Author: Andre Coleman

Learning: Perspectives, Perceptions and Performance

“Learning” is a vague, important term. When mentioned, common associations are often relegated to the association with young schoolchildren and not so often as one of the most intriguing and inquired upon aspects of psychology.

Prior to further elucidation, as if oft the case, the examination of “learning” merits a definition. Though it seems to be a word of self-evident meaning, because it is hard to study directly, some further refining must be utilized. This self-evident ‘acquisition of knowledge’ can only be measured with behavioral outcomes and should be observationally able to be distinguished from reflexive or instinctive responses. A behavioral outcome might consist of a high test score, a rat that quickly presses a lever, an employee that receives bonus compensation or any other number of commonly conceived examples.

In discussing the nature of learning, there are perhaps two or three popularly dominant perspectives which are essential to understand in the formation of any reasonably comprehensive review. These perspectives include the behaviorist, the social learning, and the cognitive schools. Though it becomes apparent that these three influences are not without critique and that, even within each, there exists what might be labeled ‘factions’, their fundamental contributions cannot be ignored.

Behaviorism

The first of these perspectives is the behaviorist. In this scheme, there are two broad branches: classical conditioning and instrumental conditioning. In classical conditioning, learning occurs by the pairing of the stimulus with a desired response of the subject. Experimentally, this is an example of Pavlov’s famous dogs and the learning that results is a consequence of the learned associative relationship and is not contingent upon any action by the subject. The alternative to this method is instrumental conditioning in which the subject gets to “choose”. By this, it is meant that the reinforcement is contingent upon what the subject “chooses” as evidenced by the behaviorally discernibly different response.

Within the realm of behaviorism, one key contributor and voluminous icon of psychology in general is Thorndike. As a function of his experiments with cats in boxes for which they had to perform some specific behavior to escape, he concluded that learning was a process of an incremental nature and that their was became a neural link between the stimulus and response. This was evidenced by his successive experiments in which the cats became ‘smarter’, that is, they learned what specific behavior was required in order to be released. As the number of trials progressed, there was an inverse relationship with the time needed to escape.

The work of Skinner furthered the science of behaviorism by his greater elucidation of the four broad categories of reinforcement:

Application of a positive stimulus – Commonly referred to as a reward, this involves the presentation of something the subject desires.

Removal of a positive stimulus – An example of this for children would be “time-out”. Theoretically and often in reality, this method is useful to extinguish unwanted behaviors. In fact, according to Skinner, the most effective way to eliminate a behavior is to ignore it, thus removing any external reinforcement.
Application of a negative stimulus – Typically referred to as “punishment”, this involves the application of an unwanted or noxious stimulus to shape behavior.
Removal of a negative stimulus – This is the be the restoration of “normal” conditions upon cessation of an undesirable action or commission of some desired behavior. A parenting example would be the removal of a ‘grounded’ condition upon acceptable repentance of some past action.

In addition Skinner identified another type of reinforcer that he labeled a “general reinforcer” due to its wide applicability. Money is one such item and is so labeled because subjects desire it regardless of their state of depravity. This is in contrast to food which is not an adequate stimulus unless one is hungry, that is deprived of food.

Another theorist, Guthrie provides yet additional insight into the theories and methods of learning. One of his key contributions to the field is with his “Law of Continuity”. In this, Guthrie proposes eloquently that, “a combination of stimuli which has been accompanied by movement will on its recurrence tend to be followed by that movement”… in other words, an action in a given situation will likely be repeated when the subject finds themselves in a similar situation.

The Cognitive Approach

While there is the well-known debate of nature versus nuture that runs throughout science, such polarity also exists within the field of psychology and learning. A pure behaviorist would insist that so-called ‘choices’ are really nothing more than an animal-like actions in all behavior is reducible to stimulus and response type mechanisms. As behaviorism has significantly added to our understanding of the human condition, there exist alternative perspectives that are also quite useful. One such branch of the more cognitive division of psychology is referred to a Gestalt psychology.

From this perspective, the insight that the brain is not the passive recipient of stimulus but actively involved in the perception and construction of reality is posited. Further, Gestalt psychologists attest that a given stimulus exists not in isolation but in the total context of the perception of the subject. For example, Wertheimer, the father of Gestalt psychology, cited the example of two blinking lights being able to present the perception of apparent motion. This as well as the popular psychology examples in which a certain line has the appearance of being longer than another depending on the lines and figures around it speaks to the tenet of Gestalt psychology that an experience as a whole, is greater than the sum of the individual parts that make it up. From these and other example, the idea that the mind is able to shape its own perspective of reality by virtue of its own beliefs about how things should be or how they are desired to be is a major enduring contribution of the Gestalt movement.

Though not a cognitivist, Piaget’s contribution to learning could arguably be filed in this area. Particularly noted for his contributions to developmental psychology and thus much appropriate for child rather than adult learning, Piaget declared the existence of fairly defined period of development. During these periods, a child was able to learn specific skills and acquire certain abilities with not being able to achieve certain others due to the maturation and innate abilities that of a developing brain. For example, the period of approximately seven to twelve years old is referred to as the concrete operations period. During this range, reasoning and problem solving abilities are generally limited to “concrete” phenomena that can be seen and observed rather than abstract in nature.

Observational or Social Learning

Though cognitive in nature, these theories have been treated separately due to both their easy discernment by more ‘pure’ cognitive perspectives and by the distinctness of the contributions of the key theorists. Up to this point, the models of learning that have been postulated, whether behaviorist or cognitive, have been focused on the subject only. Moving somewhat further away from the ‘clean’ and ‘pure’ perspective of behaviorism, social learning theory attests that the focus must extend beyond the subject to the contextual influence on others. In describing the views of social learning, some of the most controversial and informative experiments in modern psychology have be conducted. For example, Bandura’s famed ‘prison experiment’ in which subjects were put into a mock prison with some subjects assigned to be “guards” while others were simply “prisoners”. The experiment was terminated early due some of the subjects ‘taking their roles a bit too seriously’.

In another classic experiment, children were shown a film showing an adult acting aggressively by hitting a doll or shown an adult being kind to a doll. These same children later modeled the demonstrated behavior, whether aggressive or not. Such findings are reinforced by LeBon’s work on “crowd psychology” in which individuals and groups are influenced by others to model or imitate certain implicit behaviors.

Implications on Health & Well-Being

Animals, depending on the species, have a number of unlearned, innate behavioral responses to certain stimuli. Examples such as sea turtles that ‘automatically’ head toward the sea upon birth on a sandy beach to dogs that seek the warmth and scent of their mothers while they cannot see after birth abound in literature. On the other hand, humans seem to come into the world as a blank slate to be written upon by life’s experiences. It is this aspect of humanity that makes learning play such a pivotal role in our development and beyond.

Further, after even a short perusal of the various schools of thought, it becomes apparent that the human animal is complex enough to warrant the consideration and application of all perspectives. By doing so, it is possible not only achieve specific learning goals but also to achieve the avoidance of certain other issues that may occur from situations in which learning does not occur. One such example of this is the child who is raised with excessive punishments to shape behavior. According Skinner and other behaviorists, this can produce a ‘maladapted’ adult who has emotional issues. These emotional issues may manifest themselves in any manner of behaviors such as avoidance of others or difficulties in relationships to, at the extreme, sociopaths who ‘act out’ their frustrations upon others.

From a cognitive perspective, much of the therapeutic approach of this school is in bringing the “cognitive errors” that a person commits to their conscious awareness. These “errors in thinking” occur when a person creates false assumptions or acts utilizing illogical conclusions in choosing their responses to stimuli. Extreme but common examples are those who express feelings of being a “total failure” and consider suicide. In most cases, such errors are much more subtle but just as insidious with regards to their ability to alter behavior.

Clearly, learning plays not just a role in the development of humans but is an ongoing factor in the ‘success’ of daily living. Psychologists, human resource specialists, trainers and managers and supervisors of any business are vitally concerned about learning in the workplace. As the business world grows more sophisticated, new skills are needed. These new skills must be taught, learned and successfully applied for the mutual success of the individual and the enterprise. As such, lessons from all three perspectives are quite relevant. By utilizing key components of each perspective and theorist, one can gain a flexible paradigm by which there is greater understanding and application to additional circumstances. It is with this goal of greater applicability that a number of specific contributions are outlined below:

Thorndike on Education

Thorndike had much to say in regards to educational process and the efficacy of teaching methods and styles. This insight is relevant regardless of the age of the learner.

Consider the situation the student faces.
Consider the response the wish to connect with this situation.
Form the bond.
All else equal, from no bond that will have to be broken.
All else equal, from as few bonds as possible.
All else equal, form bonds in the way they are required to act later.
Favor the situations and responses that naturally occur in life (Hergenhahn and Olson 2005, p. 72).

The bond that Thorndike refers to is the previously mentioned neural bond that exists between the stimulus and the response. Though these recommendations contain a number of Thorndike’s behavioral precepts, a key ‘learning’ for typical occupational settings is the last advisement. Reminiscent of the idea that if one is going to train for a five-kilometer road race, it is at some point necessary to train by running reinforces the point that training for a specific task should, as much as possible for effective learning, resemble the task itself.

Skinner on punishment

Just as Thorndike “lectured” on educational process, the iconic behaviorist Skinner advises in regards to punishment. This topic is perhaps most salient to child-rearing, an occupation in which there exists considerable frustration that might be at least slightly abated by the application of a learning theory. From a behaviorist standpoint, “punishment” is the application of a negative or undesired stimulus in order to shape behavior. While commonly utilized, Skinner cautions that punishment:

Causes unfortunate emotional byproducts
Indicates what an organism should not do rather than what it should do.
Justifies inflicting pain on others.
Being in a situation where previously punished behavior could be engaged in without being punished may excuse a child to do so.
Punishment inflicts aggression toward the punishing agent and others.
Punishment often replaces one undesirable response with another (Hergenhahn and Olson 2005, pp. 92-94).
Guthrie on breaking habits

Also a behaviorist, Guthrie addressed the issue of “habits”. From a behavioral perspective, habits are simply a specific response to a large number of stimuli in which the greater the number of the stimuli, the greater the strength of the habit. As habits can be a significant annoyance and possibly quite maladaptive, insight into their extinguishment is valuable. According to Guthrie, the following four methods are useful and valid:

Threshold Method – In this method, the technique of ‘warming up’ to an idea is utilized rather than the sudden presentation of the stimulus in order to attenuate the response.
Fatigue – This method demonstrates the futility of a response to gain the desired results but simply letting a subject ‘wear themselves out’ when a stimulus is presented.
Incompatible Response Method – This method relies upon the pairing of a stimulus which generates an unacceptable response with a stimulus in which the response is not compatible with the unacceptable response. Such action has the effect of lessening the ability of the former stimulus to evoke and undesirable response. Though this is a behavioral percept, it has the net effect of forcing the subject to cognitively “rethink” the pairing and its meaning.
Sidetracking – This method is one in which a habit in not so much eliminated as simply avoided. By removing the stimulation, one can effectively sidetrack the response (Hergenhahn and Olson 2005, pp. 220-224).
Wertheimer’s Facts versus Principles

According to Wertheimer, the father of Gestalt psychology, real “learning” occurs not by the simple recitation of facts but rather by the understanding of underlying principles. As apt illustration of this idea is the following example:

A school inspector who was impressed by the children he had observed but wanted to ask one more question before departing.

“How many hairs does a horse have?” he asked.

Much to the amazement of both the inspector and the teacher, a nine-year old boy raised his hand and answered, “3,571,962.”

“How do you know that your answer is correct?” asked the inspector.

If you do not believe me,” answered the boy, “count them yourself.”

The inspector broke into laughter and vowed to tell the story to his colleagues when eh returned to Vienna. When the inspector returned the following year for his annual visit, the teacher asked him how his colleagues responded to the story. Disappointedly, the inspector said, “I wanted very much to tell the story but I couldn’t. For the life of me, I couldn’t remember how many hairs the boy said the horse had.” (Hergenhahn and Olson 2005, p. 281).

Enough said.

Piaget’s “Learning depends on failure”

Though we generally judge the success of learning by achievement, the noted developmental psychologist Piaget suggests that perhaps this should be reconsidered to some extent. Specifically, Piaget indicated that learning occurs only when the dilemma of ‘not learning’ or a failure to learn is present. To elaborate, the inability or failure of previous learning to account for a given set of circumstances makes it possible for new situations to be assimilated and accommodated, thus providing the raw material for learning to occur. Important to this assimilation and accommodation, or learning process is the ability of the teacher to gradually challenge rather than overwhelm the individual ((Hergenhahn and Olson 2005, pp. 302-303).

Bandura: Human Monkeys are Different…

In early behaviorist experiments, animal subjects did not “look” at other animals to learn adaptive strategies. While more recent experiments have indeed demonstrated this phenomena, is was the failure of these early experiments that led Bandura to postulate model learning.

In this system, Bandura explained and predicted human behavior by such as means that the stimulus was simultaneously internal and external to the subject. This is, to some extent, a cognitive behavioral approach and aptly illustrates the importance of positive role models and the influence that others can have upon learning and behavior.

Conclusion

Human learning simply cannot be fully understood by the use of a single perspective. It is not that any one paradigm is incorrect but rather each is only a partial representation of the range and diversity of the human condition. By availing oneself of multiple perspectives, one becomes the beneficiary of significantly more vast knowledge by which life, through work-, school- or home-life can be improved through the application of numerous principles and precepts designed to foster adaptive responses to the stimulation life brings.

Works Consulted

Hergenhahn, B. and M. Olson. (2005). An Introduction to the Theories of Learning, 7^th Edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, US: Pearson Prentice-Hall.

Le Bon, G. (1914). The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind. London: T.F. Unwin.

Rationale

A cross curricular resource box designed to develop children’s understanding of scientific and mathematical concepts, through ‘The Rainbow Fish’ theme has been produced. The box contains activities for Reception children exploring counting in Mathematics and material and properties in Science.

This rationale explains how activities based from the rainbow fish provide conceptual learning in Maths and Science.

Counting is important in providing a foundation for Mathematics. Children will always experience situations where counting skills are vital. The National Curriculum states, counting helps develop skills applicable in everyday life and context. Using the Primary Numeracy Strategy (2006, online) ‘using mathematical methods and ideas to solve practical problems’ and ‘identifying numbers that are one more or less than a given number’ are mentioned in EYFS (2007,online) and developed throughout children’s schooling experience (5B,4B,2B,1E)

Anghileri (2001, p.6) says counting is learnt suddenly. Children may spontaneously learn counting because they should be experiencing counting in different contexts: cross curricular, play etc. Anghileri (2001) assumes the above occurs because children are making links through context. Yet this is a generalisation, children are different and may need reinforcement or interaction, to firstly understand how they are learning, which then allows making links.

Both Askew and Wiliam (1995, p.5) declare learning to count as mechanical. Askew and Wiliam’s proposition lacks clarity as to how and why counting is mechanical and what the implications are towards children’s learning. One cannot say children feel and experience this.

From experience, I applied Anghileri’s theory. Counting was placed into contexts: songs and games etc, allowing activities to be seen informal. Children’s understanding of counting developed because principles and understanding came naturally.

Science creates opportunities for children to understand the world through play and exploration, using their senses. Although it is classified as Knowledge and Understanding of the World, skills (questions, describing, predicting, sorting, investigating) and attitudes develop (Ward 2005, p.9). Identifying and understanding properties of different materials encourages children to question and become aware of their surroundings.

Through EYFS requirements “Investigate materials through use of appropriate senses,” materials encourages children to develop a simple KS1 level of understanding SC1 2a,b,e,f,g,i,j, SC3: 1a,b,c, 2a” (QCA 1999, online).

An implication of scientific learning is that of misconceptions, such as distinguishing between materials, to the object made from the material. Guest (2003,pp.2-6) argues that children may develop Paiget’s (2005) constructivist approach towards scientific learning (Smith 2005, p.459). Children may construct their own understanding through their own experiences. Henceforth there are no set principles towards teaching material, other than creating strategies to elicit children’s understanding and misconceptions to then extend.

Below explains how the box could be used (see appendix too).

Activity one allows mixed ability pairs of children to play a board game, using a 1-6 dice. Instructions should be read with children. Children add or remove scales(Extension: +/-3) from their fish, depending on the position landed on the board. The child with the most scales left at the end of the game wins. This develops their counting skills to ten. Number scales and plastic fish can be used as an aid for counting

Activity two involves children using a fishing rod to catch fish, therefore developing their hand eye co-ordination. The fish contain single numbers from 1-10. Children keep the fish if they correctly answer questions from the teacher: “What is one more than 6, one less than 3etc?” If incorrect, the answer is modelled, and the fish go back into the pond. Teachers can change the questions around for children who need extension such as, “What is 3 more or less than 5……?

