Author: Andre Coleman

Employee Relations in Small and Medium EnterprisesA Non-union Approach
Introduction

The term SME or small and medium business enterprise is often used to describe a business enterprise that has anywhere between 10 to 15 employees for a small business whereas anything under 250 would be a medium enterprise. However, the number of employees is not the only classification that is used, and can be as diverse as turnover, industry, or business structure. According to a survey carried out by the Department for Business, Innovation & Skills (BIS) in 2004, the UK “had 1.16 million private sector firms with fewer than 250 employees, representing 94 per cent of all employers in the UK economy.1 These SMEs employed a total of 8.66 million employees (36 per cent of all employees in the UK) and they accounted for 47 per cent of private sector employers’ turnover.” This suggests the apparent importance of these enterprises.

The other important aspect of SMEs is their ability to be innovative, and adaptive to the constantly changing market environment, creating employment opportunities in the economy, and contributing to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). SMEs vary in size depending on the industry, and skills. A biotechnology firm is likely to have fewer highly skilled employees where as a cleaning services firm will have more unskilled workers. Nonetheless, the fact that a significant fraction of the working population is employed by an SME, it is necessary to understand how these enterprises are managed, and how human resources policies regarding recruitment, training, performance evaluation, and day to day employee relations are adopted and practiced.

Management and employment relations in an SME

A typical structure of an SME is largely business, product or process orientated, with little specialist involvement in areas outside the remit of the business, human resources for instance. Managers have little expertise or qualifications to conduct personnel management task, most managers tend to rely on their past experience in managing relationships. This is interesting because it provides a unique opportunity to study management issues and strategies that can be anywhere from non-existent in a small firm to informal and semi-formal in a medium firm. Tradition management styles that have been identified in Fox (1974) and Purcell and Sisson (1983), relate to management perspectives with regards to employee relations in an industrial setup. The classifications were based on the type of views held by both management and employees, where both could be either unitary or pluralist. Marchington and Parker (1990) point out that these differences were in relation to how management viewed unions and their involvement on issues like employee participation and conflict resolution. These assertions are applicable in a large complex organisation but may not necessarily be true in a small setup where human resources and employee relations may be absent altogether.

Goss (1991) found that management styles at small firms were likely to be characterised by how the owner-manager experience relative disposition of power, and identified four types of management control –

Fraternalism, Paternalism, Benevolent Autocracy, and Sweating

.

The distinction was based on how much independence employees enjoyed for every degree of dependence the employer possessed. A host of studies conducted in the UK (WERS, 2004), Europe (EIRO, 2006), and Canada (CFIB, 2004) give an idea of what management practices are adopted in the SME sector generally and how working hours, training, remuneration, and employee representation are handled. A key observation found synonymous in all the studies was that employee representation, although significant, was conducted in informal settings through individual contracts and concepts of collective bargaining and unionisation were largely absent in smaller firms but rose with firm size. And where a non-union employee structure is prevalent, it is difficult to compare or comment on the effectiveness of such a structure, as all previous studies go only as far as determining the type of employee participation practiced but do not assess their quality of impact.

Non-union employee participation

According to Guest (2001), a non-union workplace lacks formal human resources or industrial relations departments which interface between management and employees. Dundon et al., (2005) describe a non-union workplace where the importance of union is not recognised in determining employee issues such as pay and work conditions, as opposed to whether or not employees are members of any union. They also point out the reasons, incentives, and motivation for managers for choosing a non-unionised interaction with the workforce. Guest and Hoque (1994) went on to classify the various non-union employer types, differentiating them on the basis of a range of human resources attributes. They banded employers as either good, bad, or ugly depending on these attributes. Although some counter arguments to this classification were on the grounds of methodology selected and if it collected information on employee views on their employers, and the lack of motivation and incentive, if any, from the employees in preferring to be non-union (Dundon, et al., 2005).

Although type of employee participation and representation is seen as an important part of the relationship between management and employees, it is interesting to understand how these become part of the culture. Freeman and Medoff (1984) describe employee representation, or employee voice, as having both consensual and conflictual connotation, and showed how participation could impact quality and productivity, whilst on the other it could help resolve disputes. Managers in a relatively small workplace are likely to view non-union participation more favourably because they may not have experience of dealing with unions and may feel more comfortable dealing with issues locally and informally. As the workforce becomes larger and larger, the advantages of a non-union representation diminish and firms tend to seek a formal approach to interaction as seen in larger firms.

Ackers et al., (2004) suggest that direct communication with the employees is also one of the most significant concept of a non-union employee representation, adding that managers would be more willing to share information relating to the business, work arrangements, staffing and job prospects directly with employees.

Collective bargaining, remuneration, and workplace relations

The concept of collective bargaining is more or less relevant to a union based employee representation, where the propositions are deemed to be in the best interest of the entire workforce as opposed to a single employee or groups. Since the relationships between management (owners, managers) and employees are less formal, such discussions can take place individually and would reflect the firm’s position vis-a-vis a particular employee. On the other hand, managers responsible for personnel matters may be involved in other tasks and is likely to spend more time on such tasks than those in similar positions in larger firms. Wage determinations and remuneration discussions are similarly done, and could be either set unilaterally by the management or negotiated on an individual basis. Therefore it would be common to assume a variable pay structure either by merit or performance, and the likelihood to profit-sharing. Pay reviews could be less regular in such a setup and may often require to be initiated by employees.

Recruitment, training, and personal development

The recruitment process at small firm may be less formal or rigorous compared to large organisations because of the level of expertise and sophistication available within the firm. A lengthy recruitment process can be costly, and can be counter productive to the immediate requirements of the business; hence employers may be willing to make quick decisions on the basis of the incumbent’s skills alone. WERS (2004) suggest that training and development opportunities were dependant on firm size, the larger the firm the more likely they were to offer on or off-the-job training. This can be true for two reasons, firstly cost implications, and second, the option to hire an already trained worker. In a non-union workplace this can be both beneficial and disadvantageous at the same time, since over-simplification could get the job done but may not necessarily represent the best interests of employees.

Conflict resolution

Irrespective of the size of the firm, grievances can arise and depending on the relationship an employee involved has with their manager, it could be dealt with informally in the first instance, and small and medium firms would adopt such a process not because they may not have a formal grievances and conflict resolution procedures as seen in large firms. Majority of employers have such procedures for regulatory purposes, but how effectively these are used varies from firm to firm. Since SMEs are not labour intensive collective disputes are unlikely to emerge requiring collective resolution through means of a union representation. This can be viewed as an incentive for managers to have a non-unionised employee representation to avoid the hassles of dealing with the union when a dispute arises (Dundon, et al., 2005).

Employee attitudes

The WERS (2004) survey reveals that managers in SMEs were more likely to involve employees in workplace related decision making processes and employee influence was greater in small firms than larger ones. Guest and Hoque (1994) suggest that employees that feel better appreciated were more likely so see their employer as “good” non-union employers and may be even motivated to discourage a unionised workforce which would tend to reduce their influence on management decisions. The employees’ perception of workplace and management being the same, changes as firm size increases. This is significant enough incentive for managers to cultivate a non-unionised workplace. To this extent there is a big difference between employees’ expectations for collective representation and employers’ willingness to subscribe to one. On the whole, the management is in a position to decide what type of representation they would like, and what mechanisms to utilize.

Conclusion

Small and medium-sized firms are vital for the growth of the economy, and play a significant role in providing employment to the population. The size and nature of products and services offered by these firms varies distinctly, and so does their management and employment practices. Size of the workforce does influence the type of management style that will be adopted, but it also depends on managers (owners) past experience and their perception of how work should be managed based on a set of beliefs. Small businesses have been seen to be less formal and tend to follow a close contact with their employees, and do not conform to hierarchal structures of management that are predominant in large organizations. These structures of relationships tend to get more formal as the firm size increases. Employees, on the other hand, find little or no difference between their workplace and management, an important distinction observed in larger firms which clearly distinguish between the “firm” and the “management”. Although employee relations in small and medium sized firms tend to be more informal they can be inflexible to changes in the workplace. Managers may lack the necessary experience and expertise in issues like performance appraisals and dispute resolution; they tend to rely on their experience and prefer to engage the employees directly. Issues of pay determinations and other forms of compensation are set out by managers but it allows employees to engage with management over discussions, without the necessary involvement of collective employee representations like unions. The dialogue is less formal and gives the management opportunity to consider personal circumstances of employees. Similarly conflict resolution and grievances are accorded an informal process, whereas any disciplinary action resulting from such discussions may be formal and follow a traditional approach. And because managers prefer to have a less formal involvement of employees the concept of non-unionized representation is favoured as management sees more flexibility in running the business and find to have less control when a collective representation is sought. Formality in relationships increases with firm size when management wants to have more distance between owners and employees in order to maintain a consistent level of control through decentralization. The degree of formality exercised may vary within the firm itself, for instance management may adopt a more formal approach to employee training and development, but at the same time conduct performance appraisals informally.

In regards to SMEs the nature of employment relations is not always straightforward and management practices, which may appear simple and unsophisticated, are influenced by a variety of factors and have evolved as a response to a particular need as the industry and business requirements, or regulations, evolved over time.

References

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Learning Preferences

Learning is a life long process and can be had in various shapes and forms. It can be based on education, experience, formal training etc. Every individual has his preferred way of learning which can change during the course of his lifetime. Eg. Individuals can prefer class-room learning when they are young and formal training when they grow old. Usually learning based on experience is considered one of the best ways to learn, but George Bernard Shaw (cited in Moyer, 2007) believes that experience doesn’t guarantee learning. He points out that men are wise in proportion, not to their experience, but to their capacity for experience and one needs to pay attention to find the lessons. Formal training is another way to learn and has been greatly successful within organizations over the years. But, Peter Drucker in his article “Managing Oneself” (HBR March–April 1999; pg 148) doubts the effectives of formal training by stating that training can be an impediment to learning because it is based on the assumption that there is only one right way to learn. Education and class-room based learning have traditionally been a preferred mode of learning. Rapid rise in technology and its applications has meant ready and continuous access to training and business communications which has meant that learning can now be more timely, specific and synchronous (Sullivan, 2003). Today’s generation want to be connected to instant messaging and short, highly-focused training that can be quickly downloaded and accessed via mobile phones, PDAs, or MP3 players(Ware, 2007; pg 58). Every learning technique has its advantages and limitations and the most preferred learning technique depends on variables like age, life-style, receptiveness and responsiveness of the brain, patience etc.

Preferred Team Roles

Teams have become a key component in organizations; properly working teams are now central to the organizations health. (Fisher at el., 1998) Because of the growing emphasis on team-working, a lot of research has gone into the structure, dynamics and the operations of the team. This has led to segregating team member by their functionality and the roles and responsibilities they entail as a part of the team. Belbin (1981) identified eight different roles within the team with each member complementing the others strengths and compensating for the weaknesses. Belbin classified and named his team roles as:

The plant – Is a problem solver and has innovative, creative and unorthodox way of dealing with situations. Has a strong ownership of ideas.
The resource investigator – Is the networking member the team that explores opportunities through new and pre-existing contacts. Is an extrovert, enthusiastic individual having good communication skills.
The coordinator – Coordinates different activities of the team and acts as a chairperson. Is responsible for most of the decision making and is normally more experienced than other members.
The Shaper – Overcomes obstacles with his drive and courage. Thrives on pressure.
Monitor-Evaluator – Has good judgment and the ability to look at the bigger picture. Has more strategic focus.
Team–Worker – Responsible for avoiding conflicts and making sure the team gels together and coordinates well.
Implementer – Responsible for turning ideas into actions.
Completer – Is a perfectionist responsible for finishing the project on time.

(Belbin, 1993)

Attitudes to Decisions making

No matter what sector or industry people work in, they have to make decisions. Decision making involves risk because, most often than not, the outcome cannot be guaranteed. By definition, a decision involves choice and therein lie the difficulty- making the right choice. (McGuire, 2002) The degree of risk involved is greater if the decision is made at the strategic level as compared to the tactical and operational level.

Normal attitudes to decision making include:

Indecisiveness – People try to evade decision making because it involves risk. Faced with choices and being unclear about which one to make leads to indecisiveness and inaction.
Over Analysis – Another attitude to decision making can be over-analyzing options to make sure the correct decision is made. Langdon (2001) calls it ‘paralysis by analysis’ syndrome which means inaction caused by too much thinking.
Decisions made on past experiences (historical evidence)– Decisions, at times, are also made by on past experiences without considering the current situation. Eg. If faced with a similar problem as in the past, there is likelihood that the decision similar to the one made in the past will be made.

Other attitudes to decision making include decisions made in haste and decisions made without proper consultation with others.

Leadership and management skills

Leadership is the ability to obtain results from others through personal direction and influence and requires management of self and management of others. Leadership and management differ in the way that management is concerned with ensuring things remain as they are and is often done by standard practice and regulation; leadership involves possessing vision, and the ability to communicate that vision. Leaders should possess the following skills

Problem Solving – Problem solving involves identification and definition of the problem, generation of a number of solutions that could be accepted, evaluation of alternatives and their outcomes. An important attribute within problem solving is, communication, in particular, listening skills, as various opinions and possible solutions are being generated. The leader has to see the big picture and choose the best possible solution (decision-making).
Decision making – Decision making goes hand in hand with problem solving (as cited in the last paragraph). Every aspect of leadership requires decision making. Delegation, for example, requires the manager to decide which individual is suited for specific tasks and how to distribute work in an optimal and best possible way.
Communication – It is very important that the leader has regular and open communication with both the customer and the team members.
Change-management – Managing change is also vital to effective leadership because changes might be requested by the stakeholders, caused by unexpected events. Therefore, it is important that the leader has the skills to manage and control change and make sure that the impact of change on accomplishing objectives is kept to a minimum.
Management skills

Independent of the leadership ability, managers has been studied to have different styles. The style chosen by a manager depends on the assumptions that they make about subordinates, what they think they want and what they consider their attitude towards work to be. Managers have to provide direction to the team, the drive and motivation to work as a part of the team, represent the purpose of team working and working as a group.

