Author: Andre Coleman

Our religion does not define who we are regardless to popular belief. Our religion is only a part of who we are if we let it. Not everyone that practices a religion knows everything about it or even accepts it. Some people have a religion just because everyone else has one, and most people have a religion because they were brought up in it.

The human mind is easily convinced to do and believe things when it is young and fragile. As a child, you listen to your parents, obey them and learn from most things they do “we stand on the shoulders of others to get to the next level” (Fraklin). Most people choose their religion based on the religion their parents practiced. Our religion could affects many aspects of our lives depending on how deeply we believe in it; this includes the way we see others, the way we act, and the way we influence those around us. Our faith in our religion can always be seen in the way we live our lives, nevertheless it does not define who we are. As humans, we learn everyday of our lives, introducing us to new things which indirectly change our point of view on certain things in our lives; we begin to see things in different ways and accept something’s we thought was wrong but some people still somehow let their religion come in the way of how they see these things, even though they have a different opinion on some matters they feel like they are obligated to believe whatever their religion asks of them. For those who accept this changes, it could bring about a big difference in their life. I believe no one can tell what religion is right or wrong because no one knows everything. Most people like to be right in most situations, so whenever they are asked what religion is right, it is quite normal for them to say theirs’ is right. Not everyone tries to realize that the same way they think their religion is right could be the way another person sees his as the right one “The easy confidence with which I know another man’s religion is folly teaches me to suspect that my own is also” (Mark Twain). With what we know, religion might not even exist, which is why I believe that everyone should respect each other’s point of view on any situation “God has no religion” (Mahatma Gandhi), personally I think all that matters to God, if there is one, is the good and bad that people do. It is easy to think someone is wrong, when you think you are right even though you might be wrong. An example is the apology of Socrates. Socrates was a simple minded person who never thought himself to be more than he was. The fact that he acknowledge his ignorance makes him a wise person (Plato), most believers are ignorant of other religions, yet they believe their religion is the right one while others are not even though they do not know much of the one they criticize.

Children learn most things from their parents and those around them. Growing up, children are taught what is right and wrong by their parent or guardian, and that helps them in deciding for themselves when they are adults. It is very common for a parent to take their children to where they worship, and as they grows they learn from their parent’s faith, making them believe in their religion. The reason why people rarely change their religion is because they grow in it and that makes it more of a lifestyle to them rather than something they learned. Most religions like Christianity has been made in a way that you are not allowed to question some of the things you might not agree with. Some of the stories and rules we learn from our religious books sometimes seem wrong and sometimes we might find some not quite sensible, but we have also learned that we have no right to question the things that happened in them, we just have accept it. The story of Job is one that should bring every Christian to question their God as to why he made a man go through so much, just to test his fate. Job was a faithful

Christian, but he was tested by Satan with the permission of God; he lost everything he had and was terribly ill, with no help from anyone (The story of Job). Everything that happened to him is something no Christian would accept from any other person, it would not matter what reason they might have to do that, it will be considered bad, but when it is God that did this to a man just to test his faith, they are not allowed to question him. Even though Job went through a lot of things, he never questioned God. When believers feel angry towards God, most of them think it is a wrong feeling and they are not able to express themselves to other believers because they feel judged, guilty, and ashamed (julie and joshua).

Every religious belief has its good and bad parts, some that we agree on and others that we don’t, but the fear that has been put into us from when we were young is what makes us accept it even though we have other opinions. The fear of a god could make anyone do anything. The story of how Abraham is a great example. Abraham was willing to kill his only child because God asked him to do so, even though that was his only child and he knew he will never have any other child, he was still willing to kill his child “And it happened after these things that God tested Abraham. And He said to him, Abraham! and he said, here I am. And he said, take, pray, your son, your only one, whom you love, Isaac, and go forth to the land of Moriah and offer him up as a burnt offering on one of the mountains which I shall say to you” (Abraham and Isaac). Despite how deep our faith might be and how well we understand a religion, we still put in our own interpretation to it just to make it suit us. Lailak asked “are we supposed to interpret the Bible in our own way?. Lone77star answered that we all have our own path to choose, he explained by saying he had his own interpretation and would not want anyone to follow it blindly” (hubpages). Not every Christian that reads the Bible understands it, and not every Muslim that reads the Quran understands it. This is the reason there are pastors and Islamic leaders teaching their religion. Even though this people are seen as ‘the holy ones’, they also interpret the religion in a way they see fit. Religion is not just one thing, it is a way of life in which people design for themselves; everyone has their own unique religion because we all see and interpret things in different ways. Some people believe they are Christians because they go to the church. This is simply their interpretation of being a Christian “Anyone who thinks sitting in a church can make you a Christian must also think sitting in a garage can make you a car (Garrison. goodread)”, it does not matter how much a person attends a church or pray, it is their heart towards things that defines them. The actions they take and how they deal with things. The most annoying people are those who try to get people into their religion; this is basically asking others to think like they do and see things from their own perspective.

Christians believe that God created humans ” And God created the human in his image, in the image of God He created him, male and female He created them” (Genesis). Christians accept and believe this theory. In some way this affects their way of living because they think they owe their existence to someone. They live most of their life trying to please someone they have never seen “Religion has convinced people that there’s an invisible man living in the sky. Who watches everything you do every minute of every day. And the invisible man has a list of ten specific things he doesn’t want you to do. And if you do any of these things, he will send you to a special place, of burning and fire and smoke and torture and anguish for you to live forever, and suffer, and suffer, and burn, and scream, until the end of time. But he loves you. He loves you. He loves you and he needs money” (George Carlin).

The misinterpretation of religion could lead to disagreement, conflicts and even death. When people have different interpretation of what their religion says, it is very easy for them to disagree on most things. Some Muslims have been killing for years, and they believe what they are doing is right. They believe they can do anything as long as they ask for forgiveness. Religion has caused most of the wars the world has ever known. God says we should love our neighbors has we love ourselves. Anyone could interpret this the way they want, some would say it means to love your family, and others might think it means to love everyone “love your fellow as yourself” (livneh). Some people believe in God just so they have someone to blame when they are in trouble “When people experience traumatic or highly stressful events, a common response is to blame God” (Julie and Joshua), to these people God is just a figure they run to whenever they are in trouble or need someone to blame for their own faults and weaknesses. They do not fully understand the concept of God, but they feel that they need him.

Our religion does not define who we are, what makes us who we are is what we accept our religion to be, our interpretation of it, and the choices we make through them. The Bible teaches about loving one another “love your fellow as yourself” (livneh), this is hard sometimes because some people are just hard to love. No matter how you try to get close to them, they still somehow do not accept you. Some Christians are this way, even though the bible says they should love one another. The bible also mentions not having hate towards a fellow human “you shall not hate your kinsman in your heart” (livneh), yet there are several Christians who have hate in their heart towards someone in their family, and people in the church. Even though the law of the bible ask them to love and never hate, this does not define them.

Did the prophets of the Old Testament predict the future, or did they speak to change to way people were behaving? In essence, were they “foretellers” or “forthtellers”?

Introduction
The Hebrew Bible, or Old Testament recounts the history, and specifically the religious history of Israel, from the creation to a few hundred years before the birth of Christ. The Old Testament tells the story of the people of Israel and their relationship with God or Yaweh. It tells how Israel sinned against the God who had given her all that she had because the people were unable to keep to their covenant with God (Lemche, 1995). Within the Old Testament the Prophetic writings either address the specific historical conditions in Israel or they refer to social conditions. This paper will examine the books of the Prophet Amos and of the Prophet Isaiah to assess whether the prophets were foretellers or forthtellers. The paper will begin with a brief sketch of the historical background followed by an explanation of terms with reference to Amos and Isaiah.

Prophets, Foretellers and Forthtellers.
The writings attributed to the prophets Amos and Isaiah date from around the eighth and seventh centuries BCE. They are two of the later prophets and they spoke against the backdrop of the changing political scene which resulted in the exile of Israel, the northern kingdom, after the capture of Samaria in 721 BCE and then to the exile of Judah after the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BCE (Clines, 1990). The central message of these prophets is to do with the exile, either warning of its coming or reflecting on its meaning and calling for the people to repent in order that God might change his mind. Scholars are of the opinion that the books have been subject to later editing, what is known as redaction, the imposition of something that happened in a different context. It is for this reason that the texts, while having a historical backdrop, and giving some historical facts, should not be regarded as a straightforward historical record. Rather they are a record of God’s dealing with his people.

Unlike earlier prophets, these writings say far less about the prophets and more about the words of God that they give and receive (Whybray, 1993). The word prophet is generally accepted to have come from the Hebrew word ‘nabi’ which means to speak or to utter words. The biblical usage of the word has meant that it has come to be associated with someone who is the interpreter and mouthpiece of God.This is made clear in the opening verses of the Book of Amos, a shepherd of Tekoa.

The Lord roars from Zion, and utters his voice from Jerusalem; the pastures of the shepherds wither, and the top of Carmel dries up (Amos. 1:2 NRSV).

In the above verse Amos describes the way in which the Lord speaks through him and verse three then begins with Thus says the Lord. First Isaiah begins in much the same way:

Hear o heavens, and listen, o earth; for the Lord has spoken: I reared children and brought them up, but they have rebelled against me (Isaiah, 1:2 NRSV).

Here Isaiah is literally proclaiming himself as the mouth piece of the Lord. The word ‘nabi’ expresses a function, it is what the prophet does, other words are used to denote what the prophet is, an oracle or a man of vision. Isaiah is known as a major prophhet because of the length of the book and Amos a minor prophet because his writings are much shorter. The prophets then, were divine messengers who addressed the people of God. In most cases the messages were not asked for Amos chapter seven tells how God put Amos where he was:

..and the Lord took me from following the flock, and the Lord said to me, “Go, prophesy to my people Israel” (Amos, 7:15).

The book of Amos begins by introducing the prophet as a shepherd and then goes straight into the message from God as in verse two. Isaiah also begins by introducing the prophet and then proceeds to God’s word to the people. Some prophets were sons of prophets and some belonged to a community of prophets under a leader, some were solitary like Amos who did not really count himself a prophet,

Then Amos answered Amaziah, “I am no prophet, nor a prophet’s son…and the Lord took me from following the flock, and the Lord said to me, “Go, prophesy to my people Israel (Amos, 7:14-15).

Both Amos and Isaiah spoke out against social injustice and the ways in which the rich people cheated those who were poor. The prophet Amos spoke out against the idolatry of the people, who still strayed after the golden calf idol which had been set up by King Jeroboam the first when the nation was first split into two kingdoms. Amos spoke in the time of Jeroboam the second when Israel was enjoying a time of prosperity (Clines, 1990). Amos spoke out against the religious and social corruption that he saw around him. He spoke of Israel’s guilt and of their forthcoming punishment in chapter three:

Hear this that the Lord has spoken against you, O people of Israel against the whole family that I brought up out of the land of Egypt: You only have I known, of all the families of the earth; therefore I will punish you for all your iniquities (Amos 3:1-2).

Isaiah wrote in the eighth century BCE, almost two hundred years before the fall of Jerusalem to Babylon (Clines, 1990). He spoke to the people of Judah, and warned them of God’s displeasure. They had become complacent and tolerated all kinds of social injustice. When Isaiah wrote the people were reaching the point of no return because of their rejection of God and their constant refusal to give up their corrupt religious practices and their oppression of the poor. Thus, in the opening chapter Isaiah tells the people:

When you stretch out your hands, I will turn my eyes from you; even though you make many prayers I shall not listen; your hands are full of blood. Learn to do good; seek justice, rescue the oppressed, defend the orphan, plead for the widow (Isaiah, 1:15 and 17).

The words of the prophets can be read at a number of levels. They were forthtellers in that they spoke out against injustice and called the people back to God. They were foretellers in that they warned of the judgement and punishment to come if the people continued in their idolatry and their unjust practices. The most famous verse of this nature is to be found in the book of the prophet Amos chapter five:

Take away from me the noise of your songs; I will not listen to the melody of your harps. But let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an ever-flowing stream (Amos 5:23-24).

Amos is speaking out against the social injustices of his time and saying that God’s command was for the people to be just and righteous. It was a verse used by Martin Luther King when he spoke out against the racial injustices in America and headed Black people’s struggle for civil rights in the 1960s. Isaiah also spoke out against injustice and makes use of the image of a vineyard where grapes are pressed, the injustices committed against the people, are, in God’s eyes, akin to pressing their faces in the same way that grapes are pressed. Isaiah says in chapter 5:

But the Lord of Hosts is exalted by justice, and the holy God shows himself holy by righteiousness (Isaiah, 5:16)

In this way the prophets were forthtellers because the word means to speak forth, or speak out against the wrong that people were doing and to tell them that what God required of them was to act justly and in this way they could achieve righteousness. The people had forsaken God’s Holy Law which had been given to them by Moses and the prophets were called by God to draw the people back. When they were not being idolatrous the people were indulging in empty religious ritual. Amos tells the people how displeased God is with their religious ‘nodding’:

I hate, I despise your festivals, and I taken no delight in your solemn assemblies. Even though you offer me your burnt offerings and grain offerings, I will not accept them (Amos, 5:21-22).

Amos speaks out against the people’s religious practices and tells them it is not religion that God wants from them, but justice. Whenever the prophet speaks forth and tells of God’s displeasure he also later reminds them of God’s loving and forgiving nature. Although the prophets forthtell God’s judgement on an unrepentant people, they also fortell, or speak of God’s future blessings if the people mend their ways. Even though God has spoken to the noble women, calling them the cows of Bashan (Amos, 4:1) he provides a way of escape in chapter five.

Seek the Lord and live, or he will break out against the house of Joseph like fire, and it will devour Bethel, with no-one to quench it (Amos, 5:6).

This is very similar to the message in the first chapter of Isaiah where God speaks against the people. Isaiah forthtells God’s displeasure but then says that if they seek God and do justice then God will repent himself of the punishment he is calling down. Clines (1990) maintains that the major job of the prophets was to call the people back to obedience. To do this they spoke out against injustice and corrupt or empty religious practice and warned of the judgement of God if they continued living life that way. Amos particularly has often been called the prophet of doom because of his warnings about the destruction of the way of life of the people and yet he also gives a message of hope. The prophets therefore forthtell in that they speak directly to the situation as they believe God has revealed to them, but they also foretell in that they speak of impending judgement if the people do not return to obedience. The prophets felt that God alone directed the course of history, and that God would punish the people who did not worship him in the right way. Worship applied to all areas of life, from formal worship to social justice and right relationships. The prophets called the people to repentance. Lemche (1995) maintains that the prophets observe what is going on, that society no longer adhered to the laws underlying the world God created. They then forthtell what is wrong and outline what the consequences will be if they continue.

It is not easy to date exactly when or how the prophetic writings were put together, scholars are generally agreed that the book of Amos is the work of one person, either Amos himself or his scribe. The book of Isaiah on the other hand presents more problems, some scholars accept that it is the work of one person, others state that parts of the book describe events that happened long after the prophet’s death and must therefore have been written by a second and even third authors. By and large however these scholars reject the religious belief that God alone directed the course of history and this was perhaps why Isaiah could have been cognisant of future events. Certainly Isaiah lived in turbulent times, Jerusalem was under siege from the Assyrian Sennacherib and Isaiah forthtold God’s wrath over the sins of the people. Assyrian will be the means of God punishing the people, in chapter 10 God speaks of Assyria as:

the rod of my anger-the club in their hands is my fury! Against a godless nation I send him and against the people of my wrath I command him to take spoil, and seize plunder, and to tread them down like the mire of the streets (Isaiah, 10:5-6).

Conclusion
The prophets Amos and Isaiah, forthtold or spoke against the injustices that they saw. They warned the people that if they did not return to the correct form of worship laid out by Moses and reiterated in the book of the prophet Hosea: that knowledge of God was achieved through doing justice and by pleading the cause of the oppressed. The prophets may have foretold some events but what is most important about the prophetic writings is their forthtelling. The prophets spoke out against the social conditions that they observed and the ways in which people dealt with each other. When they dealt unjustly then God did not want their worship because it was empty. Religion only meant something if its effects could be seen in the pursuit of justice and of just dealings with others. The prophets warned the people that God would punish them if they did not heed his call to repent. They did not just foretell doom, God loved the people, he would forgive them if they returned to him, but if they did not then the prophets warned that only a remnant would be saved.

It is not easy always to separate where the prophets may be speaking of future events or whether this has been altered when the books were edited. What is clear is that the prophets were forthtellers in that from their observation of the social conditions they spoke forth what they believed was God’s word to the people.

Bibliography

Clines, D. Fowl, S. and Porter, S eds. 1990 The Bible in Three Dimensions: Essays in Celebration of Forty Years of Biblical Studies in the University of Sheffield Sheffield, Sheffield Academic Press
Lemche, N 1995 Ancient Israel: A New History of Israelite Society Sheffield, Sheffield Academic Press
Holy Bible 1995 New Revised Standard Version Michigan, Zondervan Publishing House
Whybray, N 1987 The Making of the Pentateuch (JSOT, 53: Sheffield, Sheffield Academic Press)
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12477a.htm

The following research report was requested and granted by Philip Broster, The Business Communication lecturer at the Tertiary School in Business Administration, for 8 October 2012.

Permission was granted by Philip Broster to conduct research on the debate regarding the wearing of hijab and the western pressures of this felt by Muslim women who study at TSiBA Education.