Activity three helps children identify and describe properties of material (plastic, paper, wood, velvet, playdough and wool). Children independently group these using sorting rings. Questions can be asked: “Why have you put velvet and plastic here.”….Children then group the materials into five properties. I chose transparency, stretchiness, squishiness, softness and hardness. Explain and allow children to test out materials and their properties before grouping. “Can we see through plastic…?

As an investigative game with the teacher, in turn children (mixed ability groups4) are to feel fish in a feely box, made from material used in the previous activity. A child feels a fish(using sight and touch senses) and responds to questions other children ask(based on first- hand experience activity) to conclude what material the fish are made from- ” The material is soft…” As an aid to investigate what material the fishes are made from, raw material would be displayed for visualisation and for children to test when they receive responses to their questions.

Principles must be considered when teaching and learning about counting and materials.

For Maths, in more or less counting, consideration has to be given to “one-one,” where children need to understand that each items has a name and is counted once. Then “stable order,” where children need to understand that the order of numbers must stay consistent when counting, followed by the third principle, “cardinal” where children state the total number of items. The fourth principle is, “abstraction” where children need to understand that all items are counted despite their different properties. The fifth principle, “order irrelevance” demonstrates that items can be counted in any order (Thompson, 1997, p.35-37). Teaching the concepts for counting and materials can now be used.

Relating counting (one more or less) to addition and subtraction, and materials and their properties to scientific inquiry, may reflect EYFS principles. The activities provide children the opportunity to make connections through using practical apparatus (e.g. material fish/fish with numbers). HMI emphasise that “learning depends on one’s ability to recognise relationships between concepts” (Koshy 1999, p.17).

As activity one should allow children to make connections independently, as it is student led. Yet it is difficult to say whether children could make links between concepts as there is no guidance or questioning to stimulate thinking and association. William reports (2008) in child led activities, children need time and space to discover mathematical ideas and concepts. If time and independent exploration is provided, links may eventually be made (Williams 2008, p.60).

In activity two and first part of three, Harlen (1993) concludes, questions should enable response and inquiry from children, “How can we work out what two more than eight is? “Why have you grouped the wood with plastic…?” Such responses may enable misconceptions to surface, which should structure initial starting points to build concepts, (1993, p.83) as interaction and formative assessment are demonstrated (Black and Wiliam2001, pp.2-14). Class ethos may develop, as assessment for learning is undertaken directly with children, allowing more time for interaction and observation rather than typical assessment requirements, e.g. collecting work.

Though appealing, Harlen (1993 p.83) and Westwood (2000,p.51) suggest language used in questions could affect children’s understanding. Language may produce open/closed questions, which creates false observation and assessment, because the way questions are constructed determines whether children are asked “how can we find two more than eight..?”, or “we solve it by…’ As there is a strong relationship between the importance of language in learning, one could portray Harlen and Westwood’s view as an opinion, as neither provide statistics and further evidence to prove how language use in questions demotes learning.

From experience, my questions helped children reflect and achieve objectives, but I didn’t consider whether the language I used in my questions easily allowed children to achieve objectives, as I may have given them the answer through my questions “to figure this out, we need to add…” Drawing upon Harlen and Westwood’s principles, a reflective and evaluative approach to questioning should be adopted. Practioneer can identify and evaluate how their language is used within questions, and consider improvements needed to allow children to think through an approach, highlighting Brunel’s (1976) child led approach towards constructive thinking and learning (Smith 2003, p.405).

Williams and Vygotsky (1962,p.405) deem discussion as encouragement towards children’s conceptual learning. Activity one allows children to work together as they are in charge of the situation. Exploratory talk develops children’s teambuilding and communication skills as children rephrase and correct each other. Positive relationships form and children learn together. A point to consider is that Williams and Vygotsky may be biased, they are using words (rephrase/correct) that favour children working together. Children are unique some may be shy or do not like helping each other, therefore won’t rephrase or correct each other. The gap in this evidence could make us question the reliability of Williams and Vygotsky view, as one could question what is happening to children who are not getting help from peers.

Barnes (1976,pp.31) believes in activity one, children working independently may not do the activity due to lack of authority figures. Not all children get ‘off task’, thus a balance of when to leave and when to refocus children on the game must be considered, here children not receiving help, would.

Williams states “learning should be developed through children’s experiences of games and play” (Williams 2008, p.36).

An aspect of teaching in foundation settings is to encourage children’s learning through exploratory play. The second part of activity three should stimulate and promote understanding as children are clarifying, extending and reinforcing ideas (Oliver 2006,p.144). “If she can stretch this…it will not be wood…” Oliver’s (2006) view is achieved through children conversing, especially to those in need of encouragement.

Both Williams and Oliver’s view overcome inclusion barriers, as all children are involved in the game and are helping one another reach learning outcomes, allowing Vygotsky’s ZPD (2003, p.497) where peer-scaffolding can develop children’s ability to do a task. Children experience Froebel’s (1906,p.229) theory of successful learning because learning is influenced through play than rote learning approaches.

As a result, supporting Waite (2006,p.12), play may allow children to ‘fit into class’ and may explain the importance of personal and social learning (Wood 2001,p.12) rather than support towards self-actualisation (Maslow 1987,p.12).

Far from just learning, activity three allows children to have fun and embrace ECM (2009,online) ‘enjoy and achieve through games’ and EYFS ‘build concepts and skills through play’ outcomes (2007,online).

Scott’s (1985) physics games study reflects Williams and Oliver’s argument, as games provided opportunities for discussion and negotiation amongst girls and boys (Bentley 1989, p.127). One could query whether this condition took into consideration the communication amongst diverse children and the barriers to communication. Regarding secondary physics, questions could surface as to whether the results would apply for primary children, as from experience, secondary students like working co-operatively and many primary children like working independently.

Investigations are used throughout the activities. Investigations in activity two and second part of three relate to problem solving, in that they are focused by a problem which requires children’s questions and explanations. Both VESP (1992,p.48) and Aksis (1998,pp.4-6) evaluate thinking and responding allows children to engage themselves within the activity and acquire interpreting, questioning, predicting and hypothesising skills to propose explanations and solutions. Yet VESP and Aksis falsely assume that all children acquire these skills. Both researchers’ views can be convincing if investigations create open learning situations rather than common didactic teaching methods (Bentley1989, p.82). However ASE (1998 p.6) attack the views of both researchers, as skills to be acquired through open learning situations are ignored, because emphasis is on planning and carrying out an investigations rather than evaluating the investigative process “how did we come to our conclusion…” This could be due to difficulties in achieving timely involvement for pupils. ASE concluded ‘Primary schools ask only half the class to carry out investigations‘. One could argue that we maybe going against ECM and EYFS principles of equal opportunities and participation for children.

From experience, supporting ASE, children not involved in investigations have their inherent capabilities disregarded. Activity two and three is not didactic, allows all children to participate regardless to class timing as every child has the right to learn. If not, we are removing children’s potential learning style and forcing them to do work which they may struggle with, but would not if they did the investigation.

The activities may produce errors like, counting same spaces twice on the board, difficulty identifying random numbers and counting to/from a number. However Hansen (2005) and Smith (1997) state, these are common errors children make when learning to count. In future, reinforcement must be given to counting principles (Bruce 2005, pp.25).

To conclude, I have given explanations to how and why these activities can be carried out, with consideration to issues one should be aware too. Stating how these issues maybe overcome are potential starters. I have realised that interaction and discussion are key to children’s learning, and must be in daily lessons. Children will engage in the activities as they are fun, motivating and creative. Children would share and take turns in throwing the dice and catching fish, as well as talk and share with each other what material the fish are made from. By interaction and observation with children, one can identify children’s understanding of material and counting. As Vygotsky states, children think and learn socially through experience, interaction and support (Smith et al, 2003, p.493). The activities enable children to experiment, make decisions, errors and correct themselves (Bruce 2005, p.64).

References

Anghileri, J. (2001) Principles and Practices in Arithmetic Teaching: Innovative approaches for the primary classroom. Buckingham: Open Press University

Askew, M., William, D. (1995) Recent research in Mathematics education. London: HMSO

Barnes, D. (1976) From Communication to Curriculum. Harmondsworth: Penguin

Bentley, D., Watts, M. (1989) Learning and Teaching in school Science. Milton Keynes: Open Press University

Black, P., Wiliam, D. (2001) Inside the black box. Raising standards through classroom assesment. London: Kings college London school of education

Bruce, T. (2005) Early childhood education. 3rd edition. London:Hodder Arnold

DfES. (2007) The Early Years Foundation Stage.[Online]. Available: http://nationalstrategies.standards.dcsf.gov.uk/eyfs/taxonomy/33655/33694/0/46384 [12th October 2009]

DfES (2009) Every Child Matters [Online]. Available: http://www.dcsf.gov.uk/everychildmatters/ [6th October 2009]

Evans,B. (2007) The rainbow fish maths game. [Online]. Available: http://www.tes.co.uk/article.aspx?storycode=3005392 [12 November 2009].

Froebel, F. (1906) The Education of Man. New York: Appleton

Guest, G. (2003) Alternative frameworks for Primary Science.[Online]. Available: www.scitutors.org.uk/…/p4.1_6.0b_misconceptions_primary_science.doc [8th October 2009]

Harlen, W. (1993) Teaching and Learning Primary Science.2nd Edition. London: Paul Chapman

Koshy, V. Effective Teaching of Numeracy. For the National Mathematics Framework. London: Hodder and Stoughton

Maslow (1987) Motivation and Personality, Cambridge, Harper and Row

Oliver, A. (2006) Creative teaching science. In the early years and primary classroom. USA and Canada: David Fulton

Primary National Strategy (2006) Primary framework for Mathematics: Learning objectives. [Online]. Available: http://nationalstrategies.standards.dcsf.gov.uk/strands/34759/34265/110211 [6th November 2009]

QCA (1999) National Curriculum Science KS1. [Online]. Available: http://curriculum.qcda.gov.uk/key-stages-1-and-2/subjects/science/keystage1/index.aspx?return=/key-stages-1-and-2/subjects/index.aspx [26th October 2009]

Smith, P., Cowie, H., Blades, M. (2003) Understanding Children’s Development. 4th Edition. England: Blackwell Publishing

Sparklebox (2003) Numberlines. [Online]. Available: http://www.sparklebox.co.uk/md/counting/lines.html [6th November 2009]

Thompson, I. 1997. Teaching and learning early number. Buckingham : Open University Press

Vermont Elementary Science Project (1992) On the run reference guide to the nature of elementary science for the student. Vermont: Burlington

Vygotsky, L. (1962) Thought and Language. Cambridge: MIT press

Watson, R., Goldaworthy, A.,Robinson, V. (1998) ASE/King’s College Science Investigations in Schools [AKSIS] Project. QCA : London

Waite, S., Carrington, V. And Passy, R. (2005) Final report: Evaluation of Excellence and Enjoyment: Learning and teaching in the primary years continuing professional development materials, report for Primary National Strategy

Westwood, P. (2000) Numeracy and Learning difficulties. Approaches to teaching and assessment. Camberwell: Australian council for educational research

Introduction

Spelling strategies in the primary curriculum have consistently provoked criticism and debate amongst teachers, Ofsted and the Government.[1] Standards continue to decline highlighting that the present strategy is failing.[2] A central criticism is that teachers do not have the necessary knowledge of the relationship between word structure and spelling, and rely on techniques they learnt at school, specifically the use of memorized spelling tests. (Spear-Swerling, Brucker & Alfano 2005). The major concerns are that this approach hinders the teacher’s ability to identify the correct spelling instructional level of individual pupils, and produces a trend where pupils who score high in tests will subsequently misspell the same words during written exercises; this is the case at my chosen school.[3]

The Key Stage 2 curriculum is similarly criticized both at the school and in general, because it fails to ‘consistently describe how word lists are selected or base selection on current linguistic spelling principles and developmental research.’ (Scott 2007). This ‘may or may not be developmentally appropriate for the class as a whole or for individual pupils, especially in the area of creative writing’ (Stone et al. 2005 p662).

It will be the purpose of this study to analyse and evaluate current theories and case studies for teaching spelling and writing at Key Stage 2 that could be utilized by the school. There are three dominant strands to teaching that will be investigated here, Developmental Stage Theory, Incidental Inventive Spelling theory and the Multi-sensory approach.[4]

Spelling Strategies: An Investigation

Developmental Stage Theory identifies 5 stages of spelling development; Prephonetic, Phonetic, Patterns with Words, Syllable Juncture and Meaning-Derivation. (Henderson in Bear et al. 2004).[5] Studies have discovered that ‘pupils who experience significant difficulty with spelling will still follow the same developmental course as other pupils, but at a slower pace. (Worthy & Invernizzi 1990). The approach therefore promotes a move away from memorization skills to supporting a pupil’s natural developing awareness of language with practice in wide reading and writing, and ‘be based on the pupils developmental level as opposed to unitary placement in the grade level based spelling book.’ (Schlagel 2002 p.47).

A developmental spelling analysis (DSA) such as the Qualitative Inventory of Word Knowledge (QIWK) technique is used to initially identify and analyse a pupil’s current stage through scoring, inventive spellings and error patterns relating to writing and word sorting activities. Word sorts of increasingly difficult levels using words from the 5 DTS stages are used because they provide an ‘interactive means of helping pupils understand spelling concepts on an increasingly abstract level’ (Bear et al. 2004). Subsequent teaching, spelling and writing exercises are tailored to both stage and development strategies by focusing on fewer words in word sorts at a time, teaching spelling patterns and providing numerous practice writing sessions and self/peer review strategies.[6] Together they allow for a systematic observation of higher-level processes and improve metacognitive abilities. (Seifert-Kessell in Fresch 2000). This approach moves away from the reliance of pupil memorization of words that is said to produce effective performance in spelling tests but poor performance in writing, and over time, as pupils forget the words they have memorized. (Seifert-Kessell in Fresch 2000)

The case study ‘Beyond Memorisation, Lists and Trial Tests’ by Hillal & Scharer is an excellent example of the DTS process. Using QIWK teachers were able to expand their understanding of KS1 & KS2 equivalent pupils as spellers. One teacher discovered that her class ability ranged from levels 2-8 on the QIWK scale, another commented ‘I need to get better at recognizing what levels they are at. It only makes sense that if kids are at different reading levels, they will be at different levels in their spelling. I don’t know why I didn’t recognize this before.’ (Hilal & Scharer 1993).

The strategy does not just allow for effective grouping and targeted learning at the instructional level, it also provides a detailed method for qualitative data analysis in pupil errors over time. One teacher documented a concern that score levels had not improved between May and January, however, when the error data was analysed using the QIWK method she discovered that ‘over half were moving from the letter name stage to the within-word stage…this is so much more pleasant, you can see growth, what more could you ask for?’ (Hillal & Scharer 1993).

A third and perhaps the most significant development was that teachers noticed changes in spelling errors in written assignments. Rather than circling errors they cross-referenced with a QIWK analysis and systematically documented them. This inferred weekly selections of word lists that were chosen from misspelled written work rather than the curriculum textbooks. This facilitated mini-spelling lessons linked to written work through observed errors and provided an environment for coaching in self-editing and peer editing strategies using QIWK word sorts as a base. Peer marking and discussions have, themselves, provided an additional strategy here that has been documented to benefit pupils learning. By grouping pupils of similar spelling ability they learn at the same pace, feel empowered and ‘by judging the work of others, students gain insight into their own performance (and language)…peer and self-assessment help pupils develop the ability to make judgments, a necessary skills for learning.'( Brown, Rust & Gibbs 1994). It will be seen throughout this chapter that peer work and assessment strategies lend themselves to the majority of spelling strategies discussed, this will be discussed in more depth in the conclusion.

The headteacher summarized; ‘there’s been a move away from memorization activities to active tasks such as creative writing, word hunts and word study notebooks (this) extends and records development of word knowledge.’ (Hillal & Scharer 1993). All the teachers involved in the study stated they would continue but required support strategies from the school to implement, this a recurring theme for all researched case studies and will be therefore be discussed in the conclusion.

