those interested in museums, shows, shopping etc

-interest in cuisine when travelling is not reserved to a particular age, sex, or ethic group

-unlike other niche products, gastronomy is available year-round, any time of the and in any weather.

Volunteer Tourism

According to Wearing.S (2001) volunteer tourism is- its roots “volunteerism” which implies that individuals offer their services to change aspect of society for the better/ to take part in goodwill activities and undertake new experiences in their life.

There are many organisations that provide volunteer programs for individuals. The type of organizations that generally fall in the volunteer category of experiences often provide international support and sponsorship for the implementation or research projects and community development.

Volunteer tourism is rapidly growing in the travel niche market, fuelled by many different types of tourist with different ages and ethics, interests searching for more sense and personal experience in their holiday. However now days there are multiple of options available for individuals to take part in, it all depends on the amount of time the individual wants to do it for it varies from one week to one year and what type of voluntary work they want to undertake as there is a variety to choose from.

More and more people are turning to volunteer abroad in order to give back to our planet and help those people in need. The increasing global demand for volunteering is met by a growing number of volunteer service organisations. Most of them are non-profit oriented, but the amount of commercial providers is highly increasing.

According to Mintel (2011) 10% of all the UKs outbound travel expenditure, and 1% of outbound trips, is from the gap year market, with 200,000 people undertaking projects each year- spending an average of ?4,800- the volunteerism sector is worth about ?960 million annually.

Medical Tourism

Medical Tourism is the process of individuals travelling abroad to receive superior medical, dental and cosmetic care by highly skilled surgeons at some of the most modern and state of the art medical facilities in the world, however medical tourism is not a new concept according to Health Base (2006) medical tourism has been practised by wealthy Europeans and Asians for decades when they would travel within their continent.

According to IMTJ (2009) the UK is the sixth most visited destination by international tourist for medical tourism.

However different types of tourist take part in medical tourism for different reasons such as, some are attracted to the cost savings, some for dental or cosmetic treatment. Others access new treatments which are not available at home; others still gain access to a better quality of care.

According to Discover Medical Tourism (2008) the below are the most popular destinations-

-Argentina -Mexico

-Brazil -Panama

-Costa Rica -Philippines

-India -South Africa

-Hungary -Thailand

-Malaysia -Singapore

According to Healism (2011) more than 500,000 Americans travelled abroad to receive medical and dental work in 2006. Every year millions of patients from around the globe travel to top medical tourism destinations in order to receive five-star treatment at convenient prices. Healism (2011) predicts that by 2012, medical tourism will grow to be $100 billion business with more than 780,000,000 patients travelling abroad to receive care from foreign doctors, dentist and hospitals.

Appeal and Motivation of Customers

Smith.M& Puczko.L (2009) states that Medical tourist can be any age but are most likely to be older or retired people from western developed countries where prices for medical treatment are very high and waiting lists are long such as USA and Britain. Smith.M& Puczko.L (2009) estimated that in the UK in 2004 over 4 1,000 individuals were expecting to experience a waiting time of 6 months or more to have various surgeries, in the USA medical insurance is particularly very expensive so many residents are uninsured or under-insured, therefore cannot afford medical treatments. The motivation of individuals undertaking medical tourism vary according to what kind of treatment they are having or is needed, some may travel for illness or wellness within the context of medical tourism. Many of medical tourism patients come from the UK and USA; the average client ages is 45-65 and are usually single.

However when it comes to individuals motivations for taking part in volunteering Volun Tourism (2009) believes that the following are the seven top motivations-

-Altruism -Professional Development

-Travel and Adventure -Right time and place

-Personal Growth -The individuals program itself

-Cultural Exchange and Learning

Gastronomy tourism in the UK is estimated to be worth $8billion a year as the market is increasing as years go by, according to Culinary Tourism (2011) gastronomy consumer’s tent to be couples that have above-average income, are usually professionals and are aged 30-50. According to the International Culinary Tourism Association on average, food travellers spend around $1,200 per trip, with one-third (36% or $425) of their travel budget going towards food related-activities.

Economic Impacts

The benefits of Niche tourism economic impacts is that it could provide employment opportunities for the locals that are unemployed, it could generate foreign exchange, is also an increase of income, the more the market grows the more income that it will bring. It can be developed with local products and resources it also diverse the economy, it also spreads development, they are the positive impacts of economic, however the economic issues- it can develop excess demand, it could increase vulnerability to economic and political changes, according to Douglas.N et al (2001) the economic impact for the niche market is increasing number of visitors as that can lead to the trap of ” profitless volume”, this can affect an individual business in various ways, for example incurring the expense of putting on a new bus and an additional driver to cater for only the marginal increase in visitor numbers, it can also affect whole areas by requiring massive new capital investment for basic infrastructure beyond the return, or infrastructure increase that create changes in patterns of normal life.

Cultural Impacts

There are cultural issues such as authenticity and the careful retention of a distinctive local character and sense of place are increasingly becoming critical to success in cultural tourism, visitors are far more discerning and widely travelled and concerned about the growing “sameness” of many destinations or how they could have been.