His specific instructions were to:

Compile a research report based on the previous research proposal to research the debate regarding the hijab and the pressures felt by Muslim women at TSiBA.

Present a literature review as well as findings in a written document and to conclude by identifying a relationship, if any , between the literature and the findings of the research.

The report is to be submitted on the 8 October 2012.

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION
Subject of the research

The Debate Regarding the Hijab, Investigating the Pressures Felt by Muslim women living in a Westernized Country: A TSiBA case-study.

Background to the research

Literature on this topic is abundant as research has been conducted globally on the topic of the hijab as to the reasons why women should and should not wear the hijab. The research conducted was made possible through the use of surveys, interviews, questionnaires and observations. Katherine Bullock in particular, a Canadian community activist, author and lecturer did extensive research on the topic of the hijab and published her findings in the form of a book called Rethinking Muslim Women and the Veil which challenges “Historical and Modern Stereotypes”. She has also published articles on Muslim women and the media, and Islam and political theory.

Purposes of the research

The objectives of the study are to examine if the dominant negative Western perception affects the reasons why the Muslim community is divided on the subject of hijab.

This research addresses the concern for a dialogue that could inform westernised societies about the personal reasons why some female Muslim students wear hijab and why others do not. I want my research to be meaningful, relevant to local communities and to open my mind and that of others by being taught through research and personal interviews about the subject.

Scope and limitations

This study was conducted in a very short period of time with a very small sample group as the pool of participants was limited to the Muslim students at TSiBA Education. The data set is meaningful, but not representative of the vast range of Muslims in different contexts. It will however show a diversity of views within a common theology and faith. A more sizable sample within the target group would have provided a larger and more conclusive amount of data. This can have a bias that favours the educated and the youth of Cape Town. Another limitation of my study was that all of the participants belonged to one ethnic group being from the race regarded in South Africa as Coloured. This was due to the fact TSiBA Education is a relatively small university whose Muslim female population is a fraction of the total students of which there were no Muslim women from a different race or culture. The research conducted could have benefitted from a more diverse pool of applicants.

Plan of development

This research report was compiled in the following manner. Firstly I provide my literature review which I put together for the purpose of exploring what has previously been written on the topic so that you and I may learn from it and be aware of it as we go about this research. Secondly I made a survey form of 3 pages long that contained relevant questions which I derived from the process of compiling the literature review. Thirdly, At random I selected 10 Muslim women studying at TSiBA to be my participants and followed through by conducting my survey about each one of them. Lastly, I analyzed the data obtained from the surveys and make this information available to you while also comparing my research findings to the findings derived from my literature review.

METHODOLOGY
Literature review

The first piece of work I did was conducting research on the topic of the hijab in order to compile a literature review. My literature review took a significant amount of time in relation to how long the actual research demanded. Information was abundant regarding the topic of hijab, modernization, the dominant Western perception and the media’s role in the portrayal of Muslim women that I found it particularly challenging to sift out important points from the all information available. My literature review saw two sessions of editing with my Communications lecturer who helped me construct and organized the important information once I identified it.

Participation

The target group for the research was initially 20 South African Muslim women between the ages of 18 and 40. This age group was the target of this study because they were the current generation of TSiBA students and were experiencing modern South Africa in a time when it seemed there was an ever increasing influx of Western culture after Apartheid. The age group is also likely to include married women who might be inclined to think differently about the hijab as their marriage might have changed the way each looks at the hijab. The participants of my research were all female as I had hoped, but unfortunately all of them belonged to one ethnic group being from the race regarded in South Africa as Coloured. There were 2 married women, and 8 unmarried women. 5 of them wore hijab and 5 of them were women who choose not to.

Method of data collection

One method of obtaining data was employed. The research draws on qualitative data from comprehensive surveys conducted on 10 Muslim students regarding hijab. The survey was constructed in a manner that it took students approximately 5 minutes to complete.

After many different drafts of the survey I went to the Tertiary School in Business Administration (TSiBA) Education to distribute the final version. My survey included the opinions of both young women who wear the hijab and those that do not. I did not ask for names in any section of the survey to ensure the anonymity of all my human subjects. In the end I collected 10 surveys in total which was a smaller sample group than I had initially hoped. After gathering the surveys, I analyzed the results manually.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction

The debate regarding the wearing of religious garb in public, specifically coverings worn by Muslim women has increased over the past few years resulting in a lot of controversy among those who agree with the practice and those who do not (iqraonline.net). Hijab is seen all over the world, especially in places with a high concentration of practicing Muslims. The hijab has resulted in severe media disputes and now denotes the difference of cultures. The French, along with the west expected that the hijab would pass away into history as westernization and secularization took root. However, in the Muslim world, especially among the younger generation, a great wave of returning to hijab was spreading through various countries. This current resurgence is an expression of Islamic revival (Nakata, 1994).

The Topic of Hijab External to South Africa
The views of feminists

The Western media and feminists often portray the hijab as a symbol of oppression and slavery of women (www.al-islam.org). A theory of Orientalism has been in existence since 1978 which argues that the Muslim population is deemed backward, uncivilized beings who are outcasts in Western society (Said, 1978). Many feminists, both Western and Islamic argue that the hijab is a symbol of gender oppression and that the Islamic veiling of women is an oppressive practice. Fadel Amara, an Islamic feminist and Muslim female member of French government describes the burqa as a prison and a straightjacket which is not religious but is the symbol of a tyrannical political project for sexual inequality (King, 299.).

Feminists argue that public presence and visibility is important to Western women. This overlaps sexism and racism as well as there are two arguments made by feminists who are divided on the topic of the hijab.

a) The argument of oppression

One argument is for hijab to be banned in public as they encourage the harassment of women who are unveiled and because public presence and visibility represents their struggle for economic independence, sexual agency and political participation. In the Western culture, celebrities are regarded as trend-setters defining what is acceptable. The hijab is therefore also seen as a problem because it poses challenge to the view of unconventional visibility and freedom of self-expression. (www.theage.com). Although it is true that many women do choose to wear the hijab, it is not the case for all women. In many Middle Eastern and North African countries women are forced, persecuted and abused for noncompliance with the hijab. This was demonstrated in Pakistan where an extremist killed a women’s activist and government minister because she refused to wear the hijab. King states, “From Afghanistan to Algeria to Sudan, Pakistan and Iran- women are systematically brutalized and caught in a deadly crossfire between the secular and fundamentalist forces.”

Some Islamic feminists argue that although the statement in the Quran about women covering themselves was not meant to oppress women, the interpretation of those verses by Islamic societies does in fact oppress women. Although it can be argued that the hijab is a symbol of the oppression that occurs against women in Islam, many Islamic women don’t agree. It is true that under some Islamist rule, specifically in some North African countries, Afghanistan, Iran, and Saudi Arabia women are oppressed and forced to wear the hijab, but in an international context, this is the exception to the rule regarding women’s practices of wearing the veil.

Salma Yaqoob, a Muslim woman who chooses to wear the hijab explains the veil is not only an oppressing force in Islamic countries that require the veil, but also in Western countries that ban the veil. Yaqoob adamantly contends that by infringing laws that restricts women’s choice on whether or not to wear the veil, they are also being oppressed. “I am opposed to the Saudi and Iranian governments’ imposition of the veil and that of the Taliban previously. But this is also why I oppose the ban on wearing the hijab. In both cases the woman herself is no longer free to make a choice. In both cases her dignity is violated.” Yaqoob explains that more women are currently banned from wearing the hijab, than are required to wear it.

b) The argument of liberation

It can be argued that rather than oppressing, the hijab is liberating. The second argument made by feminists supports the argument of fundamentalist Islamic leaders who argue that Muslim women have the right to choose to wear or not to wear a hijab as it is part of a Muslim woman’s duty to wear a hijab. These feminists demand that the French ban be withdrawn because they believe the oppressing force behind the veil is when authority figures, both Islamic and Western, take away a woman’s right to choose. They defend the veil as a mark of agency, cultural membership, and defiance. Tayyab Bashart, a feminist scholar and Muslim who teaches in France explains her beliefs “A woman in hijab, who is a functioning member of society, symbolizes an empowered, independent woman, rather than someone who lacks self-determination and is a puppet of society” (Basharat, 2006). The veil itself is just a piece of cloth. Human beings interpret the hijab according to social and religious constructions. Through the Western discussion and banning of the hijab in public schools, the Muslim school girls of France lose their freedom to express their spirituality. The desired effect of the 2004 law is to fight gender oppression and inequality in the public school system, but as a residual effect, it actually diminishes women’s freedoms rather than enhancing them. The ‘law on the headscarf’ supports the oppressing Western discourses about veiled women and attempts to Westernize French Muslim schoolgirls.

Western Governments

In Islamic countries like Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan and Iran, the full covering, more commonly known as the burqa, has been made compulsory upon female citizens. In contrast to this, the unwillingness to understand the religion and culture of Muslims has resulted in traditional clothing such as the burqa and the hijab being banned with the hope of Westernised societies achieving secularism in Islamic countries. Katherine Bullock shines light on the differences in judgment over hijab by having identified themes from her research on women and the religion of Islam. She divides these themes into the descriptions of those who are for and those who are against the hijab. According to Bullock, critics of the veil rely on secular liberal assumptions about society and human nature and therefore the veil is supposed to be and described as a symbol of oppression because it:

Covers up (hides), in the sense of smothering, femininity

Is apparently linked to the essentialized male and female difference (which is taken to mean that by nature, male is superior, female is inferior);

Is linked to a particular view of woman’s place (subjugated in the home);

Is linked to an oppressive (patriarchal) notion of morality and female purity (because of Islam’s

Emphasis on chastity, marriage, and condemnation of pre- and extra-marital sexual relations);

Can be imposed; and

Is linked to a package of oppressions women in Islam face, such as seclusion, polygamy, easy male divorce, unequal inheritance rights.

Western countries has developed this view and disregarded other views of what public visibility may be to different women with differing beliefs. (www.theage.com).An example of this is that France has decided upon the banning of the hijab to be worn in schools. France’s 2004 law, popularly referred to as the ‘law on the headscarf’, reveals the difficulty of respecting conflicting ideas between diverse communities, especially when one community, in this case the Muslims of France, is a minority. According to this law, female students are banned from wearing the hijab as well as all other openly religious symbols in public schools. France bans women from wearing the hijab in public schools because many feminists and lawmakers argue that veiling women serves as an oppressing force, a force that silences women. Alia Al- Sari states in her article “The Racialization of Muslim Veils: A Philosophical Analysis” many feminists see the headscarf “As a symbol of Islamic gender oppression that aˆ¦should be banned from public schools, a space where gender equality is presumed (or desired).” Supporters of the law believe it fights gender oppression and gives equality to women in the school system.

Media attitudes in reporting Islam and hijab

While the media cannot be the only party held accountable or blamed for societal attitudes towards smaller cultures and religions, theses media moguls create “the lens through which reality is perceived” (Bullock & Jafri, 2000). Western media sees itself as a democratic powerhouse and therefore is frequently answerable for legitimising and distributing racism and bias against religious communities such as Muslims (Bullock & Jafri, 2000). The media in Westernised societies portrays Muslims as “tricky, sleazy, sexual and untrustworthy”, as uniformly violent, as oppressors of women, and as members of a global conspiracy (Bullock & Jafri, 2000).

For example, in 1998 a shift was noted regarding the European media’s depiction of women who wear the hijab. Veiled women were no longer portrayed as exotic but instead as a threat to society (Macmaster & Lewis, 1998,). This highlights the contrasting representations of Muslim women as concurrently being oppressed and threatening.

In 2005 Begum argues that these images of Islamic dress were increasingly used in the media as visual shorthand for treacherous extremism, and that Muslims living in Europe were suffering from the consequences of these associations (Begum, 2005). The increase of these media portrayals and political deliberation has segregated the Muslim community and had a further disruptive effect on society and feminism at large. (Begum, 2005)

Since then, the media in France reported on a women who was suspended for wearing a hijab under her hat while working as a meter reader, a fashion show of veiled women that was banned, the hindrance of hijab-wearing mothers from volunteering in schools, the refusal of cafeteria service to a student wearing a hijab and the banning of a witness to a civil service wedding from signing the documentation based on the argument that hijab prevented her from proper identification.

Many authors on this topic dispute that because of the media’s cultural fascination with Muslim women’s dress as symbols of oppression, Muslim women often have to resort to focusing on that facet of their identity as well, even if they would rather discuss something else. These authors state that even cases of responsible journalism have a propensity to devalue Muslim women. This is because Muslim women are primarily depicted as ‘exotic’, victimised, or threatening outcasts rather than your ordinary peaceful next door neighbours. (www.reportingdiversity.org.)

It is evident that the hijab remains a hot topic in Western countries and that the wellbeing and identities of Muslim women in Westernised societies are related to the wearing of the headscarf as a consequence.

Hijab within the Muslim Community

The opinions of Muslim women vary in their decision about whether or not to wear the hijab. The hijab, according to many Muslims, has multiple uses and meanings. The hijab is a symbolic of modesty and morality. According to Islam, the hijab functions as a shield for a woman against the lustful gaze of men. The hijab also serves as a cover to preserve the modesty and piety of the woman, as that is her main role as stated in the Qur’an.

The most basic debate over the hijab is over the requirement of the hijab. This is an issue that is debated by many Muslim scholars. First in order to understand why there is an issue it is important to understand the power of the Quran. The Quran is the word of God brought to humanity by his last messenger the Prophet Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him). Islam is the religion of total submission to Allah (God the Father) and obedience to Allah. As the Quran is God’s word then it also means total submission and obedience to Quran. The first issue with the requirement of the hijab comes from whether the hijab is in the Quran or not. There are two sides to this argument; there are those who say that the hijab is a requirement because it is in the Quran and those who say that it is not because it is not part of the Quran

Reasons why Muslim Women wear the hijab
The laws of the Qur’an

Amr Khaled’s, a popular Islamic scholar, layman, and highly influential Muslim speaker, represents the school of thought that considers the hijab to be directly in the Quran and thus a requirement for Muslim women. He quotes these Qur’anic verses that make the hijab obligatory to Muslim women. “O Prophet! Tell your wives and your daughters and the women of the believers to draw their cloaks (veils) all over their bodies. That will be better, that they should be known (as free respectable women) so as not to be annoyed. And – ALLAH – is Ever Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful (Surah 33: verse 59)”. In this verse women are told to cover their bodies so that they should be known as modest women and are not harassed. According to Amr Khalad’s lecture “Al-Hijab,” the hijab also serves the purpose of forcing men to not sexually objectify women but to see her as a vessel of intelligence and high moral values. Khalad says that the hijab reinforces the fact that Islam has placed the beauty of a female on a higher value in the eyes of men by providing protection of her beauty from uncontrolled lusts and desires, and instead ordering men to respect greater the inner beauty of her soul. Thus, the real value of women is associated with the degree of her modesty and her abidance by it (Khaled “Al-Hijab”). Yaqoob states her personal reasons why she wears the veil, “For me, the wearing of the hijab denotes that as a woman I expect to be treated as an equal in terms of my intellect and personality and my appearance is relevant only to the degree that I want it to be, when I want it to be.”. This is the traditional Islamic rational for the hijab and why it is important in Islam (Khalad “AlHijab”).

A symbol of resistance

A study about hijab in the West also provides another theory that I believe can also be applied in South Africa because it is a country heavily influenced by the West. The idea of the hijab as a symbol of resistance is explored by Tarik Kulenovic but not necessarily one that is strictly political. Tarik Kulenovic’s theory suggests that the hijab in the West is a matter of identity, a physical symbol of a woman’s Muslim identity. This symbol also carries a message of religiosity in a modernizing society which encourages a secular life style and scorns tradition. Kulenovic asserts that “the modern identity of Muslim women, which includes the wearing of the veil, is primarily the identity of resistance to the values that individuals find foreign to them and as such imposed on them” (Kulenovic, page 717). Thus, in modern society, the hijab can be thought of as a means of retaining a religious life style while assimilating to the demands of the modern world. Another reason women choose to wear the hijab is that they find that the hijab serves as an empowering factor.

The Interpretation of the hijab by those who wear it

Katherine Bullock, through her research, provides some reasons why women wear the hijab. The hijab to these wearers:

1. Does not smother femininity;

2. Brings to mind the ‘different-but-equal’ school of thought, but does not put forward essentalized male-female difference;

3. Is linked to a view that does not limit women to the home, but neither does it consider the role of stay-at-home-mother and homemaker oppressive;

4. Is linked to a view of morality that is oppressive only if one considers the prohibition of sexual relations outside marriage wrong;

5. Is part of Islamic law, though a law that ought to be implemented in a very wise and women-friendly manner, and

6. Can and should be treated separately from other issues of women’s rights in Islam.

Spirituality

Some women have a deep spiritual and religious connection to the veil and firmly disagree with the view of it as a sign of oppression. Many Muslim women feel uncomfortable without wearing it because the hijab is deeply-rooted in their personal values and religious tradition. A main reason women choose to wear the hijab, is as expression of spirituality. Bashart states in his book that “Muslim women carry with them their sacred private space into the public space by use of the Hijab”. In this view of the hijab, the veil is not simply an article of clothing; or a symbol of oppression it is a tool of spirituality for women.

Fadwa El Guindi, author of The Veil: Modesty, Privacy and Resistance, says “veiling patterns and veiling behaviour are…. about sacred privacy, sanctity and the rhythmic interweaving of patterns of worldly and sacred life, linking women as the guardians of family sanctuaries and the realm of the sacred in this world”.