A subsequent developmental case study entitled ‘Using Think-Alouds During Word Sorts’ (Fresch 2000) encouraged KS2 level pupils to ‘put your brain in your throat and tell us what you are thinking…keep talking.’ The study was determined to ‘open a window into the decision-making process’ because information stored in the short-term memory is vocalized and caters for ‘systematic observations of higher-level processes.’ (Olson, Duffy & Mack in Fresch 2000). The results showed that ‘think-alouds enable pupils to demonstrate the extent to which they rely on auditory or visual information…students develop knowledge about language through active engagement.’ (Fresch 2000). [7] This in turn can be incorporated into the strategies pupils use while writing; rather than rely on writing and proof reading, the pupils can incorporate a vocal strategy linked to their experience of vocalizing words during DST word sort exercises.

While Stage Theory provides ‘a basic template for describing student growth in spelling and writing’ it is criticized for a repeated emphasis of placing pupils in concrete groups with the assumption ‘pupils progress sequentially without moving back and forth when they encounter unfamiliar words.’ (Scott 2007). Studies by Siegler (1995) and Varnhagen (1997) have identified an ‘Overlapping Wave Theory’ that incorporate stage development but allow for fluid movement between stages as they develop. This theory believes ‘pupils possess and are able to use knowledge of phonology, orthography and morphology from an early age, but rely more strongly on strategies at different points in time.’ (Kwong & Varnhagen 2005). Varnhagen’s case study examined pupil spelling for a KS 1-2 equivalent and identified the same strategies throughout.[8] Their conclusion was that spelling ‘progressed from errors representing the phonetic stage directly to correct spelling.’ (Scott 2007). The authors themselves are unsure of how this would compliment writing strategies but identify a link to the two strategies that would allow for a better understanding of spelling stage development that would influence spelling strategies as a whole. (Kwong & Varnhagen 2005 p.154).

In opposition to DST is the Incidental Inventive Spelling approach developed by Montessori (1964) and Chomsky (1979). They observed that children write from an early age and in some cases before they begin to read. They inferred that an invented spelling approach to writing benefits learning because ‘children learn best if they construct a system of their own rather than having it handed to them by an adult.'(Chomsky in Metasala & Ehri 1998 p.300). Treimann (1993) echoed Chomsky and Montessori by conducting a year long study where pupils used invented spelling in their writing, then recopying it with standard spelling and finally using for reading practice. It was discovered that the pupils spelling and writing both improved. (Treimann in Metasala & Ehri 1998).

In a case study by Clarke (1988) pupils at an early KS2 level using inventive spelling out performed fellow pupils in two separate spelling tests, one involving low-frequency words. These results suggest ‘encouraging children to invent spelling while engaged in creative writing helps them to appreciate language comprehension.’ (Clarke in Metasala & Ehri 1998 p.305). Ehri continues to argue that ‘it does not hurt children to misspell words and they do not become locked into misspelling behaviour.’ An additional discovery was that pupils often do not proof read their own writing and even when they do it takes multiple readings to learn its spelling. By using inventive spelling techniques the inventive group correctly ‘spelled a larger variety of words than the control group.’ (Metasala & Ehri 1998 p.305). Further studies by Ehri, Gibbs and Underwood (1988) and Bradley and King (1992) discovered that pupils beginning Key Stage 2 who were exposed to inventive spelling techniques were more accurate than their counterparts. (Metasala & Ehri 1998).

Although pupils in these studies were beginning a Key Stage 2 level of education the strength of the study focuses on the ability of pupils to maintain ownership of their creative writing. The teacher remains a facilitator rather than a director. Read (1986) believes ‘writing is part of a child’s play with language and the specific activities must grow out of a child’s interest…she is likely to direct herself rather than march to an adult drummer.’ (Read 1986 p.125). The inventive studies have highlighted two areas of interest, firstly is the level of play pupils maintain through writing which could lead to better performance. A study by Gerritz in Read confirms that ‘there was a distinct improvement in pupils writing ability. They were clearly at ease and eager to write. They didn’t show any more bad spelling habits than had been experienced throughout years of teaching.’ (Gerritz in Read 1986 p.125). An enjoyment of writing is perhaps viewed as secondary to spelling performance in the KS 2 strategy and there could be a link between poor spelling performance in writing and the rigidity of spelling strategies. Secondly, the studies have highlighted the in-ability of pupils at this level to identify spelling mistakes in writing. A possible link could be made to the peer-support strategies outlined in the DST studies where-by pupils creatively write first and then, together in QIWK determined groups, analyse the mistakes.

There is a third approach relating to a learning styles strategy. Though a combination of neurology, Gardner’s multiple intelligence and subsequent learning styles theories there are numerous teaching strategies that focus on multi-sensory learning techniques that can build on the traditional spelling lessons.

Using neurological evidence Ott (2007) suggests a distinction between dominant left and right brain learning styles. Left brain learners could focus on speech and language through learning word patterns through sound and rhyme, using mnemonics in analysis, logic and language skills, counting syllables and using word derivatives.[9] Right brain learners would focus on visual and spatial skills such as clapping to count syllables, using colour when they identify words, using a computer keyboard and graphic packages, and using mnemonics with illustrations.[10]

Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences expounds the techniques to include three dominant learning styles that can be incorporated into the classroom.[11] Visual learners could benefit from learning to spell through images, diagrams, mindmaps, media and spelling through analogy and word patterns. The traditional Fernald Method of pronunciation, identification, the tracing of difficult spellings, and writing from memory would especially suite these types of learners. (Ott 2007).

Auditory learners could benefit from listening, song, poem, music, rhythm and oral testing. This directly relates to The Simultaneous Oral Spelling (SOS) method that involves pupils sounding out letters, whilst an other pupil asks them to give the letter names as he/she spells the word. Although a basic phonographic technique there is potential for auditory learners to benefit. (Westwood 2005). There is an opportunity to combine with the ARROW method (Aural-Read-Response-Aural-Written). The pupil listens to a recording of single words while simultaneously reading the same words. Oral and written responses via testing allow for a multi-sensory approach to learning words that enhance the traditional memorization technique with a better-suited learning style. (Westwood 2005). Kinesthetic learners could utilise note-taking and physical activities such as model building and play to further enhance the learning experience. (Ott 2007). Although there is a lack of definite case studies relating these methods to the relationship of spelling and writing, they do provide a framework for multi-sensory learning that have the potential to be incorporated into the other methods discussed. Pupils (and teachers) could benefit from the awareness of their learning styles and the multi-faceted approaches to learning offered here.

The Directed Spelling Thinking Activity (DSTA) developed by Dr Zutell (1989-1991) provides a detailed lesson format utilizing multi-sensory techniques and a process-orientated cycle of instruction that especially suits language learning. (Zutell 1996). This strategy is aimed at ‘systematically connecting to the writing process with a child-centered, active approach to learning.'(Zutell 1996).

An initial pretest with contrasting words is given, followed by a group discussion focusing on strategic problem-solving activities. The next day a word sort is initiated that aids pupils to discover the relationships between contrasting word patterns. Throughout the week pupils make ‘connections to their own experiences and take greater control of their learning as they hunt for words, sort words with partners and individually, and use a pupil-chosen selection of practice written activities centered upon identifying patterns and relationships’. (Zutell 1996).

Word sorts are again utilized providing a link to the DTS strategy. In this case they are based on teacher and student selected single words and multiple sorts of semantic and orthographic definitions. To enhance learning they are sorted both visually and blind, where ‘decisions are made after each word is said, but before it is seen.’ They are also initiated through group, partner and individual practices to facilitate pupil relationships. The benefits stated here are that ‘pupils notice important features of words being studied, and it can contribute significantly to proofreading abilities.’ (Zutell & Compton 1993). Zutell & Compton go to great lengths to describe the positives of word sorting activities. To summarise, they identify the manipulative strengths of movement and rearrangement, the ability to respond to emergent patterns, to facilitate peer support and learning, identify conceptual categories and word memberships and to move beyond individual pronunciation, pattern and meaning to the interconnectedness of words. Once accuracy is established they ‘can sort on their own and speed sort to ensure internalized, automatic control. (Zutell & Compton 1993).

Word hunting activities are also identified as effective in creating a sense of ownership in decision-making and to recognize ‘the relevance of what is being studied to their own reading and writing.’ It is documented to aid the individualization of word lists from the pupil’s own writing and to the instructional level of the pupil that once more forms a link to the DTS method. (Zutell 2005). Other strategies advised are Flip Folders for independent spelling strategies, specifically the ‘Look-Say-Cover-See’ strategy discussed earlier in relation to multi-sensory learning. Word Study Notebooks are identified as a writing alternative to the traditional Word Journal because they are ‘conceptually challenging…pupils enter words by patterns, such as ‘ch’ words or vowel-consonant-silent ‘e’ words. New words and pages are added as new patterns are studies.’ (Zutell 2005).

Games, and specifically board games (i.e. Scrabble), are determined to keep interest high and allow for pupils of all spelling ranges to compete against each other on an equal footing. This provides an anti-thesis to the DTS theory and creates a space for settings and grades to be negotiated in favour of a whole class approach that could build confidence and motivate peer-support. An additional benefit is that pupils must check the accuracy of each others spelling which creates an opportunity for higher learning through an active and fun setting. (Zutell 2005).

A final weekly test provides information for both the teacher and for self-evaluation, serves as a guide for journal building, and leads to choices of words for future studies. (Zutell 1996). The benefit of the entire strategy is that it is a child-centered, active, multi-sensored and personalized yet peer-supported strategy that benefits spelling, reading and writing. (Zutell 2005).[12] In addition Zutell claims that this strategy greatly enhances Vygotsky’s understandings of social engagement by facilitating learning through ‘creative collaboration and learning, mutual appropriation and the enhancement of learning through the zone of proximinal development.'(Zutell 2005). This could be said to be true for any of the group-orientated strategies here pointing to a belief that rote memorization should be exchanged for a creative group approach that facilitates both ownership and peer supporting strategies, especially in creative writing exercises.

Conclusion: Considerations for curriculum implementation

Any change to teaching practices will have an impact on a myriad of sources. Teachers and subject coordinators will face the challenge of additional training and the procurement of new resources, pupils will require greater initial scaffolding and parents will require educating themselves of the new approach and there may be resistance. This combined effort is traditionally perceived by many teachers as too expensive and time consuming. There are, however, documented strategies that can work.

INSET opportunities provide staff with the opportunity to develop new skills and focused teamwork. The subject coordinator can simultaneously create new teaching strategies. Together they can navigate the criticisms that have been documented in the introduction by focusing on learning language structure, perhaps even through the same active techniques as their pupils as they construct the scheme-of-work.

During research for this study there were numerous websites identified that provided free lesson-plans and schemes-of-work relating to all methods discussed here, especially the DTS and DSTA. The classroom resources required for creative writing exercises, word sorts, games, folders and word charts, could also be created by the pupils themselves, facilitating coordinated teamwork between Art and English departments. This would allow for an active approach to learning for the pupils and increase a sense of ownership. It also provides a space for simultaneous scaffolding and creative learning across the curriculum, providing a more whole-school approach to spelling in general and the language arts as a whole. The use of free resources and pupil created teaching aids can, therefore, successfully navigate any budgetary requirements.

Included in Appendix D is an example of a marking rubric that was designed by a spelling teacher during the move away from memorized spelling tests. She admits the creation of a new rubric was time-consuming but her response to the effort is positive, inspiring and particularly effective in creative writing exercises. (Loeffler 2009). This highlights that committed teachers cannot only achieve success but that there is support available via the Internet. Also included in Appendix E are teacher/parent responses to new marking rubrics and the shift to the DTS method during the case study ‘Beyond Memorisation.’ The case study exemplifies and clarifies how concerns by both parties were successfully navigated with positive results. There is a particular focus on the impact of a move from traditional weekly grading scores given to parents to a more detailed progressive report that is produced through a combination of DTS and writing strategies.

What all of these strategies have discovered is that there are numerous alternatives to the traditionally memorization technique. The DTS, DSTA and Incidental Writing strategies have especially identified working practices that aid the pupil in correct spelling during creative writing exercises. Throughout this research it has become apparent that my chosen school is not an isolated case in the difficulty of producing correct spelling in both tests and creative writing. It is a nationwide problem that clearly identifies that current spelling strategies are not sufficient and that there is a need for more active, creative, multi-sensory teaching techniques and practices within the KS2 curriculum. There is no technique that has been identified as superior, however, throughout this study there were numerous instances where strategies overlap and compensate for each other. It is clear that used together strategically they can enhance both a pupils spelling in all areas and enhance the creative writing experience. The additional use of peer-support structures provide a chance for a move away from grading and sets to a whole-class teamwork based learning experience.

References

Bear, D. Invernizzi, M. Templeton, S. & Johnston, F. (2004) ‘Words Their Way: Word Study for Phonics, Vocabulary and Spelling Instruction’: New Jersey: Pearson Education

Brown, S., Rust, C. and Gibbs, G. (1994) ‘Involving students in the assessment process, in Strategies for Diversifying Assessments in Higher Education’: Oxford: Oxford Centre for Staff Development

Claire, J. (2004) ‘200,000 pupils cannot read at seven.’ @ http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/3304750/200000-pupils-cannot-read-at-seven.html

Clark, L. (2009) ‘Why Children’s Spelling is Going Downhill’ @ http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-98156/Why-childrens-spelling-going-downhill.html

Fresch, M. ((2000/2001) ‘Using think-alouds to analyze decision making during spelling word sorts’: Reading Online, 4(6) @ http://www.readingonline.org/articles/art_index.asp?HREF=/articles/fresch/index.html

Hillal, G. & Scharer, P. (1993) ‘Beyond Memorisation, Lists and Trial Tests: Exploring the Influence of Teacher Knowledge of Developmental Spelling on Pedagogical Decisions.’ @ http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED364870&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED364870

Hinds, D. (2004) ‘SATS thrown back over Hadrian’s wall’ @ http://www.tes.co.uk/article.aspx?storycode=2054617

Kwong, T. & Varnhagen, C. (2005) ‘Strategy Development and Learning to Spell New Words’: Developmental Psychology No.41 pp.148-159 @ literacyencyclopedia.ca/index.php?fa=items.show…228

Loeffler, K. (2009) ‘No More Friday Spelling Tests’: Council for Exceptional Children @ www.teachingld.org/pdf/teaching_how-tos/spelling_tests.pdf

Metsala, J. & Ehri, L. (1998) ‘Word Recognition in Literacy’: Philadelphia: Lawrence Eribaum

Ott,P. (2007) ‘How to Manage Spelling Successfully’: London: Routledge

Read, C. (1986) ‘Children’s Creative Spelling’: London: Routledge

Schlagel, R.C. (2002) ‘Classroom Spelling Instruction: History, research and Practice’: Reading, Research and Instruction Vol.1 Issue 42 pp.44-57

Scott, C. (2000) ‘Principles and Methods of Spelling Instruction’: Topics in Language Disorders Vol.3 Issue 20 pp.66-82

Scott, R. (2007) ‘Spelling research: Classroom Implications’: Encyclopedia of Language and Literacy Development @ http://literacyencyclopedia.ca/index.php?fa=items.show&topicId=230

Smith, M. (2008) ‘Howard Gardner and Multiple Intelligences’ @ http://www.infed.org/thinkers/gardner.htm

Spear-Swelling, L. & Brucker, P. & Alfano, M. (2005) ‘Teachers literacy-related knowledge about English word structure’: Annals of Dyslexia Vol.53 pp72-103 @ http://www.southernct.edu/publications/facbib/S/spear-swerling.htm

Stone, C. Silliman, E. Ehren, B. & Apel, K. (2005) ‘The Handbook of Language and Literacy: Development and Disorders’: Guilford: Guilford Press

Templeton, S. & Morris, D. (1999) ‘Questions Teachers Ask About Spelling’: Reading Research Quarterly Vol.34, No.1 pp.102-112

Westwood, P. (2005) ‘Spelling: Approaches to Teaching and Assessment’: Camberwell : ACER

Worthy, M. & Invernizzi, J. (1990) ‘Spelling Errors of Normal and Disabled Students on the Achievement Levels One Through Four: Instructional Implications’: Annals of Dyslexia Issue 40 pp.138-151: Springer Science & Business Media

Zutell, J. (1996) ‘The Directed Spelling Thinking Activity: Providing an Effective Balance in Word Study Instruction’: The Reading Teacher Vol.2 Issue 50 pp.98-108 @ http://www.reading.org/General/Publications/Journals/rt.aspx?mode=redirect

Zutell, J. (2005) ‘A Student-Active Learning Approach to Spelling Instruction’ @ http://www.zaner-bloser.com/educator/products/spelling/index.aspx?id=4820&view=article

Zutell, J. & C. Compton. (1993) ‘Learning to spell in the elementary grades: The knowledge base for effective teaching’ Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Reading Association, San Antonio, TX. @ journals.cambridge.org/production/action/cjoGetFulltext?fulltextid

[1] David Bell, chief inspector of Ofsted was interviewed by ‘The Telegraph’ in 2004 and stated ‘the government’s programme for literacy teaching at primary level is confused….many teachers are given virtually no training in teaching children how to spell.’ (Claire 2004).