Most cultural and traditions activities in many destinations are losing authenticity as they get practice constantly and it becomes an activity that they undertake constantly as they could get tips from tourist, so the locals start thinking more about tips and tourist and start losing the authenticity, for example in the amazon in Ecuador indigenous individuals have their own traditions tribe dances, and as the amazon gets plenty of tourists throughout the year, indigenous start doing the tribe dance for money and not because is a tradition and they enjoy it, there for the tribe dance starts losing its authenticity.

Another cultural impact could be that in the urban side there are many more residents than the rural side, negative impact could be that as there are further job opportunities in the urban sides, individuals from the rural side start moving to the urban side the consequence is migration. For example according to Wall.G& Mathieson.A (2006) pacific islanderders migrating to New Zealand since 1971.

Environmental Tourism

According to Douglas.N et al (2001) environmental tourism is based on natural resources and so has an impact on air, land, water, flora and fauna. It is also acute seasonal peaks in demand create pressure on infrastructure, such as water supply, sewerage, systems, roads and community services, usually designed to cater for a much smaller population base.

However when it comes to medical tourism there are planet of negative impacts that consumers are not aware of such as Physical hazards for example high altitude, scuba diving, also air travel is utilized by hundreds of millions of people every year, has been considered safe, fast and is often used when peoples health status requires rapid transportation however according to Irmgard.L (2001) cerebral venous thrombosis was described as a health risk to air travellers where five case reports were presented of patients in whom cerebral venous thrombosis was causatively linked with long distance travelling. There are many more health risks that consumers should be aware of before travelling, health risks such as Underwater diving, Temperature, Hypothermia, Hyperthermia, The sun- Queensland is reported to have the highest melanoma rate in the world Irmgard.L (2001), water, Earthquakes, Volcanoes, the 5230 m Sangay Volcano in Ecuador is the most active volcano in the Andes, Sangay is constantly erupting, is very unpredictable and tour guides refuse to climb the mountain some tourist however still proceed, although they should not. There are also many more health risks for example through large and poisonous animals, plants, jet lag, motion sickness, air pollution, water pollution, travel exposes the individual to a range of different types of experiences and challenges, one of which is the resistance to health threats from the natural environment, a recommendation for tourist will be to be aware of the above hazards that could happened when travelling. However according to Irmgard.L (2001) tourist are not passive victims of the risks they are exposed to, they expose themselves actively by travelling to risky places or participating in risky activities.

Conclusion

The essay has looked at the types of modern tourist and three sectors in Niche tourism Gastronomy, Voluntary and Medical Tourism, it has also looked at the motivations that tourist have before travelling following with Economic, Cultural and Environmental issues in the niche tourism market.

Abstract

Tourism is included in the most dynamic and propulsive activities, with complex and multiple effects. It supplies tourism with strong driving force in wide range of activities and includes it more and more into priorities of economic development of numerous receptive countries and their particular parts.

Wealth, preservation and appeal of natural resources, large number of traditional agricultural households, gradual increase in domestic population living standard, as well as increasing interest of international market for performances of special interest tourism, make solid framework for development of this branch of tourism in Serbia, where required conditions exist. The development of other, accompanying activities is emphasized also in order to enrich the content that this particular branch of tourism has to offer.

The intention of the authors in this paper is to, whit particular retrospective on conditions in Croatia and Serbia, answer to some developmental questions of tourism progress, depending on natural, economic and social facts, recognition of geographic aspects of terrain and determination by human factor in enhancing special interest tourism with all of it’s following content, through its’ work and activities.

Key words: special interest tourism, comparative analysis, market, accommodation capacities, education.

Introduction

Based on key factors of success analysis, apparent is that both destinations have relatively good potential for developmental and international commercialization of tourism product. The fact is, that this product is based on preserved natural resources, to the larges extent, which both countries are abundant with, which enables them to define, develop and supply international market with attractive product palette of special tourism services.

Natural and economic resources of special interest tourism in Istrian Regoin and Kolubara District

Istrian Region by its’ geographic and natural landmarks has significant advantage, amongst others, in development of special interest tourism. This is justified by numerous data that evidence Istrian precedence in degree of quality supply, as well as the visit, when it comes to tourism in general. To comprehend completely essential vantages for tourism development of special interest places, parallel review of basic characteristics of each region is given, Istrian Region and Kolubara District, that also disposes with numerous natural attributes and potential possibilities.

Additional assurance of special interest tourism prosperity on both locations, what can be seen from previous table is attractive relief that includes water areas, mountains, numerous gouges, caves and other.