All the components mentioned below are essential traits of a leader. There has been a widespread acceptance that leadership is an essential management component but it has proved to be difficult to identify the elements of effective leadership and how effective leadership relates to good management practices. (James & Walke, 2004) It is worth pointing out that there is no one best style of leadership that is equally effective for all circumstances. The best leadership style is the one that fulfills the need of the group the most, while at the same time satisfy the needs of the external stakeholders.

Personal Development plan
Areas of development

Author’s weaknesses lie in the following areas:

Delegation skills – The author is not very good at delegating tasks and has an inherent weakness to doubt others capabilities. He is more comfortable when most of the crucial responsibilities and decision making rests in his own hands and where he just tells the team what to do.
Communication – Communication in one of the author’s other weaknesses. This takes off from his delegation style, because he believes in centralized decision making and the need to communicate with subordinates or other team members is seldom realized.
Negotiation – The author also finds himself lacking in negotiation skills at times. He is good at understanding and knowing the background to the problem but it’s the bargaining phase of negotiation that the author is not very good at (especially in project management environment).

Strengths (Key Skills)

Author’s strengths lie in:

Organization and Planning – The author excels at organization and planning and makes good use of planning tools. He takes time out to decide on the critical activities and the slack and apportion responsibilities accordingly. He has a clear understanding of the tasks ahead and prioritizes tasks according to their order of importance.
Motivation – The author is a highly motivated individual who could turn on creative juices, fight against odds and walk the extra mile to reach set goal and attain objectives.
Change Management – Embracing change is another one of the author’s positive traits. He has always identified the need to change and how change can be effectively implemented with least resistance.
Background

Preferred team role

The author’s preferred team role based on his capabilities is that of the ‘plant’ (going by Belbin’s classifications). Armed with strong theoretical basics and practical training, he has a strong ownership of ideas. The author also possesses an unorthodox way (out of the box thinking) of dealing things and is always looking for new and better ways to tackle issues and solve problems. He is skeptical to an all-logical approach to problem solving and does not always adhere to norms and proven ways of doing things. Author’s weakness lies in his ability to work under pressure and to consequently avoid situations that may entail pressure.

Decision making style

The author does make decisions after a proper analysis of the situation and how the decision affects individuals and the organization. His decision making style involves a process of elimination where a final decision is taken after eliminating alternatives. The author’s weaknesses lie in giving minimal consideration to external factors. What is required for decision making is the use of appropriate decision making tools. SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) is one such tool which helps to assess the internal and external decision making environment. Edward de Bono’s ‘six thinking hats’ is another tool for making team decisions. Before making a decision, the author has to make sure that the impact on external stakeholders is also considered. One of the other weaknesses of the author is the tendency to rush with decisions (haste). To overcome this, the author has to make sure that the issue is defined properly, all the information and alternatives are carefully considered and all the options weighed and evaluated before the decision is made.

Preferred learning style

The author’s preferred mode of learning is through hands-on training after having a firm theoretical knowledge of the basic concepts. A good way to learn for the author would be to start with a theoretical learning exercise through a tutor based class-room course and then having to execute the learning with hands-on training under some supervision. This would be an ideal scenario as it blends theory and practice. It might take some extra time to carry out the training, but at the end of it, the author would have added sufficient skills and is likely to be more efficient while working. This will also make sure sufficient time is allocated to train individuals; training is not rushed with and does not cover just one aspect (theoretical or practical).

Goals

The author sets goals based on his strengths. He makes sure that the goal is specific. A specific goal like improving profitability by 3% in the next financial year gives direction to the efforts. Also the author makes sure that the set goals can be measured (in relative or absolute terms) and are attainable. If goals are far too optimistic (unrealistic) and beyond reach, then it tend to have an adverse effect on motivation. The author only sets goals which he believes can be accomplished. It is made sure that the goal is attained within a specific time frame. Goal setting is a variable process for the author where the goal can be varied depending on external and unforeseen circumstances. Goals are set based on authors past performances and it is made sure that the goals are neither too easy nor too difficult to attain.

Planning

A plan is devised by the author to attain goals. Firstly, the author lists key skills required to attain the goal along with other requirements and constraints. Then a structure is given to the planning process to bring all aspects of planning together into a coherent, unified process. The planning structure includes analysis of opportunities, identification of aims, exploring of options, selection of the best option, evaluation of the plan followed by implementation and closure of the plan.

Opportunities

Setting up a goals and giving direction to the career to achieve that goals opens up several opportunities. The first opportunity is to realize the shortcomings and working on improving them. When we list our goals, we build our self-image and we see ourselves worthy of these goals which acts as a motivating agent. (Hosking & Bass, 2001) As a result, we try our best to develop the traits and personality that allows us to possess those goals. Improving on weaknesses and learning through experience are the two best opportunities to be gained from the self development process.

Progress

The author makes use of indicators like Gantt Charts (See Appendix 1) and Network diagrams (See Appendix 2) to track progress. Gantt charts help in setting a time frame that allows carrying out all the necessary steps. The author makes sure that the critical activities are paid sufficient attention and sufficient time is allocated as ‘slack’.

Authors skill set also includes soft skills such as impulse to lead and attain objectives, anticipatory skills to adjust the goals according to the changing environment and empowerment skills. Successful plans make optimal use of skills, experience and specialist knowledge.

References

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Drucker, P (1999) People and Performance: Managing Oneself ,Harvard Business School Press Books, p1, pg 148

Fisher et al., (1998) The distribution of Belbin team roles among UK managers, Personnel review, volume 29, 2, pg 1-14

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Hall, B (2007) Five Ways to Use Social Networking for Learning.,. Chief Learning Officer, Vol. 6 Issue 5, p17-17

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McGuire, R (2002) Decision Making, The Pharmaceutical Journal, Vol 269, pg 647-649

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Appendix 2

Recorded Conversation

After a basic skills assessment of using visual arrays, mastery questions on applying the written grid method were required for their next steps in multiplication.

E:Miss, I’m not sure how to do the grid method.

TA:So, written method. Same scenario, but we are not going to draw the arrays. What is the calculation?

E:13 x 9.

TA:OK. What do you need to do first?

E:Break the 13?

TA:How?

E:Into place value.

TA:Correct. Show me how you’ll do that.

E:One 10 and three 1’s.

TA:Good. Now what?

E:First you times 3 by 9, then 10 x 9.

TA:OK, off you go.

E:(writes) 3 x 9 = 27 and 10 x 9 = 90.

TA:Good, now what do I do with those two answers?

E:Add them together.

TA:See. You know what to do. What do we need to remember when we use column addition?

E:Make sure everything is in line.

TA:Yes. We need to make sure our place value is aligned correctly. Well done!

Reflection:

Upon evaluation, I believe that I succeeded when it came to asking the appropriate open questions to provoke their own thinking, which helped them achieve their learning objective but evidently lacked the necessary more informative feedback the child deserved to understand their next target. I hope that I will be able to address this better after some directed CPD training.

Appendix 3

Child Y

LO: To use the grid method to solve multiplication word problems.

SC: R U C S A C

CAN DO

CAN’T DO

Understood what had to be done for step 1 of question.

Chose correct operation.

Partitioned numbers correctly on the grid.

Did not know all of 4x table.

Used times table grid in classroom.

Aware that all the answers had to be added together.

Addition calculation was written incorrectly. (pv not aligned)

Able to calculate once prompted to use correct pv alignment.

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Vygotsky, L.S. (1978) Mind in society: The development of the higher psychological process. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

A Search of Teacher Professionalism. A personal reflection through the Lenses of a Traditional, Conflict Theory, Neo Liberal and Critical Perspective.

In a recent Guardian Secret teacher article (2015) one school leader explains how they feel lost, set adrift, since the last update to the Ofsted inspection guidance.

“I used to think I knew the rules for inspections – I built my career on it.”

Is this a reflection of the teaching profession today? Have teachers been re-professionalised under the scrutiny of performativity as put forward by Ball (2003). I aim to consider these ideas looking at the role of the professional with particular emphasis on my own feelings of professionalism.

I joined the teaching profession to make a difference or that is certainly how it felt. My decision to become a teacher was built upon a desire to influence the life chances of young people. But having entered the profession with seemingly noble intentions what sort of profession have I joined? What sort of professional have I become?

The nature of professionalism has been subject to much scholarly debate. It has even been suggested (Whitty, 2000) that a profession is whatever society thinks it is and therefore this could mean we have to consider professionalism in a personal context. In order to discuss the concept of professionalism I first need to attempt to define the term ‘professionalism’ for myself. The terms professional and professionalism mean different things to different people.

Through my readings around professionalism there appear to be four main structures with which to consider the concept of professionalism. I will examine each of these stances and reflect on my own sense of professionalism through these lenses. Ultimately attempting to consider each perspectives utility for my own practice.

Traditional

Traditional views of professionalism are largely based on occupations like medicine and law (Demirkasimoglu, 2010). These professions have high status and pay but also high levels of autonomy. For this reason occupations like teaching are traditionally accepted as quasi professional in that ‘Bureaucratic control….fills the need for coordination by limiting the semiprofessional’s discretion or autonomy’ (Leiter, 1981 pp225)

There are many aspects of teaching that I believe correlate with the traditional view of a professional. Teachers provide a public service, require expert knowledge and skills, and are driven by a moral imperative. I would align myself with these principles and therefore to some extent with the view that teaching is a traditional profession and that I myself am a professional from a traditional perspective. Teaching as an occupation does however differ from traditional professions. Teachers are subject to more organisational control than both lawyers and doctors and although the responsibility of education is vast it could be argued that it is not as large as those of liberty and health.

When considering my own sense of professionalism from a traditional perspective, I also question if there is a further distinction between modern teaching and the traditional view of professionalism.

Traditional professions afford a significant amount of distance between the client and the practitioner. Within teaching, due to the regular interaction between client and practitioner and the nature of the relationships that are formed this metaphorical distance is not so extensive. This idea leads me to consider the changes that may have occurred to teacher professionalism as the role of teacher has altered over the past century. Teachers are expected to be more than imparters of knowledge and as the emphasis on their role has shifted so too has the potential for teachers to be considered alongside doctors and lawyers as traditional professionals. From a personal perspective I find it hard to align my own feelings of professionalism with the traditional view that would separate teaching as a high status profession from other occupations. As much of a teachers work is conducted through direct client interaction and the relationship that is formed is an essential part of successful practice, much like nurses and social workers, this consigns teaching to remain quasi professional and for me to not consider myself a teacher in the fully traditional sense.

Conflict Theory

Another view point on the nature of the professional can be gained from Conflict Theory. Conflict Theory originates from Marxist thought. Macdonald (1995) suggests that from a Marxist standpoint it is not the knowledge that makes a professional high status but the value of this knowledge to the capitalist system. Therefore the professionals maintain structures in society by ensuring that positions are monopolised. Conflict Theory proposes that the social relationships of differing groups are built upon power and exploitation. Thus it is suggested that in effect the education system is organised to ensure that power is exercised and different groups within society exploited.

Ozga (1987) defines teacher professionalism as a form of state control with teachers being subject to ‘direct’ or ‘indirect rule’ by the state as political, economic, social and cultural circumstances determined. This suggests that the state is using professionalism as a means to gain desired outcomes.

“When we hear from all sides the demand for an introduction of regular curricula and special examinations the reason behind it is, of course, not a suddenly awakened ‘thirst for knowledge’ but the desire for restricting the supply of these positions and their monopolization by the owners of educational certificates”

(Weber, cited in Gerth and Wright Mills 1946, pp 242)

Analysing the arguments made by conflict theory about the role of professionals in society fills me with personal disquiet and apprehension. Conflict Theory suggests a role of the professional that significantly differs from my own feelings of morality, integrity and service. I believe that I entered the teaching profession to be of value. I see the role of a teacher as potentially immense in individual lives. Teachers have the opportunity to develop the academic ability and achievement of their students but also to have influence on their development as people. To suggest that part of the role of professionals, and therefore teachers, is to ensure that groups within society are restricted and that the structure of society maintained is, for me, and I would suggest many others within teaching, unpalatable.

This does not however mean that this is an incorrect standpoint. It would be hard to argue that the teachers professionalism has been used by the state to manipulate the profession into certain modes of behaviour. The teachers standards (2011) indeed define the behaviour and attitudes which set the required standard for conduct throughout a teacher’s career.

I find it difficult to square this particular circle. I see no problem with the statements made within the Teachers Standards but there still remains a discordancy between this view of an imposed professionalism and my own feelings of myself as a professional. Whatever the larger political structures that we live and work under this does not mean we have to fulfil the role suggested.

Evans (2008) sees professionalism more as a sum of individuals ‘professionality orientation’. The plural of how a group of individuals perceive their own professionalism. Professionalism is co constructed by the actions and beliefs on individuals who make up the profession. I believe strongly in the role of teachers to break norms in society and enable those that are less fortunate to succeed. Conflict Theory may suggest that systems would make this difficult however I do not feel that this in any way defines myself as a professional. Conflict Theory suggests a view of teachers as an occupational group with a professionalism defined by the state. Is the individual sense of ‘professionality orientation’ as outlined by Evans not a better measure of an individual’s professionalism? Or as Gewirtz stated

“.. teachers are not the passive dupes of classical Marxism, unwittingly co-opted as agents of the state: they are active agents resisting state control strategies and forcing their employers to refine and rework those strategies.” (Gewirtz, cited in Hextall et al 2007, pp39)

Considering all of the points above I do not feel that the conclusions from Conflict Theory help to define an individual teacher as a professional. I certainly do not feel that they help to define me as a professional. A sense of professionalism seems more personal than that which can be provided by broad statements defined by the state.

Neo-Liberal

We live in an age of high levels of external accountability. Ofsted, School league tables, the National Curriculum and performance related pay are just some of the high stake measures which have been introduced over the past thirty years.

Gewirtz (2002) argues that the restructuring of the education system has been part of the dismantling of welfarism whilst introducing managerialist forms of control and increased centralisation. This is seen as part of a Neo-Liberal approach to create competition and markets where previously there were none. This Neo-Liberal agenda has significantly shifted the role of the professional.

“The preferred strategy of the neo-liberal marketisers has been deregulation of the profession..” (Gleeson & Husbands, 2001, pp287)

Dale (1989) describes a shift in the mode of state regulation of teacher professionalism. Regulation has altered professionalism from a licenced form of autonomy to a more tightly controlled ‘regulated’ autonomy. These views do not agree with assumptions that teachers have been moving towards a professional status parallel to that which has been attained by the traditional professions of Medicine and Law.

The march of the Neo-Liberal agenda has resulted in a ‘struggle over the teachers sole’ (Ball 2003 pp 217). Ball suggests that the introduction of such performativity has led to an erosion of the traditional professional values, a shift in professional identity and the meaning of ‘professional’ for teachers. This has led to the emergence of a new kind of professional with differing professional values.

I can identify with some of the ‘new professional’ values that Ball (2003) identifies. The increased levels of performativity have altered the way the profession as a whole behaves and I think individual views of their own professionalism. I can identify with some of the traits Ball attributes to the new managers.

‘Thus the work of the manager, the new hero of educational reform, involves instilling the attitude and culture within which workers feel themselves accountable and at the same time committed or personally invested in the organisation’ (Ball, 2003, pp219)

Whilst recognising the negative spin that Ball is placing on this role I also would suggest that the new managers have helped improve the education system thought accountability and investment measures. I do see these attributes as part of my own professional identify.

However Ball continues by suggesting that part of the manager role is to create a docile (and capable) workforce. I do not see this as something that is part of my professional identify. I feel that we should be developing teachers who are able to question and drive the profession forward. Who have ‘extended professionality‘ (Hoyle, 1975, pp 318), an ability to have a much wider view of what education involves.

Whilst Ball is strongly questioning the use of performativity and the values of the new professionalism that has arisen from its use I find that some, but not all, of these values do align with my own feelings of professionalism.

Critical Perspectives.

More recent perspectives on professionalism suggest that we might rethink professionalism to be about how we do what we do, rather than an acquired status. Whitty (2008) moves beyond the notion of educational reforms being used to de-professionalise teachers but instead for these to be an attempt at re-professionalisation. There is acknowledgement that educational reform has brought about changes in professionalism but that this may be constructing a new type of professional potentially more appropriate to contemporary needs.

Hargreaves (2000) identified four ages of professionalism: the pre-professional age, the age of the autonomous professional, the age of the collegial professional and post-professional or postmodern. The fourth age, post-professional or postmodern, which Hargreaves believes the profession is moving into (or has already entered) is characterised by a struggle between groups or forces which are trying to de-professionalise the work of teaching and groups or forces who are trying to redefine teacher professionalism.

‘One possible outcome of these processes is a new, postmodern professionalism that is broader, more flexible and more democratically inclusive of groups outside teaching and their concerns than its predecessors.’ (Hargreaves, 2000, pp167).

These are some of the attributes that would be clear in postmodern professionalism.

Whitty (2008) categorises the teachers into two distinct groups. The ‘new entrepreneurs’ and the ‘old collectivists’. Both Whitty and Hargreaves are suggesting we are at time of change in teacher professionalism. But unlike the ‘new managers’ defined by Ball (2003) the new entrepreneurs who have embraced the changing educational agenda have gained more potential status and rewards, including broader training opportunities and a limited degree of autonomy. So rather than managing the line of performativity the new entrepreneurs have the opportunity to help re define teacher postmodern professionalism.

It does feel that the work of teachers has altered even within my own professional life. I would suggest that the critical perspective lens allows for potentially the greatest reflection into my own thoughts of professionalism. As previously mentioned I can identify with some of the traits Ball (2003) attributes to the new managers. When these professional attributes are considered from a critical perspective lens I begin to feel that I can form some stronger opinions as to my own professional identity.

The traditional professional has some features that are in common with my own professional identify. However, the client-professional relationship that is formed within the work of teachers leads me to believe that I cannot align my own professionalism with these traditional beliefs. Whist Conflict Theory and a Neo-Liberal analysis allow us to consider the role that the state has, and is, playing on teacher professionalism I do feel that that the role the state is playing defines me as a professional.

Evans (2008) proposes that professionalism is not something that is an idealised concept. Professionalism has to be something that people actually ‘do’ not something that government or any other agency thrusts upon them. Therefore professionalism has a very personal context. I believe that I hold some of the professional attributes that would be associated with the new managers described by Ball (2003) and the ‘new entrepreneurs’ described by Whitty (2008). I believe that systems of accountability and investment within the organisation are part of my own feeling of professionalism. These are about increasing teacher performance but for the benefit of the young people who have one chance of succeeding within the education system. However I also feel that there are areas of my own professionality that are not discussed in these roles. The concept of ‘extended professionality‘ (Hoyle, 1975) is something that is deep within my own feelings of professionalism . It is a teachers duty to continually improve, to value the underlying pedagogy, to have a much wider view of what education involves and to adopt generally a more critical approach to the job. (Evans, 2008). Hence, I would suggest that I am potentially a new professional, one who has accepted the changes of performativity but trying to see the benefits such performativity can bring as well as ensuring that the main focus does not stray from what is best for the young people in our care.

Bibliography

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I applied to tutor MT118 – IT Skills & Software Tools for Managers, to first year business undergraduate students in DCU as I would like to lecture in the future and this fits with my PDP. Additionally, I want to improve my presentation skills and presenting to a large group on a weekly basis in beneficial.

Mark Woods, a teaching assistant at DCU interviewed me to assess my suitability for this position. I had to prove I was competent in Microsoft Word, PowerPoint and Excel and sign a signatory code. The weekly laboratory sessions covered file management, spreadsheets, document and presentation preparation and visualisation tools.

I was provided with access to a shared folder on Google Drive containing a list of students, module objectives and lab sheets for each weekly session. I was required to take attendance and update the teaching assistants if there were any issues in my weekly sessions or if there were students constantly missing class.

Each week I prepared by going through the lab sheet for that week and making notes to ensure we moved through the material in a timely manner. I also completed the tasks that students would be required to complete in the class to ensure I could deal with any student issues that many arise in class. This also enabled me to show students what the finished work should look like.

I was very anxious before the first tutorial as I had no experience in teaching such large numbers before. I also get very anxious when speaking in front of large groups. I struggled to get my head around the fact that not so long ago I was the student sitting watching the screen and trying to follow, I overcame this very quickly.

I chose to take part in this activity as it links directly to my PDP, in that I hope to lecture at some point in the future. The experience gained will help me to achieve this ambition. It also links to the presenting skills and time management competencies as it requires me to present a substantial amount of information and to help students complete the weekly class exercises in a short space of time. Each week in preparation for the class I would complete the class exercise and time myself, noting how long each exercise took and I maintained that pace in class to ensure I had enough time to help students if required.

3.1 Week 1

Week 1 was an introduction to Microsoft Word. The day before I was due to present I did a technology check in the lab to ensure my laptop was compatible with the overhead connections. I also spent some time the night before preparing an introductory presentation for the class and also ran through all the exercises as I was a little anxious about giving my first tutorial.

First impressions last and I was aware that the first few minutes of my initial tutorial was extremely important. I made sure I was on time (to set up and start) and to put myself at ease, I dressed appropriately and endeavoured to be as open and confident as possible given my anxiousness.

The Centre for Teaching and Learning (2014) says first lectures are important. Students should be welcomed, lecturers should clearly introduce themselves, the module and their expectations of students. To promote engagement in students, lecturers should appear enthusiastic and interested in the module and in the students. They should also ensure that they are organised and in control of the technology.

I learned that presenting for an hour isn’t as difficult as I had imagined. Before this the longest I had presented for was 15 minutes, my voice always cracked and I let my nerves get the better of me, however, after the initial nervousness settled down I found myself enjoying the experience. The students were all engaged and I answered any questions they had with ease. I gave them hints and tips I had picked up during my own studies and explained how important well formatted documents are and how they can be used to create a good first impression with lecturers during and professionals in the future. I feel it’s important to link class material to something students can see benefitting them now and in the future.

“Students should see the value of your module in how you set the context using a relevant problem or example and possibly link the content to a personal research/interests/news story etc.” (McGrath, 2014).

3.2 Week 2

This week’s tutorial focused on PowerPoint, again, I spent some time the night before preparing the required material and completing the exercises to enable me to show students how they should look when complete. I presented two contrasting sets of slides to show students how much more effective a well-structured and thought out presentation looks and to demonstrate the effects of colour in presentations.

3.3 Week 3

This week we moved onto Excel with an introduction to the basics.A I was aware that students may not have used a software application like Excel in the past and this might be a little more challenging than the previous two week’s material. I explained that most of the formatting functions were the same as those used in Word and Excel and went through some basic formulas and formatting exercises.

I learned the benefit of having a teaching persona this week. I had a meeting with one of my course lecturers during the week and we discussed my participation in the tutorial POD and his advice to me was to ‘act like a lecturer’. Further research has shown that the persona you choose should be related to the event and speech purpose. In creating your public persona, you should consider the speed at which you speak, it should vary to fit your message. Vocal variety in terms of tone, rate and pauses should also be considered as should voice projection, eye contact and gestures (Alberts, 2010).

I also assessed my ability to present knowledge this week. Teaching is characterised by descriptions that focus on presentation, in addition to background emphasis on covering the work on schedule, with the purpose of teaching seen as presenting or conveying knowledge. Thinking back to my undergraduate studies in modules similar to the one I’m instructing on my motivation was at times driven by the lecturer’s instructional ability. I felt I was improving and students appeared to be engaged and had no issues asking questions. I also adopted a practice of walking around the room when students were completing class exercises, this enabled me to see how students were progressing and offer help if needed.

3.4 Week 4

This week we moved onto medium level exercises and it was by far the most challenging week, not least because the lab sheets had indicated that students had access to spreadsheets that formed the basis of the exercises on Loop, which they didn’t. This meant students had to copy the exercise from the overhead and this severely impacted my ability to move through the required material and help those struggling with any aspect of the material, of which there were a few. Some students didn’t get to finish their exercises and I was conscious that they may not have fully understood the concepts, I emailed the entire class the files that should have been on Loop and my finished exercises asked them to run through them in their own time and let me know if there was anything they needed me to go over when we next met. I also emailed the teaching assistants and asked them to ensure students had access to the required files in advance for classes in the future.

3.5 Week 5

I was absent for this class as it was my graduation. I informed the teaching assistants well in advance to ensure they had time to arrange someone to cover and passed on my class attendance list to enable them to take attendance.

3.6 Week 6

This week had been set aside for revision and to enable students to ask questions in relation to any material covered in the previous weeks and get help with their continuous assessment work for the module. I took this opportunity to recap the material from week 4 and week 5 to ensure students had grasped the material covered. I learned that my work over the previous weeks had been understood and applied to student’s continuous assessment pieces. It also provided me with an opportunity to show students how to add some finesse to projects.

As stated in my PDP, presentation skills are a core competency within the management consultancy field. A clear and logical structure is critical to the effectiveness of your presentation. Not only do you need to walk someone from point A to point B but, along the way, you need to convince them with a data-backed argument (Skills You Need, n.d.). Taking part in this POD has enabled me to develop my presentation skills on a weekly basis and improve my delivery, in addition to helping me overcome presentation anxiety.

Jaj Modi (2009), a management consultant with over 15 years’ experience in the industry lists the following as essential skills:

Analytical and syntheses skills (e.g. the ability to delve into deep data analysis and then synthesise the key messages / “so whats”)
Excellent written communication (to produce Word and PowerPoint reports)
Strong PowerPoint presentation creation (essential for developing client presentation packs)
Commitment to delivering excellent client service (i.e. the desire to put in the long hours when you have to ensure a quality deliverable for the client)
Excellent verbal communication skills (e.g. being able to communicate in a structured manner during internal and external meetings)
Excellent team skills- successful consultants can work in diverse teams, under tight deadlines, to deliver quality work for clients
Highly organised – days may include various activities. The ability to schedule and follow through with these activities is vital

Participation in this POD has helped me develop and hone many of these skills. In particular, my PowerPoint creation and verbal communication skills. It was Seneca a Roman philosopher that said “While we teach, we learn” and in teaching this module I feel I have further enhanced my PowerPoint skills. Having to stand in front of a large group on a weekly basis has greatly improved my ability to communicate in a structured manner.

When I applied to be a tutor for this POD, I didn’t realise how important leadership would be to my role. Most successful tasks require leadership. Within this role, I was both a leader and follower. I learned from the teaching assistants, whilst also working to motivate and help the students. In the past I have studied contingency and relationship leadership theories to enable me to become a successful leader. Throughout the semester, I found myself relying on the behavioural and situational theories in addition to those previously mentioned.

Bass’ (1985) transformational leadership theory focuses on the idea that leaders motivate and inspire by helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task. His work is an extension Burns (1978) transforming leadership theory, Bass explained the psychological mechanisms that underlie transforming and transactional leadership. He also explained how transformational leadership could be measured, in addition to, how it impacts follower motivation and performance.

I thoroughly enjoyed interacting with the students over the six weeks. I endeavoured to link class material to their assignments and future careers. I also sent out emails to remind students about weekly CA’s and for larger assignments. I always included reasons as to why these assignments are important. For example, I reminded the students that the weekly quizzes individually amounted to a few small marks that may seem insignificant but when they are graded collectively they can increase or decrease overall grades significantly. I am of the opinion that giving students an understanding of how important their individual pieces of work is to their overall grade will help them motivate them to do their assignments.

I would consider emotional and intellectual fulfilment to be two very important factors for me in a career and this was shown to be true in the personality tests undertaken for a previous NGM assignment. Having had the opportunity to tutor a class I can see that it is about much more than showing up and completing a series of tasks. You get the opportunity to make a difference in a student’s life. Unlike my previous career in hospitality where you cater to the needs of customers who don’t necessarily appreciate the work you are doing.

Each week I left the class with a huge sense of personal pride, satisfaction and increasing confidence. The role also requires you to remain knowledgeable and academically inclined – it is intellectually and mentally stimulating.

It was an interesting experience to be on the “other” side of a class, it has definitely made me appreciate the work that goes into putting together a large lecture hall style class.

In this case, it will be both action and application. The experience gained through this POD has already enabled me to get paid tutoring in another academic institution. I am also currently waiting to hear back from DCU regarding paid tutoring on another undergraduate course. I might not have had the confidence of experience required to secure paid work from this but for my participation. My self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations have definitely improved over the last five months.

I am also hoping to build on my presentation skills over the coming months. The weekly presentations helped build my confidence and I am currently considering Toastmasters to help me maintain this confidence.

References

Alberts, J.K. (2010) Communication in Society: Communication, Written communication. Available at: https://catalogue.pearsoned.co.uk/assets/hip/gb/hip_gb_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/0205627870.pdf (Accessed: 24 January 2017).

Bass, B.M. (1985) Leadership and performance beyond expectations. Available at: http://web.a.ebscohost.com.dcu.idm.oclc.org/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=6dcc4b97-dc83-43f9-89d5-b93a62e9eff2%40sessionmgr4010&vid=1&hid=4206 (Accessed: 24 January 2017).

Burns, J.M. (1978) ‘Leadership’, Leadership, 1(1), pp. 11-12. doi: 10.1177/1742715005049347.

Linder, C. and Kung, R.L. (2010) ‘An exploratory study into the complexity of relations between physics lecturers” crafting of practice and students” expectations of quality teaching’, Instructional Science, 39(4), pp. 513-526. doi: 10.1007/s11251-010-9136-3.

McGrath, K. (2014) Guidelines for engaging students. Available at: http://www3.ul.ie/ctl/sites/default/files/Guidelines%20for%20Engaging%20Students_0.pdf (Accessed: 24 January 2017).

Modi, R. (2009) Develop essential Skillset for strategy consulting – strategic support for investors, businesses and entrepreneurs. Available at: http://www.strategyexpert.com/categories/consultingskills (Accessed: 24 January 2017).

Skills You Need (2011) Commercial awareness. Available at: http://www.skillsyouneed.com/general/commercial-awareness.html (Accessed: 24 January 2017).

Tiffany Elmore

Introduction to Precision Teaching

Precision Teaching (PT) has been applied in many settings and has been greatly successful in increasing learning performance in learners with a wide-range of abilities (White, 1986). It is an approach that measures whether an instructional method is successful in achieving learning goals. It focuses on directly observable behavior, monitors the frequency of the behavior performed in time and analyzes the behavior on a uniform visual display called a Standard Celeration Chart (SCC). Precision Teaching does not determine what curricula should be taught but offers a systematic approach as to the instructional tactics to apply (White, 1986). It bases the curriculum on the child’s performance, in other words, the learner knows best (Lindsley, 1971). The learner’s progress demonstrates whether the program is appropriate for the learner or if changes need to be made to the program.

In order to gauge a learner’s progress, the target behavior must directly observable. For example, reading a book aloud can be directly observed to determine the reader’s skill level of the words and comprehension. However, there has been some recent support for using Precision Teaching on inner behaviors. Although, it has been shown to be effective in reducing feelings of depression (Kubina et al., 2006), it is widely used on observable behavior.

In Precision Teaching, a learner’s performance is based on behavior frequency which is the average number of responses during each minute of the assessment period (White, 1986). Behavioral fluency is that combination of accuracy plus speed of responding that enables learners to function efficiently and effectively in their natural environments (Binder, 1996). Accuracy alone is not the best gauge of learning progression as it may show skewed improvement in performance. Essentially, by only assessing the accuracy of a learner’s response, an improvement in the learner’s performance is not truly reflected because the responses may be correct but the lack of speed in providing those responses also demonstrates a lack of mastery.

Frequency is measured by counts per minute. The speed of a learner’s performance of responding and the accuracy of the responses indicates the learner has either mastered the material, in other words, achieved fluency, or the progress has stalled and the instructional program must be altered. Fluency applies three learning outcomes associated with fluent behavior: Retention, endurance and application (Binder, 1993, 1996 as cited by Kubina, Morrison & Lee, 2002). Retention is the ability to perform the behavior after the intervention is terminated. Without retention, the learner loses the ability to perform the behavior. Endurance is the ability to perform a behavior at a specified level over a duration of time (Binder, unpublished doctoral dissertation; Binder, 1996, Binder, Haughton & Van Eyk, 1990 as cited by Kubina, Morrison & Lee, 2002). For learners who lack endurance may find it difficult to perform behaviors within a 30-second or 1-minute intervals and may ultimately stop performing the desired behaviors. Application is applying some element of a behavior to the entire behavior. For example, if the learner has difficulty in basic writing techniques then the application of increasing fluency in writing spelling words quickly cannot be achieved.

The progress of a learner is recorded on a visual display called a Standard Celeration Chart (SCC). The chart is called a standard celeration chart since it always depicts rate of change or progress in a standard manner, regardless of the initial frequency of the behavior (White, 1986). The SCC utilizes a ratio scale which means that all changes in performance will be measured in equal ratios regardless of where they are marked on the chart. The change in frequency from 1 to 2 is the same ratio as 50 to 100 on the SCC. The charts shows whether there is an acceleration, deceleration or no change in behavior. When a behavior frequency doubles, or moves from 1 to 2, it is considered a “times 2” acceleration. Likewise, when a behavior is halved, or moves from 2 to 1, it is considered a “divided by 2” deceleration (Lindsley, 1990a).

Implementation of Precision Teaching

Five steps are involved in the implementation of Precision Teaching: (1) select a task, (2) set an aim (3) count and teach, (4) develop a learning picture and (5) decide what to do (McGreevy, 1983). The first step of implementation is selecting a task for the learner to learn. A task has five parts: (1) a movement that can be counted often each day, (2) a counting period, (3) a correct/incorrect pair, (4) a learning channel set, and (5) a movement that is “hard to do” (p. II-1). A movement is an observable, physical movement, something that the learner is doing. To make sure the movement occurs often, the learner should have 8-10 learning opportunities per day (p. II-5). If the movement is too hard, then the movement can be changed to a slice back, a step back or a tool movement and, conversely if a movement is too easy it can changed to a leap up movement (p. II-11). A slice back is a smaller movement of the original movement. A step back is an easier movement than the original movement. A tool movement is the prerequisite body movement required to perform the original movement. A leap up movement is a movement that is harder to perform than the original movement.

A counting period is amount of time spent each day counting the movement (p. II-12). The period should be long enough so the movement can occur at least 8-10 times. The counting period should not be so long that it proves difficult to count the movement. However, adjustments can be made if the counting period is too long or too short to count the movement. Similarly, Kubina and Yurich (2012) incorporated these two parts into their analysis PT. They suggested that the first step of PT is pinpointing. Pinpointing applies focusing observable behavior and measuring behavior based on frequency. Consider the Dean Man rule that states if a dead man can do it then it is not behavior. The idea is that any directly observable behavior should involve some physical movement. For example, instead of observing a child sitting still in a chair, the teacher can observe the number of times the child gets out the chair.

A correct/incorrect pair involves counting the correct movements and incorrect movements (McGreevy, 1983, p. II-15). Instead of focusing on eliminating a movement without adding a replacement movement. For example, rather than decreasing screaming, it best for the learner to increase talking in softer voice.

A learning channel set outlines the input channel (received) and output channel (sent). The input can vary from hearing, touching, seeing, smelling, etc and output can include saying, writing, doing, pointing, etc. The learning channel sets “tells [others] how we are teaching a task” and “reminds us that are many ways for a [learner] to learn the same movement (McGreevy, 1983, p. II-18).

Lastly, the movement must be hard to for the learner to perform (p. II-20). The objective is to learn a new task rather than working on previously learned tasks. By selecting tasks that are hard to do, the learner, provided with ample learning opportunities, will hopefully achieve more corrects and fewer corrects over time and ultimately reach or come close to the aim.

The next step in implementing precision teaching is to set an aim (p. III-2). The aim is final chosen objective of the performance likely achieved by a high frequency of correct responses and low to zero frequency of incorrect responses. It is critical that learners learn to perform correct movements in a prompt, smooth and decisive manner. If the learner is having difficulty reaching aim, it may be necessary to change the way the movement is taught, change the learning channel or change the movement as indicated above as a step back, slick back or tool movement.

The third step in implementing precision teaching is to count and teach (p. IV-1). This steps requires counting the correct and incorrect responses and teaching the task to the student (p. IV-1). A movement is learned when the learner knows what the correct and incorrect responses are. Each task will be counted and taught daily until the learner reaches aim or the learning picture reflects a need for change.

The fourth step in implementing precision teaching is to develop a learning picture. Utilizing the Standard Celeration Chart, the charts displays the correct and incorrect responses provided daily by the learner (p. V-1). The trends of the chart develop the learning picture. The learning picture shows how quickly the responses are increasing or decreasing and predicts whether the learner will achieve aim.

The final step in implementing precision teaching is to decide what to do (p. VI-1). Once a learning picture has been revealed, a decision can be made as to whether to continue the current program or make a change. If the learner is not learning or not learning quickly enough, it may be necessary to make changes to the movement (i.e. a slice back), the counting period (i.e. increase 10 seconds to 20 seconds), the learning channel set (i.e. see-write to see-say), the aim (i.e can be lowered), or how the task is taught (i.e. lessons, untimed practice).

Precision Teaching in Research

Precision Teaching has been applied in a variety of settings and environments. It has proven useful in improving fluency in learners of all ages and all learning abilities. Precision Teaching has been implemented in professional environments as well as classroom settings. In 2002, Binder analyzed the fluency performance in a customer call center. After attending a FluencyBuilding workshops, the manager and supervisors of customer service call center decided to modify their traditional new hire training program. They focused on increasing fluency of the core fundamentals required to perform the job well. Within the fluency-based training, trainees were given lecture and tested on lecture material with a 2-minute quiz (see-mark), a 3-minute hear or see-say providing verbal responses to questions in addition to other fluency-based activities. Daily fluency goals for each exercise were set and each trainees’ performance was monitored against those goals. Trainees recorded their own performance and reported their performance to the training coaches.

As a result of the fluency-based training, correct performances tripled each week and all participants performed within the fluent range. The participants mastered the core material much faster than in previous training programs and thus reduced the required training during from three weeks to two weeks. New hire trainees were much more fluent in the fundamental skills and knowledge than their veteran counterparts. The dramatic improvements within this program demonstrate that fluency-based programs to be successful in education, training and coaching programs involving all ages of participants within various skill sets.

Precision Teaching applied within a classroom setting has proven to increase reading ability, maths skills, and improving academic interventions overall. Chiesa and Robertson (2000) utilized Precision Teaching and fluency-based training to enhance maths skills in five primary school children. The students were selected because their maths skills were not improving at the same pace as their peers. They were in jeopardy of being referred to a remedial program. The training program focused on one observable behavior, the division of two-digit numbers by one-digit. Pre-tests were taken on both multiplication and division skills to determine each student’s skill level. The students were taught how to use digital timers, plot scores and understand learning pictures on the SCC. The students were responsible for completing their maths practice sheets without teacher instruction or assistance. The five students sat together as a group during the maths period and had a personal folder that contained the practice sheets, answer key and charts. They completed their practice sheets within a one-minute time probe, each completed sheet was marked by a peer and the correct and error scores were recorded on the SCC.

Each week one of the researchers met with the students during maths period while the teacher was working with the rest of the class. The researcher reviewed each student’s progress and determined what changes would be taken. Students that met the aim, moved on to the next level, those who did not meet the aim were provided with skills that were further reduced, or sliced back until they were able to improve to a satisfactory level.

At the conclusion of the 12-week training program, the PT group had significantly improved their fluency in the maths skills task. Their responses ranged from 10 to 15 correct in one-minute which was an increase of 10 to 15 responses per minute before the program was implemented. The PT group surpassed all but one of the students in the entire class on the maths skills task. The results show that children performing at a low academic level can improve their learning significantly through Precision Teaching and fluency training. The training program did not require any more time than the allotted maths period and did not provide more instructional assistance or interaction from the teacher. This shows that PT can be beneficial and effective in the mainstream classroom and offers an alternative to expensive and time-consuming academic programs.

Precision Teaching has proven to be effective in improving skills in participants with intellectual disabilities as well (Kubina, Morrison & Lee, 2002). Schirmer et al. (2007) examined the effectiveness of precision teaching on teaching storytelling to child with autism. The child began working on a hear information-say story program for 10 minutes per day in order to increase the frequency of syllables used. The teacher would describe a scenario to the child and the child would create a story based on the information provided to him. After goals of increased syllable use were met, the teacher moved on a timed practice where the number of correct syllables produced in one minute was recorded. The number of corrects syllables produced increased from 21 per minute to 90 per minute in 5 days. In the last phase, the teacher changed the child’s learning channel from hear-say to see-say. The child was given a photograph and would create a story based on the photograph. Although there was an initial drop in the frequency of correct responses, the child reached the set aim very quickly.

Precision Teaching and Practical Application

As previous studies have shown, Precision Teaching can be applied in various learning environments with learners of diverse learning abilities. It is an instructional approach that can be applied to any established program or curricula. The main directive guiding success of the learner’s performance IS the learner. Fluency is key to the learner’s progress and any deficits in learning can be easy ascertained with the Standard Celeration Chart. This visual display allows the teacher to easily determine the learner’s progress and either continue with the program on course or make adjustments to program that are most beneficial to the learner. The SCC also helps teacher to predict future progress as to whether the learner will achieve aim or the number of incorrect responses will reach 0. Studies have shown that Precision Teaching can be used in conjunction with other instructional programs and can be effectively applied in both professional and classroom settings without requiring additional time to perform the program in the workplace or classroom. Precision Teaching daily timings are recorded on the SCC but no other data is required. Also, it does not require management or teachers to provide additional instruction outside of the program or curricula already in place. Its versatility in practical application makes Precision Teaching a favorable approach to utilize.

References

Chiesa, M., & Robertson, A. (2000). Precision teaching and fluency training: Making maths easier for students and teachers. Educational Psychology in Practice, 16(3), 297–310.

Kubina, R. M., Morrison, R., and Lee, D. L. (2002). Benefits of Adding Precision Teaching to Behavioral Interventions for Students with Autism. Behavioral Interventions, 17, 233-246.

Lindsley, O. R. (1971). From Skinner to precision teaching: The child knows best. In J. B. Jordan & L. S. Robbins (Eds.), Let’s try doing something else kind of thing (pp. 1-11). Arlington, VA: The Council for Exceptional Children.

Lindsley, O. R. (1990) Precision teaching: By teachers for children.Teaching Exceptional Children, 22, 10-15.

McGreevy, P. (1983).Teaching and learning in plain English(2nd. ed.). Kansas City, MO: Plain English Publications.

Schirmer, K., Almon-Morris, H., Fabrizio, M. A., Abrahamson, B. and Chevalier, K. (2007). Using Precision Teaching to Teach Story Telling to a Young Child with Autism. Journal of Precision Teaching and Celeration, 23, 23-26.

White, O. R. (1986). Precision Teaching–Precision learning.Exceptional Children, 25, 522-534.

Abstract

The extent of poverty and inequality remains a topic of enduring interest in Australia and overseas. Poverty in Australia, however, is generally relative poverty. People are considered to be poor if their living standards fall below an overall community standard, and they are unable to participate fully in ordinary activities of society. Earnings inequality and the extent of child poverty is an important issue due to their innocence and their future life chances and social structure.

This position paper provides a brief portrait the issues faced by the disadvantaged community at Sydney South West. How can various welfare organizations and agencies assist these disadvantage community groups, briefly explains few facilities provided by such agencies. The paper then discusses the affects of poverty in children and advantages of such knowledge to pre-service teacher. Finally we conclude by exploring the role of teachers and its effects.

Community:

Amartya Sen, Nobel Prize winning economist, described poverty is the lack of “substantive freedoms – the capabilities to choose a life one has reason to value.” And, as “deprivation of basic capabilities rather than merely as lowness of incomes, which is the standard criterion for the identification of poverty”… “..the approach concentrates on deprivations that are intrinsically important (unlike low income, which is only instrumentally significant). Thus poverty in this sense is an oppression from which we should aim to liberate our people.

Poverty is a condition of living which is difficult to measure and almost impossible to conclusively define. People living in poverty in sub-Saharan Africa may lack safe housing, struggle to find food and have no access to drinkable water. This standard of living is known as ‘absolute poverty’. But in Australia the standard of living are generally much higher than the countries like Africa. Poverty in Australia is measured relatively, that is benchmarking a disadvantage community group’s standard of living with the life style of majority of the population in Australia.

The main factors which contribute to poverty in Australia are inequity in the education system (which means some people have less opportunity to enter the skilled labor force), the casualisation of the workforce (which has meant that people have less job security), and reduced government spending on services which are of benefit to the community.

The people most affected by poverty in Australia are those with low levels of formal education, the long-term unemployed and others who have restricted access to high-paying work. Certain demographic groups tend to fall into these categories. In 2000 it was recorded that Indigenous Australians, for example, had an unemployment rate of 17.6 per cent – much higher than the national average of 7.3 per cent. Another group more likely to live in relative poverty are first-generation immigrants and refugees, many of whom arrive in Australia with few language skills and less support networks than Australian-born residents. Elderly people, disabled people and single parents also record higher rates of poverty.

The reason poverty can be considered a spatial issue is two-fold. People of a similar
socio-economic background tend to live in the same areas because the amount of money a person makes usually, but not always, influences their decision as to where to purchase or rent a home. At the same time, the area in which a person is born or lives can determine the level of access they will have to quality education and employment opportunities. As education and income can influence settlement patterns and also be influenced by settlement patterns, they can therefore be considered causes and effects of spatial inequality and poverty.

Sydney provides an example of a large urban environment with a high level of spatial inequality. Suburban pockets of poverty can be found on the city’s fringes, such as Sydney’s south-west. This less-affluent (poorer) area is generally higher in unemployment, welfare-dependency, single-parent families, substance (drug and alcohol) abuse and crime, than other Sydney suburbs. The overseas migrants and refugees also chose to settle in this area, because the real estate is much cheaper and the ethnic and racial composition is generally more diverse.

Unemployment figures from the 2001 Census revealed vast differences between many areas of Australia. Particularly alarming were certain areas of Sydney. The Glenquarie Housing Commission Estate in Sydney’s south-west had an unemployment rate of 26.4 per cent; the national unemployment rate at that time was only 7.1 per cent. The highly publicized riots which occurred in this same area in 2004-05 were an example of some of the violence-related problems that can result if social inequalities are not dealt with.

Nonprofit organizations and welfare agencies have played a critical role in helping community in need by providing education, training, residences, counseling, electricity or water vouchers, and in-kind and cash support.

Organizations such as Inspire Community Services provide practical support, offering emergency relief, services, and assistance for individuals and families in crisis. They exist to break the cycle of poverty in South West of Sydney through inspiration and without discrimination. Services provided by this organization:

Welfare Services – Provides services like Emergency Relief,Food Careand Playgroups to Internet Cafe and Christmas Hampers.
EAPA (Energy Accounts Payment Assistance) vouchers for gas and electricity bills.
WAPA (Water Authority Payment Assistance) vouchers for water bills.
TBAP (Telstra Billing Assistance Program) vouchers for Telstra telephone bills.
Clothing vouchers from Inspire Fashion.
Direct Debit of Centreline payments through Centrepay.

As well as moral support for any situation and other referring community organizations. Clients are assessed on their income and current circumstances.

Providing quality fashion wears at a reduced price. Price ranges from 50? to $10.

Enterprise Development – Providing mentoring services in a real life professional business environment. Services such as meeting targets, working in teams, computer diagnosis and many more.
Financial Solution – Assist in budgeting, personal casework/budget,counseling and financial education. Offering free budgeting service to help clients prepare a budget that is targeted to individual needs.
Employment Services – Employment Services aims to help people within the community gainrelevant skills and self confidence for the workplace.

Partnering withgreat organizations such as Mission Australia, MTC Work Solutions, Wesley Uniting Employment and Community First Step weprovide Work for the Dole Programs. These programs are designed to equip job seekers with highly valuable skills in order to prepare them for the workforce.

We also offer on site skills following careers such as computer refurbishment, warehousing, screen printing, administration and gardening.

Training – Our Training Services department offers a variety of training opportunities ranging from accredited to non-accredited courses. Training packages are specially designed to increase clients’ knowledge and confidence in areas where they may have experienced limitation as well as enhancing their existing skills.
Social Welfare – We are dedicated to seeing our community empowered through our self development courses. We offer a variety of courses and workshops that relate to every day issues.

Poverty has economic and social impacts. Sometimes, instead of being described as living in poverty, people in Australia who do not possess the living standards of the majority, are thought to be socially marginalized or socially isolated. This is because they may feel excluded from benefits of society that the mainstream enjoy, whether or not this is because of where they live or the amount of money they have.

The widening the gap between rich and poor Australians is likely to increase this sense of social isolation, which will no doubt negatively impact upon social cohesion. This is particularly true of larger urban centers because the inequalities between different areas are much more obvious when they are in the same town or city. The more observable inequalities become, the more likely people are to directly compare their standards of living with those of others around them. This can have the effect of reducing the sense of mutual belonging and respect that is important for maintaining social cohesion in any community, however large or small.

Children in poverty is an emotive issue that has engaged the attention of politicians ranging from Bob Hawke’s famous 1987 election promise “by 1990 no Australian child will be living in poverty” to John Howard’s March 2004 commitment of $365 million over four years principally for “early intervention strategies to help children and families at risk of not growing up in a stable and supportive environment”.

Positive reinforcement within the classroom.

Classroom management and discipline is the most challenging aspect of teaching (Yost & Mosa, 2002). Aksoy (2003) describes classroom environment as; multifaceted, simultaneous, fast occurring, and unpredictable. This environment means that at any time, teachers have to attend to a vast range of pupil needs fairly and consistently. (Edwards 2003). It is therefore important teachers implement and refine strategies focusing on reducing behavioural issues in order to maximise potential for learning and ensure smooth classroom practise.

Due to the increased diversity of pupils in schools teachers now encounter a much wider range of behavioural difficulties in an average class, this is partly as a result of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (Quinn et al., 2001). Interestingly the most common request for assistance from teachers relates to behaviour and classroom management (Rose & Gallup 2005). Disruptions in class take up student’s valuable learning time and decreases potential learning opportunities of the class. (Witzel & Mercer & Miller 2003, Cains & Brown, 1996)

Teachers who regularly encounter problematic behaviour often report increased amounts of stress and frustration (Browers & Tomic, 2000). This in some circumstances can make teachers question their capability for their role (witzel, Miller and Mercer 2003). The importance of classroom management in reinforced by Shinn, Ramsey, Walker, Stieber, & OaˆYNeill (1987) who found classrooms frequently experiencing behavioural disruptions had less time engaging in learning, and pupils tended to leave school with lower grades compared to peers.

Within the literature it is clear that there is a wide spectrum of strategies implemented by teachers to increase effectiveness of behaviour management strategies. Some educators argue strong discipline and setting limits are most effective, others assume creating an exciting curriculum works best. All strategies highlight the importance on how to behave, pupil responsibilities and adhering to class and social norms. It is also clear that many of the strategies identified have a basis embedded in psychological principle. These include behavioural, psychodynamic, biological and developmental approaches. It has often been disputed how best to apply psychological theory to classroom practice. This review will focus on the use of positive reinforcement in classroom management. Theories will be discussed, evaluated and related to classroom practice.

What defines Positive reinforcement?

Positive reinforcement refers to the implementation of positive stimuli to desirable behaviour. Described by Skinner (1938) as operant conditioning, it is used to increase the probability of desired behaviour occurring again (Fontana 1994). It is most effective if implemented immediately after desired behaviour occurs and often used as a behaviour management strategy. It can be applied through social cues (a simple smile), positive feedback and reward/sanction systems and best used alongside a classroom context (rules and routines).

Theoretical basis of positive reinforcement

Behavioural theories have been highly influential to positive reinforcement in the classroom, although they have not always been highly regarded by the educational community (Axelrod 1997). Nevertheless the use of positive reinforcement appears frequently within literature regarding behaviour management. It is important to identify principles underlying positive reinforcement and the criticisms to these theories. Also how these core behavioural principles can be converted to classroom practise and the issues surrounding implementing techniques.

The first major contribution to positive reinforcement was Edward Thorndike’s “Law effect” (1911) which implies behaviour that generates positive effects on the environment are more likely to be continued (Miltenburger, 2008). This implied reinforcement and praise play fundamental role in shaping behaviour. Shortly after this Watson (1913) describes “Behaviourism”. He bases his theory on the understanding that behaviour is learned and therefore can be unlearned. Behavioural changes are therefore due to environmental circumstances (Miltenberger 2008).

Ivan Pavlov (1927) describes “Classical conditioning”, in which a stimulus is linked to a naturally occurring response that occurs with a different stimulus to evoke an unnatural response. This manifests in a classroom scenario such as using a “finger click” to attract attention. It is a strategy used to consistently hint students to stop working. This example explains a “conditioned” behaviour in which pupils have been taught to behave in a specific manor to an unrelated cue. Much of his work at the time was conducted on animals within Laboratories.

B.F. Skinner’s research has been significant in the development of positive reinforcement (Labrador 2004). He argued that positive reinforcement was more effective than punishment when trying to modify behaviour. Through his study he identifies “operant conditioning” which explains how reinforcement and punishment play a key role in the recurrence of behaviour. He explains how behaviour that is consistently reinforced with praise/ rewards will occur more often. He identifies five obstacles that inhibit children’s ability to learn. These included fear of failure, complication of task, clarity, direction and lack of reinforcement (Frisoli 2008). Additionally he recognises techniques such as breaking tasks down, repeating directions and giving positive reinforcement (Frisoli 2008).

Classroom research that followed was based on his findings. Studies focused on adult’s childrearing (Baumrind, 1971) and children in a Laboratory setting (Kenney & Willicut, 1964; Soloman, 1964). Most studies found reward to be more effective at managing and influencing behaviour. Bandura (1965) explains these findings as a product of children’s previous conditioned responses to reward and punishment, influencing its success in class.

The Importance of Positive reinforcement

Positive reinforcement refers to any event that follows a behaviour used to increase the chances of the behaviour reoccurring. It can also be used to motivate students. (Domjam 2003). Bracey (1994) states; “15 years of research have confirmed that reinforcing behaviour can increase the likelihood that the behaviour will be performed under subsequent non-rewarded conditions”. Similarly Miltenberger (2008) states “disruptive behaviours can be controlled or eliminated with behavioural intervention” (p11). Due to this considerable research has been conducted into the application of positive reinforcement in schools. It is used to further teaching methods, control inappropriate behaviours and improve social and functional skills (Miltenberger, 2008).

Positive reinforcement techniques have however been perceived to threaten individual’s freedoms (maag 2001). Society perceives reinforcement as externally applied to an individual with the aim of coercing behaviour and leading them to become dependable on extrinsic reinforcement (maag 2001). Although an understandable concern, Akin-Little, Eckert, & Lovett (2004) describe these concerns as unwarranted. Studies have found positive reinforcement to increase intrinsic motivation (Cameron, Banko, & Pierce, 2001), especially rewards based on meeting a performance objective (Eisenberger, Pierce, & Cameron 1999).

Conroy et al (2009) describes how ‘teacher reactions’ play a significant role in influencing students behaviour, pupils will try to gain attention through predictable behaviour linked to common teacher reactions. For example, a teacher who focuses attention solely on disruptive behaviour will cause children to behave in a disruptive manor in order to gain the teachers attention. Teachers should use positive attention within feedback to influence desired behaviour (Conroy et al 2009). Chityo & Wheeler (2009) highlight the importance of using positive reinforcement with pupils that show signs of behavioural difficulties. Due to the nature of their difficulties and the disruptive effect on the class it is imperative to positively reinforce desired behaviour for these students (Chityo & Wheeler 2009).

Positive reinforcement in the classroom.

Consequences

Positive reinforcement influences desired behaviour, ignoring undesired behaviour decreases the chance of it reoccurring (Conroy et al, 2009). Rules and routines are used to prevent unsuitable behaviour. They establish behavioural context for the classroom and instruct pupils on expected behaviour and the consequences if inappropriate behaviour continues (Colvin et al., 1993). This method of instructing behavioural expectations is used in nearly every school and vital to creating a productive learning environment. Chitiyo & Wheeler (2009) expand on this by explaining how appropriate behaviour can be established through modelling desired behaviour and by building naturally occurring reinforcement within the classroom environment. This involves managing inappropriate behaviour through consequences (Mather & Goldstien, 2001). Rules and routines play a significant role in determining a context for consequences to be applied throughout the classroom. Consequences play a fundamental role in managing classroom behaviour and creative a positive learning environment. These are highly valuable tools used to encourage learning and prevent problem behaviour (Conroy, Sutherland, snyder, al- Hendawai and Vo 2009).

Consequences should be used to further learning and stop disruptive behaviour occurring (mather & Goldstien 2001). Mather and Goldstien (2001) describe a consequence approach to managing behaviour. This involves defining the problem, developing a behaviour plan, identifying an effective reinforcement and constantly reinforcing desired behaviour. Reinforcement should occur soon after the desired behaviour occurs and used to teach appropriate behaviour, social and communication skills (Mather & Goldstien 2001). Teachers must select consequences that are relevant and strengthen behaviour. Bushell (1973) refers to irrelevant consequences as neutral consequences that do not affect behaviour. It is important for teachers to evaluate use of reinforcements to make sure consequences are positively reinforcing behaviour of all individuals (Bushell 1973).

Positive feedback

Social reinforcement is significant to all children’s development and very common within the classroom. Social cues including walking around the class, smiling, complimenting or commenting are vital in increasing and maintaining positive behaviours. These can be implemented verbally; “I like the way your group is working!”, Written; “Great!” or through expressions such as clapping or nodding. Skinner (1953) suggests that pupils need significant amounts of social reinforcement and positive attention in the first few years of school. He argues it establishes several generalised social enforcers including; attention, approval, affection and submissiveness. It also promotes confidence and responsibility within children.

Convoy (2009) found praise can improve the whole class environment. Effective praise increases positive behaviours and interactions with pupils and teachers. (Convoy et al 2009) Infantino & Little (2005) describe a range of important principles governing praise; Praise should be initiated by the teacher, dependent upon desired behaviour, focusing on improvement, age appropriate and structured around individual needs. These different principles describe a wide range of factors that together determine the effectiveness of praise. Despite this huge range of significant factors Smith & Rivera (1993) show how praise is most effective overall, applied to specific behaviour. In the literature behaviour specific praise has been linked to positive outcomes for students and a decrease in negative behaviour. (Thomas, Becker Madsen 1968, Ramsey, Walker & Gresham 2004) Most importantly praise has been shown to increase student motivation (O’Leary & Becker 1969) and have positive effects on teaching reading and math’s (Gable & Shores 1980).

Morrison and Jones (2007) addressed the topic of Positive Peer Reporting. This positive action of saying positive things about pupils peers reduced tension, negative feelings and encouraged positivity throughout the class. An example of this in class is ‘star of the week’ or ‘show and tell time’. This shows how praise is not just teacher orientated, but in fact can be applied throughout the class in a variety of different ways. This can help promote more learning within the class, specifically areas of development etc social skills/ personality. Despite this the effectiveness of praise in diverse classrooms is questionable due to individual differences and prior experiences of praise (Lam, Yim and Ng 2008).

Infantino & Little (2005) noted student’s preferred to receive praise for good work privately, as they prefer not to be singled out. This may infer that in school there are underlying cultural perceptions within children that performing well is a bad thing or something to be ashamed of. Teachers can combat this by using group praise/rewards or by offering a range of rewards to individualize rewards and increase motivation. Praise is a good example of a commonly used environmental event used to reinforce student’s behavior (Brophy, 1981). Important studies suggest teachers do not praise good behavior as much as they could (Wehby, Symons, canale & go 1998).

Rewards systems

Schools have used external rewards to manage behavior for many decades. The use of rewards for good behavior is directly related to academic and social success (Slavin 1997). On the contrary some evidence suggests that expectations of rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation (Holt 1983, Deci, Koestner, Ryan 1999). A reward is defined as; the offering of an environmental event in exchange for participation or achievement (Craighead, Kazdin & Mahoney, 1981). To successfully shape problematic behavior students must comprehend and accept rewards used to reinforce behavior. Pupil’s perception of a ‘good’ reward has been shown to change with age (Shreeve, Boddington, Bernard, Brown, Clarke Dean, Elkins, Kemp, Lees, Miller, Oakley, Shiret 2000). This can have a major impact on the effectiveness of using reward systems. To combat this issue, Infantino & Little (2005) state rewards should be “mutually agreed by students and teachers, realistic and deliverable”.

Rewards can help define behavioral expectations, recognize positive behavior and provide a safe, consistent school environment (Shreeve et al 2002). This provides students with a sense of community and self belonging which increases opportunities for learning (Zimmerman 1989). Rewards are significant in helping motivate children with reading, Math’s and social skills (Reiss, 2005). Research suggests reward systems are effective at improving behavior (Clifton & Cook, 2012). A wide range of factors contribute to the overall effectiveness of using classroom rewards. These include; perceived fairness, providing choices of reward, establishing a sense of community and individualizing reward systems. It is important that teachers evaluate their strategy to make sure these factors influence how reward strategies are implemented through school.

Barriers to application of positive reinforcement.

While implementing positive reinforcement within the classroom teachers face several barriers. Briesch and Chafouleas (2009) identifies that a lack of time and resources means teachers are unable to reinforce all desired behaviour within the class. Also there is a danger that the teacher becomes an unconditioned stimuli resulting in children only acting in specific ways in teacher presence (Briesch and Chafouleas 2009). Reinke, Lewis-Palmer & Merrell (2008) describe ‘Locus of control’ being taken away from children when using excessive positive reinforcement, this resulting in a loss of intrinsic motivation. It is therefore crucial that teachers evaluate how productive their strategies are in their specific class.

Another major issue within the literature is that when a child is rewarded for completion of a task many times, they tend to lose interest in the actual task and focus more on gaining the reward at the end. (Kohn 1993) this can seriously impact the learning environment and have adverse individualised effects on their attention processing systems (Hidi 1990). Also noted within literature is that teachers can easily make bad use of reinforcement and as a consequence, unintentionally reinforce negative behaviour. For example; sending a student outside for bad behaviour removes the child from the unwanted stimuli (work) and reinforces their behaviour because they have achieved their goal (not having to work). This means the underlying behaviour will most likely be repeated (Maag 2001).

Another important fact to consider is that due to the culture of schools, and behaviour deemed appropriate, therefore reinforced, all children are being taught (reinforced) the same information decided by the small group of individuals who write the national curriculum. This does not promote individual learning and must surely have detrimental effects on the diversity and individualisation amongst the general population.

Conclusion

The use of positive reinforcement is based on a strong amount of literature that suggests behaviour is reinforced by contingent rewards. Most noticeable within laboratory experiments based on animals and food, positive reinforcement has become widely accepted as a behavioural modification strategy/tool. Due to the increasing range of pupil’s abilities in the average classroom teachers have to incorporate and build upon strategies that successfully promote progression with the vast majority of abilities encountered. In a class setting, strong rules and routines provide instructions to pupils that are used to direct behaviour. Verbal prompting of these rules can drastically increase the effectiveness of reinforcement.

Consequences, rewards and positive feedback are used as an effective motivation tool and can supply incentives for behaving in specific ways, effectively influencing a wide range of decisions in the classroom. Praise is highly regarded by individuals and important to development of the self and social awareness. It has the ability to motivate students and build self confidence. To use reinforcement effectively through rewards, pupils must not become motivated solely by the reward, losing their intrinsic motivation can have adverse effects on individual motivation. To combat this reinforcement must be individualised for each child and teachers should incorporate a wide variety of reinforcement strategies into their classroom management strategy. It is important to note that how teachers apply positive can ultimately decide its effectiveness within the class. Strategies should be refined and built upon as children within the class develop or the teacher is at risk of reducing the effectiveness of reinforcement and sometimes impacting negatively of their education.

Positive reinforcement plays a fundamental role in creating a positive learning environment for all pupils. It is important it is used correctly and this involves reinforcing desired behaviour, not disruptive behaviour. Therefore it is important I use positive reinforcement in my own teaching by utilizing rewards, praise and sanctions to build a safe environment centred to learning. I will incorporate different reinforcement strategies into my teaching. The use of peer group feedback and praise is easily applied to pupil’s self assessment of the lesson and can help build social relations within the class environment to further learning.

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Introduction

This essay discusses the question, “What do you consider to be an effective primary teacher?”. With reference to recent research, government initiatives and your own experience, the essay explores this question, based on my own educational principles and the ways in which these will underpin your professional practice in the future.

The essay begins by reviewing the Government policies and initiatives that are relevant to the research question, discussing, in particular, the document Excellence and Enjoyment – A Strategy for Primary Schools (DfES, 2003) and the subsequent Primary Strategy framework for primary education. The essay then moves on to discuss the aims of these policies and initiatives and the implications these have had for schools and teachers. The assessment framework is discussed, and how this impacts on teacher effectiveness is also noted. The essay then moves on to looking at the qualities of effective teachers, and effective teaching in a primary setting, and concludes that some of the facets of Government policies and initiatives – such as continual assessments – run counter to my ethos of effective teaching and actually serve as little other than distractions from pure teaching time, through all the administration such assessments bring and the amount of time this takes away from lesson planning, for example.

In terms of Government policy towards primary education, in 2003, the Government launched the policy document Excellence and Enjoyment – A Strategy for Primary Schools (DfES, 2003) which set out a vision for the future of primary education built, formally, on the striving for higher standards through the formulation of a rich and varied curriculum which is aimed at developing children in a number of ways. As explained by the DfCSF (2008), the key to making this vision a reality lies in the need to empower primary school children to take control of their own learning, to be innovative and to develop their own character. The DfCSF (2008) also noted that the aims of the policy Excellence and Enjoyment – A Strategy for Primary Schools (DfES, 2003) should also be achieved through schools being able to set their own targets, based on challenging but realistic targets for the progress of each individual child, with LEA targets being set after this.

In addition, the policy document Excellence and Enjoyment – A Strategy for Primary Schools (DfES, 2003) encourages schools to network to learn from each other and to develop good practice, in partnership with parents in order to help children as far as possible and to forge links between schools and communities (DfCSF, 2008). The policy document Excellence and Enjoyment – A Strategy for Primary Schools (DfES, 2003) was intended as an enabler, with leadership in schools being strengthened in terms of professional development of teachers towards the whole curriculum, and in terms of helping schools themselves design broad curriculum that links different areas of the curriculum and which thus provides children with as wide as possible a range of learning experiences (DfCSF, 2008).

The policy document Excellence and Enjoyment – A Strategy for Primary Schools (DfES, 2003) argues that the best primary schools are those that offer a broad and rich curriculum, and that, based on this it is fundamental that schools develop their own distinctive character through taking ownership of the curriculum, by being creative and innovative, using tests, targets and tables to help every child to develop his or her potential (DfES, 2003). Essentially, the policy document Excellence and Enjoyment – A Strategy for Primary Schools (DfES, 2003) urged the promotion of excellence in primary teaching through building on the success of the National Literacy and Numeracy Strategies, using the new Primary Strategies to extend this success in to other areas of the curriculum, including in foreign languages, sport and creativity, amongst other areas, measuring the success of this curriculum through assessments (DfES, 2003).

There are many ways in which assessment activities can take place in the classroom, including monitoring normal classwork activities, using specific assessment tests designed by the teacher, designating assessment tasks as part of normal classwork, providing assessment tasks as part of homework assignments, and others, which are the domain of higher educational levels than the foundation stage, such as the use of standardized National Curriculum tests and/or formal examinations (Kyriacou, 1999; p.107). Kyriacou (1999; p.107-109) details each of these assessment protocols, showing, for example, how, although monitoring classroom activity is a part of the normal routine of a teacher, the monitoring, when it becomes investigative and active can become a form of assessment (Kyriacou, 1999; p.107; Kyriacou, 1997). In this way, the monitoring can inform teaching practice, through leading to suggestions for improvements in how learning is delivered, based on observations of areas in which the children are failing to learn as quickly or as thoroughly compared to other areas, for example. In this way, monitoring and assessment can be a route through which teaching can be improved and teachers can become more effective.

In terms of how the assessment is actually made (i.e., the actual process of assessment), evidence is collected through an ongoing process, via the teachers knowledge of the child, information from other contributors who are in regular contact with the child, anecdotes about significant moments in the child’s development, and focused assessments, based on observation where observation is understood to mean “the practice of watching and listening to a child as they engage in an activity and demonstrate specific knowledge, skills and understanding” (NAA, 2007). As pointed out by Kyriacou (1999; p.106), it is imperative that an adequate record of the child’s achievements, and their assessment, is kept, and that portfolios of children’s work are kept in order to exemplify the standards that are being sought, and so that teachers can use these records as a benchmark to build upon, through which improvements to teaching practice can be made and teacher effectiveness be improved.

Teachers thus need to be competent in many areas in order to ensure that the assessment process goes smoothly for all concerned and that the assessment process is something that can be useful for teachers, in terms of improving teaching practices. The need for teachers to be competent in the assessment of children is reflected in the fact that the DfEE (2000) list of standards for teachers lists the ability to assess and record each pupils progress systematically as a competency (Kyriacou, 1999; p.106). In addition, it is fundamental that assessment judgements are agreed amongst all concerned, so that all those involved can make the best, fullest, use of the information.

The Primary Strategies outlined in the policy document Excellence and Enjoyment – A Strategy for Primary Schools (DfES, 2003) thus built on the National Literacy and Numeracy Strategies to lead to the development of the Primary Curriculum, with the National Literacy and Numeracy Strategies being embedded in the Primary Strategy (under the framework of the Primary Framework for literacy and mathematics that was launched in October 2006) (DfCSF, 2008). This new framework builds on the learning that has taken place since the National Literacy and Numeracy Strategies were launched in 2003, providing new structures and new impetus to the vision embodied in the policy document Excellence and Enjoyment – A Strategy for Primary Schools (DfES, 2003), extending, as it does, the support given only to literacy and to numeracy to other subjects (DfCSF, 2008). The overall ethos of the new Primary Strategy framework is that excellent education is an education that is tailored to children’s specific needs, allowing them to engage with the educational process and giving them the start they need to be able to succeed in the context of secondary education (DfCSF, 2008).

In terms of the future education of primary children, and how assessments at the primary level affect children’s future educational development, it is well documented that the level of educational attainment of a child (as assessed through Key Stage 1 assessments) cannot – alone – be used as an indicator of how well a particular teacher or school has performed; it is the relative progress that needs to be considered in terms of making an assessment of how children’s future educational prospects are affected by the assessment process (Kyriacou, 1999; p. 106). Ways to do this include taking baseline measurements of achievement and comparing these with achievement following a certain time period of education, or taking value-added measurements (Kyriacou, 1999; p.106).

In terms of tracking how children progress beyond the primary level, the relationship between Key Stage 1 assessments and attainment in terms of National Curriculum levels needs to be explored (AAIA, 2007). As discussed by AAIA (2007), however, Key Stage 1 attainments cannot be directly related to National Curriculum levels and any such attempts would result in spurious information (NAA, 2006). It is clear, however, that the higher the child’s assessment at Key Stage 1, the more likely it is that the child would attain high levels following the National Curriculum tests (AAIA, 2007).

Cohen et al. (2004) provides information on how to plan and organise classes, and shows how the Qualification and Curriculum Authority (QCA) has set out principles for early years education (QCA, 1999; 2000; 2001), on the basis that, “effective education requires both a relevant curriculum and practitioners who understand and are able to implement the curriculum requirements…building on what children already know and can do, encouraging a positive attitude and a disposition to learn and to protect against early failure”. As the QCA (1999, 2000, 2001) point out, early years education should be carefully structured, providing different starting points, depending on what the child can already do, should have relevant and appropriate content, matching the different levels of children’s needs and should provide planned and purposeful activities which provide opportunities for teaching both indoors and outdoors, with teachers who are able to observe and respond appropriately to the children under their care. This is on the basis that “parents are children’s first and most enduring educators” (QCA, 2000, p.9), and that teachers provide a series of stepping stones through foundation stages, through Early Learning Goals, through primary level, which articulates with the National Curriculum which all children from age five are legally bound to follow (Cohen et al., 2004; Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology, 2000).

Cohen et al. (2004) show how key aspects of effective learning at the primary level are active, integrated, socially constructive, cognitively constructive and linguistically rich learning, beginning where the individual learner is at themselves, in terms of their learning process, so that the individual child is the agent of their learning, empowering the children to enable their own learning by casting learning as problem-solving (Morrison, 2000; Cohen et al., 2004). As Morrison (2000; p.122) states, “the intention (of learning) is to extend play, to empower students and to enable them to take responsibility for their own, active and autonomous, learning and to develop in all aspects of their learning”. This is conducted, generally, through four key elements: classroom arrangements (with such things as centres of interest), daily schedules of plan-do-review sessions, key curricular and learning experiences and content and assessments through observation, recording and sharing, using authentic assessment and portfolios (Cohen et al., 2004).

By following such suggestions for enabling learning at the primary level, continuity and progression are ensured. Continuity is generally defined, and understood, as ensuring that the overall aims, values and beliefs that give direction to, and put boundaries around, the scheme of work are consistent, regardless of who is teaching or answering later questions (Fabian and Dunlop, 2002). Progression is defined, and understood, generally, as the process through which the schools planned activities gradually extend pupils’ thinking, their exploration of values and attitudes, enrich language, knowledge and strategies through increasingly demanding inputs and challenging explorations, matched to pupils chronological age, readiness and circumstance (Fabian and Dunlop, 2002). Through ensuring continuity and progression, children can be enabled to achieve the goals they want to achieve, within the frameworks that are set them.

My personal teaching ethos

This section takes one or two of my principles to explain how I intend to be an effective primary teacher, using examples from your my school experiences. In essence, I concur with Cohen et al. (2004) that, “effective education requires both a relevant curriculum and practitioners who understand and are able to implement the curriculum requirements…building on what children already know and can do, encouraging a positive attitude and a disposition to learn and to protect against early failure” and I agree with the overall stated ethos of the new Primary Strategy framework is that excellent education is an education that is tailored to children’s specific needs, allowing them to engage with the educational process and giving them the start they need to be able to succeed in the context of secondary education (DfCSF, 2008).

Taylor and Hayes (2001) provide a discussion as to how education should be delivered, leading me to arrive at several conclusions as to how I should organize my time as a teacher in order to provide the most effective teaching possible to my pupils. I agree with the aims of the Primary Strategy as set out in the policy document, Excellence and Enjoyment – A Strategy for Primary Schools (DfES, 2003), which encourages schools and teachers to network to learn from each other and to develop good practice, in partnership with parents in order to help children as far as possible and to forge links between schools and communities (DfCSF, 2008).

The dictates of the assessment processes and the Curriculum mean I have to teach within these boundaries, but this does not mean that lessons have to be rigid and that assessments and tests and Curriculum have to be frightening terms to primary age pupils. One of my responsibilities as an effective teacher is to prepare students, as well as possible, for the assessments and to teach the Curriculum in such a manner that the children’s sense of wonder is upheld (see Allen and Ainley, 2007) and that children’s awareness of themselves as part of a whole and as spiritual beings is also encouraged (Eaude, 2005). My aim as a primary teacher is to foster a sense of enjoyment in the learning process and, through this, to foster a love of learning that will continue well beyond the primary level, encouraging success at the secondary level and forging a lifelong love of learning in each individual pupil, based on a sense of wonder at the world, its contents and its processes.

I, personally, agree with Cohen et al. (2004), who show how key aspects of effective learning at the primary level are active, integrated, socially constructive, cognitively constructive and linguistically rich learning, beginning where the individual learner is at themselves, in terms of their learning process, so that the individual child is the agent of their learning, empowering the children to enable their own learning by casting learning as problem-solving (Morrison, 2000; Cohen et al., 2004). It is my aim as a teacher, wishing to be an effective teacher, to foster the empowerment of children, through developing a sense of the wonder of learning and empowering the children to direct their own learning, within the context of the Curriculum, so that children feel they are capable of learning and are capable of achieving the standards they set themselves.

The Success of New Labour’s Policy Towards Primary Education

Tymms (2004) look at how successful the changes to primary education have been, following the introduction of the Numeracy and Literacy Strategies and finds that, whilst the introduction of these Strategies contributed to a rise in standards, independent tests of children’s attainment have shown that this rise in standards is not as widespread nor as high as claimed and that, as such, an independent body should be set up to monitor standards over time, with the purpose of testing how Government planning for education is actually being received on the ground, as it were. A recent Oftsted report (Ofsted, 2003) also shows that some of the aims of the National Numeracy and Literacy Strategy were not achieved (with weak subject knowledge being a common failure of schools), suggesting the Government’s approach to primary education needs to be looked at further.

Allen and Ainley (2007) back this suggestion, through their analysis of education in the UK, presented in their book Education make you fick, innit? Allen and Ainley argue that as institutionalized learning has become more common-place in the Uk, through schools and work-based training programmes, possibilities have been foreclosed for emancipating minds, something that is increasingly being applied to primary level education, through the introduction of the Primary Strategy, for example, and the assessment-based curriculum this embodies, which, argue Allen and Ainley (2007) forces teachers to concentrate more on training children in the Curriculum for the purpose of attaining high scores on the assessments than on actually instilling a sense of wonder in learning. Allen and Ainley (2007) argue that this process is killing the sense of wonder in children, and that, even for primary school children, education, the process of going to school, has become little more than a daily grind, rather than a joyous process the children are happy to undertake because they enjoy the process and because the process can bring them knowledge and enjoyment.

This essay has discussed the question, “What do you consider to be an effective primary teacher?”. With reference to recent research, government initiatives and your own experience, the essay has explored this question, based on my own educational principles and the ways in which these will underpin your professional practice in the future. The essay began by reviewing the Government policies and initiatives that are relevant to the research question, discussing, in particular, the document Excellence and Enjoyment – A Strategy for Primary Schools (DfES, 2003) and the subsequent Primary Strategy framework for primary education. The essay then moved on to discuss the aims of these policies and initiatives and the implications these have had for schools and teachers. The assessment framework was then discussed, and how this impacts on teacher effectiveness was also noted. The essay then moved on to looking at the qualities of effective teachers, and effective teaching in a primary setting, and concluded that some of the facets of Government policies and initiatives – such as continual assessments – run counter to my ethos of effective teaching and actually serve as little other than distractions from pure teaching time, through all the administration such assessments bring and the amount of time this takes away from lesson planning, for example.

The main conclusion to the essay is that effective teaching at the primary level should serve to instill a sense of the wonder of learning and should open children’s minds to the possibilities that learning, and the learning process, encompasses. I converge with Allen and Ainley (2007) that the current trend towards assessments, more assessments and yet more assessments is not healthy for children, because it causes stress and can initiate a sense of failure in children who do not achieve high scores on these assessments and also because managing these assessments takes time away from teaching, through all the administration that the tests generate. The argument that these tests do little than to confirm that the education policies the Government is espousing are correct seems valid, and it is, as has been seen, in any case questionable that the standards suggested by the Government, in the Primary Strategy are actually leading to rises in standards (see Tymms, 2004).

That the overall stated ethos of the new Primary Strategy framework is that an excellent education is an education that is tailored to children’s specific needs, allowing them to engage with the educational process and giving them the start they need to be able to succeed in the context of secondary education (DfCSF, 2008) is thus a good basis to begin, as an effective teacher, but, in order to avoid boredom in the education process, and psychological problems, due to the huge amount of testing and assessment primary children are subject to, effective teaching not only needs to teach the Curriculum and prepare children for the battery of tests and assessments they will be subjected to, but also needs to foster the empowerment of children, through developing a sense of the wonder of learning and empowering the children to direct their own learning, within the context of the Curriculum, so that children feel they are capable of learning and are capable of achieving the standards they set themselves.

Effective teachers are thus not only bound by the dictates of Government policy and teaching research which suggests how teachers should teach, but they are, in my opinion, also bound by a responsibility to children, to instill in children a sense of the wonder of learning. In my opinion, and something I will endeavour to achieve in my teaching practice, this sense of wonder can be best achieved through empowering children to realise their potential and to realise they can achieve their goals, through fostering a love of learning. These qualities not only make for an effective teacher but also an inspiring teacher, who will inspire their pupils to want to learn.

References

AAIA (2007). Assessing children’s attainments in the foundation stage: guidance produced by the AAIA. Available from http://www.aaia.org.uk/PDF/FAQs%20-%20assessing%20children’s%20attainment%20in%20the%20foundation%20stage.pdf [Accessed on 29^th February 2008].

Alexander, R. (2004). Still no pedagogy? Principle, pragmatism and compliance in primary education. Cambridge J. of Education 34(1), pp.7-33.

Allen, M & Ainley P (2007). Education make you fick, innit? Tufnell Press, Reading.

Brown, M. et al. (1998). Is the National Numeracy strategy research-based? Brit. J. Educ. Studies 46, pp.362-385.

Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2004). A guide to teaching practice. Routledge Falmer.

DfCSF (2008). The National Strategies: Primary. Available from http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/primary/about/ [Accessed on 29^th February 2008].

DfEE (1998). Teachers: meeting the challenge of change. London: DfEE.

DfEE (2000). Curriculum guidance for K1 stage. Available from http://www.standards.dcsf.gov.uk/eyfs/resources/downloads/5585_cg_foundation_stage.pdf [Accessed 29th February 2008].

DfES (2003). Excellence and enjoyment: a strategy for primary schools. London: DfES.

DfES (2004). Department for Education and Skills: five year strategy for children and learners. London: DfES.

Eaude, T (2006). Children’s spiritual, moral, social and cultural development. Learning Matters, Reading.

Fabian, H. and Dunlop, A-W. (2002). Transitions in the early years: debating continuity and progression for children in early education. Routledge Falmer.

Higgins, S. et al. (2002). Thinking through primary teaching. Chris Kington Publishing, Cambridge.

Kyriacou, C. (1997). Effective teaching in schools. Nelson Thornes Ltd.

Kyriacou, C. (1999). Essential teaching skills. Nelson Thornes Ltd.

Kyriacou, C. (2005). The impact of daily maths lessons in England on pupil confidence and competence in early mathematics: a systematic review. Brit J Educ Studies 53(2), pp.168-186.

Morrison, G.S. (2000). Fundamentals of Early Childhood Education. Prentice Hall.

NAA (National Assessment Agency) (2007). Additional guidance on completing foundation stage profile assessments. Available from http://www.naa.org.uk/downloads/FSP_factsheet-_2007_Guidance_LA_Completing_Foundation_v042.pdf [Accessed 29th February 2008].

Ofsted (2003). The national literacy and numeracy strategies and the primary curriculum.

Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology (2000). Report on early years learning. London: Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology.

Pollard, A (2002). Readings for Reflective Teaching Continuum.

QCA (Qualifications and Curriculum Authority) (1999). Early learning goals. London: QCA.

QCA (Qualifications and Curriculum Authority) (2000). Curriculum guidance for the foundation stage. . London: QCA.

QCA (Qualifications and Curriculum Authority) (2001). Planning for learning in the foundation stage. . London: QCA.

Siraj-Blatchford, I, Sylva, K, Taggart, B, Melhuish, E., Sammons, P, Elliot, K. The EPPE Project [1997-2003] Available from http://www.teachernet.gov.uk/teachers/ issue34/secondary/features/steppingup www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/ ks1-2citizenship/cit1/2 [Accessed on 29^th February 2008].

Springate, D (2004). Democracy in Schools: Some European perspectives.

Springate, D (2006). Empowering Children Through their own Research.

Taylor, W. and Hayes, D (2004). The RoutledgeFalmer Guide to Key Debates in Education. RoutledgeFalmer.

Tymms, P. (2004). Are standards rising in English primary schools? Brit Educ Res J 30(4), pp.477-494.

Webb, R. et al. (2004). A comparative analysis of primary teacher professionalism in England and Finland. Comp Educ 40(1), pp.83-107.