[2] A 2002 review of Key Stage 2 statistics stated ‘accuracy in spelling has declined.’ (Driscoll in Hinds 2004).

A 2009 review of national tests stated ‘the ability of children to spell has declined. Pupils aged between 11-14 made more spelling errors than they did in 2000, four years into a scheme to ensure primary pupils have daily literacy hour lessons among 7 year olds spelling tests improved slightly even though heads complained the spelling tests were too hard.’ (Daily Mail 2009)

[3] The school is still reliant on spelling lessons characterized by the use of Basel published weekly lists of words, written exercises focusing on menorisation and two weekly tests at the beginning and end of each week.

[4] Developmental stage theory recommends spelling be taught systematically in relation to individual development. Instruction is based on identified student needs as they progress through the developmental stages.

The incidental inventive writing approach, which advocates teaching spelling as the need arises in student writing throughout the school day.

The multi-sensory approach focuses on the theory of learning styles and multiple intelligences to identify the best strategy to teach individual pupils. (Schlagel 2002)

[5] Phonetic is the true beginning of alphabetic writing and reflects some understanding of phoneme-grapheme correspondences),

Patterns Within Words (deeper understanding of orthography (the visual written form).

Syllable Juncture (the abstract conceptualization of the spelling system, focuses on the place within words where syllables meet, and an understanding of spelling changes when inflectional endings are added to root/base words (plurals, past tense marker, present progressive verb endings, other spelling concepts that are grasped at this stage include possessive forms and contractions).

Meaning-Derivation (concentrates on the morphological connections (coding words by the parts of words that signal meaning and grammar) in English orthography. Students learn that in written English, words that are related in meaning (sharing a common root) are usually spelled similarly, even if they are pronounced differently. (Scott 2007). Please see Appendix B for a complete explanation of the 5 stages.

[6] QIWK itself consists of eight progressively complex stages of word lists and spelling patterns relating to DST. Word lists and word sorts match the developmental stage with later stages (Syllable Juncture & Meaning Derivative stages) involving morphological principles such as base and derived forms and word origins.

[7] This aspect of think-aloud strategies form an interesting link to the multi-sensory approach that will be explored later in the chapter. (See Appendix C for detailed examples of word sorts and pupil responses.)

[8] The study analyzed children’s spelling of silent -e long vowels and different types of -ed past tense words for signs of a strong developmental progression of qualitatively distinct stages from semi phonetic to phonetic to transitional to correct spelling over time. (Scott 2007).

[9] Ott offers the following examples; sounding word patterns such as the ‘ight’ sequence in light, bright, fright and might. Mnemonics such as ‘our dear mother uses great rigour and vigour for every Endeavour’. Syllable counting such as /mag/ni/fi/cent and /won/der/ful. Word derivations such as ‘signature’ derived from sign or ‘automatic’ derived from auto. (Ott 2007 p.106)

[10] Ott explains the use of a computer keyboard will aid learning because they can utilise motor memory to remember finger placement and visual memory to memorise patterns. Graphics packages will help remember pictures and associate letter patterns with pictures. (Ott 2007 p.106).

[11] Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory identifies 7 intelligence types; linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal and intrapersonal. (Smith 2008)

[12] Case Study results were difficult to obtain but Zutell’s work has been endorsed by ‘The International Reading Association’, ‘The National Council of Teachers of English’ and ‘The Language Arts and Reading Company’. This highlights the perceived effectiveness of his approach and justifies inclusion here.

Teacher’s questioning Strategies in EFL classrooms

1) What type of questions does the teacher use?

2 Is there a predominance of any particular type(s)?

3) What modification techniques does s/he employ when questions are not understood?

4) How much L2 production do questions generate from the learners?

Questioning is considered by researchers as one of the commonly used strategies in language classrooms. Questions are a very important aspect of classroom talk and teacher’s talk is largely made up of questioning (Tsui 1995). Educational studies on language classrooms ‘have focused on the effect of teacher questions on learner’s production of the target language and on the types of learner response’ (Tsui 1995). Teachers’ questions are a means of engaging learners’ attention, encouraging verbal responses, and assessing learners’ progress (Chaudron 1988). Tsui (1995) has elaborated the functions of questions as a source of checking students’ understanding, to confirm if they have gained the knowledge imparted, to focus their attention, make them involved in the lesson, to take the lesson forward and some teachers ask questions to maintain discipline in the classroom and especially in language classroom questions serve the purpose of making students practice a certain language item and to use the target language for communication. Questioning can either assist target language production or result in meaningful content-related responses by learners (Chaudron 1988). Ellis (1994) gives more emphasis on questioning as a way of keeping control over the classroom discourse. Long (1981) argues that questioning probably facilitates interaction by establishing the topic and who is likely to speak next (Chaudron 1988). Questions provide learners with the opportunity to speak the language and generate a series of follow up conversation among learners as well as helping teacher to check comprehension (Brown 1994).But on the other hand Chaudron (1988) is of the opinion that the nature of questions may strictly limit the possibilities for the students to respond at length.

According to Tsui (1995) in majority of the ESL classrooms main part of classroom interaction is created by the teacher posing questions and these can be nearly 70 percent of the classroom talk. But Chaudron (1988) attributes only 20 t0 40 percent classroom talk to questioning. Johnston (1990) observed a total of 522 questions of different types in three hours of language class. Similarly, Long and Sato (1983) observed a total of 938 questions in six ESL lessons (Ellis 1994).

Types of Questions

‘The type of questions that the teacher asks affects the kind of response that the students produce’ (Tsui 1995)

‘Much of the work on questions has centered on developing taxonomies to describe the different types’ (Ellis, 1994:587).

There are so many different types of questions that it is difficult to decide on different categories (Richards and Lockhart 1996, Ellis 1994). However, Tsui (1995) argues that various types of questions are based on the factors such as their cognitive demand and their effect on students.

Closed and Open Question

‘Closed’ and ‘Open-ended’ questions are distinguished by an early study on L1 classrooms (Barnes 1969 cited in Chaudron 1988). In the earliest classification Barnes (1969; 1976)

Closed questions have a short and fixed answer (Barnes 1969). The questions that begin with ‘where’, ‘who’, ‘when’ and ‘what’ are considered ‘factual questions’ (Barnes 1969 cited in Tsui 1995) having closed and usually brief set of responses (Chaudron 1988). For example

‘Where were you born?’

(Chaudron 1988)

Open questions begin with ‘why’ and ‘how’ and are classified having longer response therefore the length and nature of the expected response is left open (Chaudron 1988). They can be referred as ‘general information’ questions (cf. Naiman et al. 1978; Bialystok et al. 1978 cited in Chaudron 1988). For example

‘What did you do on trip?’

(Chaudron 1988)

Questions that seek for reason (‘how’? and ‘why’?) can be both open and close, much of the distinction is made by Barens (1969) between these two types of reasoning questioning (Ellis 1994). ‘Closed’ reasoning-type questions are the ones that allow one acceptable answer where as ‘open’ are framed to allow a number of different acceptable responses. However,

‘Barens also points out that many questions have the appearance of being open, but, in fact, when the teacher’s response to a student’s answer is examined, turn out to be closed; he calls these pseudo-questions'( Ellis 1994).

Long and Sato’s Taxonomy (1983)

The taxonomy which will be used in this research paper is given by Long and Sato (1983) which is based on Kearsley’s (1976) framework of question types (Ellis 1994). Long and Sato (1983) made necessary changes in Kearsley’s (1976) taxonomy of question types according to their study of ESL teacher’s questions (Ellis 1994). This taxonomy cited by Ellis (1994) is as follows:

Echoic

Comprehension checks e.g., All right?; OK?; Does everyone understand ‘polite’?

Clarification requests e.g., What do you mean?; I don’t understand; What?

Confirmation checks e.g.,

S: Carefully.

T: Carefully?;

Did you say ‘he’?

Epistemic

Referential e.g. Why didn’t you do your homework?

Display e.g. What’s the opposite of ‘up’ in English?

Expressive e.g. It’s interesting the different pronunciations we have now, but isn’t it?

Rhetorical: e.g. Why did I do that? Because I…

This framework of questions is based on two main question types, echoic questions and epistemic questions with seven sub-categories. ‘Echoic questions’ seek for repetition of an utterance or confirm that it has been understood by the listener whereas ‘epistemic questions’ obtain information from the learners (Ellis 1994). The sub-categories include comprehension checks, clarification requests and confirmation checks under echoic questions and referential, display, expressive, and rhetorical are the sub-categories of epistemic questions (Ellis 1994).

Display and Referential Questions

Taxonomies by Koivukari (1987) and Hakansson and Lindberg (1988)

Questioning Behavior

Questions and learner production

Modification of questions

According to Richards and Lockhart (1996) questioning ‘can be used to allow the learners to keep participating in the discourse and even modify it so that the language used becomes more comprehensible and personally relevant’.

Wait Time

Socio-Cultural Contest

Research, such as that undertaken by Piaget (1978) and Vygotsky (Krause et al, 2003), Erikson (1997) and, later on, Bronfenbrenner (Krause et al, 2003), has put child development within social, economic and environmental contexts. Language, its acquisition, and how children talk, are recognised an essential constituents of these approaches. For example, at a Piagetian level, language acts as an indicator of a child’s age and stage. For Vygotsky and Erikson, it reflects the student’s pre-conceptions, interpretations and understandings of the world and its workings as well as levels of pro-social skills. For Bronfenbrenner, language reflects the individual’s environments within specific systems ranging from personal (microsystems – family, peers, teachers) to external (macrosystems – culture, beliefs).

Currently, the value to student learning of specific talk types has come to the fore. For example, the importance of exploratory talk (Dawes et al, 2004) within the classroom talk context (Grugeon et al, 2005) has been realised as a means of developing pro-social and thinking skills. The first section of this essay extends this validation of children’s linguistic development. It does this through a survey of how theory, reason and practise combine to define children’s talk at primary level.

It also looks at the formats that have been generated to support this (e.g. National Curriculum for Key Stages 1 and 2 and the National Literacy Strategy for Key Stages 1 and 2). The second section gives a general discussion of forms of talk. The third section focuses on the classroom environment and the teacher’s role in an increasingly holistic approach to student’s language and learning. It looks at the different language forms as exemplified in Figure 1 and how a teacher can best develop a students skills through talk.

As the brief survey above shows, the basic human urge to communicate has been much studied, qualified and quantified. Many of the educational models of communication (eg Lasswell’s, 1948 adaptation of the 5 W’s and Johnson’s processes of interpersonal communication, 1986, both cited in Marsh, 2004) place parameters on children’s talk by encouraging specific forms of talk. The National Curriculum emphasises exploratory and questioning (see Table 1) language. It provides frameworks within each learning area and stage where these forms of talk can be scaffolded into a student’s means of communication. Understanding how children interpret, manage and convey information in important in order to effectively encourage questioning and exploration.

Table 1. Examples of talking and listening in the National Curriculum

Examples from the National Curriculum frameworks of teaching ‘talk’

Listening Mathematics

Group discussion and interaction Religious education

Group discussion and interaction Science

Speaking Design and technology

Listening PSHE

Listening Information and communication technology

Listening Art and design

Group discussion and interaction Music

From the perspective of children’s talk, language must move through a number of stages and in doing so reflects both physical and cognitive development. It could be argued that two functions of talk, at the early stages, are as a means of learning and as something to be learnt (although arguments to a ‘universal’ basic grammar point to language as instinctual eg Chomsky, 2000: Jackendoff, 1993).

Gradually the parameters for this talk develop into more efficient tools with which to gather, interpret and communicate knowledge. It is important to bear in mind that language is more than just a tool for representing knowledge(Karmiloff-Smth, 1979, p.14).

The influences on the child’s way of, and purpose in, talking, may start as parents and carers and their specific attitudes and values – their cultural capitol as Bourdieu would put it (cited in Webb et al, 2002). They also include culture and environments and, as Jackendoff (1993) points out, society. Children arrive at school with this background of child-directed speech. The amount and type of expansion and recasting appears to be linked to social, cultural and economic environments and impacts upon how a child can interpret and respond to school.

Whilst this essay cannot give syntactical, phonetic, semantic or grammatical elements in children’s language development the space they deserve, their importance is acknowledged. However, the importance of oral language is now enshrined in the National Curriculum and integrated across the Key stages. As Dockrell et al (2004) point out in their examination of methods of supporting language development in young children, the approach initiated in Teaching speaking and listening in Key Stages 1 and 2 (QCA, 1999) increasingly focuses on teacher modelling. Research shows (e.g. Hart and Risley, 1995; Peterson and Siegal, 1999) how socio-economic factors and environments can influence a child’s basic linguistic knowledge (eg the literacy hour (National Literacy Strategy, 1999) has intended to make up for short fall in a students pre-existing language.

As the previous section briefly covers, the mode of children’s talk helps identify cognitive stage, personal knowledge, preconceptions, pro-social skills and terms of reference. It also mentions the reciprocal determinism, as Bandura (cited in Krause et al 2003)would put it, where environment is a product of both the individuals’ internal and external factors. However, this next section takes a level playing field approach to modes of talk. For example, leaving learning difficulties and ESL aside for the moment, a teacher would not expect a five year old to still be using the telegraphic speech (two word sentences) typical of a two year old. You may expect some over and under-extension, but essentially key stage 1 students should be demonstrating more metalinguistics awareness.

Encouraging the development of metalinguistic awareness runs throughout the National Curriculum. For example the English section states:

Pupils should be taught about how speech varies:

in different circumstances [for example, to reflect on how their speech changes in more formal situations]
to take account of different listeners [for example, adapting what they say when speaking to people they do not know].

Clearly, at the basis of this are two fundamental skills – the ability to explore an issue and the ability to communicate within the parameters that have been established. Exploratory talk, as pointed out by Dawes and Wegerif (1998) is an essential skill that, for many primary school situations, needs to be taught. Their example is with regard to the use of computers by small groups. It stresses the need for children to learn to take turns talking, to listen to each other, respect each other’s opinions, question each other, discuss and finally agree on an outcome. Students need to know the necessary formats for this to work. For example, one student may have a very clear idea of the issue but may not be able to explain it well. Without the tools to communicate effectively, the student’s knowledge cannot contribute to the group. This brings us to the issue of the teacher as facilitator of constructive talk.

language acquisition cannot take place in the absence of shared social and situational contexts…

(Chapman, 1978, cited in Bransford et al, 2000, p.94)

With the goal of allowing students to develop their communication skills (and the associated processes such as literacy, pro-social skills etc), teachers need to provide a learning environment based on building confidence in enquiry.

This guiding introduces a number of important issues. Firstly, the teachers must be aware of their own preconceptions, attitudes and values. For example, the curriculum demands that teachers maintain high expectations for their students. Without this, students can at best loose their enthusiasm for learning in specific areas, and at worst can sabotage their own learning. As much as a student’s language reflects their background values and conceptions, so can a teacher’s. An effective teacher needs use a number of strategies to enable students to contribute orally in a number of different formats. Modelling and motivation are just two of these strategies at work in each format.

Both through drama and other exploration, children can develop a better understanding about effective communication, both verbal and non-verbal.

Speaking, Listening, Learning: working with children in Key Stages 1 and 2 DfES 0626-2003 p.7

Good modelling is an essential part of a teacher’s repertoire. The words confidence and fluency run through the National Curriculum and one part of achieving this is to provide the students with both the vocabulary a situation demands and the means of using it. For example, Listening Mathematics involves practical activity, exploration and discussion (5.1.a Mathematics, National Curriculum). However, as Dockrell, Stuart and King (2004) consider, difficulties in defining a good oral go beyond modelling:

it is not sufficient simply to provide ‘good models’; the language from the adult needs to be carefully tuned to the child’s language. It needs to be offered in such a way as to extend and support, and children need plenty of opportunity to practise their fledgling skills.

Dockrell et al, Supporting early oral language skills, 2004

A positive learning environment needs several elements. One, as Figure 1 shows, is motivation. This is a key element in producing types and forms of children’s talk. Young children will often talk out loud as they explore a problem, new situation, and put the issue into self-questioning and self-resolution. At this early stage, exploratory talk is often self-generated. At primary level, the teacher takes responsibility for ensuring that valid learning is taking place. Whilst exploratory talk is to be encouraged, it is more guided and learning more scaffolded, be that in a constructivist paradigm or a more structured setting. If the teacher can catch the student’s interest, then motivation occurs naturally.

The curriculum gives four groups of speaking, listening, group discussion and interaction (Speaking, listening, learning: Working with children in KS1 and KS2 – extends and supersedes the Teaching speaking and listening in Key Stages 1 and 2 (QCA, 1999)). Specifically, the teacher needs to provide individuals with talking formats and opportunity to practice them. The following is one from the English Framework:

What is being talked about?

Who is talking?

What kind of talk?

Speaking, Listening, Learning: working with children in Key Stages 1 and 2 DfES 0626-2003 (2003)

Added to this could be what does this mean and how should I respond?

Sadly, there is no space here to go into the excellent lesson plans and strategies (see for example Grugeon et al, 2005) for enhancing enquiry learning through exploratory talk or activities such as Talk Box activities (Dawes et al, 2004). In summary, the effective teacher needs to:

develop a safe and motivational learning environment
be clear and explicit (Johnston, 2004)
provide and scaffold the basic tools for communication
to listen and judge how successful their strategies are and reflect on how to improve them
to tailor communication to individual learning styles
to provide ample opportunity for students to practise these skills
to use small group work
develop a students metalinguistics awareness
encourage a students self-regulatory processes
enthuse and encourage students
maintain high expectations

These are just a few of the important elements in producing well-rounded, confident students. It should also be taken into account that school is a format in itself, for example playground talk is a valid component of student learning. Therefore, it is as important to listen to the vernacular as to teach confidence in the more formal contexts. Finally, this essay hopes to have conveyed an understanding of the importance of oral language. It also recognises the effect that talk has on other areas of a students learning.

Good oral work enhances pupils’ understanding of language in both oral and written forms and of the way language can be used to communicate. It is also an important part of the process through which pupils read and compose texts.

The NLS Framework for teaching YR to Y6

References and further reading

Bransford, J.D., Brown, A.L., and Cocking, R.R. (eds) (2000 expanded ed) How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience and School. Commission on Behavioural and Social Sciences and Education, National Research Council, Washington, DC: National Academy Press

Chapman, R.S. (1978) Comprehension strategies in children. Pp.308-329 in Speech and Language in the Laboratory, School and Clinic. J. Kavanaugh and W. Strange, (eds) Cambridge, MA: MIT Press

Chomsky, N. (2000) New Horizons in the Study of Language and Mind. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press

Dawes, L. and Sams, C. (2004) Talk Box: speaking and listening activities at Key Stage 1. London: David Fulton Publishers

Dawes, L., Wegerif, R. and Mercer, N. (2004) Thinking together: Activites for Key Stage 2 Children and Teachers. Birmingham: Imaginative Minds

DfES. The NLS Framework for teaching YR to Y6

DfESFramework for teaching (DfES 0500/2001) National Literacy Strategy:

DfES Speaking, Listening, Learning: working with children in Key Stages 1 and 2 (DfES 0626-2003)

DfES Grammar for writing (DfEE 0107/2000) National Literacy Strategy

DfES Developing early writing (DfEE 0055/2001) National Literacy Strategy

DfESMathematicalvocabulary book(DfES 0313/2000) National Numeracy Strategy

DfES NLS Framework for teaching(DfES 0500-2001). National Literacy Strategy

Dockrell, J., Stuart, M., and King, D. (2004) Supporting early oral language skills in Literacy Today, September 2004 Vol. 40

Erikson, E.H. (1997) The Life Cycle Completed: Extended version New York: W.W. Norton and Co.

Gee, J.P. (2004) Situated Language and Learning: a critique of traditional schooling. Abingdon, Oxfordshire: Routledge

Grugeon, E., Hubbard, L., Smith. C. and Dawes, L. (2005) Teaching Speaking and Listening in the Primary School. London: Fulton Press

Hart., B and Risley, T.R. (1995) Meaningful differences in the everyday experience of young American children. Baltimore, MD: Paul H Brookes cited in K. Krause, S. Bochner and S. Duchesne, (2003) Educational Psychology for learning and teaching. p.21. Southbank, Victoria: Thomson

Jackendoff, R. (1993) Patterns in the Mind: language and human nature. Hemel Hempstead, Herts: Harvester Wheatsheaf

Johnston, P.H. (2004) Choice Words: how our language affects children’s learning. : Portland, Maine :Stenhouse Publishers

Krause, K.L., Bochner, S., and Duchesne, S. (2003) Educational Psychology for learning and teaching. Southbank, Victoria:Thomson

Karmilloff-Smith, A. (1979) A Functional Approach to Child Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Marsh, C. (2004) Becoming and Teacher: Knowledge, skills and issues. (3^rd ed). French’s Forest, NSW: Pearson Education Australia

Peterson, C.C., and Siegal, M. (1999) Representing inner worlds: Theory of mind in autistic, deaf and normal hearing children. Psychological Science, 10(2), pp.126-129 cited in K. Krause, S. Bochner and S. Duchesne, (2003) Educational Psychology for learning and teaching. p.21. Southbank, Victoria: Thomson

Piaget, J. (1978) success and Understanding. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press

Robertson, M., and Gerber, R. (Eds) (2000) The Child’s World: triggers for learning. Melbourne, Australia: The Australian Council for Educational Research

Webb, J., Schirato, T and Donaher, G. (2002) Understanding Bourdieu. Crows Nest, Australia: Allen and Unwin

Winch, G., Johnston, R., March, P., Ljungdahl, L., and Holliday, M. (2004) Literacy: reading, writing and children’s literature. (2^nd ed). Oxford: Oxford University Press

Whitton, D., Sinclair, C., Barker, K., Nanlohy, P., and Nosworthy, M. (2004) Learning for Teaching: Teaching for Learning. Southbank, Victoria: Thomson

Wolfe, P. (2001) Brain Matters: translating research into classroom practice. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development

Websites

Play and effect. http://www.genkienglish.net/playandaffect.htm. Accessed 5 Jan 2006

National Curriculum. http://curriculum.becta.org.uk/docserver.php?docid=728. Accessed 3 Jan 2006

Oral language skills.http://www.literacytrust.org.uk/Pubs/dockrell.html Accessed Jan 4

National Curriculum frameworks. http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/literacy/publications/framework/

Aspect of professionalism

What does it mean? How does it make you more professional? How can you make sure you develop your understanding of it?

Professional standards

Professional standards in teaching are emphasized by the values and practises that have set and all teachers should observe these standards. Teachers have to value the equality of our learners and also respect the individuals. Teachers have professional values to observe and by being professional teachers can then bring experience, to develop learner’s goals and aspirations. What teachers in the lifelong learning need to understand? Issues like equality, diversity and inclusion plus ways to reflect, evaluate on one’s own practise and follow the codes of practice.

QTLS

Qualified Teacher Learning and Skills (QTLS) is equivalence of qualified teacher status (QTS). From 1 April 2012 all Institute for Learning (IfL) members with (QTLS) will be recognised as qualified teachers and will be able to work in schools. What needs to be ask are what are the particular responsibilities and limitations associated with teachers in the lifelong learning sector. The role involves a design of usual behaviour associated with a position. Understanding the regulations that were laid out in parliament which came into force on 1 April 2012. The (IfL) overarching professional standards have now been transfers to education & training foundation. “The regulations laid also amend the Education (School Teachers’ Appraisal) (England) Regulations 2012, and came into force in September 2012. The amendment gives schools greater flexibility to choose the standards against which they wish to assess the performance of QTLS holders. QTLS teachers, unlike other teachers, don’t have to be assessed against the Teachers’ Standards”. (Institute for Learning, 2013)

Curriculum developments

A curriculum development is how teachers and schools know what is going to be taught in the school over an annual period. All school will have official documents stating their curriculum. Curriculum is a focal point as well as an essential part of the development of the school. In structuring your curriculum there are many thing to consider, “The curriculum framework for social work education consists of the outcome statements for qualifying education in relation to the Professional Capabilities framework (which are cross-referenced to the HPC Standards of Proficiency1 and the QAA Benchmarking Statement2), with accompanying guidance on a range of issues. In constructing a curriculum to meet these, social work qualifying programmes will also need to pay careful attention to the ‘process curriculum’: that is ‘how’ the content is taught.”

All programmes should consider the ways in which they can:

o Positively shape professional identity

o Develop students’ confidence, self-efficacy and emotional resilience in the

social work role

o Develop skills of active learning and critical thinking

o Develop research mindedness and literacy

o Develop decision making and professional judgment

o Develop students’ ability to transfer knowledge from one setting or user group

to another

o Develop students’ abilities to identify their own learning needs and

professional development

o Lay the foundation for social workers’ future active use of professional

supervision

o Enable students to learn from and get support from their peers as a basis for

team work

o Enable students to learn from and with service users and carers

o Model anti-discriminatory and anti-oppressive practice

o Enable students to manage personal and professional boundaries

o Encourage understanding and development of their own social work values

o Encourage critical reflection on performance

o Promote continuing professional learning in order to meeting changing and

future needs and contexts

((edref4) , 2010)

Updating skills and knowledge

It is important to assess and reflect your practise at all time. As a professional tutor you are continually learning and to improve your professionalism training is essential. Developing in the lifelong learning sector you need to understand the swift changes in schools and updating skills is critical to the coming together of strong content and knowledge. Linking individual learning development with the improvement and needs of the school and sharing expertise and experience.

Higher qualifications

You need to have a higher qualification than what you are teaching. If you have a degree and then complete your master degree this can support you into a high claim and will help you further your career.

1.2 Reflect on ways in which professional practice promotes equality of opportunity and values diversity

Based on an observed lesson, write a reflective account about how effectively your practice promotes equality of opportunity and values diversity. In your account you must consider:

How promoting equality and diversity protects learners from harm.
Actions that you take to value learners.
The information that you provide to learners and how this is provided
Your communication strategies and own behaviour in promoting equality, diversity and inclusion.
How working with other agencies and professionals supports your inclusive practice.

Unit 7, LO3.2 also contributes to this assessment criterion

1.3 Explain the contribution of learning to personal development, community development and economic growth

You need to complete the following table and explain how each aspect of learning contributes to the listed areas

Aspect of learning

Explain how each aspect of learning can relate to each of these areas:

Personal development

Community development

Economic growth

Raising standards

1) Focus on English and maths

2) Cross-curricular approach

1) Community cohesion

2) Partnerships, engagement with the local community

1) Jobs

2) Home ownership

3)

Social inclusion and engaging underrepresented groups

1) Citizenship test

2) reading and writing, speaking and listening

3) Support provided to the most disadvantaged

residents educate and train to find work, with the aim of improving opportunities in business and

social enterprises.

1) Community centres

2) Working collaboratively

3) When raising education and skill levels the economy and residents are skilled and can be supported to find opportunities and reach their potential. Encouraging

employer investment in skills, and prepare people for the jobs of the future.

More recently, there has been a growing recognition that participation in adult learning can also have positive effects on a range of wider social outcomes. Contributing to protecting and enhancing our natural,

built and historic environment; and, as part of this will help to improve diversity.

Local employment needs

The growing in the involvement in adult learning has constructive consequence on social outcomes.

Encouraging

investment

Engaging with local communities

Links with businesses

1.4 Analyse the impact of own professional values on learning and teaching

Complete the following table. You need to discuss the following

What these things are (describe them)
How they could affect (impact) on you own professionalism as a teacher

Improving professional qualifications

Engaging with other professional bodies

Promoting quality in teaching and learning

Establishing and sharing best practice

Engaging in CPD activities

LO2 – Understand policies and regulatory requirements relating to the lifelong learning sector

2.1 Analyse the implications for and impact of government policies on practice in the lifelong learning sector

Complete the table below, discussing the implication of each policy and how they have impacted on the sector.

Government Policy

Implications and impact

Widening participation

Disability discrimination act

Minimum core requirements

Targets and benchmarking

Apprenticeships

2.2 Analyse ways in which government policies and the requirements of regulatory bodies impact on practice in own specialist area

Complete the table below. This is similar to the previous one, but you must focus on your own specialist area.

Government policy/regulatory body requirement

Impact on your specialist area

Inspection

Awarding body requirements

Standardisation and verification

Organisation policy and procedures

.

Use of technology

.

Flexibility of provision

LO2.3 – Explain the roles of regulatory and funding bodies in the lifelong learning sector

Write a report which fully covers the following topics in detail:

1) Funding and regulation. Explain the roles and purposes of key agencies responsible for funding and regulation (e.g. Sector Skills Councils, LSIS, SFA, HEFC, OFSTED, EU funding). Analyse how these agencies have an impact on how the sector is run.

2) Quality improvement. Explain the roles and purposes of key agencies responsible for quality improvement (e.g. QAA, OFSTED, LSIS, IFL, Awarding Organisations, Matrix, ISO, etc.) and how these agencies have an impact on quality and quality improvement in the sector

3) The inspection process. Analyse how the inspection process (Ofsted and the Common Inspection Framework) has an impact on practice is the sector.

LO3 – Be able to contribute to quality improvement and quality assurance systems and Procedures

3.1 – Review own role and contribution in quality improvement and quality assurance in the organisation

Complete this table by discussing how you are involved and contribute to these quality procedures.

Quality procedure

How YOU are involved with it and contribute to it

Benchmarks

.

Evaluation of own practice

Teamwork

Course reviews

Internal verification

LO 3.2 – Examine the role of assessment and evaluation in the quality cycle

This is covered in Unit 5, 1.3, 2.1 and 4.1

LO 3.3 – Produce accurate assessment data and records

This is covered in Unit 5, 2.2, 2.3

3.4 – Assess the validity and reliability of data relating to own learners

Attach a copies learner tracking sheets, course reviews, evaluations, etc. then comment on the following:

How was the data obtained?

How is it kept up to date? Is it up to date?

e.g. VARCS od data

How can you be sure it is accurate? What might reduce its accuracy

e.g. VARCS of data

Is it repeatable?

Is it moderated, verified or standardised?

How could its accuracy be improved?

Other comments on the accuracy and reliability of this data, e.g. size of sample, qualitative vs quantitative, subjective / objective, etc.

3.5 – Communicate assessment information to those with an interest in learner achievement

This is covered in Unit 5 – 2.3

3.6 – Evaluate a learning programme in accordance with the quality systems and procedures in the organisation

3.7 – Communicate the result of evaluation of a learning program.

To cover these two criteria you will need to conduct, or take part in, a course review and produce a report that can be shared with others responsible for quality assurance and continuous quality improvement within your organisation. The report should contain quantitative, e.g. success, achievement and retention data along with qualitative data, e.g. student surveys, etc. You may need to add brief explanations for why you have met, exceeded or failed to meet National Benchmark Data, client expectations, funding agency requirements, etc.

LO4 – Understand how to develop learners’ wider skills in own specialist area

4.1 Analyse how the development of wider skills can improve learner motivation, confidence and achievement

Complete the following table by analysing how the listed methods may be able to improve learner motivation, confidence and achievement

Wider skill:

Improving

How it can help improve:

Motivation

Confidence

Achievement

Language and communication

Reading and writing

Numeracy skills

IT skills

Employability

Tolerance of others

Independent working

Goal setting and action planning

4.2 Evaluate ways to provide opportunities for learners to develop wider skills

Explain the good (positive) and not so good (negative) points about the following methods that could be used to help learners develop wider skills:

Method

Positive points

Negative points

Discussion

Pair or team work

Presentations

Project work

Blended learning

Peer teaching

Self assessment

Directed study

Linking learning with work based activities

Work experience

Online learning

Coaching or mentoring

LO5 – Be able to evaluate and improve your own wider professional practice

5.1 Analyse the effectiveness of own wider professional practice

5.2 Reflect on strengths and areas for improvement in own wider professional practice

Evaluate your own wider professional practice by completing this table:

Area

Tick the one which describes you best

Say WHY you do or don’t need to improve

No improvement needed

Some improvement needed

Lots of improvement needed

Awareness of current legislation

Understanding of social economic factors

Codes of practice

Professional standards

CPD

Promoting wider curriculum

Promoting E&D

Engaging with students

Sharing best practice

Using feedback to improve

Contributing to QA

5.3 Engage in professional development opportunities to improve own wider professional practice

For each area listed above where you either need some or lots of improvement complete this table of CPD activities:

Area

CPD activity I will undertake to improve

By when?

Issues In Development Theory

The purpose of this assessment is to demonstrate an understanding of pupil learning in relation to learning theories and establish links between effective pupil learning and teaching strategies.

In this essay, I will address the key issues that impact on effective teaching and learning strategies for learners of business studies in secondary school. In doing this, I will refer to my own experience and observations in the classroom and to lessons given as well as to objectives and evaluations. I will also refer to learning and pedagogical theories, curriculum, standards and policy documents that inform practice. I will use examples from two specific lessons, on profit and loss and personal budgeting and, from these examples, establish links between theory and practice. It is first of all useful to begin with an understanding of the curriculum expectations of the teaching of business studies and the changes that have occurred over the past thirty years and also in light of recent reforms that aim to “raise the education and skills levels of students by delivering a curriculum which gives life and social skills,” and prepares students “for a fast-changing world” (Department for Children, School and Family, 2008). Curricular knowledge, as well as subject and pedagogical knowledge are the “three important aspects” (Hammon, 2005, p. 26) a teacher needs to understand and master. The aim of recent reforms in the education of young people is to make “education more relevant to today’s world.” As such, business studies and the core skills of ICT have become a priority in preparing young people for higher study and employment. This strong shift towards education as preparing students for employment, further study, and becoming citizens in a globalised world, demands that secondary education be used to foster the development of students in terms of their practical and vocational potential.

This shift raises, yet again, all the great pedagogical questions (Jephcote and Abbott, 2005) which teachers may not be able to answer, but will nonetheless help in understanding the purpose of teaching business studies in the way informed by government policy and to guide teachers – both experienced and novice – in understanding why and how to best teach their subject. These pedagogical questions concern whether business, career and work-related education in schools should meet the demands and needs of the individual learners or of “society and economics” in general. These questions also consider whether schools should be concerned with changing society or “preserving the social order,” whether career and work-related education should be a vehicle for preparing good and morally responsible social individuals, and whether education should prepare learners for their life after school or simply teach students how to successful learners (Jephcote and Abbott, 2005, p. 6). These questions seem to raise conflicting ideas and goals, but they are mutually supportive: learners who enjoy the learning experience for its own sake will also be able to better employ the concepts, facts and skills learnt beyond their schooling.

In any case, the very basis of career and work-related education is founded on instrumental value, regardless of whether or not students students find any intrinsic value in it, any value in learning for the sake of learning, that is. In terms of instrumental value, employers have expectations that career and business education will provide them with a capable and skilled workforce. Students need to gain knowledge and skills that will make them somehow useful in society. Hence the strong shift in policy focus: in 2005, employers were less than satisfied with the level of business awareness that school leavers and graduates had brought to the workforce (Kelly, 2005, p. 21). But apart from employers, both parents and students themselves also hope to gain some instrumental value from their study of career and work-related subjects: they want to become successful at finding jobs.

As far as the school’s part in all of this, and by extension the teacher’s, there is a “legal responsibility” to provide opportunities for “careers education, work-related learning and enterprise and financial capability” at key stages 3 and 4 (Department for Education and Employment and Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 1999).

By thus understanding the focus of government policy and curriculum expectations teachers then need to find their own ways of improving student outcomes, all the while working within their preferred ideological or pedagogical frameworks and holding their personal beliefs about education and their role as teachers, while taking into account the preferences of students. In light of all this policy change and reform, teachers effectively become “agents of” decisions made by others, instead of controlling decisions that will impact on their classrooms (Cohen, 2005, p. p. 16). Teachers, instead of feeling threatened by this, find comfort and confidence in knowing exactly what is expected of them and their students. Policy, frameworks and standards provide an excellent scaffolding for teachers to develop their own teaching objectives within the strict framework. After all, when it comes to teaching, “the way you do it is just as important as what you do” (Kyriacou, 2001, p. 31).

It is an acknowledged pedagogical trait that effective teaching of a given subject is influenced by a teacher’s confidence in the chosen teaching method and resources used as well as a clear understanding of the principles behind lesson objectives, just as much as it is the teacher’s subject knowledge and expertise. Similarly, effective learning is influenced by student confidence in the teacher and knowledge taught, as well as the freedom to learn via different learning strategies and the ability to control their learning process. A confident teacher will have a clear understanding of pedagogical frameworks and curriculum expectations and also be sensitive to student needs and preferential learning styles (Kyriacou, 2001).

When it comes to teaching and learning business awareness, learners will often have to master quite new concepts, such as profit, cost, revenue and budget. As such, teachers might intuitively respond to this need by understanding their role as one in which they must “impart” or “transmit” the knowledge that they have about the subject to the students who do not yet have this knowledge. In fact, this understanding of teaching is in line with Wood (1997) who offers four ways of teaching in a type of hierarchy. The first, that of teaching as imparting knowledge, fits into an objectivist (Fox, 1983) understanding of knowledge as something that exists independently of the knower. The process of acquiring knowledge then, is simply one which involves learning something that already exists. According to Wood, as a teacher becomes more experienced, so too will their chosen mode of teaching become more complex. From the understanding of teaching as imparting knowledge, the teacher develops that understanding to teaching as preparing students to use knowledge, teaching as providing opportunities for students to explore different perspectives, and finally, teaching as preparing students to be reflective (Davies and Brant, 2006, p. 182).

In the case of teaching profit and loss, a teacher, especially a novice teacher, might well see that these concepts already exist in the world business and the best way to deliver this knowledge to students is when they act as expects who impart this knowledge. This understanding of teaching was observed in a lesson on profit and loss (Appendix I). The lesson objectives were stated as thus: Students should be able to define profit and loss; Students should be able to explain the relationship between turnover, cost of sales, gross profit and net profit; Students should be able to calculate net profit and gross profit and make assumptions about the profitability of a business (Salbstein, 2001). The lesson aimed to impart information, facts and definitions about key concepts in profit and loss, via a traditional method of introducing the language and definitions on the classroom board for students to record in their books. Methods of calculation were also introduced. The teacher’s role in this lesson was a central role as the main expert facilitator of the knowledge of profit and loss. Once the concepts had been given and discussed, students were directed to study in pairs on the computers by accessing an online lesson of profit and loss, which included an online quiz (Salbstein, 2001) to test student understanding of the concepts taught.

This method is a type of information-processing method, whereby learners are presented with information and then asked to manipulate it, in this instance by quiz work, but also by re-wording learnt definitions and discussing concepts. According to Davies and Brant (2006, p. 121) this theory of learning is based on the idea that when learners learn new information is “processed and stored in the mind.” While this is suggested as an effective method for applied learning, this method is limiting because it treats all learners in the same way, disregarding individual preferences and learning styles. Another method, which is classic but limiting, is the method based on an understanding of learning as a behaviour that changes in response to environmental factors, such as positive reinforcement. This is Skinner’s behaviourist model. Learning based on this method suggests that each stage of learning be broken down into parts or steps and rewards given following successful completion of each step. Davies and Brant (2006) suggest that this method is useful in teaching vocational and ICT-related tasks and skilled, but is limited because it does not provide a holistic view of learning and knowledge acquisition.

The lesson outlined above, while presented in a comparatively limiting way, was not unsuccessful. This is because of the appeal of the ICT element in teaching, when students worked through the online tutorial. In evaluating the success of the lesson it was noted that students remained on task longer and were motivated to learn about the subject. ICT is an important and necessary element in career and work-related education when used to “complement teaching” (Jephcote and Abbott, 2005). ICT is more than merely a teaching tool and has the potential “empower” students by “liberat[ing] users from routine tasks” and also by making “accessible vast amounts of information” (Leask and Pachler, 1999, p. 4). In fact, current education policy in the UK stresses the importance of ICT in the classroom, simply because the increased use of technology “in all aspects of society makes confident, creative and productive use of ICT an essential skill for life…ICT capability is fundamental to participation and engagement in modern society” (Department for Education and Employment and Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 1999a, p. 1).

As seen in the above lesson on profit and loss, students were able to locate further information in order to extend and consolidate their newly acquired knowledge of the subject being taught and were able to gain rapid and direct access to ideas and experiences from a wide range of people. In this case, the online tutorial was devised and designed by a teacher from another school.

The results of this rather simply designed and planned lesson on profit and loss were positive and showed agreement with findings by Tomlinson (1981) who found that ICT increases motivation in students and increases their commitment to learning their subject. In fact, Tomlinson found that ICT enhanced the confidence and self-esteem of learners, as well as stimulating student determination to learn the subject, the amount of time spent on task, and the level of control over their own learning experience. All of these factors were seen in this lesson on profit and loss.

But ICT is not just a beneficial tool for students, it is also a tool that the Qualified Teacher Standards expect teachers will use (Training and Development Agency for Schools, 2007) because it also “raises the profile” of teachers, makes teachers refresh their perspective on what they are teaching, and offers the potential for a variety of individual and group activities (Leask and Pachler, 1999, p. 5). Teachers should try to vary their teaching style as often as possible and exhibit “a knowledge and understanding of a range of teaching, learning and behaviour management strategies and know how to use and adapt them” (Training and Development Agency for Schools, 2007, p. 8) Teachers should bring in new tools and new ways to present information, and giving students as many opportunities to learn facts and skills in a variety of ways (Davies and Brant, 2006, p. 142) and this is because within any given class a teacher will encounter students with various learning styles. For example, visual learners, who enjoy learning with pictures, graphs, artefacts and videos; auditory learners, who enjoy discussion and listening to tapes; and kinaesthetic learners, who enjoy simulations and role play. Ideally, a subject will be approached using all of these methods in the classroom.

Moving away from the information processing models which are learning theories that tend to attract teacher-centred learning styles, there are the learning theories that are more student-centred, and these are called experiential learning theories. The theory underpinning this experiential model is one that stresses the relationship between experience and learning. Each individual student, it is theorised, has collected a range of experiences about a phenomenon and it is this range of experience that is called upon to introduce a new topic. Davies and Brant (1999) discuss Kolb’s learning cycle and note that lessons informed by the experiential theory begin with student experience and examples instead of teacher-imparted principles and concepts. Kolb’s learning cycle begins with the teacher calling on student experience as a way of introducing a new subject. Next students are encouraged to reflect on their experiences, to make generalisations from their experiences and, finally, to act on this new knowledge (Davies and Brant, 1999, p. 168).

This theory of learning was implemented in a lesson on budgeting (Appendix II). This lesson aimed to introduce the concept of budgeting and the wide range of costs that might be involved in advertising and promoting a product (which the students had designed in a previous lesson). The learning activity was to plan a promotional event to advertise and promote their product to the public. Students were expected to investigate the costs involved, generate data and produce a projected budget for the event.

The role of the teacher in this lesson was to motivate students to discuss their own experiences of budgeting before they began the learning activity. As such, the teacher led a discussion about student’s spending habits over a typical week. The leading questions were: a) What do you spend your money on in a typical week? b) Do you spend more money during some parts of the week than others? Are there more expensive periods of the week? c) Do you keep track of your spending habits? Or do you just spend until your money runs out? d) Do you feel that you miss out on things you’d like to spend money on because you have run out of money? (Appendix II; Mark Your Challenge 2008).

It was after this discussion that the actual lesson activity was introduced. Students were asked to investigate where money might be spent in organising a promotional event. The teacher introduced the idea that an effective budget means that one must have good and clear knowledge of where the money might be spent. Students were directed to use the Internet, newspapers and magazines in order to gain background information about what such organising such an event might demand and were asked to present their prospective budgetary conclusions in a format they chose. The lesson ended with group discussion following presentation of student-group findings.

This lesson was particularly successful, as students responded confidently. The underlying theory behind this method is strikingly different to the information-imparting and information-processing theory that informed the lesson on profit and loss. Here, knowledge was not understood to be something that the teacher had and that the students did not have, but rather, that the students themselves already knew something about the subject and could further their knowledge with teacher-led guidance.

This understanding of knowledge is social constructivist one. Some factors involved in understanding this approach is that learners are essentially being introduced to new ways of “interpreting the world that has been constructed by academic disciplines or communities of practice.” For these new ways to become meaningful, the students needs to actively construct or reconstruct the knowledge in their own way, and this usually occurs by linking new knowledge to the real world, and to some real context, so as to bridge the gap between what is considered “school knowledge” and “everyday knowledge” (Davies and Brant, 2006, p. p. 170). Moreover, students need to do this via dynamic and meaningful social interaction. In fact, it is not enough to simply provide access to the environment about which they are learning, that is, through work placement or even business-related simulations and role-plays, but through authentic interaction with teachers and other students, as well as with experts in the subject they are studying. It was Piaget (1968) who stressed the importance of social interaction, because when students participate in discussion with others – peers or experts – Piaget found that they become stimulated to express content in their own language. By re-evaluating content on their own terms and with their own language, they are able to further develop their understanding of the subject taught. It is this social interaction, that enables them to process information learnt and make sense of the subject in an dynamic way, using their own language to articulate and reformulate what they have learnt. In this way, they are not just mimicking concepts, definitions and strategies learnt in the classroom but integrating what they have learnt about knowledge already constructed by a particular community – in this case the business community – and the success of this occurs when learners have experienced positive interactions.

This understanding of the learning process also links to into what is called the “zone of proximal development” (Vygotsky, 1978). This idea refers to the understanding that what we already know gives us “access” to things we do not yet know, so long as there is some help from a guiding expert. In the case of the lesson on budgeting, students already had some knowledge of money spent and the practical use of budgeting to make sure that money does not run out. From this personal knowledge, a teacher can guide learners towards more complex knowledge about a business situation. In evaluating the success of the lesson on budgeting, this social constructivist approach proved to be very useful.

In conclusion then, and in light of the importance placed on teacher’s having “high expectations” of their students (Training and Development Agency for Schools, 2007, p. 7), when designing lessons informed by various pedagogical theories and curriculum expectations, teachers can foster successful learning outcomes when they integrate their own knowledge of pedagogy, curriculum and subject and their own beliefs and expectations about the teaching and learning experience to produce successful educational experiences. The teacher’s high expectations of students were met with both lessons discussed above: the lesson on profit and loss with key concepts being delivered and then students encouraged to approach the subject using ICT activities, but also the lesson on budgeting which encouraged students to use their own personal experiences as a way into the lesson. Both lessons met the high expectations the teacher had of the learners and both teachers and students participated in a fully educational experience which fostered an environment of trust and a strong commitment to learning.

Appendix I

Lesson plan: Profit and Loss

Learning intentions: To introduce the concept of profit and loss and the related concepts of revenue and costs. To introduce simple verbal definitions and a mathematical equation in order to calculate and use the ratios of gross and net profit to understand a company’s profitability.

Resources: Teacher’s guided worksheet, and Internet tutorial and quiz (Salbstein, 2001).

1/ Lesson content: INTRODUCTION

Time: 5 mins.

Teacher: Teaching role, teacher-led.

Begin lesson with a story to introduce topic of class lesson an to engage student. The topic is the concept to be learnt – that of profit and loss – and why it is important for business.

The story: A business person runs a company which produces mp3 players. These products are sold so that the company makes more money that what the company spends. When a company makes more money than what is spent, we call this profit. Ask the question: Why would profit be an important concept in business? Students give their answers. Teacher confirms: Profit is an important idea in business because it shows us whether a business is successful (Salbstein, 2001).

2/ Lesson content: DEFINITIONS

Time: 10 mins

Teacher: Teaching role, teacher-led.

Introduce key definitions and mathematical equations: Profit, Gross Profit, Net Profit, Revenue, Cost, Ratios.

3/ Lesson content: MAIN PART OF LESSON

Time 35 mins.

Teacher: Teaching role, guide. Student: In pairs, computer activity, student-led.

Students now go to computers to proceed in pairs to complete an online tutorial on Profit and Loss Accounts (Salbstein, 2001). Each student pair is asked to check, compare and rewrite the definitions given by the teacher earlier with definitions given in the tutorial. Students complete the challenge quiz – record answers and and any concepts or ideas to be clarified.

4/ Lesson content: CONCLUSION

Time: 10 mins

Teacher: Teaching role, teacher-led.

Student: group discussion activity.

Students are asked how they well the participated in the online quiz and which questions they found challenging or sought clarification about. Students were asked if they reworked the definitions of issued at the beginning of class and asked to consolidate their ideas about why profit is important in business.

Appendix II

Lesson plan: Understanding budgeting.

[This lesson plan is devised from, with slight adaptations, from the Mark Your Challenge 2008 Money Matters Lesson Plan].

Learning intentions: To introduce the concept of budgeting and to understand the variety of costs involved in planning a promotional event to market a student-devised product.

Learning activity: To plan a promotional event to market a student-devised product and investigate the overall costs involved. To produce a budget for the project.

Resources: Internet, teacher’s notes, personal experience.

1/ Lesson content: INTRODUCTION

Time: 10 mins.

Teacher: Teaching role, teacher-led. Student discussion activity.

Begin lesson with a discussion about student’s general spending within a given week. Leading questions: What do you spend your money on in a typical week? b) Do you spend more money during some parts of the week than others? Are there more expensive periods of the week? c) Do you keep track of your spending habits? Or do you just spend until your money runs out? d) Do you feel that you miss out on things you’d like to spend money on because you have run out of money?

Students respond with their own knowledge based on personal experience.

2/ Lesson content: MAIN PART OF LESSON

Time: 40 mins

Teacher: Teaching role, teacher-led. Student group work.

Teacher introduces learning activity.

Students meet in groups to discuss the planned event and potential costs that might be incurred. Students are encouraged to think about all the ways in which money might be spent and to organise expenses into main areas of expenditure. Students are asked to present their data in their own format.

3/ Lesson content: CONCLUSION

Time 10 mins.

Teacher: Teaching role, guide. Student: In pairs, computer activity, student-led.

Students present and discuss their findings and compare to other group findings. Students are encouraged to question their results and data and to compare and contrast differences with other groups.

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Effects of an Out-of-school Intervention Program

on Reading Ability and Attitude

in Low-achieving First-grade StudentsAbstract

This study, conducted at *****, proposes instituting a before- or after-school program to address the needs of struggling first-grader readers. Biweekly intervention sessions, lasting 30 minutes each, will take place from early September through May. Using individualized instruction targeting deficiencies in individual student skills and a balanced literacy approach, data will be collected to determine the effectiveness of the program and student attitudes about reading. Parent attitudes and participation in their children’s learning will also be explored. Data will then be compared to the average gains made by typical first-grade students.

I anticipate these sessions will have a positive effect on student learning and attitudes, and that participants will make slightly greater gains than typical first graders.

Introduction
Background/School Information

In the fall of 2008, I will begin my third year as a first-grade teacher at ******. According to the 2007 School Report Card (2007), the **** student population includes 335 students in kindergarten through fifth grade. It is a diverse school (51.9% White, 2.1% African American, 34.0% Hispanic, and 11.9% Asian/Pacific Islander). 17.6% of students are from low-income families and 21.2% have limited English skills. The average size of my class over the past two years has been 25 students, with over half (14 last year) speaking a second language (including Italian, Polish, Serbian, Spanish, Tagal, and Urdu) at home. Some parents refuse bilingual or ELL services in favor of a regular classroom placement. Students begin the year at many different literacy levels. The majority of students make excellent progress with the current literacy program (Harcourt Trophies). While most of the students who attend kindergarten in our district have mastered their letter names and successfully integrate their phonemic awareness skills with phonics instruction, there are a few students each year that struggle with these skills and have not mastered our basic kindergarten sight words. Often students who come from other school districts are even further behind. Some parents of these students have admitted to spending little or no time reading with them at home, either because the child is reluctant to work with the parent, lack of time, or because their own literacy skills may be lacking.

My Philosophy/Past Efforts

I believe it is my responsibility to ensure that every student learns the necessary skills to become a successful reader and to develop a love of reading. I also assume that every student will learn if expectations are high. I believe in using a balanced approach to literacy instruction (Tompkins, 2003), using phonemic awareness, phonics, and literacy instruction which incorporates both reading (shared and independent) and writing. In searching for a way to reach struggling students and help them improve their emerging reading skills, I began a biweekly guided reading group during lunch during the 2006-07 school year for four struggling students. The students were tested using AIMSweb^® and made considerable improvement between January when the program was implemented and the end of the year. One student’s reading fluency increased from ten to 33 wpm, an increase of 330% in four months. Although the lunch hour was a convenient time to work with the students, it was difficult to ensure they were focusing on the lesson and finishing their meals at the same time. I have considered the advantages and disadvantages of working with them either before or after school. While an after-school program will afford more structured time to better meet their needs, a before-school program might ensure better attendance (***, personal communication, July 7, 2008). **** has offered both a before-school remediation program with fourth graders and an after-school book club with second graders, noted that students seemed more focused in morning sessions (*****, personal communication, July 14, 2008). Before implementation, I will survey parents to determine which format best suits their schedule.

Role of the Researcher

As an active participant and researcher in this study, I will be working directly with four to six of my lowest-achieving first-grade students. Individual student needs will be targeted through word activities, shared reading, independent reading, guided reading, and writing activities.

Area of Focus

The purpose of this study is to describe the effects of a biweekly out-of-school intervention and guided reading program on reading ability and student attitude about reading in low-achieving first-grade students.

Research Questions

My focus question is: How will implementing an out-of-school intervention and guided reading program affect reading ability and student attitude about reading in low-achieving first-grade students? I plan on implementing this program at the beginning of the 2008-09 school year and continuing it through the end of May. I hope to answer the following questions through this action research project: How will biweekly out-of-school intervention and guided reading sessions affect reading fluency? How will these sessions affect student reading comprehension? What effect will this program have on student attitudes about reading and school in general? What effect will these sessions have on student writing ability? What effect will this program have on parent attitudes about their child’s reading ability and education in general? Will parent involvement in working with their children be affected by their participation in the program?

Key Terms
AIMSweb^® – “a scientifically based, formative assessment system that ‘informs’ the teaching and learning process by providing continuous student performance data and reporting improvement to parents, teachers, and administrators to enable evidence-based evaluation and data-driven instruction” (AIMSweb^® Organization Website, n.d.).
Analytical Reading Inventory (ARI) – “The ARI is an individually-administered assessment conducted during a one-on-one reading conference. It is administered periodically to students in grades 4-8. Results are used to determine a student’s instructional reading level, guide teachers in planning classroom instruction, identify appropriate supports and interventions, and document progress over time.” (“Student Testing,” n.d.)
Differentiate – “To use differentiated instruction – an approach to teaching essential content in ways that address the varied learning needs of students with the goal of maximizing the possibilities of each learner” (ASCD Website, n.d.).
Fluency – “Reading smoothly, quickly, and with expression” (Tompkins, 2003, p. 397).
Grapheme – “A written representation of a sound using one or more letters”

(Tompkins, 2003, p. 398).

Phoneme – “A sound; it is represented in print with slashes (e.g., /s/ and /th/)”

(Tompkins, 2003, p. 399).

Phonemic awareness – “The ability to manipulate the sounds in words orally”

(Tompkins, 2003, p. 399).

Phonics – “Instruction about phoneme-grapheme correspondences and spelling rules” (Tompkins, 2003, p. 399).
Running Records – While observing individual children as they read aloud, “teachers calculate the percentage of words the child reads correctly and then analyzes the miscues or errors” (Tompkins, 2003, p. 386).
Effects of an Out-of-school Intervention Program on Reading Ability and Attitude

in Low-achieving First-grade Students
Literature Review
Introduction

Students today enter school at very different developmental and readiness levels. First grade is a year of exciting growth, presenting new challenges for developing children – from the all-day format to learning how to read. While many students adapt to the all-day schedule and flourish in the first-grade classroom, some are not able to keep up, slowly falling further and further behind their classmates. Teachers often struggle to differentiate instruction to meet

the diverse needs of their students. They also look for ways to ensure that every student is functioning at or above grade level, particularly since the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) was enacted in January, 2001 (Huncosky, 2004). Because time is limited during the school day and class sizes are often large, many teachers turn to after-school hours to remediate instruction for their struggling students (Brown, 2008; Davis-Allen, 2008; Huncosky; Little & Hines, 2006;

Saddler & Staulters, 2008). Their studies show varied results in gains among the lowest-achieving students.

What is a struggling student? Davis-Allen (2008) uses the term “at-risk,” describing these students as “strangers to the behaviors and values of the middle-class (as cited in Davis-Allen, 2008). Students were asked to participate in her study because of prior substandard academic achievement (Davis-Allen). To meet Huncosky’s (2004) criteria, students were functioning below grade level in reading or failing to turn in homework. Reading Recovery uses an assortment of tests given at the onset of first grade to target the lowest-achieving students for their 12-20 week program (MacKenzie, 2001). In simpler terms, struggling students are those who, academically, are not performing at grade level.

As I begin my third year teaching first grade at Wesley School in Addison, Illinois, and as I reflect on ways to improve learning for all my students, I have found that the majority of my students have been well-prepared for first grade, with a strong background in phonemic awareness and a firm grasp of phonics. They already understand the grapheme-phoneme connection and are ready to begin putting letters and sounds together to make words. Even those who may be a little behind their classmates developmentally catch up quickly and are usually reading at grade level by the middle of the year. Unfortunately, each year I have had three or four students that slowly lose ground, either because they lack a solid background in literacy, have difficulty attending to the daily lessons, or have potential learning disabilities which have not yet been diagnosed. As the work gets progressively more difficult, these students struggle with the district’s literacy curriculum. The second grade teachers report that these low-achieving students sometimes continue to struggle throughout second grade (C. Walters, personal communication, July 14, 2008). This led me to wonder if we were to target the lowest students right from the beginning of the year, would this lead to better outcomes for them in first grade and beyond? According to C. Wartman (personal communication, July 7, 2008), principal at Wesley School, we often take a wait-and-see approach in first grade. As stated earlier, many low students are successful with the curriculum as we differentiate to their needs in the typical classroom; thus, the wait-and-see approach works for them. But for those few who quickly fall behind, the wait-and-see approach is not acceptable. My goal through my action research project is to find a way to reach these students before they fall too far behind their peers.

These past two years I have had the assistance of a reading aide for 2-1/2 hours per week. At the beginning of the 2006-07 year, she led extra guided reading sessions with all of my students through a push-in model. It quickly became clear that four students needed extra remediation; therefore, she began pulling them out three times a week. This offered several disadvantages, the most significant being they missed valuable classroom instruction and may have felt disconnected from their classmates. How, then, might I find a way to fill in the gaps in their education without taking them out of the classroom for remediation? My first thought was to institute an out-of-school program.

Relevant Literature

Very little research is available on out-of-school programs for first graders. Perhaps this is because it is already a great adjustment for them to be in school all day, and it may be difficult for them to add an extra half hour or more to their already demanding schedule (C. Wartman, personal communication, July 7, 2008). Parents may not be available, particularly those who work, to drop their children off early or pick them up after the school bus has already departed (C. Wartman). A study by Huncosky (2004) addressed at-risk students in first through third grades through a ten-week, biweekly, after-school reading and math program (Huncosky). Students were selected for this program either because they were below grade level in reading achievement or because they failed to complete homework (Huncosky). One teacher who worked with students in this program commented, “It is not a program to narrow the huge gap. It’s a program to help kids who are ready to be helped” (Huncosky, p. 14). Other teachers believed that the students accepted in the program should be able to work well on their own and in small groups (Huncosky). Most low-achieving first graders, because they are not yet able to work independently, do not meet these criteria. Huncosky (2004) did not include a pre- or post-assessment, instead relying on teacher questionnaires to evaluate the effects of the program. The literacy activities used varied from teacher to teacher, and she does not state whether or not efforts were made to address the needs of individual students (Huncosky). The focus of the study was on student attitudes about reading, rather than on assessing their performance (Huncosky). Qualitative data (teacher questionnaire addressing reading gains) of the survey showed mixed responses as to improvement in reading ability in these students. With a teacher-to-student ratio of 8:1 and inconsistent teaching approaches, this format would not work well with struggling first-grade students. This study indicates a need for structure and consistency in instruction, lessons which address specific skills in which individual students are deficient, and small teacher-to-student ratios in order to meet the needs of low-achieving first-grade students.

Reading Partners

I reviewed literature on two programs that include one-on-one instruction with elementary students. The first program, Reading Partners, used trained tutors (master’s degree students) who implemented consistent interventions with at-risk fourth grade readers in an inner-city elementary school. The tutors were trained to:

“(a) review past material; (b) introduce or extend a strategy; (c) read a new selection;

(d) engage in related writing; and (e) provide a related, supplemental activity to extend or enrich the learning” (Saddler et al., 2008, p. 204).

Sessions were held twice a week and were 60 minutes long. An Analytical Reading Inventory (ARI) (cited by Saddler et al., 2008, p. 205) and interest inventories were used to assess student reading and comprehension ability and to form bonds between the tutors and tutees (Saddler et al.). The average participant gained at least one grade level in reading, along with other intangible benefits, such as a more positive attitude and interest in reading (Saddler

et al.).

Reading Recovery

Another very successful program that addresses struggling first graders is Reading Recovery. According to their website, “Reading Recovery is a highly effective short-term intervention of one-to-one tutoring for low-achieving first graders” (“Reading Recovery,” n.d.). The program targets the four lowest first-grade readers for daily half-hour one-on-one sessions with teachers trained in the Reading Recovery program format (“Reading Recovery”). Once a student is reading at grade level (after an average of 12-20 weeks), he/she graduates from the program and becomes part of a literacy booster group (MacKenzie, 2001). The Reading Recovery organization reports that 75% of struggling readers are reading at grade level after completion of the program, while the remaining 25% are recommended for further evaluation and remediation (“Reading Recovery”).

Both the Reading Partner and Reading Recovery programs reinforce the positive academic benefits of one-on-one and small group lessons to assist low-achieving students to make and maintain gains in their literacy development. It also demonstrates the need for continued small-group reinforcement once students are working at grade level.

Students with High Reading Potential

Next, I turned to literature to find out what other types of programs are being offered and which are the most successful. Little and Hines (2006) studied the effects of a 12-week, biweekly, after-school reading program on students in third through sixth grade. The study targeted students with “high reading potential” (Little et al., 2006, p. 11), offering book talks, read-alouds, and supported independent reading, followed by choices of literacy activities. As part of the 90-minute sessions, students were encouraged to read books independently that would be challenging and of interest to them (Little et al.). The goals of the program were to build reading fluency and to make reading more pleasurable (Little et al.). Although the study showed varied results, students in third and fifth grade made above average weekly gains in reading fluency compared to a national sample (Little et al.). One sixth grade student with a “negative attitude” (Little et al., p. 29) had a 40-point decline between pre- and post-test scores, which adversely affected the average scores of the 15 sixth-grade students in the study (Little et al.). This study demonstrated the benefits of teacher read-alouds, self-selected independent reading, and varied literacy activities. It also indicated a positive correlation between students in an after-school program who read books at their instructional level and weekly reading fluency gains.

21^st Century Community Learning Center Initiative

Brown (2008) studied a 21^st Century Community Learning Center Initiative (CCLC) after-school program over three years, following the progress of 20 at-risk students from second through fourth grade in rural Georgia. She discusses the many benefits of a structured after-school program, such as improved attendance rates, attitude, homework completion, social skills, and student aspirations (as cited in Brown, 2008). Brown used yearly Criterion-Referenced Competency Test (CRCT) reading scores to assess student progress. The students’ scores improved between second and third grade (+1.85 points), but decreased between third and fourth (-23.85 points) for an overall decrease of 22 points. Report card grades in reading also decreased 2.9 points between second and fourth grades. While this may, on the surface, seem discouraging, these students outperformed the average student at the school, whose CRCT scores decreased 34 points over this same period. With no control group, we cannot ascertain how these students compare to similar at-risk students who did not participate in the after-school program. Because program participants outperformed the average student, I believe the program was successful

for these students, and it demonstrates the benefits of out-of-school remediation for at-risk

primary students.

After-school Programs and NCLB

In 2003, the U.S. Congress, seeing a need for quality after-school programs to ensure that every child is successful, set aside $993.5 million for after-school programs as part of the NCLB Act (as cited in Brown, 2008; Davis-Allen, 2008). Recent literature shows mixed reviews of the effectiveness of these programs. One reason for this may be that many of the studies do not have a control group; thus, it becomes difficult to determine whether after-school programs are truly effective. Many students, despite enrollment in after-school programs, are still achieving below grade level, but without these programs, they may possibly have fallen even further behind. Because the students have made greater gains than the norm in most of these studies, I believe they demonstrate that extra remediation sessions, particularly those that target specific deficiencies in individual students and include one-on-one and small group remediation, are effective in achieving success for struggling students.

Conclusion

The review of existing literature has led to some important components I will include to remediate instruction to my struggling first-grade students. To ensure optimum attendance, I will first survey parents to find a before- or after-school time that will fit their weekly schedule. Through pre-assessment and teacher observations, instruction will be targeted to individual student needs. At the beginning of the year, we will work on phonemic awareness, phonics, and sight words to address deficiencies in student reading readiness. Future sessions will follow a consistent schedule, including word work in targeted areas, teacher read-alouds, independent reading, guided reading, and writing. Guided reading at student instructional levels will be conducted in small groups of four or fewer students. Time will be spent each session working one-on-one with students or having the students read one-on-one with me, in order to assess their individual needs. This one-on-one time will also be used to assess student progress through running records, AIMSweb^® testing, and/or reading inventories. In order to incorporate these strategies, the biweekly sessions will be limited to four students with each period lasting 30 minutes. If necessary, a third weekly session may be added to meet the needs of these emerging readers. I will track their progress and make adjustments to the curriculum depending on

student progress.

Parent involvement is a major component in student learning outcomes, particularly in struggling students where an “extra boost makes all the difference in the world” (H. Byers, personal communication, July 14, 2008). To encourage their participation, I will use parent surveys and home reading logs to determine and track parent involvement in working with

their children.

Data Collection
Methodology

1. My reading aide will administer AIMS Web tests biweekly to assess student progress in fluency. This will serve as an objective assessment (quantitative data) of whether my intervention program is successful and will be one method of tracking student progress.

2. I will also assess using running records once or twice a month. Since I will administer these assessments myself, they will give me a good indication of what areas to target in our before-school sessions. I will use the results (quantitative data) to track student progress and adjust instruction.

3. During one-on-one and small group guided reading time, I will use a checklist (and take notes) to determine if students are able to read with expression. This will be a third indicator (quantitative and qualitative data) of reading progress to document in my study.

4. I will collect data on individual student reading comprehension using three methods:

4a. The weekly end-of-story tests (quantitative) will be an immediate indicator of whether students are able to read using recently-taught skills and comprehend what they are reading. The ability to write an answer the open-ended question at the end of the test will also be used to assess student progress (qualitative data).

4b. Once students develop basic reading skills, I will assess each student using a reading inventory – either the John’s Basic Reading Inventory (BRI) or a Qualitative Reading Inventory (QRI) to target areas that need remediation. This will be used on an as-needed basis, depending on student progress. It will also be used to track the success of the remediation program (quantitative and qualitative data).

4c. The third comprehension assessment will be in the form of unfamiliar reading passages, followed by a series of questions. These will most likely be introduced during the second half of the year, and will provide quantitative data to assess student comprehension by recording the number of correct answers.

5. I will also use several surveys to assess student and parent attitudes. These surveys will include closed- and open-ended questions and will be given at the beginning and end of the year to determine if participation in the program has changed student/parentattitudes, interest, and motivation to read.

6. I will use teacher observations (in the form of a Likert scale) to assess student attitudes, interest, and motivation in reading.

6. Another survey will be used to assess parent involvement in literacy activities with their children. By using pre- and post-survey data, I will discover if parent involvement is affected by student participation in my remediation program.

Call for Action

References

2007 School Report Card (2007). Retrieved July 7, 2008 from http://www.asd4.org/docs/srcards/Wesley.pdf.

AIMSweb^® Website (n.d.). Retrieved July 16, 2008 from http://www.aimsweb.com.

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development ASCD Website (n.d.)

Retrieved July 16, 2008 from http://www.ascd.org/portal/site/ascd/menuitem.3adeebc6736780dddeb3ffdb62108a0c/.

Brown, G. D. (2008). An analysis of an after-school program in a small, rural elementary school in Georgia. (Ph.D., Capella University, Minneapolis, MN). Retrieved July 5, 2008, from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text database. (Publication No. AAT 3297914).

Davis-Allen, Y. R. (2008). Impacts of an after-school program on student achievement for at-risk children. (D.Ed., Capella University, Minneapolis, MN). Retrieved July 7, 2008, from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text database. (Publication No. AAT 3289497).

Huncosky, K. (2004). Closing the achievement gap at Huegel Elementary School: What can

I do? Madison, WI: Huegel Elementary School.

Little, C. A., & Hines, A. H. (2006). Time to read: Advancing reading achievement after school. Journal of Advanced Academics, 18(1; 1), 8-33. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ753969) Retrieved July 5, 2008, from ERIC database.

MacKenzie, K. K. (2001). Using literacy booster groups to maintain and extend Reading Recovery success in the primary grades. Reading Teacher, 55(3), 222.

Reading Recovery: Basic Facts (n.d.). Retrieved July 12, 2008, from http://www.readingrecovery.org/reading_recovery/facts/index.asp.

Saddler, B., & Staulters, M. (2008). Beyond tutoring: After-school literacy instruction. Intervention in School & Clinic, 43(4; 4), 203-209.

Student Testing on San Diego Unified School District Website (n.d.). Retrieved July 17, 2008, from http://www.sandi.net/indices/testscores.html.

Tompkins, G. E. (2003). Literacy for the 21st century. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Appendix A

Beginning of Year Parent Survey – Page 1

Appendix A

Beginning of Year Parent Survey – Page 2

Appendix B

End of Year Parent Survey

Appendix C

Beginning of Year Student Questionnaire

Appendix D

End of Year Student Questionnaire – Page 1

Appendix D

End of Year Student Questionnaire – Page 2

Appendix E

Checklist

Appendix F

Interview Protocol

1.Do you think a before- or after-school format is better suited for first grade remediation?

2.How do you think an after-school literacy and guided reading program might affect struggling first grade students?

3.How would you decide which students should be included in an after-school program?

4.How many first graders should be included? Should there be a limit?

5.What strategies would you recommend to help these students?

6. If is always helpful to have reinforcement at home. What methods can be used to encourage parents to read with their children?

7.How do you think parent involvement affects student outcomes?

8.How do you think student involvement in an after-school program would affect parent involvement in reading to their children?

9. How do you think technology can be used in remediation programs?

10.How effective do you think “reading buddies” are to help first graders improve reading skills?

11.How long do you think each session should last?

What do you think the optimal size of each guided reading group should be?
What literacy skills are lacking in second grade students at the beginning of the year?
How might the leveled books that will be available this fall be used in an after-school program?
Are there any leveled books available to be sent home with the students?
Very little literature exists on after-school programs for first graders. Why do you think that might be?

17.Are there any recommendations you might have for this program?

Appendix A

Triangulation Matrix

Research Questions

Data Source

1

2

3

1. How would two extra literacy/Guided Reading sessions a week affect reading fluency in struggling readers?

AIMSweb^®

Pre- and Post-Tests

Running Records

(Ongoing)

Teacher Observations/

checklist

2. How would these sessions affect student reading comprehension?

End-of-Story Tests

Comprehension Passage Quizzes

Reading Inventory

3. What effect would this program have on student writing ability?

Writing

Portfolio

End-of-Story

Tests

Teacher Observations

4. What effect would this program have on student attitudes about reading and school in general?

Pre-Survey

Intervention methodology can be used in various educational streams. It can be used for mathematics, science or language study. One can find problem in learning new languages, mathematics, and science or in any other subjects. One can use Intervention methodology for teaching this stuff to one who cannot learn it easily. Teacher can apply this Intervention Methodology via various styles (Anon., n.d.). It can be applied by teacher via teacher directed interventions, scaffolded interventions, responsive interventions or by a combination of teacher directed interventions, scaffolded interventions and responsive interventions. Teacher directed interventions are those where teacher gives a title, problem to students, helps in constructing way to achieve goal, and gives a response to students directly. Responsive interventions are those where interventions are done upon requirement of students. In this type teacher helps the students to make strategies, gives solution of students questions via questioning only. In this style of intervention students makes their own plan and strategy to achieve goal. Students use reference texts or create analogies to learn topic. It is a responsive invention. If the communication between student and teacher gives a scaffolded response, invention method becomes scaffolded and responsive. Responsive intervention approach is an alternative approach to common other approaches. This approach can give better outcomes if tried logically. Teacher can collect interventions that help students to study deeply, can help students to fulfill their learning needs and also help students to give good performance. Students who learn via basic style where teacher teaches them directly are less skilled than who learns via responsive interventions. Responsive interventions (Anon., n.d.) helps the students to learn self planning, can help students to make subject more interesting. For responsive intervention, one cannot plan that how will he / she teach. One cannot use what him or her plan. One can use trigger to try intervention differently where he or she needed to give particular case and needs to try to get response for that scenario. Here one needs to be contiguous. How to plan for contingency? One can teach students in more interesting way than another one just via using perfect timing of what to ask? For a different one can use scaffolded interventions too. Use of both responsive intervention and scaffolded interventions. Interventions are also depends on some other criteria too like student’s age and their pre-knowledge on topic and all. What is student’s average age? Some methods can be applicable for younger and some can applicable for older one only. For example, A primary school’s student needs to be questioning differently than of student of higher secondary school.

For deployment of intervention methods one need to set particular environment (Anon., n.d.). What includes in arranging the environment? It includes structural facilities like good classroom. Good physical environment to provide comfort to students. This environmental change helps student to relate with situation. Social environment (Anon., n.d.) also needs to set according to students. One can also use funny comments or joke to make environment light and can start or continue communication effectively. Playing activities also can be used by teachers to make study more lubricate and interesting. One can sing songs to make atmosphere light. Teacher is supposed use predictable routine and daily routine activities. For responsive intervention one need to follow students’ lead. Student’s lead means in what student is interested, what he / she loves to do or on what topic he loves to talk. What is the need of following these leads? By following this, one can know where student is interested and via this one can respond to student easily. Student’s attention is a big thing in responsive intervention. Students are getting more interested in conversation when teacher follows their lead. One can use labeling and commenting for better outcomes. For commenting, first teacher is supposed to give specification and a particular label to each activity of student and then supposed to comment on that. The benefit of commenting is that student came to know that how well he / she performed. Student will give more responsive if teacher uses commenting and labeling technique. For building student’s vocabulary via responsive intervention technique one can use imitating and expanding methods. Imitating and Expanding is a technique where teacher asks students to imitate his /he words or teacher imitates student’s words. It will help students to pronounce words more clearly and will also help students to understanding the pronunciations of words. One can use open- ended questions to students. Open ended questions are like, “Who are you?”, “Where are you?”, “What are you doing?”, “How are you doing?”, “What is this?”, “Where it is?” and all. Students can give answers of these questions via one or two words too. So, it helps them to start communicating in new language. Teachers are also supposed to motivate students via praising their work, giving those rewards and via positive attitude. Positive attitude and motivation makes student feel more comfortable. Like if teacher poke student on back or praise his/ her work. So, student will pay more attention than before. One can motivate students via providing choices. Provide more than one activity to students. So that they can choose their favorite one and can enjoy it. Providing choices will encourage students to learn new things and to do communication continuously. It will help students to prefer topic, thing on which he / she wants to communicate. How to provide choices? To provide choices one can use rotation methods. He / she can rotate activities / things within classroom so that with help of less resort he / she can create more choices. One can make gap of few minutes within routine tasks. It will allow students to communicate. Give them playful tasks to do in between. Give them group activities.

One can uses these steps like “Instructional Match (Anon., n.d.), Scaffolding Step-by-Step Strategies, Modeling & Demonstration, and Performance Feedback, Opportunities to Drill & Practice to Strengthen Fragile Skills, Student ‘Talk-Through’ Activities, Periodic Review, and Progress Monitoring. Here instructional match is used to verify whether teachers are working at their best level and provide students more confidence and provide them success. Scaffolding is necessary for students to help in learning new things and become more advanced in that particular area. One can use many things to achieve it like giving fewer tasks to students. So that they can concentrate on that particular task / those particular tasks and masters in that task / s. One can divide students in groups so that they can share their knowledge and complete assignments. Step by step strategy: One can use / make strategies step by step for complex task so that task can be done simply and easily.

Modeling: Demonstrations and models can help students to learn things easily. It helps students to understand and implement content easily and correctly.

Performance review: Performance review is necessary after above tasks as performance review is only measurable thing where one can know who progressed how much?

After getting new skills and after sharpening that skills student can work independently and try new things. He / She can try these new skills and can strengthen them via applying it and by practicing those new skills. He / She (student) can practice hard on those things where he / she is interested and become expert of that and meanwhile enjoys that too.

Talk Through activities: After successfully completing learning task and sharpen those things by practicing teacher supposed to set up activities for students. Where teacher can ask students to do various talk through activities.

Periodic review: After students excelled in particular things, particular skill teacher is supposed to put learning process on next level, where he / she (student) can masters it. Meanwhile teacher is supposed to review his / her progress. So that teacher can know that whether he / she is going in right direction or not?

For teaching new language one can also use direct responsive intervention method. In this intervention method teacher is supposed to communicate / talk with students in new language only which they are supposed to learn. Via communicating formal things one can teach basic sentence to students in beginning. Like students were not aware of Italian Language. Students knows the name of the teacher. So, teacher can ask questions like my name is this, (Anon., n.d.)What is yours? “Il mio nome e This. Che cosa e il vostro? (Anon., n.d.) “. Here students cannot understand all these sentence but knows This is teacher’s name. So they assume that he / she was trying to tell his / her name. In addition to this students can also understand that the tone of last sentence was like of question. So they guess that teacher were trying to ask his / her name. So they (students) can answer like My name is Ray (Il mio nome e Ray). One can also tell that Good morning in very beginning of class like “buongiorno” . Here students don’t know the meaning of it but can surely assume that he / she gave morning wish or good wish. And can respond via imitating it. One can ask students “How are you? Via telling them “come stai?”. Here students won’t understand what teacher is trying to ask but then teacher can answer himself / herself “Io sto bene”. Students can understand little here or if they don’t. Teacher can use physical signs to teach them like pointing his / her hand toward black board and can say, “Si tratta di una lavagna”, (It is a blackboard). Here too students will not understand. But then teacher can try to point his / her finger on window and can say, “E una finestra” (it is a window), can point finger on door and can say, “E una porta” (it is a door). Here students can understand “E una” means nothing but It is. Teacher can try few new simple sentences later on. Like How are you doing?, How are you? , What are you doing? What am I doing, What we are doing?, What she is doing?, What principal is doing? In Italian language. “Come stai?, Come stai? , Che cosa stai facendo? Che cosa sto facendo, che cosa stiamo facendo?, Che cosa sta facendo?, Che cosa principale sta facendo?” . Here students can understand few basic words and able to respond them. Teacher can tell “bye bye , have agood day, see you” (bye bye avere una buona giornata) at the end of class.It is very interesting and quick learning technique. Here one who is teaches and one who is learning both can enjoy. Both can communicate with each other freely and both can feel comfortable after little time. Prospects of using this method is, it is quick, easy to implement and comfortable technique. In additon to this it technique can help the students to memorize words, sentences for long time, can help student in building vocabulary easily.The only disadvantage of this method is, in the starting phase students may get confused. Students may feel boarded or confused in early days as they don’t know much what was going. But a good teacher can overcome this problem via applying proper timing and gestures. So teachers and students all can enjoy study. Proper use of gestures and physical movement plays major part in success of this type of reference interventions. Teacher who use proper timing and gestures can use reference intervention more efficiently than who cannot use it. One can make subject more lucid and interesting with help of reference method. But if teacher don’t use it efficiently may be this reference intervention methodology won’t work as it supposed to be. It is not methodology’s failure but it is failure of particular teacher (Anon., n.d.). One can use Intervention methodology for language and other type of teaching too. For language teaching responsive intervention methodology and scaffolded interventions are mainly used due to their above described features and prospects. One can use both responsive intervention methodology and scaffolded intervention methodology at once. Means one can use a combination of both intervention methodologies responsive and scaffolded.

References:

Works Cited

Anon., n.d. [Online] Available at: http://interventionmethodology.com/types-of-intervention/.

Anon., n.d. [Online] Available at: http://www.interventioncentral.org/academic-interventions/general-academic/teacher-strategies-promote-learning.

Anon., n.d. [Online] Available at: http://nzcurriculum.tki.org.nz/System-of-support-incl.-PLD/Learner-initiated-supports/Language-and-learning-intervention.

Anon., n.d. [Online] Available at: https://translate.google.co.in/?hl=en&tab=wT#gu/hi/.

Anon., n.d. [Online] Available at: http://www.asha.org/slp/schools/prof-consult/RtoI/.

Anon., n.d. [Online] Available at: http://work.chron.com/responsibilities-intervention-teacher-7660.html.

Anon., n.d. [Online] Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16209031.

Anon., n.d. [Online] Available at: https://www.apa.org/education/k12/classroom-mgmt.aspx.