Segments of product

Starting with a fact that special interest product is compounded of large number of market niches, the easiest way to segregate it is following:

Mild or “soft” activities that include camping, hiking, bike riding, rafting, 4?4 driving, in-nature activities, horse riding, fishing, etc. Some of these activities, for example animal chase are being largely commercialized in Istria and Serbia, while some are being included in maps and catalogues of specialized operators, more in Istria then in Kolubara District. It is good to keep in mind that particular niches of special interest products, can represent an included part of product group “Mountains and Lakes ” as additional activities while vacationing. Rich offer of activities represents a base for development of these products throughout the year, not only during high season.
Rough or “hard” activities, that refer to canoeing or kayaking down river streams, exploring canyons, caves, mountain biking, cross country skiing, alpinism, free climbing, paragliding, jeep safari and similar. All of these activities, can in long-term, be presented as independent product on the market, particularly because their organization and popularization need more investment in promotion, standard formation and similar.
Cultural resources activities, gastro interests, monastery tours, places of importance heritage tours, archeological journeys and similar.
Market – special interest products ought to be introduced to domestic market, as well as to foreign emissive markets of special interest like Germany, Great Britain, France, Netherlands, Italy etc.
Competitive strategy of special interest tourism development in Serbia

Taking into consideration complexity of the product, it is hard to determine unique developmental strategy. Each creative and professional destination, with its’ management on behalf, will determine its’ own competitive strategy. Regarding that Serbia is taking smaller steps in tourism supply and in its representation on foreign markets, in comparison to Istria, it must specially focus on these production segments which accompanied with reasonable prices and low costs make its’ biggest potential. On the other hand, Serbia must directly approach communication among it’s strategic benefits in special interest product, even more because of the fact that these products development and their international popularization do not require large financial investment. Although the special interest product is of mostly seasonal character, vast resource base provides Serbia with possibility of organizing activities in this domain, throughout the year.

Aiming for faster popularization of special interest product, needed is to stimulate development of destination management companies, who have programs for preparation and development of different product segments.

Special interest product are usually promoted by specialized brochures of foreign tour-operators, presentations on specialized fairs and especially by direct marketing and internet. To enhance international promotion of this product in Serbia, special internet platform should be established, connected to powerful international internet providers.

Accommodation facilities are essential and characteristic features of tourism area, which implies that their space and quality in significant part determine range of tourism circulation; their types, forms and quality directly affect types and forms of tourism and therefore tourism’s economy effects. In continental Istria possibilities of hotel, camp, private accommodation and family agricultural households prevail. In Kolubara District domestic country tourism is developed, which could contribute to tourism development of that particular part of Serbia in total, but it’s still being conducted slowly and poorly organized.

Models of development

Considering special interest product as mainly reposing on natural resources preservation, both in Istrian Region and Kolubara District, there is a big chance for this product to develop, define itself and offer itself to international market.

Special interest product can in medium term develop on low cost strategy, with small investments and reasonable prices, considering wealth of resources.

In medium and long term, Serbia must raise general competitiveness level in field of infrastructure development, particularly road accessibility, which open numerous opportunities for special interests products development, what characterizes majority of even vaguely developed tourist countries.

Besides, both regions have traditional and cultural heritage and conditions that facilitates them to attract tourist’s interest, what enables tourists to, while on vacation, use their leisure time to get to know the people and surroundings, where they temporarily reside in (to see the museums, galleries, special collections and similar). Cultural manifestations also have strong ability to attract tourists, supplying with enrichment of contents, higher value to an area or a place and enable higher cost budget. Naturally, high emphasis is put on distinguished conditions for rural tourism development in agro-tourism oasis of Istria and Kolubara.

Global market potential of special interest product significantly overcomes possibilities of Serbia and Istria to develop and popularize this product, exceptionally in short and medium term. Therefore, intensifying global communication of this product by mediation with present global internet portals is of great importance. Simultaneously, creation of sales orientated internet portal and other common steps of advanced popularization with preceding unification of special interest product leading organizations.

Conclusion

Development and popularization of special interests do not require high investment. Therefore, the emphasis is on management of activities that are much less favored in Istrian Region and Kolubara District. Following this context, developmental model of this product should be based on following activities:

Location of coordination responsibility for development and popularization of special interest product, especially because of large number of small individual organizations activities (for example fishing and animal chase) lacking in joint effort for serious popularization, on behalf of the region or whole country.
Identification and creation of unique data base of activity organizations and special interest supply.
Creation of greatest world’s tour-operators data base in field of special interests.
Support and financial stimulation for private personae when forming new companies for destination management.
Additional regulation of activities description for these companies, that make the most important link in chain of product value.
Drawing initiative for general preservation and sustainable development of mountains, rivers and lakes, together with successive formation of infrastructure favorable for special interests development.
Program of incorporation of specialized and scientific workers and education of tourist guides for various cultural and scientific contents in field of this product.
Formation of special quality systems in field of special interest products.
Seminary organization by qualified companies in all tourism clusters.
Organization of special tours for those engaged in this field.
Support of specialized magazines and publication launching in this field.
Educational program for specialized guides
Consumer protection program and other competitiveness programs in general.
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This article represents a part of the Project no. 149007 D research results – Multifunctional Agriculture and Rural Development Aimed at EU Integration of Serbia, financed by the Serbian Ministry of Science and and project “Competitiveness and Comparative sustainable rural development of Istra and Kolubara region”, within the program of scientific-technical cooperation of R.Serbia and R.Croatia. Both projects are financed by the Ministry of Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia.