Author: Andre Coleman

Sikhism is a monotheistic religion established by Guru Nanak in the Punjab region of north India during the 15th century. The fact that this religion has emerged in circumstances where both Hinduism and Islam have existed in India for centuries, made it drew many resources from both of these religion. Actually, by taking, from both of these religions, the best aspects and most tolerant behaviors for the human king, Sikhism could build its own characters and ideas (Noss & Grangaard, 2003). Today, Sikhism is considered as the 5th world largest religion with around 30 million followers worldwide, and it is only outnumbered by Hinduism, Islam, Christianity and Judaism. However, if we take in consideration the inclusive definition of religion, and include secularists, African and Chinese religions, then Sikhism would be the 9th largest religion in the globe (B.A, 03).

The work “Sikh” derived from the Punjab language, means disciple. It refers to students of God who follow the teachings of the Ten Gurus (“Introduction to sikhism,”). They exist in all parts of India with a majority in Punjab state which is nearly 89% Sikhs. Moreover, Sikhs are spread around the world especially in the north of America with a percentage of 2% and UK with 2%. According to the Canadian census “The Sikh population in Canada increased from 150, 000 in1991 to 280, 000 in 2001.” (B.A, 03). This shows the increase of population of Sikhs and their existence around the world.

The first Guru, Nanak, was born in 1469 in a village of what is called nowadays Pakistan. As a young man, Nanak was fascinated by religion and God; he desired to explore the mysteries of the world and oddly meditated alone. The religious tolerance organization stated that: “Guru Nanak received a vision to preach the way to enlightenment and God.” (Arora). From that moment he tried to establish a new religion as a re-purification of Islam and Hinduism, but Distinct. So, in order to show the difference form these religions, Nanak adopted different clothing forms: the loincloth of the Hindu, the orange coat and cap of Muslims (“Sikh: Religious history/beliefs,” 26). He is the responsible of one of the most important pillars of Sikhism which is “there is no Hindu there is No Muslim” (B.A, 03). During his Doctrine, he banned the idol worship, the caste concept of Hindu and he encouraged the brotherhood of humanity. In other words, he criticized the rituals of Islam and Hinduism and addressed the concept of Love and understanding each other as human beings (Arora). After his death, the message of this new religion was passed through nine Gurus until the period of 1708 where this enlightened message continued through the holy text, which is considered as the 11th Guru. Actually, the 10th Guru established the holy text “Guru Cranth Sahib”, which is considered as the eternal Guru of the Sikhs. According to Sikhs Organization, Guru Gobind Singh announced that the Sikhism followers no longer needed a human Guru, and he appointed Khalsa as his physical successor, while Sri Guru Granth Sahib as the spiritual guidance (“Introduction to sikhism,”). This later is an exception of the religious scriptures as not only it contains the doctrine of the gurus, but also, the writing of saints of Hindu and Muslim faiths. Thus, we see that Sikhism emerged from the correlation or re-purification of Islam and Hinduism, but what are some of the elements that are related between these religions and Sikhism?

Two elements of relation between Islam and Sikhism:

The principle of belief in Sikhism is the belief in One God. Guru Nanak founded a monotheistic religion which believes in the existence of one god and eliminates idol warship. The scripture of Sri Guru Granth Sahib stats: “There is one bed, One God Lord and Master” (Sigh Sahib). This shows the faith of this religion in one God and the acceptance of His greater power. In addition, the scripture stats: “The One God is our father” (Sigh Sahib). So, Sikhs believe that we are the creation of God, and that He formed everything. This is clearly similar to Islamic faith where Muslims believe in the uniqueness of one God, and it is stated in the holy Quran “Say God is One.” Actually, one of the basic principles of being a Muslim is stating “I testify that there is no god except Allah and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God.” So, the existence of one God is part of the first pillar of being a Muslim. Moreover, Islam is showing and believing in the great power of God, as in every call for prayer “Imam” states: “God is great.” Thus, we can notice that one of the major relations between Sikhism and Islam is the notion of the Uniqueness of God and His Greater power.

Moreover, Nanak called His God “True Name” in order to avoid any restricting name for Him (Noss & Grangaard, 2003). According to David S. Noss, Nanak stated that “if any name is to be used, let it be one like Hari (the kindly) which is a good description for His character; for His mercy is Inexhaustible, His love greater than His undeviating justice. At the same time” (Noss & Grangaard, 2003). Thus, Sikhism teaching calls and describes God in different names, labeling His characters and His relations with human king. Besides, the Sikh Scripture states: “Priceless is His Mercy” (Sigh Sahib), which shows that His Kindness and forgiveness is beyond limitation. This is true Also is Islam, as we have 99 names for God describing His characteristics, generosity, forgiveness and punishment. For example, Ar-Raheem is one of the God’s names that demonstrate His Mercy, and Al-Jabbaar, means that nothing happens except what He willed. Thus, we can notice that both Sikhism and Islam have names for God that describe His mission, control and softness towards us.

Also, in their warship buildings (gurdwaras) which include Community Kitchens and often hostel facilities, Sikhs offer free meals, for everyone, after warship as a social service (Noss & Grangaard, 2003). This is quite similar to the concept of “zakat” in Islam, which means Charity. In fact, Zakat is one of the 5 pillars of Islam which states that Muslims should give away part of their money or wealth for the poor or to its collectors. Hence, another common point between the two religions.

Two elements of relation between Hinduism and Sikhism:

Both Hinduism and Sikhism share the concept of reincarnation. Unlike Abrahamic religions, they have the same ideas about life and death. According to the Sikh organization, Hindus and Sikhs have the common belief of the transmigration of the soul. They see life as countless cycles of births and deaths until the achievement of mukhti, which means the merge with God (“Introduction to sikhism,”). This concept seems to occur: “when the soul or the spirit, after the death of the body, comes back to life in a newborn body” (“Reincarnation,”25). So, the soul departs from the body at death, and then it goes and re-lives in another new body. The belief in reincarnation assumes the soul is eternal until the achievement of an enlightened state (“On reincarnation,”). Hence, Hinduism and Sikhism believe in the idea of rebirth or reincarnation.

In addition, Hinduism and Sikhism believe in Maya, which is according to the Sikhs organization: “the world is just an illusion and some get enchanted with this illusion and forget God” (“Introduction to sikhism,”). So, the concept of Maya is centered on delusion and misconception. For example, me and mine is an illusion. It is the ignorance around the conscious that brings the state of this independent unit that can only be stopped through meditation (“Maya,” 26). However, Nanak did not take Maya as pure illusion but as David S. Noss stated: “he intended to say that material objects, even though they have reality as expressions of the creator’s eternal truth, may build a wall of falsehood that prevents them from seeing the truly Real” (Noss & Grangaard, 2003). So, Sikhism does not see Maya as an illusion, but the idea behind it is the same, since material things are brought to this world to make a cover between God and His worshipers.

Finally, Sikhism is a religion founded by Guru Nanak in the 15th century. It has emerged between Islam and Hinduism that influenced many of its teachings. In fact, Sikhism, is seen as a re-purification of both Islam and Hinduism, as it condemned the blind rituals (“Introduction to sikhism,”), and took the best parts of these two religion that will serve best the human king and create a nation of love, tolerance and equality. Hence, as mentioned above, there are some relations or similarities between Sikhs faith and Islam, like the oneness of God and His power; in addition to correlations with Hinduism in concepts like Maya and Reincarnation.

Old English poetry can be divided into two main types: heroic poetry and Christian poetry. Christianity, as the most widely spread religion, is present in most literary works, including some of the heroic poems, although heroic poetry is considered separate from Christian poetry. There are many analogies to Christian themes in the poetry of the Old English period, since religion played a major part in people’s lives at the time.

‘The Seafarer’ is an Old English poem which was recorded in the Exeter book, or Codex Exoniensis, a collection of Old English poetry, including ‘The Wanderer’ and ‘The Descent into Hell’, which dates back to the tenth century. It is a poem which describes the lonely, full of hardship and suffering life of the seaman. It can be logically divided into two parts. The first is a typical elegy – the speaker remembers his dismal life at sea, which he has chosen to the disturbing life on land. He knows he is alone, and he constantly has this internal conflict about choosing the sea to the land. The second part is more moralistic, or didactic. The speaker talks about the transience of wealth and fame on Earth, and how nobody will manage to outwit death and God, no matter how glorious a life they have led. Eventually all people will die, life will end for everyone at a certain point, and no amount of money will help them avoid their fate.

In the beginning of the poem the seafarer makes a song about his travels and experiences at sea. He begins grimly with a description of the ‘troublesome times’ and lonely life while he’s sailing. This is a life which common people in the city know nothing about. They are safe on the land while the seaman risks his life at sea. The weather is cold and stormy, the ‘terrible tossing of waves’ rock the ship, the seaman will soon freeze. He has to endure the fierce storms, the snow and the hail. The beginning of the poem is not only a description of a fierce weather. It is a description of the inner state of mind of the seaman – the inner struggles and conflicts he has. He is not homesick, but he realizes he is alone in the sea. His troubles are represented as being caused by the sea, but in reality the sea only represents what is already inside him, in his soul. The seafarer feels ‘grim sorrow at heart’. He is unable to feel any pleasure from the surroundings; he does not enjoy it because of the darkness in his soul and heart. There are moments in which he holds life at sea in contempt.

Yet there is something which draws him back to the sea. He can choose the safe life on land, at home, where there are his fellow men, possibly his family, and where food and warmth are ensured. However, he feels this constant urge to travel, to go back to the sea. The sea is mysterious – it is wide and infinite; it holds many secrets; it offers a different lifestyle – it draws one away from everything familiar and safe, and throws them into a new, different world – the world of danger, uncertainty, constant change; a world with no boundaries or limits. This is what the seafarer seeks, this is why he constantly returns to the dangerous travels – he needs the challenge of the hard life at sea; he needs the struggles – either physical or emotional. His journey in the sea is not only a journey on the physical level. It represents the journey which his soul takes on the path to God. He has to go through hardship and struggles; he has to fight with the difficulties which God sends him; he has to welcome the challenges of the sea as challenges which God sends to test his soul. He is sailing in the sea which suggests that he is going forward. His soul is, symbolically, about to walk the path which leads to God, passing through severe trials. His kinsmen, who live on land, stay where they are, they haven’t moved from their place not only physically, but figuratively as well – their souls have not taken the path to God, but they simply enjoy the transient goods in life while they have them. They live a stable, secure life with no dangers or trials. They strive for the goods and the glory which earthly life offers, and never think of their spirituality and morality. They don’t realize that everything on Earth is fleeting and that life as they know it – wealthy, glorious and bountiful – will only last until their death and not in the afterlife when their souls will meet God.

This is a light transition to the second part of the poem which is a moral criticism of the people, especially the rich, who rely on their wealth and glory only. They may lead a sinful life, they may oppress the weaker or the poor people, but their deeds are the only thing which will accompany them in the afterlife, not gold or money, not friends and kinsmen. There is a similar concept in the English morality play ‘Everyman’, in which wealth and fellow men abandon Everyman on his journey to death, and only good deeds stay with him until the end. There is the Christian influence, which is present in almost every piece of work in the medieval literature. According to the Christian religion God is the only truly eternal and lasting thing in the Universe. The speaker strongly criticizes the sinful life of common men – instead of living a good, honorable and humble life, they only rely on wealth and bounty, and they think these earthly goods will help them or benefit them in some way in the afterlife. They never challenge their souls, and they never even pray to God. The speaker tries to imply that the rich need to change their lifestyle but he realizes that they will not, because they do not understand how their sins and idleness will only harm them later. They don’t realize that wealth is transient and they will not be able to take it with them after death. God will not take in mind how powerful a man was on Earth or how much money did he possess, but will only consider his good and brave deeds and his sins. Life in Heaven is eternal and Heaven is a sort of reward for leading a faithful, honorable life. The seafarer claims that ‘earthly happiness will not endure’. He mentions that ‘age comes upon him’ eventually, which suggests that glorious life is only there for some time and then one gradually loses everything they possess, including their vitality, and outer things like their friends and kinsmen. The way one spends their life on Earth determines where they will spend their afterlife. The speaker urges people to think carefully what afterlife they would like to have and then decide what the right path to there is. He tries to explain to them that they will all be equal after death, no matter how wealthy some were and how poor the others were on Earth. Moreover, they all are equal even now in God’s eyes. It does not make a difference to God whether one is rich or poor; whether one is famous or not. What will differentiate them after death is how they led their life, what they did and what their deeds led to. This is the point at which some will be sent to Heaven and others will be sent to Hell. Afterlife will be eternal, that is why people have to think now how they want to spend it. The seaman has given up on all earthly goods and bounty because he has realized that they are not important, they will be lost in time and in the end nothing will remain, only memories of the glorious days and consequences from the deeds, good or bad.

‘The Seafarer’ is not only a poem about life and death. It concerns transience in life and eternity as a concept mainly in the afterlife. It suggests that life on its own has no other meaning but to praise God and to prove that one is noble enough to go to Heaven. Moreover, life is a test for the soul whether it has to be sent to Heaven or to Hell. Life after death is what really matters, because it will be for eternity, in contrast to life on Earth which lasts only a few decades. The concept of eternity is important for the moral to reach the common people. If the common man does not fear God, or does not at least consider what will happen to him after his death, he will not try to live a better, noble life, but he will only keep in mind his earthly matters, and this will lead him to impious, even ignoble deeds. Thus ‘The Seafarer’ can be considered a moral poem which teaches man how to live and how to save his soul, so that he deserves afterlife in Heaven.

This chapter elaborates and discusses elements which contribute on the literature review. This chapter started with review of the job performance, follows by the literature review on leadership and then literature review on Islamic Leadership. This literature was about the relationship between Islamic Leadership principles towards Job Performance. The literature was then compressed into the conceptual framework that represents the organizing concept of the study conducted by the researchers.

2.1 JOB PERFORMANCE

According to the Murphy 1989, Job performance is defines as behaviors that have a relationship to the goals of the organization. Besides that, other definition of job performance as action and behaviors that control under each individual that contributes to the organizational s goals and measured by the individual level of proficiency (Campbell, 1990). Kane (1986) defined job performance as “a record of outcomes achieved in carrying out the job function during the specified period”. Alternatively, Rotundo (2000) argues that this definition includes a variety of job behaviors and that some behaviors

contribute to the employee’s duties and responsibilities, while other behaviors still affect the goals of the organization but do not fall under duties and responsibilities. To understand the job performance is determine whether an individual job performance changes over time or still stable from year to year. Job performance can be improved by with leadership, training, work experience, and also by mentoring or coaching.

Job performance have to be differentiated between other measures of performance that are sometimes used interchangeably or maybe incorrectly so. The often way to measure job performance is a leader rate his or her employee’s job performance (Rotundo Maria, 2002). Some research has shown that leadership integrates a great deal of information in these ratings. Performance measurement systems usually focus on the supervisor or manager as the rater of the job performance.

As the leader, the challenge is determine on how it affect individual behavior and the work situations can be structured to achieve maximum employee job performance. Effective leadership generates improved motivation and effort.

2.2 LEADERSHIP

Northouse (2011), said that being a leader is challenging, exciting plus rewarding, and carries a lot of responsibilities. A leader also should be fully aware of the followers and their interests, ideas, positions, attitudes, and motivations.

Leadership is showing the way and helping or inducing others to pursue it. This includes envisioning a desirable future, promoting a clear purpose or mission, supportive values and intelligent strategies, and empowering and engaging those entire concerned (Gill, 2011).

Allio (2009), in his article has listed the big five ideas; “(1) good leaders have good character, (2) there’s no best way to lead, (3) leaders must collaborate, (4) adaptability makes longevity possible and (5) leaders are self-made”.

However, a lot of the research in business and management has considered organizations as a religion neutral sphere, and as a result religion was not deemed worthy of study (Majeed, Khalid and Khan, 2011). As researchers keep on discussing about leadership, they only focused on Western business environment (Bass, 1999; Yukl, 2002; Fiedler, 1967; Stogdill, 1974).

2.3 ISLAMIC LEADERSHIP

The Qur’an and hadith (the everyday actions and sayings of the Prophet) has explained about leadership qualities some fourteen centuries ago have only been discussed and emerged in the modern times. “To thee a Book explaining All things, a Guide, a Mercy, And Glad Tidings to Muslims.” (Al-Nahl, 16:89). “And We appointed, from among them, leaders, giving guidance under Our command, so long as they persevered with patience and continued to have faith in Our Signs”. (As-Sajdah 32:24). Abbas Ali (2005) mentioned in his book, Islamic Perspectives On Management and Organization, Islamic Leadership is a set of shared influence process. The Quran clearly calls for a leader to be flexible and approachable to followers and they comfort for commitment with the presence of these qualities within an organization.

Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) and Ibn Taimiya (1263-1328) opinion about leadership has been accepted. Ibn Khaldun (p,112) stated that several qualities are important for a leader like, tolerance towards weak, forgiveness of error, patience and hospitality toward guests. Lacking of these skills may decrease the quality of good leader. Next, Beekun and Badawi (1998), stated that, one of the definitions of Islamic Leadership is, the effort that takes by the leader to seeks the voluntary participations of followers in order to achieve the organizational objectives. Moreover, the leaders must be the role models in the organization and guide them in way of happiness in life (Abbasi, Rehman and Afsar, 2009).

According to Moten (2011) he stated that the Western secular societies do not have a clear picture of leadership phenomenon from an Islamic Perspective. He added that there are several factors to describe reasons for the need of Islamic Leadership (Moten, 2011). Firstly, there is no distinction between the spiritual and temporal affairs in Islam whereby both lies down and moving together encircling all spheres of human life, (Moten, 2011). To strengthen this statement, Islam teachings according to Iqbal and Mohamad (1962), “is not a departmental affair, it is neither mere thought, nor mere feeling, nor mere action; it is an expression of the whole man”. Secondly, Moten (2011) points out, the need for implementation of the Islamic Leadership is because based on central concept of Islam i.e., tawhid (unity and sovereignty of Allah), refuse the power of control and command to anyone but Allah, the creator and Nourishes of the universe. To support his statement, Moten referred the Qur’an (3:189, 6:57), “the command rests with none but Allah” to disclaim anyone who claims absolute right and power over anything. Next, Islam perceives that every individual and society activity is for the sake of Allah, Moten (2011). Relation between one creatures’s with other creatures is built upon his distinctive relation to Allah. Thus, it is not a dyadic relationship between two believers but it is a triadic relationship in that each is relating to other through Allah as the intermediary, Moten (2011).

After submitting the need for Islamic Leadership, Moten (2011) give his point of view on leadership in Islam. According to him, leadership in Islam is a process of communication and a moral activity between the equals directed towards reaching the organization goal, (Moten, 2011). He added, as the leader and the followers both understand the goal and actively joint together for the accomplishment of the goal, the accomplishment of that goal assumes the form of worship or ‘ibadah, hence, the leadership in Islam can be seen as ‘ibadah, (Moten, 2011).

The Qur’an, Sunnah, and the jurisprudence give a comprehensive code of laws: social, moral, political, administrative, economic, civil, religious, and ethical to guide the Muslim leaders to run Islamic organizations appropriately and effectively (Aabed, 2006).

Ali (2009) mentioned that, leader is obliged and illustrates a willingness to listen, openness, and concern in dealing with subordinates or follower. Islamic Leadership is defined as a group of leadership principles extracted from the Qur’an and the biography of the Prophet Muhammad and his companions, structured of good and ethical leadership essential to guide organizations appropriately and effectively. Moreover, it made up noblest Islamic traditions of science, worship, justice, and Ihsan(doing good) and to hammer these values in Muslim, (Khaliq, 2009; Khan, 2007). Besides that, Islam urged the leaders to pay attention to followers’ needs. It is because, it is trusteeship of Allah, a given responsibility given from him and a service to the mankind, (Toor, 2007). “If Allah puts anyone in the position of authority over the Muslims’ affairs and he secludes himself (from them), not fulfilling their needs, wants, and poverty, Allah will keep Himself away from him, not fulfilling his need, want, and poverty (Sahih Muslim)”.

Leadership is a responsibility which is shared by all adults in a Muslim society as Islam point of view (Mohsen, 2007). As pointed out clearly by Prophet Muhammad in one of the hadiths, “Every one of you is a shepherd and everyone is responsible for what he is shepherd of” (Bukhari and Muslim).

There are some sign for a Muslim that considered good in implementing Islamic values (Abdul Hakim, 2011). Islamic ideas in performance emphasize a high standard of trust, honesty and reliability toward overall behavior. The employee’s daily activities should be conducted in the strictest obedience to Allah SWT commandments (Dr. Abdullah Mohammed Seidu).

As mentioned by A. Hakim (2012), it is very important to understand the Islamic spiritual motivations, including faith, devoting and Islamic application rules. And they have to understand them completely (kaffah) spiritual motivation will give the urge to do the job as well as possible.

Therefore, leadership development is one of the important subjects in Islamic teachings (Majeed, Khalid and Khan, 2011). From an Islamic perspective, followings are some of the key attributes for effective leadership; Justice (al Adl), Trust (al Amanah) and Honesty (al Sidq). The organization performance and goals will be achieved in terms of employee performance and there comfort for commitment with the presence of these qualities within an organization. Following are three principles of Islamic Leadership.

2.3.1 THREE ISLAMIC LEADERSHIP PRINCIPLES

Justice (al Adl)

The management leaders must behave with team members equitable and fairly without any discrimination about their race, color or religion. Islam always called human being for doing justice to all. Besides that, the Qur’an also gives the direction to Muslims to be fair and just in any situation even if the decisions goes against their parents or themselves (Ather Syed Mohammad, Sobhani Farid Ahammad, 2007). Allah SWT says:

“O you, who believe! Stand out firmly for justice, aswitness to Allah, even as against yourselves or your parents or your kin and whether it be against rich or poor, for Allah protects both”.(Surah An-Nisa, Verse-135). According to Imam Hasan (2011), the concept of justice flows directly from the law giver Himself, Allah (SWT) so that the council of jurists having the legislative function interpreted by the law by the direct source is the Quran and Hadith to come at a just decision on issues that beneficial to the community. These concepts from the merciful Allah (SWT) frees any individual from accusations as all decisions flow and are based on Allah’s commands (Imam Hasan Qasim Okikiola, 2011).

Trust (al Amanah)

Trust plays an important role for a leader. Allah says in the Quran, “Those who faithfully observe their trusts and their covenants,” (23:08), and “Surely Allah commands you to make over trusts to their owners and that when you judge between people you judge with justice; surely Allah admonishes you with what is excellent; surely Allah is Seeing, Hearing,” (04:58), and “O you who believe! Be not unfaithful to Allah and the Messenger, nor be unfaithful to your trusts while you know.” (08:27). Leaders in organization should be a trustworthy person and can be relying on (Alhabshi et. al, 1994).

According to Yunus Mohamad, (2011) amanah is from the word “Aman” that gives a means like peace, no fear or threat but in Islamic terminology it means honesty and fulfilling the rights of people and Allah SWT. Mohammad Yunus on May 02, 2011

Amanah is fulfilling responsibilities in a good manner, with all talent and potentials, it is an amanah but not fulfilling the responsibilities is a mistrust and deception.

“He it is that has made you inheritors in the earth: if, then, any do reject (Allah), their rejection (works) against themselves: their rejection but adds to the odium for the Unbelievers in the sight of their Lord: their rejection but adds to (their own) undoing.” (Fatir, 35:39).

Honesty (al Sidq)

According to Beekun and Badawi (2012), honesty of the leaders is considered as to the extent that there is ‘consistency between word and action.’ Leaders do what they say they are going to do. The Prophet Moses himself is labeled as “strong and trustworthy” by one of the damsels (as in chapter 28: 26) while the Prophet Joseph is cited as one who is truthful in the Holy Quran. (Chapter 12: 46) Similarly, the Prophet Muhammad during his youth used to be called Sadiq (the truthful) and Amin (the trustworthy).

Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991), said successful leaders are open with their followers, do not violate confidences, discreet and or carelessly reveal potentially harmful information.

As cited in Kirkpatrik and Locke (1991), Kouzes and Posner conclude: Honesty is absolutely important to leadership. If we are willing to follow a person, whether it is into a fight or into the boardroom, we first want to guarantee ourselves that the person is worth to be trusted. We need to know whether the person is being truthful, ethical, and principled. We want to be fully assured in the integrity of our leaders.

2.4 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Table 2.1 below was summary of the independent and dependent variables of this research. The summary illustrates relationship between Principles of Islamic Leadership and Job Performance.

Independent Variable
Dependent Variable

Islamic Leadership Principles:

1. Justice (al – Adl)

2. Trust (al – Amanah)

3. Honesty (al – Siddiq)

Job Performance

Table 2.1: Independent variables and Dependent Variable

Figure 2.2 below illustrate the conceptual framework for this study. This figure demonstrates the relationship between Islamic Leadership Principles toward Job Performance.

Islamic Leadership Principles:

Independent Variable

Justice (al- Adl)

Trust (al- Amanah)

Job Performance

Honesty (al – Sidq)

Dependent Variable

Independent Variable

Figure 2.2: Conceptual Framework

2.5 SUMMARY

This chapter appraises the relationship between Islamic Leadership principles towards Job Performance and the conceptual framework that presents the organizing concept of this study. Chapter 3 will discuss about the methodologies used by the researchers in order to collect and analyze the data of the study.

You are the light of the world. A city on a hill cannot be hidden. This is one of many ways that Jesus describes the bold contrast between Christians and the rest of the world. It is a difference that should be as clear as night and day, but rarely is the case with Christians in the world nowadays. Most non-believers use words such as hypocritical, sheltered, and judgmental to describe Christians. (Kinnaman, 2007) The very things that Christ warned us not to become are the exact same things we are viewed as today. One of the biggest reasons for the skepticism of Christianity today is the ignorance of our own faith. Believers are not getting into the word, and it shows in society. Many Christians cannot answer basic questions when asked about their faith, and even if they can, many are not living out those beliefs. (Kinnaman, 2007) Ignoring our faith has led to a religion of mixed up morals and hypocrites, and has largely contributed to the scorn towards Christianity. These vices are slowly being passed down from the modern adults of today to the developing Christian youth. It is therefore paramount to look for avenues to reverse this situation and get back to inspiring hope in a culture full of cynicism. This will enable us to form a platform for Christian leadership among our youth. Christian leadership as a virtue comes in many forms and traits. “A leader is a dealer in hope.” (Napoleon Bonaparte) On the other hand, according to (Means, 2000), “servant leadership is a leadership philosophy that implies a comprehensive view of the quality of people, work and community spirit.”

Servant leadership greatly requires a spiritual understanding of identity, mission, vision and the environment. (Greenleaf, 2012) A servant leader is one who is servant first, who has responsibility to be in the world, and contributes to the well-being of people and the community. A servant leader looks to the needs of the people and asks how he or she can help them solve their problems and promote personal development. He or she places his main focus on people, because only content and motivated people are able to reach their targets and to fulfill the set expectations. The concept of servant leadership is crucial for youth in Christian leadership as it enables one understand themselves first so they can learn to understand others and serve them. Thereafter people gain trust in the leader and begin to work towards the intended goal. (Berkley, 2005)

The goals of a Christian leader should be to bring glory to God with their existence, evangelize, advance the kingdom, and encourage others to grow in their relationship with Christ. There are certain base characteristics that all Christian leaders must possess if they wish to be stewards of the Gospel, inspire hope among the nations, and ultimately accomplish their goals.

Submission to God must be the starting point for each individual. We must allow God to lead us and shape our lives to fit his desires if we wish to leave an impact on this world. This requires one to be daily seeking and engaging with God in prayer and in His Word. It is our actions and choices in life that define how others see us, and ultimately decide the kind of impact we leave on the world. These actions and choices are largely shaped by what we believe in and value. By allowing the Bible to shape them, a spiritual maturity will begin to flourish within the heart of a leader. They will begin to see the world as God sees it, and they will begin to see every person living on this world today as a beautiful and valuable creation of God. (Hybels, 2009) Furthermore, according to (Berkley, 2005) leaders will understand the implications of sin and how it separates us from God, which will create a longing to help others be reconciled.

A leader must strive to be an example for others by trying to obediently follow God’s commands and exhorting others to do so, but also must be careful not to fall into judgment. (Berkley, 2005) Instead, they learn to love others unconditionally as Christ would have, serving the people and working patiently with them to help them see the need of God in their life.

Raising young leaders for Christian leadership is a challenging process.

Raising and developing young leaders mainly entails inculcating Christian values in them at a tender age, encouraging them to participate in church activities so they can understand leadership from a Christian perspective, and ensuring they attain the right academic skills to enable them compete with the world.

IMPORTANCE OF PREPARING YOUTH FOR CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP

Ministry with young people has never been more important. Ever-increasing local, national and global concerns demand that schools must do more than prepare young people as responsible citizens. (Adair, 2001) says that schools and in particular, institutions of higher learning must prepare young people as emerging leaders with a civic conscience who proactively seek solutions to issues such as increased poverty, the plight of refugees, terrorism, climate change, and corporate greed.

With reference to Christian leadership, ministry can be broken down to three parts namely: Youth ministry, Campus ministry and Student ministry.

Youth ministry

(Fernando, 2000) describes youth ministry as a formalized Church-based program that is clearly centered on young people. He presents a framework for youth ministry based on three goals. These goals are firstly, to foster the personal and spiritual growth of each young person, secondly, to draw young people into responsible participation in the life, mission and work of the church community, and thirdly, to empower young people to live as disciples of Jesus Christ in the world today. The goals are advanced through six focus areas: prayer and worship, evangelization, community life, justice and service, leadership development, and advocacy (Fernando, 2000, Leaders for tomorrow’s world pp. 7). These goals build on one another and are paramount for good Christian leadership. In addition, they are important as they help bring up an all-rounded and well-versed Christian leader who can combat the challenges of the modern society.

Campus ministry

The focus of Christian ministry among the youth is greatly aimed at young men and women in college and university making campus ministry a focal point in developing Christian leaders. Campus ministry has four main elements according to (Nanko, 1997). These are: a focus on young people, the ministry takes place in the context of an educational institution, the various programs attempt to challenge the faith life or spirituality of students into active participation, and the campus minister is central to the effective running of the ministry. Young people in campus should be encouraged to integrate ministry with their field of study so as to learn how to be most effective in society.

A good example is seen in Christian universities where students from several disciplines attend chapel on a regular basis to facilitate spiritual growth. This enables the students to develop as Christian leaders and grow to other levels of campus ministry like: missions, evangelism and regular participation in church related activities which facilitates interaction with other young students in ministry.

Student ministry

This nature of ministry involves working with young people in a school setting. It frequently incorporates many of the programs associated with youth ministry and campus ministry. Such programs include: student leadership development, service-learning and social justice, retreats, prayer and reflection. (Means, 2000) In this respect, student ministry, youth ministry and campus ministry have strong connections. The main differences lie in the explicit leadership focus inherent in all student ministry programs, the mentoring role which teachers adopt when working with students, and the leadership responsibilities that many students exercise when working with fellow students. A good illustration of student ministry is seen in campuses where students take up leadership roles in the church and handle activities such as: praise and worship, bible study, event planning and preaching. This enables the leaders to gain experience in church related activities while under the mentorship of senior church leaders and teachers. In addition, the leaders learn to take responsibility being in positions of leadership, inculcate discipline within their lives and grow closer to God at a personal level.

CHALLENGES IN PREPARING YOUTH FOR CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP

In the process of maintaining the authentic character of Christian leadership, leaders face many challenges. Many of them are perennial, given with the very character of Christian leadership as being rooted in God and directed toward the good of the world. These challenges may occur when people assume positions of Christian leadership for the wrong reasons that include: power, prestige, and personal gain rather than as a result of the call of God. These challenges can be further broken down into three key areas: The will of God, the authority of the church and time management.

The will of God

In most cases, Christian leaders have responded to a genuine call of God, but may have lost sight of their calling and their fundamental character as beings translucent to God. “When this happens, leaders are deprived of the animating power of God to continually ground and sustain leadership in the life of God”, as stated in (Kinnaman, 2007). And yet, since they are religious leaders, they often have to act as if they have already actualized what they are preaching in their own lives, as if they are bringing the message somehow from God. Instead of real ascent in God’s word, there is a pretense of ascent mostly not intentional, but negligent and usually a result of the pressures of responsibilities, the accumulated force of disappointments, and many other reasons leading to the gradual erosion of faith. (Nanko, 2001)

Young Christian leaders face the very real dangers associated with modern culture head on. Increased expectations, time constraints, developing disciples in an increasingly secular society, and an entire host of dangers in personal and professional life abound.

Many of the pressures to which young leaders succumb, causing personal burnout and fatigue, are as a result of personal mismanagement. (Berkley, 2005) We each have decisions to make with regard to how much and in what way will own these expectations and perceived pressures.

Authority of the church

The great authority of the Church resides in the power of the testimony of Jesus. In a modern culture which asserts that truth is relative, it is difficult for a Christian leader to begin to lead a person into God’s will for their life when at a foundational level they do not recognize that the testimony of Jesus is unique and trustworthy. The modern worldview influenced by Western liberal culture, which is common in various forms today, presents a great challenge for Christian leaders as seen in (Hybels, 2009) and can only be controlled by continual spiritual nourishment and constant prayer.

Time management

Personal time management is crucial to one’s successful usage of their time. Dangers are very real in modern Christian leadership. In order to have the strength to stand, young Christian leaders must manage their efforts in such a way as to properly manage themselves. (Nanko, 2001) Christian leaders face temptations of every kind to fall into sin. As the modern culture becomes increasingly celebrity based, young leaders in ministry face the real temptation of pride. In order to avoid burnout, fatigue, and temptation to sin, (Means, 2000) suggests that Christian leaders must remain grounded in the Lord’s strength and provision. The management of personal and professional time is central to this. We must make time for God, family, and personal rest and development in order to stay alert and healthy for the work of the kingdom.

RECOMMENDATIONS REGARDING PREPARING YOUTH FOR CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP

Reading widely and having a good command of language

According to (Fernando, 2000), in the coming years we will need well-educated young men and women. Therefore a young, aspiring Christian leader should read widely, ranging from people they agree with to people they don’t agree with. All things being equal, the people who can speak with confidence and who can write clearly will rise to the top in any field. (Fernando, 2000) also recommends taking speech classes as well as taking advantage of technology as far as writing is concerned as it gives one a huge advantage in this generation.

Identifying one’s strengths and making good decisions

Identifying one’s strengths varies from one individual to another in terms of time. (Means, 2000) says that, “In the beginning, you naturally think you can do everything. You can’t. You’ll learn that the hard way. Find out what you do that God blesses and keep on doing it.” A young leader should not get stuck in the trap of thinking that they have to be a pastor or a teacher or a missionary forever as we are past the days when people would stay in the same position for a lifetime. As a Christian leader, one should understand that their only call is to serve the Lord in whatever way he or she chooses. Therefore it is important to remain flexible.

Beware of envy and learn how to be all-round

In the game of life, we are all constantly being compared to everyone around us. We, especially church leaders are being measured, quantified, and examined to see how well we are doing versus those around us and there is nothing we can do about it. (Adair, 2004), Envy tends to be the sin of moderately successful people and one should pray to be delivered from it as it destroys joy and makes one a miserable person. When beginning church ministry, one is rarely able to specialize and should learn how to be a jack of all trades and a master of a few.

Travel

In today’s world, diversity is the order of the day and the future belongs to those who have multicultural experience. Aspiring Christian leaders should be encouraged to participate in a semester exchange program and study abroad. The experience gained by learning about other cultures, and a different people in a different setting is priceless as (Fernando, 2000) puts it. In addition, it gives one new vision for the global cause of Christ.

CONCLUSION

Christian leadership is indeed challenging especially for young aspiring leaders but with the right approach and guidance one can succeed in the field. As John F. Kennedy said, “Leadership and learning are indispensable to each other.” It is important for all young aspiring leaders to recognize that leadership is a learning process and that the more one learns, the more they earn the right to lead.

A man came to the Holy Prophet Muhammad sallallahu alaihi wasallam and said: My camel starts crying whenever i go into my bed for sleep, i do not know the reason behind it and i am very much worried. Holy Prophet Muhammad sallallahu alaihi wasallam asked him if he offers his Namaz e Isha. The man answered: “No!I do not”. Our Prophet sallallahu alaihi wasallam told the man that your camel cries because he sees the fire under your bed when you go into it without offering your Namaz. The man offered his Namaz e Isha and that night, his camel did not cry anymore.[Muslim] This incident shows the importance of Namaz e Isha and there are many incidents which tell us about the importance of every Namaz. But today, people have forgotten their religion. They feel shame of acting upon it. They have restless nights and joyless life because they do not follow their religion. Especially our youth is going to the very wrong path, who has the responsibility of the nation on their shoulders. It is a very terrible condition to be sight.

The question of whether or not women should be ordained set apart for religious leadership and/or to administrate certain religious rites has been present within Christian and Jewish groups since early in U.S. history. Women are regularly ordained within some religious groups. Others restrict ordination to men. Others continue to debate the question.

Though U.S. Protestants did not first ordain women until the 1800s, women had for a long time prior to that been religious leaders both in their churches and in the public square. Perhaps one of the most famous examples of this is found in the story of Anne Hutchinson, who in the 1630s in Massachusetts challenged male authorities by holding meetings with women to discuss her pastor’s sermons. Her actions led to a trial, a conviction, and banishment to Rhode Island. While many women during this era exercised religious leadership, it was not until the mid-1800s that a woman was formally ordained to Christian leadership. Congregationalist Antoinette Brown was ordained in 1853 when she was called to become pastor of a church in New York. Unitarian Universalist leader, Olympia Brown, was ordained about a decade later, in 1863, and AME Zion minister, Mary Jane Small, was ordained in 1898. These ordinations of women and others that followed are indicative of significant changes that occurred in the mid-1800s and early 1900s in the roles of women in religious and public life. These changes were not without controversy as exemplified by the contentious debates that emerged as some groups supported and others vehemently opposed the ordination of women.

The theologies and/or polities of some Christian groups and denominations afforded women early access to ordination. For example, the Quakers’ insistence that all people are equal before God provided support for those who sought gender equity in churches and society; as a result, though Quakers did not formally ordain anyone to ministry in favor of “recording ministers,” they did acknowledge women as authoritative preachers. The group known as the Shakers that emerged in the 18th century not only sprung up under leadership of a woman, Ann Lee, but also believed that Jesus would return to earth as a woman. Northern Baptists (later known as American Baptists) likewise demonstrated early support of women as preachers by supporting the ordination of Edith Hill in 1897, setting the stage for a continuation of the practice within that Baptist group. Also, during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, many Holiness and Pentecostal groups regularly ordained women.

In addition to these “pioneers” in the movement are other traditions, including Presbyterians, Episcopalians, and the United Church of Christ, who in the twentieth century engendered and then formalized support for the ordination women. These traditions often faced inner conflicts over the question of ordaining women. In the late 1960s, for example, three Lutheran bodies (the Lutheran Church in America, the American Lutheran Church, and the Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod), held a consultation on the ordination of women but were unable to reach a consensus. Both the Lutheran Church in America and the American Lutheran Church eventually approved the ordination of women. The Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod experienced significant upheaval over the issue and over other issues having to do with scriptural authority and interpretation. The conflict resulted in the formation of a new denomination, the Association of Evangelical Lutheran Churches. The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, formed in 1987 by a merger of the Lutheran Church in America, the American Lutheran Church, and the Evangelical Lutheran Church, from its inception ordained both women and men. The Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod continues to limit ordination to men.

Other Christian groups, for example, many Baptists and the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, have consistently opposed the ordination of women. Many Baptist groups and congregations also deny women ordination, though Baptist polity allows for each local church to determine its own belief and practice. In 1964, Addie Davis became the first Southern Baptist woman to be ordained. In the early 1980s, the Southern Baptist Convention (SBC) passed a resolution stating that offices requiring ordination are restricted to men. Supporters of this resolution point to sections of a denominational statement of beliefs, The Baptist Faith and Message, that states the following: “[The church’s] scriptural officers are pastors and deacons. While both men and women are gifted for service in the church, the office of pastor is limited to men as qualified by Scripture” (The Baptist Faith and Message, 2000). While this is an official SBC stance, neither denominational resolutions nor Baptist Faith and Message statements are binding upon local congregations. Thus, decisions about ordaining women finally reside with each SBC church.

Groups who oppose women’s ordination do so primarily on the basis of their interpretations of biblical texts. Arguments include, generally, the perspectives that the New Testament does not report the existence of any women pastors, that pastors who represent the people before God should, like Christ, be male, that New Testament guidelines for church order do not include instructions that specify women, and that some New Testament texts forbid women to be pastors or have roles of authority over men (i.e. I Timothy 2:11-12).

Those who support women’s ordination also voice arguments based on biblical interpretation. For example, evidence exist in Old and New Testament texts of times when women exercised leadership over both males and females; and Paul stated clearly in Galatians 3:27-28 a theology of gender equity (“aˆ¦there is no longer male and female; for all of you are one in Christ Jesus”). A number of biblical scholars and theologians, including feminist scholars, have emphasized biblical examples of women’s leadership and gender equity. Some Hebrew Bible scholars argue on the basis of their reading of Genesis 1 and 2 that both genders are created equally in God’s image. Protestant supporters include in their arguments the traditional Protestant emphasis on the priesthood of all believers.

The late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries have witnessed a resurgence of the debate over women’s ordination. By the end of the twentieth century, many Protestant and Jewish groups accepted women in the role of pastoral leader or rabbi. Some groups, however, continued to oppose women’s ordination and for some of those groups the debate has intensified. The 2000 revision of the Baptist Faith and Message, cited above, has reignited and intensified the debate amongst Baptists as proponents of ordination argue that the 2000 language about women leaders is anti-woman and opponents insist that the revision only underscores a biblical mandate that while women and men are of equal value, the role of pastor is restricted to men. The 1963 Baptist Faith and Message, which the 2000 version revises, does not include a statement limiting the pastoral office to men. Moderate Baptist groups such as the Alliance of Baptists, the Cooperative Baptist Fellowship, and the American Baptist Churches, U.S.A. take a more proactive and supportive stance toward ordaining women.

In recent decades, the debate has also intensified within the Roman Catholic tradition. Throughout the 1970s, Roman Catholics debated whether or not the priesthood should be open to women. A final ruling on this question was published in the Vatican’s 1976 “Declaration on the Question of the Admission Women to the Ministerial Priesthood”; the Declaration stated that “the Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith judges it necessary to recall that the Church, in fidelity to the example of the Lord, does not consider herself authorized to admit women to priestly ordination.” Throughout the 1980s and into the 1990s, support nevertheless grew for the ordination of women to the Roman Catholic priesthood. Early in the 1990s, Vatican leaders began to take actions they hoped would quiet public support for women’s ordination. These actions included pronouncements against ordaining women as well as disciplinary actions against individuals who advocated openly for women’s ordination. Pope John Paul II issued a statement in 1994 underscoring the teaching of the 1976 Declaration and further stating that the teaching was not open to debate. The 1990s also saw debate sparked within the ranks of those Roman Catholics who supported women’s ordination. Notably, feminist biblical scholar Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza argued at a 1995 Women’s Ordination Conference that women should aim not for ordination but rather for a “discipleship of equals” that resisted the overwhelming patriarchy of the Roman Catholic Church (Schussler Fiorenza, 1983). Others at the conference maintained a stance in favor of women’s ordination. In the initial decades of the twenty-first century, the debate over women’s ordination continues within the Roman Catholic Church.

The issue of women’s ordination has also stirred controversy within Jewish communities. The question was first posed in 1889 by Mary M. Cohen in Jewish Exponent: “Could not our women be ministers?” (Nadell, 1988, 1). In 1972, many years after the publication of this question, the Sally Jane Priesand became the first female rabbi within Reform Judaism in the U.S. Amy Eilberg in 1985 became the first woman received into the rabbinate within Conservative Judaism. To date, no women have become rabbis within Orthodox Judaism, though debate over the question continues within that Jewish sector.

Other religious groups in the U.S. also debate what roles women can hold. For example, a controversy currently exists among Muslims over to what extent women can act as imams; most agree that while women can lead a gathering of women in prayer, women cannot lead a mixed gender group in prayer. Jehovah’s Witnesses consider all persons “ordained” upon public baptism. Women are commonly appointed as full time ministers in order to evangelize or to serve as missionaries. However, the roles of deacon and elder as well as the authority to perform baptisms, funerals or weddings are restricted to male Witnesses. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints does not ordain women but the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints adopted the practice in 1984.

Several organizations have emerged over time to support women clergy. One of the earliest was the Woman’s Ministerial Conference, founded in 1893 in Boston, Massachusetts. The International Association of Women Preachers was founded in 1919 by M. Madeline Southard, a Methodist minister from Kansas. Both of these groups supported women who believed they had a call to preach and advocated publicly for women in religious leadership. The Women Church movement, which began in the U.S. in the 1970s primarily to support Roman Catholic women who sought ordination, has kept alive ecumenical dialogue about the ordination of women as well as about other ecclesial and societal issues that impact the lives of women.

–Jill Crainshaw

See also Cooperative Baptist Fellowship, Feminism, Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Southern Baptist Convention, Women-Church Movement.

Sources

Keller, Rosemary Skinner, and Rosemary Radford Ruether, eds. Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006.

Keller, Rosemary Skinner, and Rosemary Radford Ruether, eds. In Our Own Voices: Four Centuries of Women’s Religious Writing. San Francisco: Harper San Francisco, 1995.

Nadall, Pamela. Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women’s Ordination, 1889-1995. Boston: Beacon Press, 1988.

Reid, Daniel G., ed. Dictionary of Christianity in America. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1990.

Schussler Fiorenza, Elisabeth. Discipleship of Equals: A Critical Feminist Ekklesialogy of Liberation. New York: Crossroad Publishing Co., 1983.

The three Abrahamic Religions do have some things in common, such as the belief that there is only one God, but they have some differences too. Beliefs in profits, beliefs in who is the real God and things such as those make their religions different.

A first major difference between the religions is the book they study and follow and how they treat this book. The Islam’s have a book they call the Qur’an. The Jewish population has a book called the Talmud, and the Christianity religion has a book name The Bible. What are the differences in these books? Well first of all, they all treat them differently. The Islam’s never put the Qur’an below themselves. They think of this as if they were saying, I’m higher than God, and I’m more important than him. They also take very good care of it. When they aren’t using it they have it wrapped up inside of a cloth and set it on a high shelf. Also, no one else can touch their Qur’an without permission from an Islamic believer. “The Qur’an itself states that only those who are clean and pure should touch the sacred text.” About.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Mar. 2013. . The Jewish population studies a book called the Talmud. They read over this book, memorize it, and sometimes go into major detail of what something in it means. “The Talmud is made up of six sections, called Sedarim (orders). Each Seder contains several books called mesachot or ‘tracts’ (singular: mesachet).” “The Talmud.” Bje.org. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Mar. 2013. . There are eleven mesachot in the Talmud. Each of them deals with many of the different Jewish laws. Lastly, there are the Christians, who study The Bible. The Bible to Christians is like a book full of different ways to live your life. Most people don’t treat their bible like a special sacred book. People toss them around, lay in on their nightstand next to their beds, and other things such as that. The Bible has many different sections, some of these sections are in the Old Testament, and some are in the New Testament. Within these sections, there are many, many chapters, and within the chapters there are verses. For instance, “I can do all things through Christ who strengthens me” -Philippians 4:13. Philippians is the section, 4 is the chapter, and 13 is the verse. As you can see, these books are all very different within each religion. They study them differently, treat them differently, and the text within them is very different.

They also have different beliefs in the coming of God and who Jesus was. The Jewish religion believes that the messiah has yet to come, whereas Christianity and Islam believe than Jesus was the messiah. The Jewish believe that messiah will come later in life and they will be taken with him. The Christians and Islam’s believe at the second coming of Jesus, Jesus will leave the Jewish people behind and only take true believers as to let the Jews accept the fact that this is the second coming of the messiah, then he shall later come back and bring the Jewish people with him. The places where the three religions think they will be taken after Jesus takes them with him are all different also. The Islam’s think they are going to an “eternal paradise”. Jews believe one of two things, either they are going to heaven, or they think there is no afterlife. Lastly, Christians believe they will have an “eternal heaven”. They also have a specific view on a bad afterlife. Islam’s and Christians both think they will go to “eternal hell” whereas Jews think they will go to “either eternal Gehenna, reincarnation, or no afterlife.” They also have different outlooks on the birth and death of Jesus. Christians and Islam’s believe Jesus was born from a virgin birth, meaning Mary just randomly by Gods will had a child she was to name Jesus. The Jewish people on the other hand think Jesus came by a normal birth, saying that Mary and Joseph had a child together. Then there’s the death of Jesus, which they don’t agree on either. Islam’s believe that Jesus “did not die but ascended into heaven during crucifixion.” The Jewish and Christians populations believe that he died by crucifixion. “Comparison of Islam, Judaism and Christianity.” Religionfacts.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Mar. 2013. .

Then each religion has an outlook upon the other two religions. The Islam has something to say about Jews and Christians, Christians have something to say about Jews and Islam’s, and Jews have something to say about Christians and Islam’s. The Islamic people think that “Jews and Christians are respected as ‘People of the Book,’ but they have wrong beliefs and only partial revelation.” This means that Islamic people think that the other two religions are respectable by what the Qur’an says, but they think that the beliefs of these people are wrong. Jewish people think that both “Islam and Christianity are false interpretations and extensions of Judaism.” This means that the Jews think that Islam’s and Christians are completely wrong in what they do and that they are not following or believing what they actually should. The y think that the other two religions should do exactly what the Jewish people do and then they would be following what they need to be. Then there is Christianity. They think that “Judaism is a true religion, but with incomplete revelation.” Christians believe that Jewish people are right in what they believe in, but they don’t think they have full grasp of everything they need to believe in. They also think that “Islam is a false religion.” Christians believe that Islam’s are wrong in everything they do and what they are doing is completely wrong. They are against anything Islamic people do, and would never partake in any of it. “Comparison of Islam, Judaism and Christianity.” Religionfacts.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Mar. 2013. .

Not everyone in this world can believe the same things, do the same things, or even partake in the same activities, but that doesn’t mean they can’t sometimes get along. These three religions don’t hate each other, they just don’t always necessarily agree with one another. It’s like they are siblings fighting over where to go out to eat. One of them wants seafood, one wants barbecue, and the other wants Italian. Christians want Jesus to come take them away so they can go live an eternal life in heaven, Islam’s want their God to come save them so they can have an eternal life in paradise, and the Jewish people want Jesus to have his first coming and save them. They all have disagreements on what’s right and what’s wrong, but they can sometimes get along. For instance, they all believe in one God and worshiping that one God. They all believe that there should be a certain day on which they worship, even though these days are not the same. They all believe in a hell and demons along with angels. They all have a special book of their own that they study, and in that book is the word of that religions God. So you see, they may have many, many differences as the three Abrahamic Religions, but they do have some things in common that they agree about also.

About.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Mar. 2013. .

“The Talmud.” Bje.org. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Mar. 2013. .

“Comparison of Islam, Judaism and Christianity.” Religionfacts.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Mar. 2013. .

In 1 Corinthians 13 verses 1-3 we are told that, even if we were given to give all the possessions to feed the poor unless we love have love we are nothing and have gained nothing. Even if we give our bodies to be burned, its profits us nothing without love. Every area of service to others is sacrificial. It entails the use of money, time, energy and perhaps even the loosing of life itself. Paul was so motivated by love that he she could wish himself accursed for the sake of his fellow Israelites.

Suffering in the Christian Life

One of the most widespread ideas in our land today about the Christian suffering is that we should be able to change people by our activities. The thinking is apparently this if young people are given the right upbringing, in good homes, as members of the good church, then all will be well. They will grow up to be good people. And we must agree that a good upbringing is a tremendous start in life in dealing the suffering.

But the problem with that idea of the Church activities is that often does not work out in practice. In spite of the entire fine teaching they have had, they have gone right off the rails in time of suffering and trails. Our Christian faith involves far more than the good church activities, however commendable those activities might be. The very different misunderstanding about Christianity faith, is that you can escape from the evil bias inside you which makes you break the rules and disregard God’s commandments, by retreating into a safe hiding – place.

I know what immediately springs to mind. Some think at once of the monks in their monasteries. Alright, I agree that monasteries were invented to try and escape from the moral pollution and temptations of the world. The heart of the problem is the problem of our hearts, your heart and my heart. And this why Paul writes, Be strong in the Lord, and his mighty power. You and I do need something else, we need a dynamic extra in our lives to face the suffering in our Christian life.

The Reality of Suffering as the Christians Respond

The letter to the Ephesians is like that. There is no need to try and guess what Paul means by God’s mighty power. If you read through the letter you will find God’s mighty power looking out at you from the words again and again. There are two extremes which you and I must avoid. On the other hand, there are people who say that to be a strong Christian, to be strong in the Lord; you must simply have a positive attitude to life. Then you will be strong in the Lord but that leaves out God completely. Plenty of people take that line. Many of them are fine people and live reasonably good lives. But god power does not feature in their living. They may be being strong but they are not being strong in the lord, and in his mighty power. If you have certain experience of the Holy Spirit, then you will find you can overcome all your problems. God will fight the battle for you. Just hand yourself over to him, and all will be well. The bible never tells us that life will be easy if we hand ourselves over to God, or that all battles will be won without our exerting ourselves. How much is my strength, my will power, my effort, in me fighting wrong, and how much it is God’s might, in my fight against wrong? If we answer, the Lord Jesus Christ was both man and God. He was perfectly human, and yet truly divine. His two nature blended in such a way that those who spoke with Christ were speaking with a real man, yet those who came and knelt before him were kneeling before the Lord God. Christian in order to be strong in the Lord , have to realise that two natures are going to be at work in them. On the other hand we have to exert our human all our human power to resist evil and to follow Christ. On the other hand, we can only do this because the divine spirit is at work in us. The human and the divine blend together mysteriously in all we do when we are Christians.

The Need for Perspective

Paul commanded here to be stronger and to be stronger in the Lord. There is one more thing we must notice before we moved on to being equipped with the armour of God in time of suffering. If we are not growing spiritually stronger, then we must be dead spirituality. Stronger in Christ at home, work or at college, stronger in him at the church, stronger in him in your street. This will make stronger in our Christian faith when we face the suffering on this earth. This faith in our suffering will surely advance if more of us were growing stronger in the Lord, both in our activities within the church and in our living outside it.

The people who know their God shall be strong and carry out great exploits. When you and I know God and remember that in order to understand what it means to be strong in the Lord we began in Ephesians 1, nothing the acts of God, Father, on and Holy Spirit, on our behalf, – when we know our God, that we cannot help but be encouraged and so grow stronger in the Lord.

The Lord encouragement is the great gift. In the dark days of the last war, when everything seemed lost, Churchill would speak on the radio, and the sound of his voice would put heart into the whole nation. Nothing has changed. The outlook was still desperate. But just Churchill speaking brought encouragement. How much more about God speaks those who know God shall be strong and do great exploits. We must grow stronger by feeding upon Christ. By exercising, that is, by constantly using his Holy Word. and by encouraging ourselves in God. That is how his mighty power will increase in us as we give him everything we have, holding nothing back. Paul is about to unfold to us the secret of victory in the battle against evil powers. Some churches think they have succeeded just by staying open for another year. But victory is when we face all Satan powers, and we are not bowed, but stand firm. To do that, we actually need more than only to be strong in the Lord, and his mighty power. We need protection because at our very strongest, you and I are weak. Satan knows all our weak points, even when we are strong. And even the strongest man and women needs to put on the whole armour of God. Think of many great Old Testament characters such as Abraham, Jacob, Moses, Samson, David, Elijah. At some point in their lives they all failed and fell, with consequent pain and suffering to themselves and many others. Every one of them, though they were truly might men.

Suffering of Theology in the Church of Oprah Winfrey

Ms Winfrey’s used of her Christian heritage in defining suffering. In one of her show time might be something of a false teaching. She said about suffering that her theology of self- help experts believes that suffering being beneficial. She turned the black’s church ethos into the exaltation of suffering itself into the face of suffering. According to her “by making all experiences of suffering into occasion to improve oneself” which she means that suffering can be a desirable experience. Her teachings suggest that strong women by their own will and of therapy transcend failure. As her teaching suggested that the people are the only themselves to blame for tier own misery

Conclusion.

The picture is of someone who is strong in the Lord, joyful, true and faithful to the saviour. There may be a strong Christian, but without the full armour of God, he is in mortal danger, for all his courage and joy in Christ. The bible warns us that the devil goes about like a roaring lion, ready to devour the unwary, unguarded Christian (1 Peter 5:8). Lovely Christian people serving Christ enthusiastically, but suddenly knocked on the back of the head with one swipe of the devil’s horny hand, and so sent reeling, crashing to the ground. Put on the full armour of God. Paul repeats it in verse13: Therefore put the full armour of God. Without it, we will most certainly fall. But with it, by God’s grace, we can stand firm. God’s will for us is that we should be more than conquerors, victorious in the fight so he may help us all. And here is perhaps the most encouraging truth of all. When we put the armour of God that is completely honesty, righteousness that is holy living, peace that is the testimony of changed lives. His great strength is with us as the attack begins and in this fight , he never leaves our side, but is always there. That is why we can be victorious and withstand in the evil day. That must be our aim to stand our ground , and after we have done all to stand.

I personally believe that suffering in Christian living is important as it makes our own faith and walk closer with God. It just remind that someone there where we can trust where we can share our suffering as we going through. Suffering reminds us about the God own love, how he has gone through when he was on this earth. As the bible talks that those who follow Christ, has to suffer temporary then the reward is in heaven when we pass this earthy life. It just reminds our own life and even our own faith, how much we are closer to our saviour. I personally believe that the follower of Christ who are not suffering in this world should ask question within themselves are they really following Christ or just n name sake. Suffering bring the true glory to Christ as it reminds us about the love of Christ on the cross which he has paid for our sins.

Faithful Christians all around the globe believe in the same story that is presented in the book of Genesis in the Holy Bible; The Story of Adam and Eve. This story supports the creation of the first two humans to walk on earth and why we have the ability to sin. Not everyone believes this though, throughout the years there have been many different interpretations of the Adam and Eve story. The main types of differences in interpretations are: some people believe in the story, some think the story has no value, and some think there is another meaning to the story instead of the one we all describe now. With this taken into consideration, there are many interpretations of the story of Adam and Eve in Christianity that gives different insight to the story.

Starting with the creation of this story, it is located in the book of Genesis. The story was created by the Samarians who passed it down to the Babylonians. The story states that there were two humans, Adam and Eve, who were created by God. God first created Adam. One day Adam told God he was lonely and wanted a companion. God then created animals to keep Adam company to take care of them. Adam again said he was still feeling lonely, so God took one of Adams ribs to create Eve. They were told to live in a garden called The Garden of Eden. This was a beautiful garden where everything was supplied for them to live and prosper. God had one rule only for them, to not eat the forbidden fruit from the tree of knowledge, if they did there would be serious consequences. As Adam and Eve explore their new home Eve finds a serpent in the tree of knowledge, this serpent represents the devil. The serpent convinces Eve to eat the fruit from the tree of knowledge. Eve could have thought it was careless fun and nothing bad would come of it. “Giving into temptation may be fun at first, but the consequences are never worth it.”(Campus Life,2001)Suddenly Eve starts to see the consequences of her action. Adam and Eve do not know they are naked at this time, but Eve soon realizes Adam and she are naked. She convinces Adam to eat the fruit with her and they both now have disobeyed God. God returns and finds Adam and Eve hiding in a bush. He asks them why they are hiding from him. Adam and Eve reply they are naked and need to cover themselves. God knows that they had eaten from the forbidden tree. God punished them by having each child born from Adam and Eve to be born with original sin. God also had them banished from The Garden of Eden and to live among the animals. This story has been around for thousands of years, meaning there are plenty of ways to interpret this tale. This shows that “What we have sought to affirm through the centuries in pointing to the GenesisA storyA is human solidarity.”(Arraj & Tumulty, pp.21)

The literal interpretation of the story is one the most believed and most taught around the world. It states many things, first it says God created Adam and Eve in his own image. This is self explanatory since it is stated almost exactly like that in the text. As God takes the rib from Eve it shows that they will be joined together forever as God creates Eve in his own image. Once Eve was created she was considered the mother of all things living and Adam was considered the father. Basically, the story is saying they started all of humanity. Another literal meaning from the story is that Eve was deceived by the serpent who was the devil. This showed that the devil is always trying to tempt us to go his way instead of towards God. As we Christians move away from doing good works they are reenacting when Eve took the forbidden fruit. Once this was discovered God banished the devil from the Garden of Eden, therefore overcoming the serpent. In the end Jesus came and saved the Christians from sin by overcoming the “serpent”.This interpretation of the story is what people get from the text without going into greater detail of the meaning through the eyes of a faithful Christian.

Some argue that the stories in the Bible are just for spiritual growth and comfort. Regarding the story of Adam and Eve, there are multiple signs that give people spiritual comfort. With the creation of Adam and Eve we were created in the image of God, showing that we are all equal and beautiful in the eyes of God. To show God our thanks Christians worship him in church, which also has come from God. Just like Adam, God , figuratively speaking, took one of his ribs and created a church. Which is now church considered God’s home, or the Mother of Spirits, and was built for our spirits to be forgiven. This directly relates to Eve who is the mother of mankind. As she was deceived by the devil so was the church. This made it harder for the Church to be spiritually reborn. Then Jesus arrived and overcame the devil and the church was reborn. This meaning is what is suppose to be taken from the story according to the Bible. “The Bible warns us not to be literalistic. “We should serve in the newness of the Spirit and not in the oldness of the letter.” (Romans 7:6)” (“What The Bible Says About…”) Everything from the Bible is spiritual and good lessons of ways to live life.

Spiritual and literal interpretations of the story of Adam and Eve both have valid points. Each gives a background taught to Christians around the world. One type of interpretation we don’t hear often is how this story could be a story commemorating the two people who formed their first society. “It seems Adam and Eve story in Garden of Eden could be an actual and normal event, and not the Creation story of Adam and Eve as the first couple on the surface of the earth, but rather the first couple who founded a tribe which their decedents were remembering them.”(Gollestani, The Truth Shall) This makes sense, showing that Adam and Eve could have been nomads wandering until they found the perfect spot to develop a community. With a community comes rules and regulations. God could have been a nomadic leader or king that set the first ground rules of civilization. For example, no killing, no stealing, and a judgment before a prosecution must be held. Now the story of Adam and Eve was found manly from Mesopotamian tablets and the holy Bible. So the Mesopotamian people could have been the ones telling a story to show there thanks to Adam and Eve for the creation of their community. These show that this story could have actually been to thank the creators of a nation instead of having a true moral meaning.

With science being one of the biggest phenomenon’s of the modern day, it helps us decide what is possible and what is not possible. Can science overtake the way people believe in religions today? Many scientists do believe this and even have a say in the story of Adam and Eve. As already known, people who are strict believers in only scientific means think that the world was created by the big bang theory and everything evolved from evolution. This is already against popular belief of most people in the world, since Christianity is believed by 2.1 billion people. Adam and Eve were created by God, in the image of God, and to start all mankind stated by Christian beliefs. As stated in an article by Christianity Today, ” Reports claim of recent genetic research that the human race did not emerge from pre-human animals as a single pair, as an “Adam” and an “Eve.” The complexity of the human genome, we are told, requires an original population of around 10,000.”(Christianity Today, pp.61) This interpretation has no belief of religion or faith just the justification of science. It’s hard not to believe in facts that have been scientifically proven. People have started to believe more and more in science and religion that they even started a new one called Scientology. Scientology believes in pure scientific means of religious beliefs.

All Christians and other religions that believe in God, whole heartedly believe God is everything and would never do anything to harm us. In this interpretation of the Adam and Eve story , it seems that God setup Adam and Eve. The part of the story where God is explaining to Adam and Eve that they are not allowed to eat from the tree of knowledge, it makes it seem as if God wants them to eat from it. “He plants this special tree in the middle of the gardenaa‚¬”on display.”(Emerging Truths, 2011) It shows that God says not to eat from it but in reality he really wants Adam and Eve to eat from it. There is a point as stated by Emerging Truths that says God “winked” at the reader saying watch they will eat it right now. Continuing the story, the serpent was thrown in there to have someone tempt Eve into eating from the tree, if the serpent was not in the story then the curiosity of Adam and Eve would have gotten the better of them and they still would have eaten from the tree. Even though it is somewhat bizarre to hear that God was trying to purposely trick Adam and Eve into eating the fruit, it is another way to view a legendary story with many interpretations.

The story of Adam and Eve will stay alive for as long as this earth is still spinning. As one of the cornerstones of the human race, it is hard to forget something like that. Five interpretations for this story are very little compared to the amount of information and opinions out there. The truth of the matter is we will never know what the true meaning of this story was. It is good to have different views on the story so everyone can use it for self improvement and entertainment. The people who created it have a meaning and it is up to us to take it how we want. As the Bible stated, do not take the stories literally. The story of Adam and Eve will always be around to interpret by generations to come.

Spirituality is an ultimate or an alleged immaterial reality. The essence of spirituality is the search to know our true selves, to discover the real nature of consciousness. In other words, it is a constant discovery of the incredible, our real self, and a quest of our true being, why we are, who we are and where we belong. This has been a part of the eternal quest of man from times immemorial. These questions have been answered differently by many but are subject to one’s own belief interpretation and perception.

Sri Aurobindo in “Indian Spirituality and Life (1919)”says “Man does not arrive immediately at the highest inner elevation and if it were demanded of him at once, he would never arrive there. At first he needs lower supports and stages of ascent, he asks for some line of thought, dogma, worship, image, sign, and symbols, some indulgence and permission of mixed half natural motive on which he can stand while he builds up in him the temple of spirit.”(Sri Aurobindo, Indian Spirituality and Life, 1919) Man’s quest of truth, reality and peace has been unending. Overawed with the infinite nature, whatever he could not comprehend he attributed that to the glory of nature. Man’s intellect cannot accept anything that is unknown, unseen and has no fixed shape or form. Thus to satisfy his intellectual curiosity man gave physical form to the divine being.

Spirituality is our attempt to become aware of our spirit. “Spiritual architecture’ refers to any building system that facilitates this awareness. It is, an act of highlighting or bringing forth the self, not by rejecting matter but by manifesting it in matter, at various levels and in multiple forms. E.V. Walter in Placeways, defines spiritual space as aˆ¦ “a specific environment of phenomena that are expected to support the imagination, nourish spiritual experience, and convey spiritual truth” (Walter,E.V., Placeways: A Theory of the Human Environment, 75).

Spiritual spaces can be found in nature or they can be a constructed space. A spiritual space found in nature is a place designated by individuals or groups as such a place. It is a distinct space, a place whose character sets it apart from its surroundings. They are distinct from typical or commonly found places. The designation of a place as spiritual comes from the human need to establish a connection with inner truth. A place that is spiritual to one person or group of people may not be spiritual to others.

Architecture of a space can invoke all the senses, help one concentrate one’s positive energies to calm a disturbed mind and take a peaceful stable mind beyond the physical. It is an inevitable part of life. It attempts to reflect man’s source and the reason of being in several varied ways. Architecture is more than mere physical shelter or symbolic artefacts. They are catalyst towards our “dwelling”, between our being and the world. Architecture, together with the other arts, has, since time immemorial, been one of the most powerful means to pursue and realize this quest and give it physical-symbolic expression: how to create an identity and a place for our being from within the vast, shapeless and infinite extent of time and space; how to affirm our presences and gain a foothold, in the universe. (Gunter Dittmar, Upon the Earth, Beneath the Sky: The Architecture of Being, Dwelling & Building, 2001)

Successful architectural expression is one, which is able to do both; provide an enriching experience and an unforgettable image. It becomes more important while expressing spirituality in material to provide for an experience of, both the form and the formless, one perceptible by the senses and other beyond senses.

Since sacred spaces are separate from everyday places in a designated precinct, value is placed on the journey and arriving at the sacred place. The path and the ritual journey are part of the sacred experience.

It is a universal goal of mankind to seek or to create spiritual spaces. What is a spiritual space, and what are the qualities which describe that space? What defines spirituality and the space it makes and how does this form relate to us today?

RESEARCH QUESTION

What are the attributes of spiritual spaces?

1.2 NEED FOR JUSTIFICATION

The current crisis of environmental degradation is also a crisis of places. People are systematically building meaningless places. We must develop a way of understanding the built environment and the natural landscape. True renewal, will require a change in the way we structure experience for understanding both the natural land and the constructed world.

Since, the spiritual dimension and moral obligation have been discarded by the modern. Materialism divorced from ethics has corrupted the society. Therefore, more and more people are turning to Spirituality, Yoga and Meditation. Religious people are searching for the lost grid of spirituality in religion. Thus, there is a growing need of buildings to cater this need of people.

There are spatial qualities and architectural elements based on experiential background and emotional attachments.

To identify and define these connections, one has to go beyond the basic observation of signs and symbols, and analyse the spatial qualities and architectural elements which stimulate senses.

1.3 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

A brief study of design tools, which are capable of making the experience soul stirring. These include – form, space, volume, geometry, scale and proportions, light and colour.

Historical and symbolic aspects of spiritual spaces have already been discussed. (Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Vol. 2; Sir Banister Fletcher’s a History of Architecture, Sir Banister Fletcher, Dan Cruickshank; Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Period), Percy Brown) Thus this study will be focused towards the very fundamental architectural criterion and spatial impression on individual’s mind.

The study does not discuss in detail many issues, like evolution, construction, etc. But focuses on the internal design aspects, concerning the designing of a spiritual space, which are known and acknowledged.

Study should avoid commenting on the beliefs and rituals of various religions, but should debate towards the evolution and change of spatial qualities and form.

1.4 LIMITATION FOR THE RESEARCH

Study of sacred spaces of all faiths is not possible within the limited time frame.

A study of the built environment shall be undertaken which shall include only the spiritual aspect, the qualitative parameters and not the technical evaluation of the built form.

Considering the time frame provided for the completion of the study, primary case studies taken are done from Delhi only.

It would have been desirable to study how sacred can be woven into the everyday as well.

1.5 METHODOLOGY

The study is intended to be broken into subheads that will make it easier to understand the topic that talks about spiritual dimensions in sacred spaces and architectural qualities influencing human behaviour.

STAGE 1

IDENTIFYING NEED FOR THE STUDY

Trying to find the objectives of study.

Setting up the scope and limitations.

STAGE 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

Through the survey of all possible data related to the topic or on architecture and human behaviour. This stage of the research includes collecting data that is directly or indirectly related to spiritual aspect of architectural spaces. This has been done through the printed form or from the internet, articles and discussions of peoples relating to the study.

Literature survey aims at sorting out case studies both inside and outside India and also at getting an review of what are the recent developments and events that are taking place in the field of spiritual architecture.

STAGE 3

LITERATURE SURVEY 2

A study has been undertaken to understand the mental conditions of a man in different spaces and its relation with the creator. Through this the topic got defined and the question got framed.

STAGE 4

INTERRELATING DIFFERENT SACRED STRUCTURES

As our concern is on human being, the structures affecting human mind around the world should have similarities. Search for the overlapping of spatial qualities in sacred structures around the world.

STAGE 5

FRAME WORK

To make a framework of different issues and principles studied which can be applied on case studies. List of issues formulate questionnaire for the case studies and interviews.

List of issues:

Open and closed space

Portal or entrance

Path and surrounding landscape

Destination point

Form, geometry, proportion and scale

Articulation and symbolism

Light, colour and sound

Touch, smell and taste

STAGE 6

Fig 1.1 ISKCON Temple, New Delhi

Fig 1.2 Cathedral Church of Redemption, New Delhi

Fig 1.3 Jama Masjid, New DelhiCASE STUDIES

ISKCON TEMPLE, NEW DELHI
CATHEDRAL CHURCH OF REDEMPTION, NEW DELHI
JAMA MASJID,NEW DELHI

Case studies are selected to understand the sacredness and the spiritual consciousness through the built, the purpose behind it. Case studies will throw some light on the spatial qualities of spiritual spaces. Suitable case studies will be undertaken to examine the need of the topic and its negligence in present day scenario.

STAGE 7

CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF CASE STUDY

All the information collected so far was then analysed thoroughly. An analysis of experiencing the sacred buildings to out the design tools that an architect can employ to create the desired spiritual experience.

STAGE 8

DESIGN IDEA FORMULATION

After assimilation of all matter and analysis of material collected, conclusions are derived, as to, how an architect can use design tools to stimulate all the senses and make the experience of a spiritual space spiritual.

CHAPTER 2: SPIRITUAL ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN BEHAVIOR
2.1 SPATIAL QUALITIES AND HUMAN MIND

The sacred is never intentionally chosen, but in some way or the other revels itself.

-Eliade (1963)

The meaning of structured space, a meaning which we believe lies in its dynamic relationship to its human personality and to our mental health.

Fig 2.1 The self- Hindu thought (Source: Prof. H.D. Chayya)The environment in which humans operate has an important influence on their wellbeing and performance. Our structured environment is so important and, influence direct or indirect, on the shaping of personality and the choice as well as the attainment of goals. Emotional design and tangible interaction are compelling forms of enhancing user engagement. The combination of these modes of interaction can create a new dimension of human experience when physical movement in space or the manipulation of objects triggers emotions within an individual. By seamlessly integrating expressive tangible interaction techniques with ambient intelligence, that is, by creating environments that are sensitive and responsive to human gestures, meaningful experiences can be constructed.

Leon Festinger, Stanley Schachter and Krik Bach found in their detailed studies of one urban situation, that physical spaces play a very large part in the formation of community relationships aˆ¦and even minor architectural feature, such as the position of staircase and mailboxes, had important effects on the social life of people. “The architect who builds a house or who designs a site plan, who decides which direction the houses will face and how close together they will be, also is, to a great extent, deciding the pattern of social life among the people who will live in those houses.”(Strengthening Weak Ties: Social Networks and Student Housing, Thesis, B. Design in Architecture, University of Florida, 2011)

Geoffrey Scott’s book “The Architecture of Humanism”, 1914, he said,” The architect models in space as a sculptor in clay. He designs the space as a work of art; that is, he attempts through his means to excite a certain mood in those who enter it.”

The view has been elaborated by others, among them Bruno Zevi, Architecture as Space, 1957: “the facade and walls of house. Church, or palace, no matter how beautiful they may be, is only the container, the boxaˆ¦; the content is the internal space.’

As Geoffrey Scott suggests,” Space itself is not obvious, cannot be visually perceived; one sees only objects in space; or the structural members that encloses the space. Space itself can only be sensed- that is, felt; its quality is apprehended by means of the senses, but its effect is upon the emotions, and cannot readily be rationalized, measured or depicted.

One can only gauge and describe accurately enough the adequacy or structural soundness, its provision for warmth, ventilation, sanitation, light, and other physical factors.

One can criticize its components in terms of proportion, texture, colour and other aesthetic considerations.

Fig. 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4 (Source: F.D.K.Ching, Architecture – Form, Space and Order 3rd edition)

Fig. 2.5 Non-sign II-art installation by Annie Hans and Daniel Mihalyo But beyond all of these, there is an overall effect exerted upon one’s consciousness by architectural space which defies precise definition.”(Scott, Geoffrey, The Architecture of Humanism, 1914)

Architecture truly conceived, is nothing less than the conscious and careful determination of our whole structured environment and leaves an impression on individual’s mind, which can be controlled. Like a stage setting that controls the movements of actors and defines where and under what circumstances they can meet, our habitat channels our movements and influence our contacts. If we think of buildings at all, it is usually when we are jolted by some outrage, such as a stalled elevator or a leaky roof, long columned corridor, a double height space. (Walter, E.V., 1988, Placeways: A Theory of the Human Environment)

Table 2.1 The concept of the spirit of a space (Source: Author)Some of the architectural integrant which affect human psychology are:

Five senses
Hearing
Touch
Sight
Taste
Smell
The basic elements

Space

Air

Fire

Water

Earth

Instruments of perception (to acquire inward)

Ear

Skin

Eyes

Tongue

Nose

Work organs
(to act outwards)

Speech communication (exit)

Hands work (finger)

Feet mobility

Anus discard

Genitals procreate

Control centre force

Mind (flow of thoughts and emotions)

Intellect (power of discrimination)

The presiding force (“PRANA” or the life force)

The cosmos consciousness or the supreme energy

Architecture

Silence

Climate

Light

–

Plumbing

Landscape transformation

Acoustics

Weather

Colour

–

Cooling

Related technological fields

Vibrations

Texture surfaces

Texture forms

–

Repose odour

Emotional Design

Emotion is a fundamental aspect of what makes us human; it shapes our cognition, perception, memory, and learning and it colours our past, present, and future experiences. Emotional value is important in design for enhancing user experience as Donald Norman explains: “Our attachment is really not to the thing, it is to the relationship, to the meanings and feelings the thing represents.” Emotional design then, provides an aesthetic interaction that engages users on an emotional, meaningful, and psychological level. Whereas affective computing focuses on the system recognizing and adjusting to what it believes the user is feeling, emotional design focuses on the emotional experience.

Physical and Tangible Interfaces

Human movement is often spurred by intention and motivation within people. Tangible user interfaces allow users to interact with virtual information by sensing and manipulating physical environments through objects, surfaces, and spaces.

Relation of architecture and human psychology is far interrelated. Appropriate use of various architectural components has the capacity of enlightening the atmosphere whereas inappropriate use does the opposite. The building forms, the functions incorporated in it, colours, negative and positive spaces in and around it may be the few points but architecture is directly attached with human psychology from conscious to subconscious level.

2.2 PLACEBO EFFECT: SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION

For decades, scientists have tried to understand the mysterious power of what is called the “placebo effect.” Placebo studies prove how powerfully we are influenced – not just emotionally but physiologically – by how we perceive the world around us.

Articulation and architectural conditions in homes can have powerful and long-lasting psychological impact. The placebo effect offers a clue that points to how we might create curative environments.

The placebo effect as a therapy, the fact that believers in a wide variety of ancient “faith” systems also claim similar effects, as have modern scientists who study mind/body medicine.

Fig 2.6 Illustration of the interrelationship of stress, belief and how they may impact on the placebo effect and the relaxation response. (Source: http://www.sciencedirect.com)In other words, it impacts an ancient part of our brain which we share with many other species. Endogenous opioids, which are naturally produced by the brain in small amounts and play a key role in the relief of pain and anxiety, have been implicated in placebo analgesia.

CHAPTER 3: SACRED SPACE AND SPIRITUALITY
3.1 OPEN SPACES: AS SACRED SPACES

Does spirituality needs sacred spaces and vice versa? Does spirituality really is incomplete without architecture? Is it not the quality of the inner life, open to a virtual dimension that transcends the sensible, that matters?

Fig 3.1 Lodhi Garden, New Delhi (Source: Author)Open space has two different meanings that work together to create sacred places that are inclusive and aware of many elements that may be exclusive to any potential user of the space. An open space is open to the public, meaning anyone of any race, faith, culture, or belief is able to enter the space. The space is for the whole community of different people rather than just one particular group. Or, an open space is one that feels welcoming and non-threatening to those that spend time in it; it feels like home for the soul. The design of the space and the placement of features such as portals, paths, universal symbols that have meaning across all religions, nations and ethnic groups, lend to the openness of the space by inviting those outside of the space to enter it. The combination of a space being open on both a physical and spiritual level is what makes up “Open Spaces, Sacred Places.”

3.2 ATTRIBUTES OF A SPIRITUAL SPACE

Architecture is the first pioneer on the highway toward the adequate realization of inner self. For this means it levels space for self-realization, informs his external environment, and builds a fit place for the aggregation of those assembled having similar faith, as a defence against the threatening of tempest, against rain, and savage animals.

Besides the variety of buildings and design approaches in the effort to create a space where man can feel spirituality, there can be found some common design tools that help to create the soul stirring experience. The following discuss some of these parameters.

The portal or threshold is the entryway into the sacred space, which helps to separate the space from the greater surrounding space and invites you to step inside. A portal can be created with a hardscape such as a gate or a portico, or with simple planting.

Fig 3.2 Portal to Garden, (Source: http://www.luminous-landscape.com)

Fig 3.4 Open space, (Source: http://www.luminous-landscape.com)

Fig 3.3 Pathway in a Garden, (Source: http://www.luminous-landscape.com)The path invites exploration and discovery along the route. It meanders through spaces, fuels the imagination and entices one to see where it may lead.

The destination point is an end point within a space that inexplicably draws visitors. It may be a resting place, such as a bench, or a beautiful natural feature, such as a gurgling fountain or rain curtain. It is a point within the sacred space where those who visit always end up. Sacred spaces may have more than one destination point.

Space and Volume

Fig. 3.5 Space defining elements, Source: F.D.K.Ching, Architecture – Form, Space and Order 3rd edition) Space, whether of the individual or the universal, possesses a unique quality of experiencing. It is hyper sensitive, besides being super potential. Sense of surround defines the space as separate and apart from the overall outdoor environment. Visitors who enter the space feel as though they are entering into a room. There are natural or man-made boundaries (or a combination of both) that delineate the space within the greater environment. These boundaries provide a subtle feeling of shelter, enabling people to feel safe and enjoy their time spent in the space. (Nicolas, W. Robert Leo A Daly, 2004, building Type Basics for Places of Worship)

By generating a continuous flow of spaces, each act movement becomes an experience. Each component of architecture becomes important and provides for this linkage. It can be by repetition of elements, alteration in scale and proportion, staggering, light, texture, and colour and also by using perspective as a device to accentuate the drama. (Robinson,J., 1979, Religious Buildings)

Fig. 3.6 Form and Space, Source: F.D.K.Ching, Architecture – Form, Space and Order 3rd edition) Form and Geometry

Architectural form is the point of contact between mass and space “Architectural Form required to fulfil its functional requirements for that is the reason for its being – both physical and spiritual.” (Saarinen, E., op.cit. pg 14)Every form conveys a meaning. It is important to understand how form can transmit a spiritual meaning. Certain shapes and forms are conventional associated with certain meanings.

Scale and Proportion

Fig. 3.7 Vastupurusa (Source: Charles Correa, Vistara; Architecture of India)

Fig. 3.8 Vitruvius Man (Source: Leonardo Da vinci.stanford.edu)Scale refers to the size of something compared to reference standard or size of something else. Deciding the scale of a sacred space is a common design concern. Some blend into the fabric of the neighbouring community and landscape; others stands out as landmarks, easily recognized for their special purpose. Generally the sacred spaces take monumental scale to create an atmosphere of awe, mystery and magnificence. The scale of the interior spaces, the size and weight of doors, and the exposed structural columns and beams all serve to denote the special quality of the sacred space.

Fig. 3.9 LeCorbusier modular Man (Source: Corbusier, The modulor)Proportion refers to the proper or harmonious relation of one part to another or to the whole. While the designer usually has a range of choices when determining the proportions of things, some are given to us by the nature and the man himself.

Human body proportions are used not merely as numbers with an inherent harmony, but as a system of measurements that could govern lengths, surfaces, and volumes. It can lend itself to an infinity of combination; it ensures unity with diversity; the miracle of numbers.

Proportional buildings and scale link spiritual architecture to the mathematical structure of the cosmos. The building should relate well not only to the human scale but also the psyche.

Light and Colour

Fig. 3.12 Khajuraho Temple (Source: Kota Kesava Karthik)

Fig. 3.11 Prayer at Church (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org)Light is regarded to be the most important component in definition of space or the manifestation of form in an architectural space; it not only defines the space but also gives meaning to it. In this study one looks at how light can create a place of worship; how to make a quiet, enclosed, isolated space, space full of activities, filled with vitality.

Fig. 3.10 Khirki Masjid (Source: Jegmet Wangchuk)

Colour is the attribute that most clearly distinguishes a form from its environment. We respond to bright colours, for instance red, with the emotional part of our brain. First, our muscles get tense, and then we lean towards the colour. Our respiration and heart rate goes up and the blood pressure starts rising. The opposite reactions occur when we see light colours such as blue. Our muscles relax, the heart and respiration rate drops and the blood pressure lowers.

It also affects the visual weight of a form. Gradation of colour exist; from pale to brilliant; from cold to warm. Thus colour expression is also full of meaning.

Texture is an important asset of colour. It is the visual and especially tactile quality given to a surface by shape and arrangement, and the proportions of the parts. Texture also determines to which the surfaces of a form reflect or absorb incident light. It gives an expression to the surface, thereby contributing to the overall impression.

Color
Colors Characteristics
Color’s Actions

Red

Stimulating, exciting, provocative, dynamic

Increased enthusiasm, interest, and energy

Pink

Happy, sweet, spirited, romantic, youthful

Calm and relaxing feelings

Brown

Wholesome, rich, durable, rustic, sheltering

A connection with the natural earth and the stability this brings

Orange

Friendly, vital, tangy, energizing, inviting

Increases creativity and gives relief from things becoming too serious

Blue

Dependable, cool, serene, constant, quiet

Broadens your perspective in learning new information

Green

Refreshing, healing, fresh, soothing, nature

Gives freedom to pursue new ideas

Purple

Sensual, elegant, mysterious, regal, spiritual

Calms over activity or energizes from depression

Black

Strong, classic, elegant, powerful, mysterious

Opens the door to mystery and prepares for the unknown

Yellow

Warming, sunny, cheerful, luminous, enlightening

Gives clarity for decision making and sharper memory and concentration skills

white

Pure, bright, innocent, lightweight, pristine

Starts a fresh beginning

Fig. 3.13 Colours in Culture (Source: www.informationisbeautiful.net)

Table. 3.1 Concept of Colours (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org)Symbolism

Symbolism

We can identify iconography depicted in architecture of these buildings as the signs and symbols and the inspirations taken directly from some other structure or theories and thoughts spread across the world.

A symbol is the juxtaposition that is, a co-optation of visible forms brought forth to demonstrate some invisible matter. One needs to identify with one’s religion that is where symbols play an important role.( Jose’Pereira, 2004, The Sacred Architecture of Islam)

Table. 3.2 Iconography in major religions (Source: Jose’Pereira, The Sacred Architecture of Islam, 2004)Sacred symbolism is considered to be present in every major religious building, around the world. Iconography of sacred geography in three major religions of the world:

TEMPLE
MOSQUE
CHURCH
MOUNTAIN

Shikhara

Minaret

Lofty towers

STONE

Idol

One that in Kabba

Altar

TREE

Present in courtyard

Cross

WATER

Sarovar

Ritual ablutions in courtyard

Place of Baptism

But is it signs and symbolism only which draw an impact on our behaviour. When we get in to some space, is the aesthetical and visual perception only gets conceived in our mind.

Fig. 3.15 Temple Bells (Source: Author)

Fig. 3.14 Prayer at church (Source: http://www.mlive.com)

Fig. 3.16 Reciting Quran in Mardrsa (Source: http://www.mlive.com)SOUND

The reverberant sound quality created by the proportions and the materials of sacred spaces set them apart from the ordinary. Sacred music, singing, chanting, the ringing of temple and church bells and intoning of prayers characterize specific rituals. The change in sound quality from the cacophony of the street to the harmony resonant silence signifies entry into a sacred space.

TOUCH

The experience of touch identifies a sacred space; the weight of the door handle, the textures of materials on walls and seating, and the hardness of stone underfoot. A change in temperature, such as the transition from the blazing heat of a busy city street into the cool and solitude of an interior can also denote a sacred space.

Most of the textures are touched by vision, iconography, formed an integral part of a temple and a church architecture to convey the complete narrative.

Though the following two are not translated into architectural terms, but they form an indispensable part of a complete spiritual experience.

SMELL

Fig. 3.20 Garlands for devotees (Source: Author)

Fig. 3.18 IItr, scented oil

Fig. 3.19 Votive Candles (Source: Author)

Fig. 3.17 Agarbatti (Source: http://www.mlive.com)Incense is used extensively in the Roman Catholic and Buddhist traditions as a symbol of prayers going up to the deity. The smell of agarbatti and the flowers offered to deity are indispensable parts of the rituals for Hindu as well as many other faiths. The incense sticks are used even in meditation centers as the intoxicating smell stimulates your senses to the positive and calms you down.

TASTE

Fig. 3.23 Christmas cake (Source: www.google.com)

Fig. 3.22 Korma (Source: Author)

Fig. 3.21 Laddo (Source: Kota Kesava Karthik)Though this sensory experience is missing in many of the architecture, it still is an integral part of many religious experiences. All the Hindu temples have Prasad and Chanramrit (sweet water) as an indispensable part of the worshipping ritual. Some believe that this custom of sharing sweets is a memorial of the sweetness of the deities. Christians offer holy water in a similar manner. The prasad is obligatory in the Gurudwara too.

3.3 SPIRITUAL DIMENSION IN EXISTING BUILDING TYPOLOGY
3.3.1 THE HINDU TEMPLE

The Hindu temple is essentially the “House Of God”. It is not a place for congregational worship. Though congregation for religious ceremonies do take place, but the worshipper’s communication with the divine is his own personal experience. The worshipper goes individually to the house of God and invokes his blessings. Stella Kramisch, in her book, “The Hindu Temple” says,” the intellect of the age, absorbed largely in divine contemplation, is reflected in the temple idol