Webb, R. and Vulliamy, G. (2006). The impact of New Labour’s education policy on teadhers and teaching at Key Stage 2. FORUM 48(2), pp.145-158.

Wilce, H (2007). Nurture Groups: Can they prevent bad behaviour in the classroom?

A portfolio of evidence and in-depth critical reflection on the planning, preparation, delivery and evaluation of a teaching session.
Introduction

The title of the teaching session chosen was: “Pressure Ulcer Risk Assessment.” I have performed an in-depth critical reflection of the whole process of undertaking the teaching session and the details of this are presented below. I reflected upon factors (personal, interpersonal, contextual) that might have influenced the effectiveness of the teaching and learning utilising support and evidence from the literature. In particular I incorporated theories of teaching and learning including learning styles.

The purpose behind this exercise was primarily for me, as a teacher, to become a more effective teacher. An added benefit was the teaching session provided which supplemented nurse education on an important topic which is likely to make a difference to the students (Clark 2005) and one which is incorporated into the process of clinical governance.

There are a variety of learning styles and one of these – activist (Honey, 1982) – learns most effectively from actually performing the task. However performance of the task is relevant as a learning exercise for individuals with different learning styles. To improve the benefit gained, to me as a learner, from the teaching episode I have identified the key areas integral to the teaching session and have then reflected upon them. I have read and reflected upon theories of education with particular focus on how adults learn and have utilised some of this theory to enhance the usefulness of my reflection into how the teaching session took place.

The portfolio of evidence follows in appendices. These are copies of the actual documents used. These are referenced within the reflective elements of the exercise presented below.

The process follows a flexible but focussed teaching plan through the delivery of the teaching episode to feedback culminating in refection on feedback and subsequent plans for improvement in subsequent sessions.

Rationale for choice of teaching session

The topic was “Pressure Ulcer Risk Assessment.” This was chosen for the following reasons:

It is an important area
It has a high incidence. In a study in 1991 4.03% of admissions developed pressure sores. In orthopaedic wards 10.3% developed sores (Clark and Watts, 1994). Patients also develop pressure sores in the community; a study by Richardson (1993) found 284 patients out of 1 021 presented with a sore on admission to hospital.
Once a pressure ulcer develops it is difficult to treat and care is costly both within medical and surgical specialities (Beckrich and Aronovitch 1999). In the Netherlands the cost of treating pressure sores is third after cancer and cardiovascular disease (Health Council of the Netherlands, 1999).
Pressure ulcers are distressing to patients.
They adversely influence length of stay which is one of the clinical governance outcome measures
Increasing length of stay blocks beds and has the ultimate effect of lengthening waiting times for elective surgical procedures
This has financial implications for the Trust
Scare NHS resources are diverted away for treating pre-existing diseases
The are medico legal effects (Moody, 1997)
Pressure sore are largely preventable (Stephen-Haynes). Nursing on pressure relieving mattresses can be effective (Hofman et al, 1994)
However treating everyone prophylactically can incur greater financial cost than treating the sores themselves (Touche Ross 1993)
We can effectively predict which patients are at high risk although the Waterlow score does not perform well in the community (Edwards M (1996) and there are also concerns about its performance within the hospital setting (Schoonhoven,2006).
We can target preventative treatment at those at high risk
Prevention measures in the high risk group can make a difference (Cooper and gray, 2002)
The risk factors need to be understood by all nursing staff on the ward (Moody et al, 1988).
It is important to keep up to date with new ideas in the topic
Planning – based on a Teaching Plan (Quinn 2000)

The purpose of the teaching plan is to be of assistance to the students. It helps to ensure that important information is not omitted. The teaching plan is different from the teacher’s notes. A copy of the teaching plan is presented in appendix 2.

The aim of the teaching session was “to develop an understanding of the principles of pressure ulcer risk assessment.” The learning outcomes were “At the end of this teaching session students should be able to:

Define the term ‘pressure ulcer’ and explain rationales for risk assessment.
Understand the importance of clinical governance in relation to pressure ulcer risk assessment.
Understand principles of presure ulcer risk assessment tool (Waterlow scale) (Waterlow, 1985, 1988, 2005).

The seven learners were student nurses from the first to the third year of study.

A written plan was set out as shown in appendix 2. This detailed the sequence and process of the session. Approximate timings were given in the first column. The content column detailed six items for teaching. The two remaining columns detailed teacher and student activity for each of the six items. For the first two items; definition of pressure ulcer and rationale for risk assessment consisted of teacher activity questioning students. The teacher, according to the session plan, explained and read from handouts the relationship between pressure ulcer risk assessment and Clinical Governance. For the Waterlow risk assessment scale the teacher activity planned was questioning the students and clarifying subsections and reading from handouts. In the conclusion the teacher activity according to the plan was summarising.

The sequencing of the teaching points loosely corresponded to the Herbatian (Quinn, 2000) principles whereby the simplest concepts are dealt with first and there is progress on to newer more complex material.

Preparation – of self, subject material, students & environment Self

I ensured that I had no other commitments at the time of the teaching session and no other commitments in the session immediately before that could overrun. I ensured that my colleagues knew this portion of my time was committed to teaching. I ensured that there would be no interruptions for myself and also that I was not working the night before the teaching session. My advance preparation utilised time management skills. I went over the teaching material the day before the session.

I was aware of the policy within the hospital about screening for pressure sore risk and subsequent management so that the contents of the presentation were likely to be appropriate in the day to day working context.

Subject material

I had thoroughly read up about the subject from a variety of resources including paper backed and electronic journals, National Electronic Library for Health and Internet websites. I had predicted some questions and formulated some draft answers to them.

Students

I already knew who they were and at what stage in their training they were. In advance of the teaching session I asked a number of them about what they already knew about the topic, what teaching they had already had on it and what they felt their learning needs were.

I advertised the teaching session to the students beforehand. I choose a time and location which was convenient for the students as well as for myself. I considered how much preparation the students might do beforehand and I chose not to give out detailed information ahead of the teaching session in case only a proportion of the students would have more detailed knowledge and it would then make the group less homogenous which I thought would be more difficult to teach – some students may not follow what was going on whereas others may be bored.

Environment

A teaching room was obtained. The chairs were arranged in a semi-circular pattern in order for students and mentor to sit and face the teacher and overhead projector. I ensured that there was a clock an overhead projector and I took acetates and a portable table. I also ensured that there was no telephone in the room which might interrupt the session. I checked the temperature of the room beforehand and the means available of adjusting the temperature in the room during the teaching session. The room seemed overly hot and so I took a portable fan to the session.

Delivery – the process of undertaking the session

The total time allocated for this teaching session was 20 minutes. The delivery of the teaching session was largely interactive although some of the students did not participate in the discussion.

I utilised presentation skills (Power presentation info) and was already aware that appearance and body language affect the audience much more that does speech tone which in turn affects an audience more than the particular words spoken. I was already aware that the audience judges a speaker very early on in the presentation. I took account of the attributes of a good teacher (gp-training.net) incorporating the following aspects;

Clarity of objectives and priorities
Knowledge of the subject
Knowledge of educational theory
Communication skills
Motivation

The teaching was interactive because I asked the students questions whilst teaching to assess their knowledge and understandings about the topic. I used my awareness of what constitutes a good questioning style by asking open questions, starting at a more basic level and going onto questions which were reflective and probing. I tried to be clear and succinct in my explanations avoiding repetition. Overall I had in mind to make the session learner-centred.

I used cue cards so that I did not need detailed notes. I gave out and used handouts in such a way that the students would not be distracted by looking at them.

The process was not a lecture since I spent some time explaining the contents of some of the handouts. Some of the questions were combinations of closed and open questions such as, “what is …..?”, “can anybody explain or tell me what this….. means please?”, “what do you understand by the term ……?” I spent a preponderance of the available time asking questions, explaining and clarifying.

Some students responded accurately to most of the questions whilst others just kept quiet or just watched me.Most of the time, they either responded to questions, studying their handouts, whispering or listening. I spent one occasion on one to one interaction with one of the students trying to explain how to calculate the BMI whilst others worked in pairs during this time. I was surprised that only one or two questions were asked by the students.

Evaluation – decisions relating to the process of evaluation and preparing evaluation materials

I prepared beforehand an evaluation form. At the end of the session I gave each student an evaluation form and asked if they would complete it and then put them all together in a pile. I explained to the students that the purpose of the evaluation form was to get feedback from them which would be used to improve future teaching. In doing this I planned to convey my enthusiasm and trust in the process that it is the valued feedback from the students that is a very powerful driver for the continuous improvement in education.

In advance I had already considered that it would be important to try and get a completed feedback form from all of the students. If students did not complete and return a form it might be because they did not gain anything from the teaching session and it would be the views of these people that it would be important to obtain. My strategy for achieving 100% return of the forms was to wait until the forms were handed back (I counted them) before giving out the attendance register to sign. I explained to the students that the session would be finished once the feedback forms and attendance register had been dealt with.

The summary of the completed forms is shown in the appendix. The forms included an area for free text comments.

However I appreciated that the feedback form was just one aspect of the feedback from this session (de Cossart and Fish, 2005). Once the session was drawing to a close and the feedback forms were being completed it was really too late to utilise any feedback from the forms for that session. The students would therefore give their feedback in such a way that they knew that they were not so likely to be taught me again in the near future therefore they could not make specific requests of me. This may lead to their feedback being of a much more general nature and hence less immediately useful for enhancing my own personal teaching style. To try and counteract this I attempted to gain some feedback during the session itself. I observed the body language of the students and also asked them whether they felt what they were learning was relevant and which aspects they would to concentrate on, I then tried to modify someway towards this without detracting too widely from the session plan.

Feedback – response to evaluation feedback (from learners/students) and self-evaluation

Response to feedback from the students

Self evaluation

I felt that I had performed well in some areas. I felt I was proceeding at a pace that was appropriate for the students. I did feel slightly nervous whilst teaching although I do not think that this affected my tone of voice by making it too high. I felt that my interaction with the students was probably good. I felt that the topic was an appropriate one for most of the students. I had provided the students with a reference list for further reading and although I felt this was a good idea since according to educational theory adult learners need to be given direction and motivation to seek things out for themselves I felt that I had provided the direction but not so much of the motivation.

I felt that there were some weak areas which could benefit from further action. I felt that the main disadvantage was that the students might not have achieved their learning outcomes due to the time constraint of the session only being 20 minutes and the small size of the room. I felt relieved at the end of the teaching session because the room was too small, the students were beginning to loose concentration, there was so much needing to be covered on the topic but the time was insufficient. Initially I felt strongly that I need to negotiate for a larger teaching room and more time to achieve better outcomes in the future. However on further reflection I now appreciate that I should not have to negotiate for a bigger teaching room I just need to state what the requirements of the room size are for the students. Certain resources are necessary in order for students to be taught. In retrospect it would have probably been advantageous to include on the evaluation form for the students a section on the teaching environment. Deficiencies in the physical space would probably have been highlighted by the students indicating the need for the location problem to be addressed by the allocater of rooms. More time will not necessarily improve effectiveness of teaching it may be necessary to make the subject matter fit the available time.

Feedback from the students

The feedback from the students contains combinations of both negatives and positive remarks.I felt overwhelmed about the large response but had mixed feelings about individual feedbacks.

In addition the assessor gave me positive feedback after the teaching but was more critical about the whole teaching in private.

Reflective practice (Schon, 1987) consists of two elements:

“reflection in action,” this occurred at the time of the teaching session
“reflection on action,” occurred following the session and involved thinking about what happened, what contributed to it and whether the actions were appropriate and how they might be improved.
Action plan for future practice – identify key points for future development
Learn and utilise techniques for dealing with the students who are quiet (e.g. asking a generalised question).
Assess my own learning style and adapt learning episodes to fit in with this. (Honey, 1982).
Have a written teaching plan with space for my comments so these can be filled in immediately whilst still fresh in my mind. These notes can then be useful for the reflective process (Quinn, 2001).
Have a space on the evaluation form for comments on the environment.
Use photographs and pictures.
Get the students to actually use the scale.
Do less reading of handouts.
Find out at the end what they know. According to Knowles (1984) it is a basic principle that adults learn best if they diagnose their own learning needs and this triggers their motivation to learn.
Utilising the “andragogy” (Knowles, 1984) which is defined as “the art and science of helping adults learn” but now accepted more as guidance than a theory (Kaufman, 2003) adults value learning that integrates with their every day needs and are more interested in a problem centred approach therefore an interactive problem solving approach will be used for the teaching session in future. Consider a practical basis to the session for instance get the students to actually use the risk scoring system by applying it to examples.
According to Knowles (1984) it is a basic principle that adult learning is facilitated by encouraging learners to identify resources and ways of using these to fulfil their learning needs. Direct them to how to search the literature for relevant information rather than providing a list of resources.
Improving performance includes preparing well in advance, ensure appropriate room bookings, or choose a topic that is not too broad but enough to covered within the timeframe.
Use of electronic resources saves on time, photocopying and subsequent student storage. Explore the use of the intranet for this.
Conclusion

It is now going to be particularly important to repeat the exercise without delay. It would probably be helpful to teach the same group of students for 20 minutes in a larger room on a topic of their choice. I could perhaps invite them to choose from a number of topics that I propose but they could also add suggestions of their own. It is going to be a worthwhile exercise for my own learning experience as a teacher to then perform the same evaluation exercise as done here to plan subsequent improvements since the process of teaching effectively can always be improved. It is going to be valuable to develop some effective means of archiving information with learning points and proposals for change.

It would also be helpful to have some aspects of the teaching readily available at all times on a memory stick when an impromptu ten minute presentation could be given for instance if there is a delay in an audit meeting. Such action would add to my teaching experience and probably be much appreciated by the department.

In the future evaluation of student feedback might be analysed statistically if it is obtained as a continuous variable for instance on a visual analogue scale which can then be converted to percentages. This would enable some measure of, hopefully, improvement to be readily apparent which will further motivate me as a teacher.

Finally this exercise has very clearly demonstrated the cycle of think, plan, do, reflect which is integral to the learning cycle described by Cheek (2005) of a learner centred approach.

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