Reasons why Muslim Women do not wear the hijab

In the Qur’anic this verse although it says to draw the cloak all over their bodies, it does not specifically say the hair. In addition, it does not specify in what way, to what extent, and in what manner women should cover themselves. There are many modern alternative views to this idea that the hijab is compulsory because it is in the Quran. For example, Dr.Reza Alsan, an internationally acclaimed writer and scholar of religions, the founder of AslanMedia.com and also one of the leading scholars in the alternative view, considers the hijab not an obligatory aspect of being a Muslim woman. Aslan claims that the hijab is shockingly not compulsory upon Muslim women anywhere in the Quran. Instead he claims that the veil was an Arab culture before the arrival of Islam, through contact with Syria and Iran, where the veil was the sign of the upper class women. According to Lelia Ahmed and those who fall in the second school of thought like Aslan, the only places that the hijab is applied to women is when it is addressing the wives of Prophet Muhammad. Thus the veil was only associated with the prophets wives and his daughters not all women of Islam. This school of thought does not deny that modesty was expected of all believers. Believing women are instructed to “‘guard their private parts… and drape a cover over their breasts”‘ when in the presence of strange men (Surah 24:31-32)” as quoted by Aslan. Here specific parts of the body are named that women should guard and cover including the private parts and the breast but the hair is not mentioned. Thus those in this school of thought like Leila Ahmed and Reza Alsan do not believe that the hijab is mandatory for Muslim women because it is not mentioned in the Quran.

Conclusion of Literature review

This research investigates the reasons why the Muslim community is divided on the subject of the veil and if the dominant negative perception of hijab (as the hijab being oppressive) has affected, if at all, the wearing of hijab in TSiBA Education. In the attempt to answer this question, the research has presented two hypotheses:

(1) Living in South Africa, a country with great Western influence, causes some Muslim women to fear wearing the hijab and to abandon it all together

(2) Muslim women choose to wear the hijab for spirituality reasons despite constant the pressures of the West

5. RESULTS OF OBSERVATIONS

While analyzing the results, I was interested to see if there would be a correlation between the findings in my literature review and the results of my research.

My data collection was a result of 10 surveys this research revealed that my two hypotheses were in agreement with a majority of this small sample of subjects. The data collected represents the opinions and beliefs of a total of 10 human participants which is 50% of the total intended target group. Thus, the data collected must only be interpreted as speculative and cannot be assumed applicable to all Muslim women or all Muslim female students.

The results were as follows:

5 of the 10 participants wore the hijab. 3 of those 5 said that they strongly agree to wearing the hijab for religious reasons while 2 participants said they agree that they wear it for religious reasons but that religion is not the main reason why they wear the hijab.

3 out of the 5 Muslim wear the hijab even though the hijab makes them feel like they don’t fit in with their peers.

1 person however does feel that she fits in with her peers and in her community because she wears the hijab.

The hijab makes all five participants who wear the hijab feel protected and safe in public. 3 of them strongly agreed while 2 agreed.

5 participants said that all Muslim women should wear hijab when asked if they believe all Muslim women should wear the hijab, the opinions were 50/50. Interestingly, Out of the 5 participants that wear the hijab, 1 person said that she does not believe all Muslim women should wear hijab; 1 woman who does not wear the hijab said that even though she doesn’t wear the hijab yet, she believes all Muslim women should wear the hijab.

When asked if women who do not wear the hijab can be good Muslims: 8 women agreed that Muslim women can be good Muslims if they do not wear the hijab, 1 participant had no opinion saying “one shouldn’t judge, if you judge, what kind of Muslim does that make you?”, 1 said Muslim women cannot be good if they do not practice the hijab.

When asked for their definition of hijab, 60% defined it as covering with loose fitting clothes, 20% said all forms acceptable and 20% just covering your hair.

The rating (1= no influence, 5= influenced but not explicitly forced,10 = I had no choice) of influence of family on participants choice to wear or not to wear hijab:

From the 5 participants who wear hijab, 1 rated a 5, 1 rated a 6, 1 rated an 8 elaborating that her parents are religiously strict, 1 rated a 2, and 1 rated a 7 saying that the sudden death of her aunt influenced her choices in life and her consideration of the hijab.

From the 5 participants who do not wear the hijab, 2 participants rated 5; 2 rated the influence of their family as a 1 and 1 participant rated 9 saying that her family allows her choice not to wear the hijab.

The limitations section showed that all participants felt free to drive a car, study at a university, find a job, travel freely outside of Cape Town, own a computer and have access to the internet.

5 participants felt that they were not hired for a job because they wear the hijab while 1 participant said that she is new to wearing the hijab so the question is not applicable to her

No participants felt that they were not hired because of NOT wearing the hijab

TSIBA Women’s view on the issue/view of hijab in the West

9 participants agree that the West (Europe and America) has a dominantly negative view on hijab. 1 participant had no opinion

When asked their opinion of the Western perception and the West should continue not to encourage women to wear the hijab. 4 participants strongly disagree, 3 disagree, 3 had no opinion and 1 participant said she strongly agrees.

When asked if they thought the West is ill-informed and should make more of an effort to understand the hijab and why Muslim women wear it: 6 participants said they strongly agree , 3 agreed and 1 participants said she had no opinion.

6 participants have friends from the West while the remaining 4 do not.

DISCUSSION

This research investigates the debate regarding the reasons why some Muslim women wear hypotheses were confirmed in a majority of this small sample group. In the attempt to answer these questions, the research has presented two hypotheses suggesting that:

(1) Living in South Africa, a country with great Western influence, causes some Muslim women to fear wearing the hijab and to abandon it all together.

(2)The main reason Muslim women choose to wear the hijab is for spirituality reasons despite the constant the pressures of the dominant Western perception.

Defining the hijab

The point of view unknown to me before starting my research was that there are Muslim women who did not know that there were differing interpretations about what the hijab is tangibly. In fact, from the surveys it is evident that amongst Muslims there is a concept of a correct hijab and an incorrect hijab. Before my research commenced, the purpose of the research was not intended to identify whether my target population was aware that many Muslims have differing beliefs the hijab.

My research revealed that within the Muslim community there exist different interpretations of what the hijab is tangibly. 60% of participants claimed that the “correct” physical hijab is a head scarf and long loose fitting clothing that conceals the shape

Literature on this topic is abundant as research has been conducted globally on the topic of the hijab as to the reasons why women should and should not wear the hijab. The research conducted was made possible through the use of surveys, interviews, questionnaires and observations. Katherine Bullock in particular, a Canadian community activist, author and lecturer did extensive research on the topic of the hijab and published her findings in the form of a book called Rethinking Muslim Women and the Veil which challenges “Historical and Modern Stereotypes” . She has also published articles on Muslim women and the media, and Islam and political theory.

Purposes of the research

The objectives of the study are to examine if the dominant negative Western perception affects the reasons why the Muslim community is divided on the subject of hijab.

This research addresses the concern for a dialogue that could inform westernised societies about the personal reasons why some female Muslim students wear hijab and why others do not. I want my research to be meaningful, relevant to local communities and to open my mind and that of others by being taught through research and personal interviews about the subject.

Scope and limitations

The pool of participants is limited to the Muslim students at TSiBA Education. The data set is meaningful, but not representative of the vast range of Muslims in different contexts. It will however show a diversity of views within a common theology and faith.

Plan of development
METHODOLOGY
2.1 Participation

The target group for the research is 20 South African Muslim women between the ages of 18 and 40. This age group is the target of this study because they are the current generation of TSiBA students and are experiencing modern South Africa in a time when it seems there is an ever increasing influx of Western culture. The age group is also likely to include married women who might be inclined to think differently about the hijab as their marriage might have changed the way each looks at the hijab.

2.2 Methods of data collection

Two sets of data will be employed: 1) open-ended e-mail questionnaires with 20 Muslim students about the hijab 2) Conduct interviews and observations on the candidates if further data is required. The first data collection method I chose was a simple questionnaire. The research draws on qualitative data from questionnaires and interviews with 20 Muslim female students of varying ages within the TSiBA community.

After many different drafts of the questionnaire I went to the Tertiary School in Business Administration (TSiBA) Education to distribute the final version. My questionnaire included the opinions of both young women who wear the hijab and those that do not. I did not ask for names in any section of the survey to ensure the anonymity of all my human subjects. In the end I collected 20 surveys in total. After gathering the questionnaire, I analyzed the results manually.

As my second method of data collection, I conducted interviews, each having an approximate duration of between 30 minutes. I used a recording device on all my interviews.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction

Keywords: Islam, Muslim, hijab, veil, female, students, TSIBA Education, reasons, dominiant negative Western perception.

The debate regarding the wearing of religious garb in public, specifically coverings worn by Muslim women has increased over the past few years resulting in a lot of controversy among those who agree with the practice and those who do not (iqraonline.net). The French, along with the west expected that the hijab would pass away into history as westernization and secularization took root. However, in the Muslim world, especially among the younger generation, a great wave of returning to hijab was spreading through various countries. This current resurgence is an expression of Islamic revival (Khaula Nakata, A View Through Hijab, 1994, pg 2).

Hijab is seen all over the world, especially in places with a high concentration of practicing Muslims. The hijab has been the focus of often fierce media debates and has come to symbolise the clash of cultures supported by links between Islamic “extremism” and 21st century terrorism. While in several Islamic states such as Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan and Iran, the full covering, known as the burqa, has been compulsory. A hostile response against Muslim culture has seen such traditional clothing banned, along with the much more common hijab, in the interests of secularism. In this context, Muslim women are portrayed by the Western media either as veiled victims in need of liberation because of a lack of free choice in foreign lands, or a threat to the Western societies in which they reside because of their choice to adopt the hijab which is a traditional Islamic dress.

Muslim women are almost consistently portrayed as oppressed and veiled, a terrorist threat or exotic, sexualised beings. This is in line with Said’s theory of Orientalism (Said, 1978), which argues that the Muslim world and its inhabitants are considered backward, barbaric and outsiders to Western society. This portrayal of Muslims is notable in the media in terms of the coverage of Muslim women. Most representations of Muslim women involve them wearing traditional Islamic clothing such as the hijab, and their role in the media is generally limited to commentary on issues such as the veil.

Western Influences

Dominant negative Western perception

The Western media and feminists often portray the hijab as a symbol of oppression and slavery of women. (http://www.al-islam.org). Many feminists, both Western and Islamic argue that the hijab is a symbol of gender oppression and that the Islamic veiling of women is an oppressive practice. Fadel Amara, an Islamic feminist and a Muslim female member of French government says “The burqa is a prison, a straightjacket. It is not religious. It is the insignia of a totalitarian Political project for sexual inequality.” (King,”Islam, Women and Terrorism,” 299.)

Feminists argue that public presence and visibility is important to Western women. It represents their struggle for economic independence, sexual agency and political participation. In the West, celebrity is the peak of cultural legitimacy. The hijab is a challenge to the view of liberated visibility and freedom of self-expression unfettered by “the male gaze”.( www.theage.com)

After a century of struggle for freedom of expression that included discarding the bra, some Western countries have called for banning the hijab in schools. They have developed, it would seem, a rather limited view of what public visibility might mean to different women. France’s 2004 law, known popularly as the ‘law on the headscarf’, reveals the difficulty of respecting conflicting ideas between diverse communities, especially when one community, in this case the Muslims of France, is a minority. According to this law, female students are banned from wearing the hijab as well as all other openly religious symbols in public schools. France bans women from wearing the hijab in public schools because many feminists and lawmakers argue that veiling women serves as an oppressing force, a force that silences women. Alia Al- Saji states in her article “The Racialization of Muslim Veils: A Philosophical Analysis” many feminists see the headscarf “As a symbol of Islamic gender oppression that aˆ¦should be banned from public schools, a space where gender equality is presumed (or desired).” Supporters of the law believe it fights gender oppression and gives equality to women in the school system.

Katherine Bullock sheds light on the differences in judgment over hijab by having identified themes from her research on the women and Islam field. She divides these themes into the descriptions of those who are for and those who are against the hijab.

According to Katherine Bullock, critics of the veil rely on secular liberal assumptions about society and human nature and therefore the veil is supposed to be and described as a symbol of oppression because it:

Covers up (hides), in the sense of smothering, femininity

Is apparently linked to the essentialized male and female difference (which is taken to mean that by nature, male is superior, female is inferior);

Is linked to a particular view of woman’s place (subjugated in the home);

Is linked to an oppressive (patriarchal) notion of morality and female purity (because of Islam’s

Emphasis on chastity, marriage, and condemnation of pre- and extra-marital sexual relations);

Can be imposed; and

Is linked to a package of oppressions women in Islam face, such as seclusion, polygamy, easy male divorce, unequal inheritance rights.

3.2.2 Media attitudes to reporting Islam and hijab

While the media cannot be held solely responsible for the construction of national identity nor blamed for societal attitudes towards minority cultures and religions, they play a significant role by providing “the lens through which reality is perceived” (Bullock & Jafri, 2000). While the Western media sees itself as a democratic institution, it is often held accountable for legitimising and spreading racism and bias against religious communities such as Muslims (Bullock & Jafri, 2000). The media portrays Muslims as “tricky, sleazy, sexual and untrustworthy”, as uniformly violent, as oppressors of women, and as members of a global conspiracy (Bullock & Jafri, 2000).

Macmaster and Lewis identify the shift in the European media’s portrayal of veiled women from exotic to a danger to society (Macmaster & Lewis, 1998, p. 121). They point out the juxtaposition of representations of Muslim women as concurrently oppressed and threatening, while Kolhatkar highlights the depiction of Muslim women as “shapeless blue-clad forms of Afghan women” (Kolhatkar, 2002, p. 34).

The identification of Muslim women in the media by the use of traditional Islamic dress has been noted by Begum, who argues that “images of Islamic dress are increasingly used in the media as a visual shorthand for dangerous extremism, and aˆ¦ Muslims all over Europe are suffering from the consequences of such associations” (Begum, 2005, p. 1). In France, a breeding ground of media and political debate about the hijab, has had a polarising affect on the Muslim community and a divisive impact on society and feminism. (Begum, 2005, p. 1)

The media’s portrayal of these women went from sinister symbols of Islamic extremism to brave heroines of the republic overnight (Ezekiel, 2005). But since then, the French media have reported on the suspension of a Muslim meter reader who wore a hijab under her hat, the banning of a fashion show of veiled women, the prevention of hijab-wearing mothers from volunteering in schools; the refusal of service to a student wearing a hijab by a university cafeteria and the banning of a witness to a civil service wedding from signing the documentation because her hijab prevented her from being formally identified

According to Ezekiel, sexism and racism intersect in this debate. On one side of the feminist debate about the hijab, there are those who demand veils be banned from French streets as they encourage the harassment of unveiled women. But at the other end of the spectrum, feminists advocating a Muslim woman’s right to choose to wear or not to wear a hijab have aligned themselves with fundamentalist Islamic leaders, arguing that it’s a Muslim woman’s obligation to wear a hijab and demanding the ban be overturned.

The authors argue that because of the media’s cultural fixation on Muslim women’s dress as a symbol of oppression, Muslim women often have to focus on that aspect of their identity as well, even if they would rather discuss something else. They suggest that even responsible journalism about Muslim women tends to demote them to the role of a reactionary source in the hijab debate. “In sum, it is clear that Muslim women are predominantly presented to the Canadian public as foreign, ‘exotic’, oppressed, or threatening ‘others’ rather than as one’s ‘unexotic’, unthreatening next door neighbours.” (www.reportingdiversity.org.)

Clearly, the hijab story remains newsworthy in Western countries, and Muslim women’s identities are inextricably linked to the headscarf as a result.

3.2.2.1 The argument of oppression

Although it is true that many women do choose to wear the Hijab, it is not the case for all women. In many Middle Eastern and North African countries women are forced and are persecuted and abused for noncompliance with the hijab. This Hirshmann, “Western Feminism, Eastern Veiling, and a Question of Free Agency,” was recently demonstrated in Pakistan, where an extremist killed a women’s activist and government minister, because she refused to wear the Hijab. King states, “From Afghanistan to Algeria to Sudan, Pakistan and Iran- women are systematically brutalized and caught in a deadly crossfire between the secular and fundamentalist forces.”

Some Islamic feminists argue that although the statement in the Quran about women covering themselves was not meant to oppress women, the interpretation of those verses by Islamic societies does in fact oppress women. Although it can be argued that the hijab is a symbol of the oppression that occurs against women in Islam, many Islamic women don’t agree. It is true that under some Islamist rule, specifically in some North African countries, Afghanistan, Iran, and Saudi Arabia women are oppressed and forced to wear the hijab, but in an international context, this is the exception to the rule regarding women’s practices of wearing the veil11.

Salma Yaqoob, a Muslim woman who chooses to wear the hijab explains the veil is not only an oppressing force in Islamic countries that require the veil, but also in Western countries that ban the veil. Yaqoob adamantly contends that by infringing laws that restricts women’s choice on whether or not to wear the veil, they are also being oppressed. “I am opposed to the Saudi and Iranian governments’ imposition of the veil and that of the Taliban previously. But this is also why I oppose the ban on wearing the hijab. In both cases the woman herself is no longer free to make a choice. In both cases her dignity is violated.”. Yaqoob explains that more women are currently banned from wearing the hijab, than are required to wear it.

The argument of liberation

It can be argued that rather than oppressing, the hijab is liberating. The oppressing force behind the veil is when members of the authority, both Islamic and Western, take away a woman’s right to choose. The veil itself is just a piece of cloth. We interpret the hijab according to our social and religious constructions. Through the Western discussion and banning of the hijab in public schools, the Muslim school girls of France lose their freedom to express their spirituality. This view on the veil serves to continually disable and oppress women by terminating their freedom of spiritual expression.

France’s 2004 law on the headscarf disables Islamic females from wearing the veil in places of education. The desired effect of the 2004 law is to fight gender oppression and inequality in the public school system, but as a residual effect, it actually diminishes women’s freedoms rather than enhancing them. The ‘law on the headscarf’ supports the oppressing Western discourses about veiled women and attempts to Westernize French Muslim schoolgirls.

Internal debate: Reasons for wearing and not wearing the hijab

The opinions of Islamic women vary in their decision whether or not to wear the veil. Some feminists, both Muslim and non-Muslim, defend the veil as a mark of agency, cultural membership, and defiance. Tayyab Bashart, a feminist scholar and Muslim who teaches in France, explains her beliefs, “A woman in hijab, who is a functioning member of society, symbolizes an empowered, independent woman, rather than someone who lacks self-determination and is a puppet of society” (Tayyab, Basharat.”Hijab as an instrument of Taking Women off the Sex Economy.”). Muslim women see bans on the veil as creating or perpetuating stereotypes that are becoming harder to fight. Hirshmann states that “Western society tends to oversimplify these cultural stereotypes without looking into the women whom they think are being degraded.”

Reasons for wearing the hijab in Islamic Tradition

The most basic debate over the hijab is over the requirement of the hijab. This is an issue that is debated by many Muslim scholars. First in order to understand why there is an issue it is important to understand the power of the Quran. The Quran is the word of God brought by his last messenger the Prophet Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him). Islam is the total submission to Allah (God the Father) and obedience to Allah, as the Quran is God’s word then it also means total submission and obedience to Quran. The first issue with the requirement of the hijab comes from whether the hijab is in the Quran or not. There are two sides to this argument; there are those who say that the hijab is a requirement because it is in the Quran and those who say that it is not because it is not part of the Quran. Amr Khaled’s lectures have greatly influenced the Muslim youth, especially Muslim female youth on the topic of the hijab. He represents the school of thought that considers the hijab to be directly in the Quran and thus a requirement for Muslim women. In one of his lectures about the hijab he says “Some people argue that this hijab is not obligatory and that it was not mentioned in the Quran.” These are the Qur’an’s verses that make the Hijab obligatory to Muslim women.

“O Prophet! Tell your wives and your daughters and the women of the believers to draw their cloaks (veils) all over their bodies. That will be better, that they should be known (as free respectable women) so as not to be annoyed. And – ALLAH – is Ever Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful. (33:59)” ( Amr Khaled). Here in this verse women are told to cover their bodies so that they should be known as modest women and are not harassed.

The hijab, according to many Muslims, has multiple uses and meanings. The hijab’s symbolism is one of modesty and morality. According to Islam, the hijab functions as a shield for a woman against the lustful gaze of men. The hijab also serves as a cover to preserve the modesty and piety of the woman, as that is her main role as stated in the Qur’an. Not only is this her role in her faith, but in society as well. The Qur’an also states that the woman is the family’s main preserver of honour, piety, and modesty. Thus, the hijab is an aid in which the woman can successfully carry out this function as demanded by Allah through the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) (Kulenovic 714-715). Amr Khalad, a popular Islamic scholar, layman, and highly influential Muslim speaker, has had a strong influence on Muslim youth in on the issue of the hijab, especially in Jordan (Stratton 98). According to Amr Khalad’s lecture “Al-Hijab,” the hijab also serves the purpose of forcing men to not sexually objectify women but to see her as a vessel of intelligence and high moral values. Khalad says that the hijab reinforces the fact that “Islamaˆ¦ made the beauty of women of a higher value in men’s eyes by providing protection [in the form of hijab] to that beauty from uncontrolled lusts and desires, and instead ordering men to respect greater the inner beauty of her soul. Thus, the real value of women is associated with the degree of her bashfulness and her abidance by it” (Khalad “Al-Hijab). This is the tradition Islamic rational for the hijab and why it is important in Islam (Khalad “AlHijab”).

A study about hijab in the West also provides another theory that I believe can also be applied in South Africa because it is a country heavily influenced by the West. The idea of the hijab as a symbol of resistance is explored by Tarik Kulenovic but not necessarily one that is strictly political. Tarik Kulenovic’s theory suggests that the hijab in the West is a matter of identity, a physical symbol of a woman’s Muslim identity. This symbol also carries a message of religiosity in a modernizing society which encourages a secular life style and scorns tradition. Kulenovic asserts that “the modern identity of Muslim women, which includes the wearing of the veil, is primarily the identity of resistance to the values than individuals find foreign to them and as such imposed on them” (Kulenovic, page 717). Thus, in modern society, the hijab can be thought of as a means of retaining a religious life style while assimilating to the demands of the modern world. Another reason women choose to wear the hijab is that they find that the hijab serves as an empowering factor. Yaqoob states her personal reasons why she wears the veil, “For me, the wearing of the hijab denotes that as a woman I expect to be treated as an equal in terms of my intellect and personality and my appearance is relevant only to the degree that I want it to be, when I want it to be.”

Katherine Bullock addresses dominant western assumptions by proving through her research that the reasons some women wear the hijab are that the hijab:

1. Does not smother femininity;

2. Brings to mind the ‘different-but-equal’ school of thought, but does not put forward essentalized male-female difference;

3. Is linked to a view that does not limit women to the home, but neither does it consider the role of stay-at-home-mother and homemaker oppressive;

4. Is linked to a view of morality that is oppressive only if one considers the prohibition of sexual relations outside marriage wrong;

5. Is part of Islamic law, though a law that ought to be implemented in a very wise and women-friendly manner, and

6. Can and should be treated separately from other issues of women’s rights in Islam.

4.2 Reasons for not wearing the hijab in the Islamic Tradition

In the Qur’anic this verse although it says to draw the cloak all over their bodies, it does not specifically say the hair. In addition, it does not specify in what way, to what extent, and in what manner women should cover themselves. There are many modern alternative views to this idea that the hijab is compulsory because it is in the Quran. For example, Dr.Reza Alsan, an internationally acclaimed writer and scholar of religions,the founder of AslanMedia.com and also one of the leading scholars in the alternative view, considers the hijab not an obligatory aspect of being a Muslim woman. Reza claims, “Although long seen as the most distinctive emblem of Islam, the veil is, surprisingly, not enjoined upon Muslim women anywhere in the Quran” (Alsan). Instead he claims that the veil was in Arab culture before the arrival of Islam, through contact with Syria and Iran, where the veil was the sign of the upper class women. According to Lelia Ahmed and those who fall in the second school of thought like Reza, the only places that the hijab is applied to women is when it is addressing the wives of Prophet Muhammad. Thus the veil was only associated with the prophets wives and his daughters not all women of Islam. This school of thought does not deny that modesty was expected of all believers. Women should “‘guard their private parts… and drape a cover over their breasts”‘ when in the presence of strange men (Surah 24:31-32)” (Aslan). Here specific parts of the body are named that women should guard and cover including the private parts and the breast but the hair is not mentioned. Thus those in this school of thought like Leila Ahmed and Reza Alsan do not believe that the hijab is mandatory for Muslim women because it is not mentioned in the Quran.

According to Bullock, critics of the veil rely on secular liberal assumptions about society and human nature and therefore the veil is supposed to be and described as a symbol of oppression because it:

Covers up (hides), in the sense of smothering, femininity

Is apparently linked to essentialized male-female difference (which is taken to mean that by nature, male is superior, female is inferior);

Is linked to a particular view of woman’s place (subjugated in the home);

Is linked to an oppressive (patriarchal) notion of morality and female purity (because of Islam’s

Emphasis on chastity, marriage, and condemnation of pre- and extra-marital sexual relations);

Can be imposed; and

Is linked to a package of oppressions women in Islam face, such as seclusion, polygamy, easy male divorce, unequal inheritance rights, and so on.

4.3 Spirituality

Some women have a deep spiritual and religious connection to the veil and firmly disagree with the view of it as a sign of oppression. Many Muslim women feel uncomfortable without wearing it because the hijab is deeply-rooted in their personal values and religious tradition. A main reason women choose to wear the hijab, is as expression of spirituality. Bashart states in his book that “Muslim women carry with them their sacred private space into the public space by use of the Hijab.” (Basharat, “Hijab as an Instrument of Taking Women off the Sex Economy”). In this view of the hijab, the veil is not simply an article of clothing; or a symbol of oppression it is a tool of spirituality for women.

Fadwa El Guindi, author of The Veil: Modesty, Privacy and Resistance, says “veiling patterns and veiling behaviour are…. about sacred privacy, sanctity and the rhythmic interweaving of patterns of worldly and sacred life, linking women as the guardians of family sanctuaries and the realm of the sacred in this world”

Conclusion

This research investigates the reasons why the Muslim community is divided on the subject of the veil and if the dominant negative perception of hijab (as the hijab being oppressive) has affected, if at all, the wearing of hijab in TSiBA Education. In the attempt to answer this question, the research has presented two hypotheses.

Firstly, the divide on the practice of the hijab exists within the Muslim community because there are different interpretations of the verses of the Qur’an where Allah commands females to over their hair.

Secondly, that the dominant negative Western perception causes some Muslim women to fear wearing the hijab and to abandon it all together as wearing the hijab could result in more oppression to females- as portrayed in Western media.

Thirdly, Some Muslim women choose to wear the hijab for spirituality reasons despite constant the pressures of the West.

All praise is due to Allah, Lord of all the worlds. May peace and blessings of Allah, be upon the Messenger, his households and Companions. Fellow Muslims! Mankind is now living in a world full dissentions and wars. Our present world is one that is at a critical historical crossroad in which all relationships are kept away from the path of Allah and the authentic divine teachings are consigned into oblivion. The present world is one in which mundane interests are the criteria for everything.

Our contemporary world is one, in which power and arrogance prevail over peace, mercy and kindness. Ours is a world in which evils are promoted in sweet and deceiving terms and in which rights are violated through false slogans. Allah says,

“And of mankind there is he, whose speech may please you in this worldly life, and he calls Allah to witness as to that which is in his heart, yet he is the most quarrelsome of the opponents. And when he turns away, his effort in the land is to make mischief therein and to destroy the crops and the cattle, and Allaah likes not mischief.”
(Al-Baqarah 2:204-205)

In the dawning age of the third millennium, countries and communities all over the world are moving towards political and cultural progressivism. It is an age which in keeping with the overall trend of globalization is witnessing the elimination or blurring of political, social and cultural frontiers.

Indian Muslims:

In such an age it is painful to see that India’s Muslims comprising about 130 million out of a total population of over a billion plus wrapped in a time wrapor an attitudinal freezein more reminiscent of the medieval age. It is in marked contrast to “the other 900 million Indians” of India who despite the imperfections of Indians political and economic structure have moved ahead.

Indians Muslims have not moved ahead not because of any discrimination by the Indian Constitution oThese distinguished members of Indians Muslims besides a large galaxy of many others in various fields, rose to prominence and eminence not because of any system of political reservations or political favors but they rose to distinguished heights because of their personal merit, breaking the traditional binds that shackle Indians Muslims and also because the Indian state provides equal opportunities to all its citizens.

It can be fairly said that a vast majority of Indian Muslims do wish to move forward and share IndiaA???s emerging economic prosperity but are being held back by traditional forces and the leadership which lacks vision.

Muslims relation with West:

The US never identified the 9/11 perpetrators as being Afghans or Pakistanis – the inherent lies in the US policy on the current revamped war on terror. It further signals intellectual bankruptcy amongst the US policy makers. The aggressive military nuisance must be stopped. American and British have no purpose to be fighting inAfghanistan or Pakistan. The Bush led War on Terrorism was bogus and it destroyed America not just its history and values but as superpower to be credible in global governance. The people of Iraq, Afghanistan and Pakistan never threatened nor posed any threats to the security of the United States. To pursue the Bush war on Muslims, American policy makers searched for moderate Muslims and invested almost 10 billions to keep afloat most corrupt authoritarians like the former General Musharaf and Karazai. It was not time and money well spent but to rekindle the anti- American reactions in view of the massive warmongerings in Iraq and killings of almost 2.5 millions civilians for no other reason except to satisfy the insanity of the few actively waging bogus war on Islam. Political irony overwhelmed the American expectations that General Musharaf could deliver tangible goodies to Bush and the neoconservatives.Corruption knows no other motives except to institutionalize itself.

The Muslim Brethren:

Brethren in faith! Our Ummah is now undergoing indescribably difficult situations. Tragedies that Muslims are subjected to in Palestine and Iraq are beyond the wildest imaginations. Every Muslims is saddened by the daily suffering of innocent peoples of these lands who are made to taste the punishment of the sins they never committed. Lives of many of these brethren have been unnecessarily and wantonly wasted and a great portion of their properties was wickedly destroyed.

Brethren in Islam! When Al-Mansoor[1] built the city of Baghdad, he named it ‘Madeenatus-Salaam’ (City of Peace) and he wrote in its plan, “In the Name of Allah. All praise is due to Allah. Surely, the land belongs to Allah. He gives it as inheritance to whomsoever He wills and the good ending is for the pious.”

Present situation of Ummah:

Dear Muslims! The present situation of the Ummah that is full of massacres and pains is known to all. The Muslims must therefore know that, among the lessons of the trials is the need to do self-examination and make necessary reforms. It is incumbent on the Ummah to take a serious look at the causes of these crises. Allah says,

“Verily, those who are pious, when an evil thought comes to them from Satan, they remember (Allaah), and (indeed) they then see (aright).”
(Al-A’raaf 7:201)

We must also strike a balance between the religious and worldly factors while facing the challenges and crises. The Ummah must try to amend its defects in the light of Islamic principles, as it should correct its erroneous direction in the light of its fundamentals, history and civilization. The Muslims’ first priority should be a realization of their dire need to turn back to Allah. That is the only light that guards against error and confusion.

Rulers of the Muslims countries are also urged to fear Allah and endeavour to reform the conditions of their peoples in the light of Islamic injunctions. They should know that they are responsible before Allah. They should also work towards starting a new stage in their relationships that will be based on clarity, reality and reasonableness. They should try to strengthen individual capabilities while maintaining the foundations of Islamic brotherhood, and they should cooperate to defend Islam first and foremost and then their countries in accordance with the injunction of Allah,

“Help you one another in righteousness and piety; but do not help one another in sin and transgression.”
(Al-Maaidah 5:2)

The Messenger of Allah said, “Preserve (the obligations of) Allah, Allah will protect you. Preserve (the obligations of) Allah, you will find Him in front of you. Whenever you ask, ask from Allah and whenever you seek for assistance, seek it from Allah. Know that if all the people are to unanimously agree to do you a benefit, they cannot do you any benefit except a benefit that Allah has already written down for you. And if they are to unanimously agree to do you harm, they cannot do you any harm, except that which Allah has already written down for you. Pens have been raised and the paper is dried.” (At-Tirmidhee)

In another narration, the Messenger of Allah said, “Preserve (the obligations of) Allah, you will find Him in front of you. Know Allah while in you are in bliss, He will know when you are in difficulty. Know also that victory comes with perseverance, relief comes with hardship and that there is ease with difficulty.”

Brethren in faith! There is no glory or power for this Ummah except through adhering to the religion of Allah, His injunctions and the Sunnah of the Prophet.

Guidance for errors and refuses:

Brethren in Islam! The way of Allah is that, any nation that exchanges guidance for error and refuses to take practical steps towards reform, such a nation shall continue to live in backwardness, degeneration and in moral, ideological and military weakness. We should therefore make a sincere return to the path of truth and reclaim our position of leadership. Concerted efforts should be made to educate our young generations to be proud of their religion and always show its greatness.

The Ummah must programme its life in accordance with Islam and its teachings. We must do away with all useless ideologies. It must be well established in our minds that Islam is the religion of this Ummah and its law in all aspects of its life.

Fellow Muslims! The whole world have seen and heard the anarchy that happened in Muslim Iraq as a result of aggression and lack of a just world order. This incidence should open the eyes of the Muslims to one fact: It is only the great Islamic system that can guarantee public and individual interests and that; it is the only order that can prevent harms and corruptions. Ibn Taymiyyah said, “It must be known that being in the position of authority is one of the greatest responsibilities of Islam. No matter of religion and worldly life can stand without it. For the interests of humans cannot be actualized except through intermingling because of their mutual need for one another. Therefore, they should have a leader. He further said, “The ruler is the shade of Allah on the earth.”

Ibn Taymiyyah also said, “Sixty years of an unjust ruler is better than a single night without a ruler.” The reality testifies to this. He also said, “If the authority is separated from religion and religion from authority people become corrupted.” Let the Muslims know that there is no good in overthrowing governments or causing disturbances in the communities. For that has brought nothing but destructions and corruption.

Political Choas and killings:

After the American bloodbath in Iraq and extended war to Afghanistan, Pakistan was next to be crippled with political chaos and killings of the civilians, enabling Zardari and the Generals to profit from the daily bloodbath of the innocent civilians. The on-going war seems to have undermined the very integrity of the Pakistani nation. Islam does not preach extremism but peace and harmony for a balanced life. The radicalization of Islam stems from ignorance and arrogance. Islam is peace and peace represents logic of reason and understanding of normal human values and respect for life. Those who call themselves Taliban must learn that Islam does not allow public scolding and beating of the females/males as a staged show and part of the law and justice system approach but instead focuses on education and reformation of the individual and collective well being of the Muslim society to be obedient to God. If they resort to force as means to introduce “shariah”, it is ignorance (jahalliya) not Islamic ways of life.Though emotions appear to override the people’s reaction in the tribal belts ofAfghanistan -Pakistan against the brutal military action, and that is not the solution but a reason for new emerging problems which Pakistani army is not equipped to deal with.

Drone Attacks:

Yet, those alleged are forced to react to American predator drone attacks and troops engagements being used against the people who had nothing to do with the 9/11 attack in the US. Imagine if there was just one company or a battalion of Afghan Mujahideen or Iraqi soldiers stationed in Washington or New York, would their presence comfortthe American people to get peaceful sleep or go to normal daily activities? When we think comparatively, we seem to get more rational answers. American politicians would never think in such realistic terms. The policy makers pretend to help the victims of the so called Islamic extremism or Taliban but do not understand that they are part of the problem, not a solution. So far, for the last eight years according to reliable sources, American ledWar on Terror has killed 2.5 millions people in Iraq and destroyed countless human habitats under the false pretext of terrorism and insurgency. Simply put, you went there to kill people and in return the Iraqis are defending their lives and property, they are not the insurgents but defenders of their lives, homes and honor and certainly not the extremists. You are the aggressors, and they are the victims of your atrocities in plaiN English language,

The consequences of injustice are disastrous. The Prophet said, “Allaah gives respite to a wrongdoer, whenever He seizes him, he never releases him.”

He then recited the verse:

“Such is the Seizure of your Lord when He seizes the (population of) the towns while they are doing wrong. Verily, His Seizure is painful, (and) severe.”
(Hood 11:102)
(Al-Bukhaaree and Muslim)
How long the sufferings will continue ?

How many are the curses, evils and woes that the systems and political parties that are anti-Islam have brought upon the Muslims? The Muslims will continue to suffer under these man-made systems until they purify their hearts with real emaan, adhere to the teachings of Islam and spread the implementation of the law of Allah to every path of the Muslim world.

Brethren in faith! The nation of Islam is the best of all nations. It is Allah’s beloved nation. The crises and tribulations that the Ummah is facing now is just another way by which Allah puts His beloved to test. It is incumbent on all Muslims to listen to the voice of Islam and wisdom. They shouldendeavour to protect the lands of Islam and promote unite in the light of Islamic Monotheism and under the banner of the Prophet. Let us take the Messenger of Allah as the model to be followed in all affairs of our lives. The Messenger of Allah said,

“Every treacherous person will be given a banner on the Day of Resurrection.”

BY: AGHA.M.SHOAIB

To both the Muslim faithful, the name Prophet Muhammad is not alien. Previous to his birth, many kinds of religious beliefs and practices reigned supreme but he came with another definition of what faith in Allah truly is. His beliefs can be truly referred to as revolutionary. According to general school of thought, revolutionary refers to “the overthrow of an established government by those formerly under its authority” (The Harcourt Brace School Dictionary: 628). It could also mean “great change in a condition” (The Harcourt Brace School Dictionary: 628). The transition of America from the monarchical political system to new governmental foundation for the colonial states was as a result of values gathered from years of being enlightened due to deep thoughtful period is correctly referred to as revolution whereas a revolutionary refers to an individual who is involved in effecting the radical change.

The prophet of Islam, Muhammad ibn Abdullah, was truly a revolutionary. Major spheres of life such as religious, social and political received a new meaning due to the philosophies Prophet Muhammad brought into these areas of life. Many events concerning him were penned down by some scholars: many shared belief in some of these writings while so many people were also in doubt of these. Some even called him “Apostle of Allah” Ibn Ishaq -(Muhammad ibn Ishaq (d. 767 or 761) (justislam). Prior to Islamizing Mecca, there were many tribes which was headed by the tribe known as Quraysh and accumulated much of its wealth from the tribes that would make pilgrimage to Mecca which was an important holy site for the polytheistic religions of the nomadic Arabs. As at then, The Arabs “worshipped spirits associated with natural features such as stones and trees” (William: 26).

When the Prophet Muhammad brought one of the most important part of Islam, Tawhid which is translated as (Uniqueness and Unity of God), this message principle coded in this message immediately challenged the existing religious beliefs because it completely disapprove the worship of other tribal idols. Tawhid is contained in the 112th chapter of the Qur’an. It is to be noted that Qur’an is the holy book of the Muslims and contains divine message to the people (sufibooks). Prophet Muhammad’s messages really did not go down well with many people. These people were already entrenched in theory local beliefs that they (the Meccan elite) “saw him as a revolutionary leader espousing an ideological message that threatened their social, economic, and political dominance.” (Mir Zohair Husain : 45).

The theological tenets of Muhammad was so strong that he left no stone unturned when he “purify it by smashing the polytheistic idols” (Frederick: 66) when he entered Mecca and approached Ka’ba. All his messages are already contained in the holy book (Darultawhid). Considering the fact that Islam is a holistic way of life its religious tenets present quite a number of social repercussions. The Prophet’s message of Islam was revolutionary on this front as well. Muhammad made it know to them that the Arab’s pre-Islamic social life was referred to as the period of jahiliyya or the period of ignorance. Because of this ignorance, People’s allegiances were absolutely to their tribe and family irrespective of whether the tribe was right or wrong. A “kind of anarchy reigned among tribes” because each of them was fighting his own course and that of his tribesmen. (William: 26).

Another noticeable thing was that there was also an increasing “gap between the wealthy and the poor” (William : 27). This was causing strains in the society and made some individuals to be exploited by the elite which is considered wrong by the prophet. In addition to other things, Muhammad’s first followers were amongst the poor and were at times tortured because they were seen as expendable. The Prophet of Islam strongly countered this with the Islamic injunctions of social justice. “Muhammad frequently stated that all are equal before God” (Mir Zohair Husain : 46) which effectively eliminated tribal-elder status, socio-economic status and any superiority based on race or physical traits. “This was a revolution in the social and political history of Arabia” (Frederick: 66) which started with the bloodless victory of Mecca by the Prophet Mohammed (May peace be upon him) in 628. This political change was not simply a reform in the Arab’s political life but was a radical shift from self-interested tribes made up of families and clans to a more unified “nation” based on religious orientation.

No doubt, in today world, the revolution of Muhammad is still alive since .Islamic revivalism is an explicit illustration of this. The modern movement of Islamism is the re-emergence of Islam as a social and political force to be reckoned with in a world that is dominated by religious, social and political systems that are not in accordance with an Islamic message. Movements based upon the Prophet Muhammad’s teachings are taking place and are attempting to replace non-Islamic entities. Modern Islamism is also “global in scope” (Mir Zohair Husain : 55) and targets religious, social and political entities that may have little or no Islamic influence just as pre-Islamic Arabia’s values were founded on principles which Islamic values challenged.

The shift in Arabia is an after effect of Prophet Muhammad’s message. The Prophet’s message and cultivation of his way of life in his community would not be such a distinguished force in the world today if it didn’t espouse a new, fundamentally different, social milieu.

In conclusion, as a true fundamentalist, Prophet Mohammed has proved beyond doubt that his mission is not just humane but divine. From the time of his birth to the situations that surrounded his birth, Mohammed, no doubt has proved that he was a courier of a greater knowledge than the society and environment he met himself. Although the ancient Arabs worshiped their own gods in their own way but Mohammed made it a point of duty to preach divine truth to these people. Quite expectedly, many od these Arabs took it as an insult while so of them understood the thesis of the message Mohammed was preaching but a true revolutionary, he was unshaken and pursued his objectives with vigor.

His vigor further gave him the badge of true revolutionary and when he challenged the religious practice as this was true to his nature; fighting a just course. From which angle this great revolutionary is viewed from, he may be not be everything to everybody but he is a true revolutionary to everyone.

Islam is a monotheistic faith and one of the largest religions in the world. With a total population of almost 1.5 billion followers, it is also the fastest growing. [i] The reason for this steady rise is not only the increasing population in Muslim countries, but also the growing number of people who are turning to Islam, a phenomenon that has recently gained momentum, especially after the attacks of September 11th when the religion was put under the spotlight. [ii] However, despite all of this, questions that are often asked are, how did Islam rise to become one of the most represented group in modern times? Where did it originate and how did it all start? In order to answer these questions, we must go back more than 1400 years and trace the life of man, who almost single handedly changed the dynamics of this world.

In the year 570 AD, Muhammad bin Abdullah was born into a noble family that belonged to a clan of the Quraish, the ruling tribe of modern day Mecca. The city was home to the Kabah, a holy shrine, which attracted thousands of people every year from nearby lands who would come and offer pilgrimage. Mecca soon became an important religious center and a financial hub, linking the Arabian Peninsula with powerful empires such as the Ethiopians and the Byzantines. [iii] As a result, the city became dominated by several influential families, among whom the Quraish were preeminent.

Muhammad’s father, Abdullah bin Abdul Muttalib, died before the boy was born. He was raised by his widow mother until the age of six when she too passed away, leaving him under the care of his paternal grandfather. After his death, the orphan was consigned to his uncle, Abu Talib, who took Muhammad in as his own son. As was customary, Muhammad was sent to live for a year or two with a Bedouin family that resided in the desert outskirts of Mecca. This period of his life had important and lasting implications on Muhammad. In addition to enduring the hardships of desert life, he acquired a taste for the rich language of the locals, whose speech was their proudest art. He also learned the patience and forbearance of the herdsmen, whose life of solitude he first shared and then later came to understand and appreciate. [iv]

From his early youth, Muhammad was famous for his honesty and truthfulness. He was respected by everyone and was considered one of the most reliable people in Mecca. The people of Quraish honored him with the title of ‘Al-Amin’ meaning ‘the trustworthy’ and this purity of his nature increased as he grew older. [v] Muhammad also seemed to possess an inner knowledge that other people did not. He would refuse to worship the countless idols and gods that were central to pre-Islamic life in Mecca and would rather spend countless hours in meditation by himself, trying to seek true knowledge.

When Muhammad reached his early twenties, he started working for a woman who went by the name of Khadija bint Khuwalid. She was a widow but was known for being a rich and successful merchant. Muhammad used to actively engage in leading her trade caravans up north, making handsome profits every time he did so. Khadija was so deeply impressed by his work ethics that she sent him a proposal of matrimony which Muhammad happily accepted. Even though Khadija was fifteen years older than him, the marriage proved to be very successful. Muhammad had gained a companion who was always there for him whenever he needed moral support and comfort.

Muhammad grew more and more spiritually restless as the days went by and he started increasing the time he spent in meditation. In order to get away from the troubles and vices that existed within the city, he chose a spot in the hills that surrounded Mecca. The cave where he used to pray was known as ‘Hira’ and according to popular Islamic belief, this was where Muhammad first received the message of Islam and where his journey as a Prophet of God began. [vi] The angel Gabriel came to Muhammad with the following revelation:

“Read in the name of your Lord who created; Created man from a clot of blood; Read and your Lord is the most Beneficent; Who taught man by the pen; Taught man what he knew not” (Quran 96: 1-5) [vii]

These were the first revealed verses of the Islamic book, the Quran and since then Muhammad stopped retreating in the Cave of Hira and took upon himself the duty of spreading the message of God.

At first, Muhammad only preached to his wife and close friends. But as more revelations enjoined him to proclaim the oneness of God universally, his target circle grew; at first the poor and the slaves, but later, also the more prominent people of Mecca. However, not everyone accepted what he had to say and even members of Muhammad’s own clan denied him openly. The opposition persecuted and tortured him and his early followers in every possible manner. But this did not deter Muhammad away from his mission but rather it strengthened and sharpened his resolve to spread the light of Islam. The Quraish had always held their idols in high regards and therefore found it difficult to come to terms with belief in one unseen God, which was one of the pinnacle pillars that Muhammad’s religion was based on.

As Muslims grew in number, the severity of punishment of the local leaders also increased. They boycotted him and his followers from every kind of trade and transaction, so much so that they had to go without proper food and drink for many weeks. Soon, the opposition to Muhammad reached such a high pitch that, fearful for their safety, he sent some of his adherents to the Christian ruler of Abyssinia asking for protection. [viii] Before long, the fame of Muhammad had spread to almost every part of the Arabian Peninsula. A group of people from Yathrib, modern day Medina, met Muhammad and entered into a contract with the Muslims. When the persecutions in Mecca increased and life there became unbearable for the Muslims, the people of Yathrib invited the Prophet and his companions to migrate to their city. [ix] Muhammad accepted their invitation and this emigration from Mecca to Medina marked the beginning of an important Islamic era.

The Muslims who migrated from Mecca were called the ‘Muhajirs’ while the people of Medina who received them with open arms came to be known as the ‘Ansars’. It was here that Muhammad gradually laid the foundation of an Islamic state. Many of teachings of the Prophet in Medina were concerned with the life of a community in its social, political, economic and administrative aspects. With the help and support of the local Ansars, Muhammad was able to establish a system of government that was way ahead of the time it belonged to in terms of its form and working. [x]

When the leaders of Mecca found out that Muhammad was building a city state, they became anxious about the new influence. They feared that this position of authority and power would encourage Muhammad to extract revenge on them. The Quraish believed the best way to deal with this threat was to destroy Islam in its infancy. They gathered a large army and marched north towards Medina. When Muhammad came to find out about their intentions, he too put together an army consisting of only three hundred and thirteen men. The resulting battle was known as the ‘Battle of Badr’ and it was the first major war fought by the Muslims. Even though Muhammad’s army was poorly equipped and faced a force three times its size, they remained steadfast in their resolve towards protecting Islam and the Muslim army as a result was able to route the forces of Mecca.

The Battle of Badr was a landmark in the history of Islam and it had several important effects in terms of Medina as a city state. Firstly, Muhammad with only a handful of men was able to defeat a much larger army through sheer determination and discipline. This brought home to the leaders of the Quraish, the abilities of the very man they had driven from their city. Also, one of the allied tribes which had pledged support to the Muslims in the battle had proved lukewarm when the actual fighting started. They were expelled from Medina and Muhammad served a warning to every tribe in allegiance with the Muslims: membership in the community imposed the obligation of total support. [xi]

The Quraish, however, felt humiliated and almost one year after the Battle of Badr, they waged war again on the Muslims, this time coming with an army of almost three thousand soldiers. After establishing a strong foothold early in the battle, the Islamic army was put under pressure and had to retreat. Seeing as Muhammad and his followers were not entirely overpowered, the Quraish sent out an army again two years later in the hope of completely eliminating any sort of Islamic threat. At the Battle of the Trench, the result was completely different. The Muslims scored a signal victory by introducing a new form of defense. On the side of Median from which the attack was expected, they dug a trench too deep for the Meccan cavalry to clear without exposing itself to the archers posted behind the earthworks. After an inconclusive siege, the Meccans were forced to retire and thus establishing Medina and Muhammad’s Islam as a power to be reckoned with in the Arabian Peninsula. [xii]

The Constitution of Medina dates from this period. The charter established Muhammad as the leader of Medina and the Muslims as a separate entity in their own right. The Constitution also defined the role of non-Muslims in the society. Jews, for example, were part of the community; they were ‘dhimmis’, that is, protected people, as long as they conformed to its laws. Followers of the monotheistic religions were permitted spiritual independence. This did not, however, pertain to the Pagans as they could not be tolerated in a place that worshiped one God. [xiii]

According to Ibn Ishaq, one of the earliest biographers of the Prophet, “it was at about this time that Muhammad sent letters to various rulers all around the world- the King of Persia, the Emperor of Byzantium, the Negus of Abyssinia, and the Governor of Egypt among others – inviting them to submit to Islam.” [xiv] Muhammad so efficiently established a number of allies that, by 628 AD, he and almost a thousand Muslims were able to stipulate admittance to Mecca. This was a milestone in the history of Islam. Just a short time before, Muhammad had left the same city to establish an Islamic state and now he was being treated by the Quraish as a leader. Almost a year later he was able to occupy Mecca without any violence which. He cleaned the Kabah from the gods that were present and forever ended idol worship. At the same time Amr bin Al As and Khaleed bin Walid, accepted Islam and swore allegiance to Muhammad. Their acceptance of Islam was very important because they would later go on and through various campaigns, expand the Muslim empire. [xv]

After almost a decade since Muhammad migrated to Medina, he made his last pilgrimage to Mecca and delivered a farewell sermon to a congregation of about 120,000 people. Shortly afterwards, he was taken ill and passed away in 632 AD. The death of Muhammad was a profound loss. To his supporters he was more than a friend and a teacher. He was also a perfect role model who till this date has guided the faith and life of countless men and women and which has brought in a distinctive era in the history of mankind.

After his death, Muhammad’s legacy was continued by his close companions who took the responsibility of presiding over the Muslim population for years to come based on his teachings. Muslim dynasties were soon established and subsequent empires such as those of the Persians, Ottomans and the Mughals of India, were among the largest and most powerful the world has ever seen. The people of the Islamic world created numerous sophisticated centers of culture and science with far-reaching mercantile networks, travelers, scientists, hunters, mathematicians, doctors and philosophers, all of whom contributed to the rise of Islam.

Plato and Rousseau are the most important world famous educationists who have contributed much to the advancement of human civilization. Present education system of the world stands on both the above thinkers.

Plato’s educational philosophy was grounded in his famous work ‘The Republic’, ‘The Laws’ wherein the individual was best served by being subordinated to a just society. Rousseau wrote in his book ‘Emile’, ‘Discourse of Political Economy’, ‘The New Heloise’ and ‘Considerations on the Government of Poland’.

In keeping in mind the philosophies, ideas of Plato and Rousseau on education theory discussed above, this study focuses on the similarities and dissimilarities between these two philosophers share in regard of philosophy of education. It also aims at finding out the influences among the education theories of Plato and Rousseau have on contemporary and succeeding generations. All over the world in general, and at measuring the influences reflected in planning and designing the national education policy in Bangladesh in particular.

1.2 Rationale of the Study

This research is mainly for gathering knowledge. Every movement or social situation has a chronology. Without understanding this chronology, it is difficult to understand the current situation of that movement. Plato and Rousseau’s Education theories contributed much to the salvation of their country men which is really praiseworthy. Their theoretical and practical efforts helped to break the long standing superstitions, blind faith and absurd ideas. This study will be a matter of great teaching for the present and succeeding generations that will fulfill the knowledge gap existing in this area. Their realistic and utilitarian views on education certainly will play an effective role in preparing modern citizens fit for modern world. The investigated information drawn from the comparative study on the education theory of Plato and Rousseau in planning and designing can be used in the formulation of national education policy of our country.

1.3 General Objective of the Study

The general objective of the study is to –

Analyze a comparative study on the educational theory of Plato and Rousseau.

1.4 Specific Objectives of the Study
The specific objectives of the study are to –

Assess, evaluate and compare the philosophy of education developed by Plato and Rousseau.

Find out the influence of their philosophy of education on contemporary and succeeding generations.

Assess the role of Philosophy of Plato and Rousseau in planning and designing the national education policy in our country.

1.5 Research Questions of the Study

What did Plato and Rousseau mean by philosophy of education?

What roles did Plato and Rousseau play to the development of the philosophy of education?

What influences did the philosophies of education of Plato and Rousseau have on the contemporary philosophers and thinkers?

What are the results to be drawn from the comparative study between the philosophies of education of Plato and Rousseau?

What roles of philosophy of Plato and Rousseau in planning and deigning the national education policy in our country?

1.6 Definition of Key Terms
Education

Etymologically, the word education is derived from Educare (Latin) “bring up”, which is related to Educere “bring out”, “bring forth what is within”, “bring out potential” and Ducere “to lead” (Source www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=educate; video.ted.com/talks/podcast/AimeeMullins_2009p.mp4).

Theory

Some social researchers have meant by theory special ideas such as- concept, frame of reference, conceptual scheme, perspective, hypothesis, generalization, ideal type, paradigm, typology etc. (Alam, 1993, p. 107)

Education theory

Educational theory may refer to either speculative educational thought in general or to a theory of education as something that guides, explains or describes educational practice.

Philosophy

Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind and language.

1.7 Scope of the Study

This research will cover Plato and Rousseau’s thoughts along with the Major writings on them. Available information on them from Magazines and newspapers of that time are also used to find out their actual philosophy of education. We shall discuss their philosophy of education along with the thoughts of other philosophers who have contributed much to the development of education in modern society. We shall assimilate the ideas of Plato and Rousseau with the ideas of other philosophers of education. In this way the researcher would make a comprehensive study on the philosophy of education.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

The study would be mainly based on printed documents such as various articles, essays, journals, books and research works done on the comparative study on the educational theory of Plato and Rousseau. Concurrently all information from individuals related to the present study needs more time and money. There are only few research work conducted on the issue and very few articles might be published on the journals but the researcher did not find any research work on that issue in Bangladesh.

Chapter 2: Review of Literature

Reviewing literature means study of other literatures for finding out the research gap. So far as the researcher has surveyed, this is a new field to study. The researcher has gone through all the writings of Plato, as well as good number of books written on him such as: ‘The Republic’, ‘Laws’ etc. The researcher also reviewed books written by Rousseau. These are: Emile, Discourse on Equality, A discourse on political Economy, Social contract etc. Here, the researcher has presented some studies related to Plato and Rousseau’s education theory by different researchers like Patricia M. Lines, Shackling the Imagination: Education for Virtue in Plato and Rousseau. Many aspects of Plato’s recommendations for education resemble those adopted by constitutional democracies in different countries. According to him education must be compulsory and free to all, with government control and support. Plato identified four interdependent virtues (Wisdom, Courage, Discipline and Justice) as essential to be ideal in ‘The Republic’. Wisdom guides the philosopher-ruler. Courage moves the auxiliaries (the soldiers and the bureaucrats). Discipline, sometimes translated as moderation, assures that each class carries out its assigned role and that the governed obey the governors. Justice- the supreme ordering principle-ensures harmony and balance within the individual and the state. These virtues should lead to a full understanding of the Truth, the Good and the Beautiful, which according to Plato is the highest reality. Like Plato, Rousseau aims at creating an ideal citizen. Unlike Plato, he wants to prepare this citizen for democracy. Rousseau regards virtue as the ultimate goal of education. He offers a simple rule. Emile the ‘Hero’ in his book must never harm another. To achieve this goal, the tutor isolates the children from others. Both Plato and Rousseau offer a limited view of virtue. Still, both reveal a certainty that they fully understand and know how to encourage the right virtues. (www.amazon.com/shackling-immagination-education-rousseau-humanitas/dp/b0043uonp08) Samuel Scolnicov, ‘Plato on Education as the Development of Reason’. Plato stresses his Socrates’ new concept of reason (nous). Reason is not a tool for attaining goals independently thought worthwhile: possessions, honor, personal and political success; rather, rationality itself, expressed in the giving of reasons and the avoidance of contradictions, confers value to goals and opinions. The ultimate educational objective, then, is to bring about a revolution in the learner’s perception of the role of reason, namely the recognition of its normative, and not merely theoretical or instrumental nature. Plato’s theory of education aims at specifying the conditions of the growth of the Socratic man, whose soul is free from contradictions and whose excellence is justified knowledge.(www.bu.edu/wcp/papers/Anci/Anciscol.htm) Farhan Zainulabideen, ‘A Critical Review of the Aims of Education in the Western Tradition’. Plato is the earliest important thinker on education. He is also the first to have laid down a comprehensive outlook of education that was integrated with his views of society and its aims. In Republic, Plato’s primary aim of education is to produce the elites needed to govern the ideal city. The supreme product of the education process is the philosopher-king who rules the city. The highest aim of education for Plato is the knowledge of good, which in turn instills the four great virtues: wisdom, courage, discipline and justice. Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s intellectual range and achievements are staggering. He made epochal contributions to political theory, literature and education. His educational tract, ‘Emile’, transformed the debate about children upbringing and was very largely instrumental in altering the Western perception of childhood. He overturned conventional wisdom on the nature of childhood and education with a radical discourse in this fictional novel. The fundamentals of Rousseau’s educational creed are ‘nature’ and ‘freedom’. He believed that children should develop their skill and capacity in nature and enjoy freedom. This goal in education was actually the first step in ensuring a more social society, where natural law is seen to accomplish harmony and balance and to get rid of artificial man-imposed coercive restrictions (http//www.ips.org.pk/education/IIII-acriticalreviewoftheaimsof education).

Plato was disturbed by condition of society, its corruption and shallow-dreams. In his famous work ‘The Republic’, Plato tried to teach Good and beauty to his students (Lee, 1987, p. 161). Jean-Jacques Rousseau convinced that men and women had lost their worth that can be revived in natural phenomena so that we might learn to live together in ways that foster a better ethics of citizenship (Bloom, 1979, p. 25). Rousseau believes that the primary goal of education is to prepare men and women to be moral agents who, while living autonomously, also live with each other.

Many researches have been done on various aspects of Plato and Rousseau. But no research has yet been done on the problem of education theory of Plato and Rousseau. So there may be some gap in this field. For this reason this problem may be an important issue of a research work. The present study is such an attempt.

Chapter 3: Methodology

The methodology of the present research is descriptive and qualitative. Generally descriptive research is done on education related problem, academic decision making, designing plan, changing the curriculum and etc.(Samad, 2010, p.21) Qualitative research is done on some qualitative events or topics (that are related with quality). Qualitative research is very important especially in behaviorism. Because through education the personality of a man changes. (Tapan, 1987, p.21)

The main characteristic of the descriptive research is to provide reasonable explanation of the topic through data analysis. So it is found that descriptive research not only includes the description of the event or situation/state/condition but also includes comparative discussion, classification, explanation and evaluation.(Ali, 1988, p.19) In a descriptive research a researcher does not control the data. Only the process of observation, description and analysis of data can be controlled.(Zaman, 1987, p.7)

Aristotle for the first time used deductive method in case of presenting descriptive method through argument and after a century later Francis Bacon used the direct observational method. This method is known as inductive method. In this method data are collected sequentially from every field and decision is made. Inductive method is from particular to general. On the other hand, deductive method is from general to particular. (Zaman, 1987, p.11, 12)

So, Qualitative and Descriptive method fits well in accomplishing the present research study from the selection of the materials till the completion of the research work. It includes the collection of material leaving no gap in the connected aspects of the study, the scanning of the materials, their systematization and synchronization so that clear vision becomes apparent to complete the dissertation. Moreover, this method also covers, while writing the thesis, the arguments in favor of and against the problem raised and then ratification of powerful opinion with convincing evidences and arguments. First the information has been collected from primary and secondary sources. The writings of Plato and Rousseau have been considered as the Primary data (Plato: ‘The Republic’ and ‘The Laws’. Rousseau: ‘Emile’, ‘Discourse of Political Economy’, ‘The New Heloise’, and ‘Considerations on the Government of Poland’) and the writings on Plato and Rousseau published in various books, journals, article and research works have been considered as the Secondary data. The researcher has identified the contradiction carefully among educational theory of Plato and Rousseau maintaining strict objectivity to fulfill the aims and purpose of the present study. The collected data have been analyzed in order to find out the similarity and dissimilarity between Plato and Rousseau and by their thinking what kind of philosophy developed and influenced the succeeding generations. The researcher has used the logical analysis for data analysis. The researcher has followed the American Psychological Association (APA) code and conduct for using the reference.

Chapter 4: Plato

Plato’s Philosophy of Education

Plato’s educational philosophy was grounded in his vision of the ideal ‘The Republic’, ‘The Laws’ wherein the individual was best served by being subordinated to a just society. “Plato proposes a thoroughgoing communism for the guardians, and (I think) also for the soldiers, though this is not very clear. The guardians are to have small houses and simple food; they are to live as in a camp, dining together in companies; they a re to have no private property beyond what is absolutely necessary (Russell, 1946, p. 127).” Socialism is now out-dated in the present world. Most of the people in the world now believe in individual freedom. The system that Plato has talked about for philosophers with a view to building an ideal state is not effective in most of the countries including Bangladesh.

The Educational Theory of Plato

Plato’s Theory of education was an indispensable necessity for mankind. It was a positive remedy for the problems and operation of justice in an ideal state. Rousseau says, Plato’s Republic’ is not a work on polities but the finest treatise on education that has ever been written. Nothing was more important to Plato in human life as education. He considers education the greatest thing in human life as he mentions in his famous book ‘The Republic’, ‘the one great thing”.

Major ideas in Plato’s educational theory are

Education for all: Plato would educate every boy and girl to the limits of their abilities.

State education: Education should be provided by the state, not by parents.

Plato’s suggestion was that the state will take the responsibility of educating the whole nation has been accepted in most of the countries. But it is not still properly implemented in Bangladesh because of her scarcity of fund and inability of parents but the country is trying to educate her all children.

Aims of Education

“To produce future civil servants for the state.

To produce virtuous, efficient and intellectual rulers for the country.

To glorify courage and military skill among the warriors.

To develop competent, obedient, and temperate workers.

To develop a social disposition among all citizens.

Virtue is knowledge and education is the main thing to acquire virtue.” (Bhuiyan, 2010, p. 269)

“It (Plato’s theory of education) is an attempt to cure a mental malady by mental medicine (Barker, 1967, p. 314).”

Element of Plato’s Education System

The first thing should be considered in education, which is divided into two parts-

Music

‘Music’ used in broad term for drama, history, art, letters, philosophy, oratory and music in real term. “Music means everything that is in the province of the muses (Russell, 1946, p. 126).” Plato had made Protagoras speak of children’s training in music as introducing rhythm and harmony into their souls and having a socializing influence; ‘for the whole life of man stands in need of rhythm and harmony’. ‘Music’ is almost as wide as what we should call ‘culture’ (Cornford, 1941, p. 86). Music is not taught as a compulsory subject in our country as it was advocated by Plato. Nevertheless there are individual departments of Music and Theatre in public universities where students with special interests can study music.

Gymnastic

“Gymnastic means physical training and fitness” (Russell, 1946, p. 126). ‘Gymnastics’ is somewhat wider than what we call ‘athletics’. The physical training suitable for a citizen soldier is briefly contrasted with that of the professional athlete. Finally, it appears that physical training, no less than education in literature and the arts, really has to do with the soul (Cornford, 1941, p. 90). Physical exercise is not taught as a compulsory subject in our country as it was advocated by Plato. But there are individual departments of Physical Exercise in public universities where students with special interests can study physical exercise. Physical exercise is of paramount importance in Bangladesh Army. In every institution in Bangladesh there is a course on physical exercise which is mandatory in military institutions only. Plato writes in his book ‘The Republic’. I believe, gymnastic, for the body, and music for the mind.

The Curriculum of Plato’s Education System

Plato define different stages for the organization and curriculum

Primary Education: Primary education mainly consisted of reading and writing (‘Grammatic’); learning and reciting epic and dramatic poetry, lyre-playing and singing lyric poetry, the rudiments of arithmetic and geometry (‘Music’); and athletic exercises (‘Gymnastic’) (Cornford, 1941, p. 65). Co-education at primary level till the age of eighteen years.The age that Plato has advocated for primary education is not totally accepted in our country. Rather it is confined within 6 to 11 years. In our country primary education is free and compulsory. The compulsory primary education law what Plato has talked about has been passed in Bangladesh in 1992.

Military Training: After elementary education two years of Physical education should be given to them and be selected for higher education to prepare for the future guardians of the state.

Military education is not compulsory in our country as Plato has proposed. It is only compulsory for those who are physically fit and interested in taking military training.

Higher Education: Higher education should be given from twenty to thirty-five years of age. At this stage a student will study mathematics, arithmetic, geometry, solid geometry, astronomy, harmonics, dialectic, program of studies, literature and philosophy. Later on he would be fit for a minor administrative position to get experience for the future more important governing positions. (Cornford, 1941, p. 230).

Our education system is not very lengthy as Plato has advocated. In our country one can enter into any profession after completing one’s higher education or can study for getting M.Phil and Ph.D degree.

Plato has divided his educational curriculum into two levels. They are as follows:

Primary level of education

Higher level of education/ Higher education.

Primary Education
First stage (0-06)

Up to 6 years children will be provided with education to flourish his/her latent talents. Meanwhile they will be taught politeness, mannerism and good taste.

Second stage (06-18)

From 6 to 18 years children will be taught only literature, music, and preliminary education on mathematics. Meanwhile children will be able to attain the great qualities such as self-control, disciplinary, punctuality, and the belief on the God.

Third stage (18-20)

Age from 18 to 20 years will be fixed for students’ physical exercise and military education. There will be no chance to teach any other subject within this time. The main purpose of this stage is to keep body fit and strong. Those who will succeed in the test at the end of the primary level will get the opportunity of receiving higher education.

Higher education
First stage (20-30)

This stage covers from 20 to 30 years. In this stage human beings will acquire knowledge on astrology, higher math, geometry, and music. In this stage they will be taught very carefully on these subjects and there will be an attempt to establish the relationship between math and reality.

Second stage (30-35)

This stage ranges from 30 to 35 years. In this stage students will be taught philosophy, logic and metaphysics etc.

Third stage (35-50)

This stage covers the time from 35 to 50 years. In this stage the students will acquire practical knowledge by combining their acquired knowledge and their real life experience, and they will be vested with small responsibilities of the state (Talukder and Awal, 2011, p. 95, 96). Plato classified the stages of education 2500 hundred years ago which has been adopted and differently categorized in four stages to meet the demands of the modern time. These stages are primary education, secondary education, higher secondary education and higher education.

Plato’s View on Women Education

Plato also gives emphasis on women education and he prescribes the same kind of education for women like men. Women should have the same physical and educational training; they should know the art of war. The main aim of Plato was that each member of the society should undertake his work and responsibilities. Plato believed that women are equal to men and in some cases women are physically weaker than men or may not. He suggested that those who are equal to men should be allowed to learn the same thing like men. In his book ‘The Republic’ Plato describes how male and female receive the same education and be given the same duties in society. Thus the male and the female should be given the same duty of ‘The Republic’. (Cornford, 1941, p. 141) Plato’s opinion regarding women education has received the attention of the people of all over the world and the present world has accepted the ideas of Plato. It has also been accepted in Bangladesh which has enormously enriched the nation. As a result, there is seen the empowerment of women folk. Plato’s opinion about women education has been received almost in many countries in the present world. The outcome of women education is as we see that many women, the Prime Minister, foreign minister, opposition party leader are in various important positions in Bangladesh.

Teaching Methods

Plato suggested different ways to educate the children such as through telling stories, play and imitation. Plato gives importance to nursery education, he thinks nursery education plays a vital role in the education of man; it helps to build his moral character and state of mind “The most important part of education is proper training in the nursery.

Enforced exercise does no harm to the body, but enforced learning will not stay in the mind. (Nath, 1979, p. 57) In our country Plato’s material for education is used for the development of education. Besides, multimedia projector and visual sound system are used in higher level educational institutions, and maps, charts and models in primary level.

Plato’s View on Moral Ethics

Plato presents his ideas for an ideal society in the ‘The Republic’ and he provided details about the curriculum and system of education. According to Plato the ideal society should care for their youth and the guardians would be responsible for the moral education of their children. Every person would know his duty and his responsibility. (Bhuiyan, 2010, p. 269) Plato talked about moral education in 427 BC, which is of paramount importance still in the perspective of Bangladesh. We teach our children moral lessons from the very beginning which is started by the parents, grandfathers and grandmothers. Moral institutions are also imparted to the student by their teachers in the schools, colleges and universities. Besides these, ethics is included in many disciplines in our country. Moral deterioration is very acute in everywhere. The only way to get rid of this problem is to practice or nourish moral education properly.

Chapter 5: Rousseau

Rousseau’s Philosophy of Education

Rousseau’s philosophy of education is called the philosophy of Naturalism. Rousseau’s philosophy of life and society has been reflected in his philosophy of education. Proper education is achieved through the understanding of natural objects and beauties. In this system, nature itself is the teacher. According to Rousseau, children will learn from three sorts of teachers such as nature, human being and objects. Having influenced and taught by this three sources is called an educated man by Rousseau. We can control human being and objects. But we cannot control nature. So education should be confined to the rules of nature. “Go back to the lap of nature” this idea is closely associated with Rousseau. In his book ‘Emile’, (Nurnobi, Fouzia and Champa., 2006, p. 277) he used nature in three senses. Psychological Nature, Physical Nature, Biological Nature

Rousseau’s views on the aim of education

Rousseau opines that the aim of education is not only to acquire knowledge but also to help flourishing of children’s talents.

The aim of education for children will be different on the basis of its age. In childhood, education should build up its physical development. There is no need of moral and social teaching.

The education in boyhood should aim at the exercise of sensual and mental development.

The purpose of female education should be preparing a woman fit for her male counterpart. Excessive learning is not necessary for the womenfolk. (Dali and Imam, 1999, p. 42)

Curriculum of Rousseau

The education curriculum of Rousseau is not definite and well planned. Rousseau launched a war against the conventional education. So he was against the traditional curriculum. Rousseau did not like reading books. He said, ‘Books teach us to talk about something on which we have no practical knowledge.’ Nonetheless, he selected the novel ‘Robinson Crusoe’ as mandatory for Emile. According to him, this book can help Emile to be self-confident and self-sufficient. According to curriculum, physical exercise and health education have been given much emphasis in adolescence. Importance has also been given on the arts of hand made goods and vocational works. He has also talked about religious and moral education. But he was against Female education. Household chores will be learning tasks of women. Rousseau’s education related curriculum is not precise and well planned. (Uddin and Das, 2006, p. 247, 248)

His education system which he advocated about 200 years ago is not fully coherent with the exiting education curriculum of Bangladesh. Nevertheless, the appeal and the necessity of his education about nature are still effective. For example, novel laureate poet Rabindranath Tagore has established Shanty Nike ton in the midst of nature. Even in Bangladesh, Rajshahi, Chittagong, and Jahanggirnagor universities are established in the midst of natural beauties so that students and teachers can learn from nature.

Teaching style of Rousseau

His teaching method was inventive. In this method, a children is kept in the place of invention. A children learns through the process of examination. (Dali and Imam, 1999, p. 43) In fact, through the process of Rousseau’s thinking laboratory method, invention method, education through work, sensual experience method were emerged.

Rousseau’s discovery method of learning is relevant to the existing creative method of Bangladesh. Because in the creative method, there is always a riddle or a story where students are to discover or find out the answers.

Educational Framework

“Rousseau suggested two types of education framework based on different conditions

Firstly, education framework for a state and society

Secondly, education for preserving survival of civilization

Stages of Education in Emile

He divided education systems in five stages. Such as-

Stage 1 Infancy (0-5): Education in infancy must be based on physique so that the limbs of a children should be developed proportionally. No need to develop any habit at this time. He said “A children is bad because he is weak; make him strong and he will be good.” Everything is good as it leaves the hands of the Author of things; everything degenerates in the hands of man (Bloom, 1979, p. 37).

Stage 2 The age of Nature (5-12): No particular traditional education should be given now. No education on language, history, geography needs to be provided now. Even religious education is not necessary. Rousseau said, “Exercise the body, the organs, the senses and powers, but keep the soughing follow as long as you can.” (Cited in Bhuiyan, 2010, p. 313).

Stage 3 Pre-adolescence (12-15): Before adolescence a children needs not to read any special book. In this stage, Rousseau has advised to include physical lesson or any sort of education related to art and culture so that he can develop a sense of respect towards Labour (Dali and Imam, 1999, p. 43).

Stage 4 Puberty (15-20): Rousseau has advised to start social education in this stage. Here children can develop a habit of social responsibility, co-operation, respect, love, and fellow feeling. Rousseau said, ‘we are born twice once for existing and again for loving; once for the species and again for sex’. (Cited in Bhuiyan, 2010, p. 317)

Stage 5 Adulthood (20-25): The adult ‘Emile’ is introduced to his ideal partner, Sophie. The final task of the tutor is to ‘instruct the young couple in their marital rights and duties’. (Boyd, 1911, p. 130)

5.11 Rousseau’s View on Women Education

Rousseau has negative opinion about women education, which is the result of his experiences in his personal and family life. His attitude towards women education is not accepted by any modern state of the world. A nation can not prosper keeping half of the population uneducated. So Rousseau’s attitude towards women education is totally unacceptable and unrealistic in the modern perspective. This is a huge drawback of his philosophy of education.

Expart 1 said that “Rousseau has proposed to keep women under male domination for children bearing because women become inactive in that time; according to Rousseau, this is the main reason of not giving the supremacy of women over men. There is another reason behind this that is the father has to be sure of the true identity of the new born children. This is the secret of Rousseau of not accepting the equality of men and women. Rousseau has been affected by the fear of women from the civilization; he has seen women as devious. In a poem Rousseau says about women, ‘Enchante

Various misconceptions come across whenever we reflect on the Islamic religion. One of these misconceptions is that of the Islamic threat or what Islamic think about Al Qaeda and whether they follow the fundamentalism that has been made aware of by everyone, mostly by through the media. It has also been sought through the media that actions of some Muslims are associated with terrorism and support their beliefs.

Although most Muslims would consider their religion to be around the concept of monotheism and that one deity does exists. The misconception of whether Muslims believe that Jesus did exist is surprising to most. Muslims believe that Jesus was a messenger and was capable of healing powers and miracles

Muslims are understood to worship a different God. Christians and other non-Muslims believe that there is only one true God who created the Heavens, the Earth and all that exists on it, and that He is the only one worthy of praise. Muslims worship of “Allah” which simply is the Arabic name for God as it is mentioned in the Qur’an, the denial of the idea of the Holy Trinity or that He, God, manifest Himself into the world has made most of the non-Muslims to doubt their believe in God.

The Qur’an, which is the Muslims’ printed version of the Holy Bible, is written in Arabic, the language of worship in the Mosque by the Muslims. This interoperated version of the Muslims’ Bible has made many to conclude that the Qur’an is merely a religion only for Arabs. Although there are Muslims all over the globe, their language in worship does not change regardless of their location whether it is in America or Africa.

Another misconception of the Islam is that of unequal treatment of women. Women are treated with a lot of sternness especially when it comes to their mode of dressing as postulated by the Muslim community. Women are expected to be very submissive to their husbands and have no power when it comes to the decision-making even if the decisions affect them directly.

After my visit to the Sheikh, I was at last enlightened on some of the issues I considered controversial to the Muslim community. One of these issues is on terrorism and Holly war. Holly war or jihad is sort according to comprehension of Islam and the direction and rulings of the scholars and state leaders. Islam evidently forbids terrorism. Jihad has been used by some of the misguided individuals to instill terror that is not in line with the teachings of the Islam.

The idea that Islam is a fatalistic religion that is brought about by the fact that Muslims are trained to utter “Praise is to God!” is as a result that Muslims know Almighty God is the provider of all things whether good or bad and whatever happens must be for the better. Islam’s teachings outlines that human beings can act in their lives as long as it is according to the teachings of Muhammad.

Muslims also believe in one God, Allah, who created the entire Universe and humankind. Allah is simply the Arabic for God. It is only that they differ with other religions especially the Christians as Muslims reject believe in the Holy Trinity or incarnation of God in the world. They too believe that He is the only one worthy to worship. It is believed that approximately 15% to 20% Muslims are Arabs. The presumption that Islam is a religion entirely for Arabs is wrong. It is only that Islam originated from the Arabs and thus the Qur’an in Arabic. Over the years, Muslims made their effort to spread the Islamic religion all over the world.

There exists misconception of religion individuals as everyone considers his or her own religion to be the true religion. Christians for instance argues that Christianity is the only true religion whereas Muslims argue for their religion. As their several religions in the entire world, every person supports their religion as it has been ingrained in their blood. This is as the result of it being passed down the generations. One is born in a family of a certain religious background, grows to believe in it, and takes it to be the true faith. In order to minimize the misconception, the entire population should be enlightened on different types of religion. People should be educated on those religion other than their own, to be accommodative and considerate when looking into those faiths in a more positive perspective.

This lovely phrase reminds us the enchanting story of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs where the wicked queen peeps into a magical mirror and asks about her undoubted fairness in the whole world. As an innocent child I was deeply inspired by the fairytale as the world of fantasy attracted me. I would often pressurize my mother to buy me a magical mirror from the market thinking it to be easily available. My mother would laugh at my innocence and explained me that such magical mirror exists only in stories and fairytales and not in the real world.

As time flew by, the thoughts of magical mirrors began to fade away from my mind and with age and maturity, I began to experience highs and lows of life. Sometimes there were colors of happiness and joy and sometimes sorrow and misery. When any problem became aggravated, I began to consult astrologers who blamed the adverse situation on the bad influence of the planetary positions. They would advise me to wear rings and amulets of precious and semi- precious stones to ward of the evil effects of the sun, the moon and other planets in our solar system. How do these rings and amulets work? Are they magical just like the magical mirrors in fairytales. Again my mind raced back to my childhood and once again a plethora of questions lay staring at me.

All these little anecdotes have two things in common and that is magic and miracle. Is there anything called magical mirror where you can peep into your past, present or future? Do the planetary positions of our solar system affect human form positively and adversely?

If my answer is positive, you may call me crazy and brand me superstitious as modern science do not believe in the supernatural powers of the universe. But you have to give me one chance to prove myself right and for this I have to narrate the life story of a strange man who was a distinguished alchemist, physician, astrologer, magician, philosopher and so on. His life story is simple but his unique ways of practicing occult science, magic, alchemy, medicine, astrology, cosmology and pneumatology was simply incredible and each trait needs to be highlighted to give this great man justice and recognition.

So let us fly on a magical carpet into the world of Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus, nicknamed Paracelsus which simply means in par with Celsus, a Roman Encyclopedist who wrote a lot on medicines. It was Paracelsus who advocated that magical mirrors can be created, planetary positions can be a cause of worries and happiness. But above all this, as a devout Christian he firmly believed in the supremacy of the almighty and once quoted, “Everything that happens takes place through the will of the supreme and faith into the things of the earth should be based upon the holy teachings of Christ.”

BIRTH AND FAMILY BACKGROUND:

William Bombast of Hohenheim was a distinguished physician who was successfully practicing medicine in a hospital near Maria-Einsiedeln, Switzerland. It was here that he fell in love with the matron of the hospital (name is not known) and the two exchanged wedding vows in the year 1492. Their marriage soon blossomed and the couple was blessed with a bonny baby boy on the 17th of December 1493 in the vicinity of Maria-Einsiedeln, Switzerland.

William’s happiness knew no bounds and he named his precious bundle of joy as, Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus. But their joy was shortlived as tragedy struck the Bombast family when young Theophrastus lost the warmth and affection of his mother who expired after a brief illness. William was devastated by the loss of his beloved wife but soon gathered courage and began to pull the strings of his life. His sole objective was to nurture his young son and to fill his life with joy and happiness. Young Theophrastus was the apple of William’s eye and both lives not only began to revolve each other but also completing each other.

STRONG FOUNDATION KEY TO SUCCESS:

Not much is known about the primary and secondary education received by Paracelsus so we have to move to his adolescence age. As Paracelsus entered into his youth, he received valuable coaching in science from his father who tutored him with the fundamentals of alchemy, surgery and medicine. His father was not only his teacher but also his mentor, guide and best friend. This golden relationship between the father and the son laid a strong foundation which later on became the key to Paracelsus success in the field of medicine.

Paracelsus too did not disappoint his father and picked up the nuances of science with much ease. William was quick to discover that his son had the required potential to become a great physician and decided to impart him formal education. He was soon enrolled in a convent of St. Andrew located in the beautiful valley of Savon, Switzerland and under the supervision of learned bishops, Eberhardt Baumgartner, Mathias Schedydt of Rottgach and Mathias Schacht of Freisingen acquired valuable knowledge on medicine and surgery.

At the young age of sixteen, Paracelsus was enrolled at the University of Basel, where he received instruction from the famous Johann Trithemius of Spanheim who was a master in alchemy, magic and astrology. It was under Trithemius shadow that Paracelsus developed inclination towards occult science. Trithemius was impressed by Paracelsus love for occult science and directed him to gain entry into the laboratory of Sigismund Fugger of Tyrol, who was not only a celebrated alchemist but also possessed valuable secrets of occult science.

Exactly how long Paracelsus studied alchemy, astrology and occult science under Sigismund Fugger is not known and so we move on to the next chapter of Paracelsus life.

LIFE OF A VAGABOND:

After his formal education under the supervision of learned bishops, Paracelsus decided to go on a global spree. He travelled widely to destinations like Germany, France, Netherland, Denmark, Sweden and Russia. When he reached Italy, he received an opportunity to serve the Imperial Army and experienced many warlike situations. This period of globe- trotting can be called as the turning point of his life as he came across many physicians, surgeons and alchemist who shared similar passion for occult science like Paracelsus.

During his stay in Italy, he entered into physical relationships with several gypsies, fortune-tellers, midwives, barbers and shepherds and although it may sound vulgar but he did so to gain knowledge from the act. He was always found in the company of vagabonds on the highways and at public lodges and inns due to which he earned a bad name and was criticized by his narrow minded foes.

Paracelsus was often criticized for his passion for wandering but his critics did not realize that travelling was the fundamental tool to acquire knowledge which according to him cannot be acquired in the comforts of a laboratory or a library. He strongly believed that knowledge cannot be confined within the boundaries of our own country, it does not follow us but waits for us to go in search of it. According to Paracelsus, “Those who remain at home may live more comfortably, and grow richer than those who wander about; but I neither desire to live comfortably, nor do I wish to become rich. He who wants to study the books of nature must wander with his feet over its leaves.” Paracelsus recommended that every part of the world signifies a single page in the book of nature and all the pages taken collectively formed the book that reveals its richness and abundance.

PARACELSUS- A MIRACLE MAN:

Paracelsus travelled extensively for a period of ten years, sometimes practicing his talents as a physician, or magician or an alchemist. At the age of thirty-two, he returned to Germany where acquired fame as a man with miraculous cures.

He had surpassed all his colleagues with his superior medical skills and was termed as Dr. Miracle by the masses. Many patients that had been termed as incurable by other renowned doctors turned to Paracelsus for treatment and had been cured. Among the many patients were eighteen princes who were pronounced to be incurable by leading doctors.

But what made Paracelsus different from others? Why were his medical skills considered to be superior than his colleagues? Did he possess some supernatural powers to cure the incurables or did he adopt a different strategy for treatment? To answer these questions, we have to analyze his skills of that of a physician, magician, astrologer and alchemist in detail. But first, we have to understand in depth Paracelsus’s views and explanations on the cosmic structure as a whole, mankind and the doctrine of holy spirits. It is rather difficult but not impossible to get a perfect understanding for our readers, unless they use their own intuition, and get into the mentality and skin of Paracelsus.

STUDY OF THE COSMIC STRUCTURE- COSMOLOGY:

According to Paracelsus, the entire cosmos is created by God and we are his children. His view is inspired from the prayer in bible, “In the name of our father and our sons and the holy spirit, Amen.” God is the Constructor of the world, Carpenter of the universe and the Sculptor of all forms. God created man from four core elements, namely Air, Water, Fire and Earth. To bring him to life, he added spirit into them. Thus spirit is living and life is spirit which unite together to produce all things.

Nature is that part of the universe which is created by God to essentially provide us a cushion to breathe easy. Thus all living organism in nature have to sympathize and live in harmony with each other. Paracelsus termed all the living products of the constellation as Macrocosm and man as Microcosm, both with one breath, one time, one fruit and above all one authority. Man is dependent on nature for its very survival and nature is dependent on the state of mankind. According to Paracelsus, that part of science which can describe the principles governing the Macrocosm and Microcosm and the relationship between them is termed as ‘Astronomia’.

Paracelsus termed a part of astronomia as magic, wherein he states that magic is a science used to discover the ideal relation or connection of the soul to our physical body just like the way the sun shines through a glass. Further he explained that each organ of our body is in harmony with other parts. For example, there exist harmony between the heart and the lungs and between the stomach and the brain. He also established a connection between the stars and the plants and between plants and human body. Just like a magnetized bar of iron may produce magnetic effects on the other part of iron, leaving copper and brass unaffected, same way some medicinal plants may act as remedies to cure certain diseases.

VIEWS ON MANKIND AND THE HOLY SPIRIT:

Paracelsus strongly believed that the constitution of man is based on seven principles which are stated below.

The Physical or the elementary body, i.e. Stool Sharira.

The Mumia or the vital force, i.e. Jiva.

The Astral body or the Sidereal Body, i.e. Linga Sharira.

The Animal Soul or the Kama Rupa.

The Human or Rational Soul, i.e. Karana Sharira Manas.

The Spiritual Soul, i.e. Buddhi.

The Spirit or the Divine Atma.

He has given a very comprehensive explanation regarding all the seven principles constituting a man in his work called, ‘Philosophia Sagax’. But the principle which needs to be mentioned here and which every human being is afraid is the ‘death of a man’. According to him, death is nothing but the end of the daily labour of man. Being a devout Christian, he strongly believed that every human being possesses the elements of earth and earth is his mother. When he dies, he re-enters in to her and loses its flesh. And perhaps referring to Christ he says, “Only the real man will be re-born at the day of the resurrection into another spiritual and glorified body”.

According to Paracelsus, after death, the physical body decomposes into dust but a vital part of the principle which comprises the highest essence of life passes into a higher state called, ‘Olympus Novvs, where they unite with their origin, the Mysterium Magnum, the essence of life or the Parabrahman (mentioned in the Vedas of Hindu Scriptures) Paracelsus cautions that this fate is met by people who die a natural death but not for those who die prematurely either due to accidents or suicides. In such cases, the invisible residues of the human body remains in the state till death would have arrived naturally and according to the laws of nature. They remain in the earths sphere and are full of earthy passions and desires. Paracelsus calls them ‘Caballi Lemures’ and they often lurk in places where they have spent or resided during their lifetime.

People often believe that such spirits cannot be destroyed by sprinkling holy water or by burning incense and even arranging religious ceremonies for the purpose. According to Paracelsus all these have no effect on the spirit and the best way to keep evil spirits away is positive will power. If we stand by good and love the source of good we will never succumb to the evil powers of the force. If however evil spirits causes severe depression to you then Paracelsus recommends wearing of red corals to ward off melancholy as they are stimulated by Sun. A healthy mind is like a temple which cannot be invaded without the will of its priest. Minds that are pure and illuminated by the force of truth cannot be possessed by evil spirits.

PARACELSUS- A MEDICAL GENIUS:

According to Paracelsus every vital organ in the human body is in sympathy with certain principles in the universe. The heart is influenced by elements of the sun, the brain with the moon, the gall bladder with planet Mars, the lungs with Mercury, the liver with Jupiter, the kidneys with Venus and the spleen with Saturn. Accordingly, there are various plants and herbs which have a corresponding sympathy with these astral influences. Each herb or plant has to be plucked when the planet to which it is related rules the hour and its substance or the essence should be absorbed when it is fresh. Paracelsus has categorized each planet in conjunction with the plants as follows:

Sun- Rosmarinus officinalis, Lavunda officinalis and Melinda Officinalis for the treatment of acute inflammation, heart disease and rheumatism.

Moon- Thymus majorna, Ruta graveolens and Helleborus niger for the treating patients suffering from insanity, hysteria, and nervous diseases.

Mercury- Pulmonia officinalis, Althaea officinalis and Plantago laureola for the treatment of Pneumonia and inflammations of Mucous Membrane.

Venus- Onosis spinosa, Verbascum Thapsus and Apium petroselinum for curing diseases of kidney and bladder.

Mars- Carduus Benedictus, Urticaria diocia, Erythraea Centaurium for fevers, eruptive fevers and diseases of violent nature.

Jupiter- Ruta graveolens, Hepatica Nobilis, Cannabis Sativa for curing jaundice and other diseases related to liver.

Saturn- Chrysosplenium alternifolium, Scrophula Nodosa for the treatment of piles, hypochondria, etc.)

Paracelsus criticized other physicians as he discovered that they did not pay any attention to the planetary positions and killed more patients than they cure as the medicine that may be effective at one time may be harmful at another depending on the prevailing astral influence.

Thus Paracelsus proved that planetary positions do not directly effect upon the physical body of men but on their essence which constitutes the elements of the universe. In simple words he has repeatedly emphasized that the vital parts of our body are representatives of invisible energy that are circulating in the whole system.

PARACELSUS- AN EXTRAORDINARY ALCHEMIST

Alchemy is an art that cannot be comprehended without spiritual knowledge and astrology cannot be understood without proper knowledge of mathematics and logic. Just as chemistry is the study of physical matters, alchemy deals with astral ideologies. Astronomy is the study of planets and stars and astrology deals with influences of these stars on man.

Paracelsus defined alchemy as an art in which the fire of nature i.e. the astral light is the main artist. According to him, a human being is composed of three elements namely Sulphur, Mercury and Salt. A person is healthy if these three elements maintain their proportion with respect to their quantity. But the moment any of these elements deviates from its correct proportion, disease strikes the human body. These three elements are not visible to the naked eye but are acted upon the fourth principle which is called Life.

Paracelsus was critical of physicians who prescribed endless list of medicines without discovering the cause of the disease. Paracelsus has mentioned his valuable secret of alchemy in his work called, ‘Tinctura Physica’ which is a bible of alchemy.

He confirmed that composition of pure metals produces a scintillating effect around us. Paracelsus was of the view that if we create a composition of seven metals in a desired proportion and at the proper time, then we will acquire a metal which will contain the qualities of all the seven metals. Paracelsus termed the metallic mixture as, “electrum”. The preparation of electrum magicum is quite daunting task as each metal has to be in its purest form. The metals have to be prepared in its right proportion and during the conjunction of various planets at that time.

Many astonishing devices can be created from electrum such as amulets, magical finger rings, arm rings, bells and other things containing magical powers. According to Paracelsus’s calculations, magical mirrors can be created from the electrum magicum where you can peep into events of the past and the present, see your hidden enemies and long lost friends.

PARACELSUS VIEWS ON ASTROLOGY:

Paracelsus was of the view that astrology is closely connected with magic, medicine and alchemy. He believed that each body attracts planetary influences when in harmony and repels the others. For this man has to understand his own constitution to comprehend the influence of the astral influence which rules the sky.

Paracelsus did not approve of anyone calling him a professional astrologer who simply makes horoscopes. He understood the higher trait of astrology by which the relation of Macrocosm and Microcosm are understood. According to him, “No one needs to care for the course of Saturn: it neither shortens nor lengthens the life of anybody”.

Often we grumble or are envious of other people’s success and riches and blame it on our stars. But Paracelsus refutes such allegations and strongly emphasizes that stars are free for themselves and force nothing into us. It is actually the spirit of oneself that makes a man more appropriate than the others. At the same time he strongly condemned those ceremonies that attract spirits by saying that, “Whatever comes from the ‘spirits’ is sorcery.” According to Paracelsus, our body is created from elements, our soul from the star and the spirit comes from the almighty. Paracelsus refers stars as not merely the physical bodies that exist in our solar system but the principles in the cosmos.

The sun and the moon attract something from our body and our body too attracts something from them as each body is in harmony with the astral influences of the heavenly bodies. This is evident from the use of talisman and amulets which produces an astral form on the bearer.

Man should obey the will of God as wisdom can be acquired from God. If this inner consciousness is awakened then the mysteries of nature will be easily comprehended by spiritual knowledge.

MAGIC VERSUS SORCERY:

Paracelsus has clearly made remarkable demarcation between magic and sorcery. Magic causes illumination, light and is white in form whereas sorcery is concerned with darkness and black in form. Magic is the study of supernatural powers of the nature and an individual must possess complete knowledge of natural science to acquire the skills of magic.

Strong imaginary power and enormous faith are the two vital ingredients to construct the temple of magic. By imaginary power, Paracelsus refers to creative power of a man. According to Paracelsus, women possess stronger imaginary power because of their compassionate nature and stronger desires as compared to men. This is evident from the fact that if a woman loves anyone, she will love with all her devotion but if she hates somebody, God save him.

Strong faith has fantastic powers and we human beings do not realize it. An evil spirit, like a spear may try hard to pierce our body and cause some disease but if our faith in the supreme power of God is strong, it will act as an armour and protect us. Diseases can be effectively cured if men understood the power of faith and not superstition. The secret behind Paracelsus magical cure was his enormous faith in the power of the God who acts through him. Paracelsus also cautions that those physicians who cure diseases only with a belief that he will be able to overcome it, beliefs in superstition, but physicians who realize that he possess the power to perform and is aware of his power will perform what is called, ‘a miracle.’

VARIOUS REMEDIES BASED ON PHILOSOPHYICAL AND THEOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS:

According to Paracelsus, strong reasoning power is a prerequisite to be a proficient philosopher and a true theosophist must possess the knowledge to perceive spiritual powers. To obtain spiritual power, we first have to realize what is good and what is evil and without knowing evil we will never be able to realize what is good. The moment we understand what is good, it becomes a reality and we attain the highest degree of happiness as God resides within the spirit of man.

Often it happens that we are thinking of a person from a long time and all of a sudden that person calls us. The very first expression is, Oh! I was just thinking to call you and see you called. What a coincidence? But according to Paracelsus it is the magical power of will of the person which sends signals to the other person to contact him or her.

Paracelsus also believed that it is possible for us to communicate with the spirit of the deceased by keeping his or her picture under our head with a question you wish to ask. The answer will be interpreted in our powerful dreams. But this experiment should only be initiated if you have undeterred and enormous faith in the spirit, because it is our faith which will strike communication with the spirit.

According to Paracelsus, Man belongs to two spirits- Animal Spirit or Human Spirit. A person who belongs to animal spirit will behave and live like animal during his life and will be animal after he dies, but a man with human spirit will always remain human.

Another important aspect of Paracelsus theological work was his study of medicinal herbs which serves as an Elixir of Life. In the mythological story of ‘Ramayana’, Lord Ram’s brother Laxman, who was seriously wounded in the battle with Ravan, King of Lanka, was saved by a medicinal herb called ‘Sanjivani Booty’, the Life Elixir, prescribed by sage Agastya. Paracelsus believed that a person who has taken birth has to die but there is nothing wrong in protecting himself from evil astral influences, accidents, epidemics and old age. Paracelsus strongly recommended, a remedy called ‘Primum Ens’ for prolonging the age of human being. The Primum Ens Melissae is prepared by a unique concoction of pure carbonate of potash, a plant called Melissa and alcohol.

Finally one of the most secretive and valuable remedy which Paracelsus discovered was, ‘Zenexton’, a unique tablet made by grinding live toads, roots of certain medicinal herbs, pearls, coral, saffron, musk and amber and many other elements. When the mixture dries up it has be to cut in to tablets when the moon is in the sign of Scorpion. The tablet has to be draped in a red silk cloth and to be worn as an amulet around the neck to ward off evil astral influences, diseases, poison and black magic.

Thus from the above, we have discovered the secret of Paracelsus success in the field of medicine, surgery, magic, alchemy and occult science. But as Paracelsus rose to fame he was subject to professional envy as other physicians lagged the intelligence and foresight of Paracelsus. He was also kind enough to treat the poor without any charging any fees, an act which was met with much

resentment among his colleagues. But what an irony, many a times his noble act was not acknowledged and was often ridiculed. Once a rich wealthy, Count Philippus of Baden, who was termed as incurable by celebrated physicians, Paracelsus cured him in short time. But instead of being rewarded for his generosity, he was shown the door. This only gave his oppositions an opportunity to rejoice but that did not discourage Paracelsus as he continued to perform his wonderful cures.

PROFESSOR OF MEDICINE:

As Paracelsus enjoyed travelling a lot, he visited Basel in the year 1527 and was appointed as Professor of Medicine and Surgery by the City Council for which he received handsome salary. Unlike his colleagues who merely lectured on works written by other medical healers like Hippocrates and Avicenna, Paracelsus designed his own course material. The principles he imparted his students were of his own and hence his popularity among them increased. Also he gave lecture in German instead of Latin which again was not favoured by his colleagues.

As a part of the Office of the City Council, he voluntarily offered his services to supervise the conduct of the Compounders, whether they are aware of their business and whether they have stock of genuine drugs to prevent them from inflating the prices of essential drugs. He would often admonish other physicians to stop digging gold and instead pay attention in the search of new medicines.

FAME ATTRACTS ENVY:

No sooner a person gains fame and popularity, his list of foes grow endlessly. The City druggist began to hate Paracelsus for his measures to control prices of essential drugs. Other physicians and professors too grew jealous of his increasing popularity and success in curing diseases. They all joined together and demanded an explanation from the University for hiring Paracelsus’s services. These envious people declared Paracelsus as a stranger, a quack and requested the University to probe whether Paracelsus is a ‘real doctor’ or not.

In order to prevent events from turning worse, Paracelsus resigned from the University and left Basel in the year 1528.

From Basel, Paracelsus arrived at Colmar and later on visited Esslingen in the year 1529 and Nuremberg in 1530. In Nuremberg too, physicians called Paracelsus a quack and an imposter. Tired of being taunted a quack on numerous occasions, Paracelsus decided to confront the situation. He requested the City Council to send some patients suffering from incurable diseases. The City Council obliged and sent few patients suffering from elephantiasis which Paracelsus cured successfully in a very short span of time and free of cost. He

SUCCESS MEETS DEATH:

Inspite of achieving success in Nuremberg, Paracelsus efforts and services were drastically ignored. He continued his life as a vagabond wandering from places to places. He visited places like Noerdlingen in the year 1530 followed by Munich, Regensburg, Amber and Meran. In the year 1531 he visited St. Gall and then to Zurich in the year 1535. All this while, he gathered few disciples who were impressed by Paracelsus cures and desired to acquire his secrets and art of medicines. Among his followers were Johannes Oprimus, Adam von Bodenstein, Alexander von Suchten, Peter Severinus, Oswald Crall and many others.

As he continued with his passion of travelling, he reached Salzburg where the Duke of Ernst of Bavaria requested him to join his court as a physician. Finally, Paraclesus acquired a position where his medical skills were recognized and obtained widespread fame.

But fate was not in favour of Paracelsus. This joyous period of richness and fame ended tragically as Paracelsus succumbed to a mysterious death in a small Inn called, ‘White House’ on the 24th of September 1541. His remains were buried the next day in the grave of St. Sebastian.

There is not much evidence to prove that Paracelsus was indeed murdered. Primary investigations revealed that Paracelsus was hit by a blunt object on his head by some anti-social elements hired by local physicians which eventually led to his death. One German physician Dr. S.Th.von Soemmering, who examined the body of Paracelsus, discovered a fracture on the skull believed to be the cause of death.

Paracelsus bones were unearthed in the year 1527 and entombed in the Chapel of St. Philippi Neri, in the vicinity of the St.Sebastian where his monument proudly stands today.

PARACELSUS RICH LEGACY:

Paracelsus himself was not an avid reader or a writer, a fact which is corroborated by his disciples and followers. He would only dictate his work to them without utilizing any manuscripts and books. According to him, “Reading never made a physician. Medicine is an art and requires practice.” Few of his work were published during his life time namely, ‘De Gradibus et Compostionibus Receptorum et Naturalium published in the year 1526 and ‘Chirurgia Magna’ published at Ulm in the year 1536. To display their affection and gratitude to their master Paracelus, his disciples, Gerhard Dorn, and Martin Ruland composed a dictionary called ‘Lexicon Alchemicum’ which comprises unique terms used by Paracelsus.

However Paracelsus was quite discreet when it came to sharing his valuable secrets as he feared it may be go in wrong hands. One of his disciple, Johannes Oprimus who served Paracelsus for three years was upset with Paracelsus’s secretive nature and connived with his enemies. However after Paracelsus’s death, Oprimus turned remorse and repented for his indiscreet behavior.

Paracelsus did not leave behind him material goods but his work which displays his abundant knowledge of medicine. Even when he died, the only things found in his possession were a copy of Bible, a Biblical commentary on Bible and a book written on medicine.

CONCLUSION:

Paracelsus was among those few who treated patients as his textbook and the sickbed as his course of study. His passion for travelling was instrumental in acquiring knowledge and found his best teachers among vagabonds, gypsies, barbers, midwives and executioners. Phenomena’s of nature were of more value to him and his love for God an essence for survival. If you have read and understood this biography you will be amazed to discover that Paracelsus’s doctrines are based on his study of Bible and bear a striking resemblance to the Vedas.

The main reason why Paracelsus principles and work are not implemented today is that his system has not been completely understood by our modern medical practitioners. Hope a time will come when his fundamentals will be understood and a breakthrough is achieved in the field of medical science. Till then my dear readers, ‘Be Good to Others, have Faith in God and your Life is Insured’.

QUOTES BY PARACELSUS:

Medicine rests upon four pillars-Philosophy, Astronomy, Alchemy and Ethics.

But is not He who created it for sake of the sick body more than the remedy? And is not He who cures the soul, which is more than the body greater.

The interpretation of Dreams is a great art.

What sense would it make or what would it make or what would it benefit a physician if he discovered the origin of the diseases but could not cure or alleviat