Author: Andre Coleman

Having personally conducted surveys whilst studying at University in England and Australia, I found at times it was frustrating, time consuming and the strike rate less than 5%.

At other times it was very rewarding with the strike rate at a healthy 30%.

Firstly the paper will take a look at four different papers and what pro and cons they gathered on IWBs

Secondly the paper will contain a model for conducting a large scale research survey.

It will contain:

The initial phase to implement the survey
The methodology used to collect data
The questions used in the survey
Analysis of the data
Justification

The research is very important for teachers as it let them know if the IWB improves the pedagogy in teaching and learning. It will also help the teachers understand their weaknesses and strengths using new technology in the teaching and learning environment. They will then be able to plan their lessons so the students are able to get a full understanding of the IWB as a teaching tool and not a plaything.

The teachers may find they have to teach basic computer skills to the students, such as:

Terminology (literacy)
How to turn their computers on
How to log in and out
Software use
How to access the internet
Key board skills

The teachers may say that they do not have time to teach a separate subject as it will encroach on the lessons they are teaching.

Without recognising the weaknesses of the students, in using the IWB, the students may miss out on valuable opportunities that are fundamental in their pedagogy growth

Quotes

According to Sudgen that something, “as bland as a projected image could be used interactively in this way” (Sudgen 2002). The difficulties he experienced with the IWB showed that there were logging on problems by the students and if the IWB was knocked it had to be re-calibrated (Sudgen 2002)

Other problems encountered were light shinning on the IWB caused shadows making it difficult to see the images, the key board only shows lower case letters, making it hard for some students to recognise letters and problems caused by the students resting their hand on the IWB whilst writing (Sudgen 2002)

Even with the difficulties Sudgen encountered during the lesson, he found the students worked with each other on how to find the correct word and its’ spelling using the IWB (Sudgen 2002). He also found by the end of the lesson the students had gained confidence in using the IWB even if they put in the wrong answer, they all supported each other by offering alternative answers (Sudgen 2002)

Research by Dorothy Walker at the Royal Docks Community School in 2003 found some surprising results IWBs’ had on the pedagogy of the students and how it improved the time teachers spent actually teaching.

With the help of the deputy head, Tom Smith, Walker found that the teachers where getting 20 – 25 per cent more time teaching (Walker 2003)

The school was that impressed with the value of the IWB; they have 54, which are housed in a purpose built building (Walker 2003)

Smith has asked to be benched marked against other schools, but as yet Ofsted “can’t find anyone like us” (Walker 2003)

The Docklands school has 1,200 who speak over 48 languages, this made Smith search for innovative technologies to help the students, whose special needs exceeded 10 times the national average.

When Smith first saw the IWB he knew it would help with literacy, as many of the students are visual learners (Walker 2003)

The students are enthusiastic in helping new teachers use the IWB as well, (the teachers) receive extensive in house training (Walker 2003)

The students use the IWB to interact with each other’s ideas by sharing their work, with over 600 PCs in the school the students can access the IWB to evaluate what they have be presented with in the previous lessons as well as being able to download their homework.

Hull University together with Promethean (the maker of IWBs) and with funding from NESTA carried out research in August 2002, to find out how effective IWBs are in delivering excellence in the teaching and learning environment (Hull University 2002)

The aim of the project over two years, focused on 200 classroom observations in schools and colleges.

During the observations the researches noted the strengths and weaknesses of the teachers using IWBs in teaching and learning.

The data collected helped them develop digital resources used for research in the learning environment.

The researchers found that teachers have to consider that IWBs can be beneficial for teaching if they make sure the students can see the fonts from all areas of the classroom, they can all hear the IWB and that light entering the room may make the IWB hard to read.

They found that teaches could use wireless technology so they don’t have to go back to their computer, also the teachers could use the IWBs technology to save time by saving the WEB sites accessed on the hard drive (Hull University 2002)

Using an interactive whiteboard (IWB)

The research taken out relied on a single researcher observing lessons using an interactive white board and conducting interviews with teachers

The primary school was purposely built for teachers to use ICT and how it would enhance pedagogy in learning and teaching (Beauchamp 2004)

Over the period of two years the teachers where trained on how to use ICT, giving them differing levels of confidence. When they started in the new school the IWB was new to them.

The researcher divided the data collection into four stages:

Data collection
Validation
Interpretation
Action (Beauchamp 2004)

The researcher had the consent of the teachers and management to observe seven teachers using the IWB over a two day period (Beauchamp 2004)

During the lesson the researcher took contemporaneous notes and after the lesson the researcher had an unstructured interview with the teacher on any issues they had using ICT and the IWB

During the initial stages the teachers where given plenty of notice by the researcher what lessons would be observed

The researchers noted the amount of skills the teachers had in using ICT, and teachers’ pedagogic practices in using ICT.

It was noted that there was a range of skills and competencies in using ICT.

The researcher categorised the skills and competencies of each teacher by:

Black / white board substitute
Apprentice user
Initiate user
Advanced user
Synergistic user (Beauchamp 2004)
Validation

After the initial phase of the observation the researcher was able to table the characteristics of the teacher and how they progressed.

The second stage of observation carried out a year later allowed the teachers’ time to develop their skills and pedagogy in using ICT

During the second stage of the research, the focus of the observations matched the skills on the framework developed from the data collected from the initial stage.

The interviews conducted with the teachers were taped in order to validate and ground the findings (Beauchamp 2004)

During the second stage interviews the teachers were given the frameworks developed from the first stage. Unlike the initial interviews, the framework provided a structure to the questions asked by the researcher

The research did not take into account the years of experience and age of the teachers, as its’ aim was to get an overall representation of all primary school teachers.

This eliminated any variables to ensure a model was developed which represented all teachers (Beauchamp 2004)

Interpretation and Action

A qualitative analysis was used to analyse the data collected by the researcher. The data collected identified common features as well key differences in areas of cognitive and pedagogical development of how teachers used ICT and IWB

The variables noted were:

Operating system use
Mechanical skills
Program variables
Classroom management and pedagogy (Beauchamp 2004)

The researcher noted on occasions there where advancements predominantly in the pedagogical and mechanical skills of the teachers.

Difficulties

The research conducted in the primary school looked at how the teachers used and implemented ICT and IWB in the learning and teaching environment.

The research was conducted over two days observing and interviewing the teachers in two stages, with a gap of one year between each stage.

The length of time between each stage may of led to a belief by the teachers that they had plenty of time to improve their skills. The evidence presented by the researcher does not suggest the skills where improved in leaps and abounds over the year.

Seven teachers took part in the research; all had prior knowledge of which lessons would be observed. The small number of teachers used in the research would make it very difficult and probably bias to come to a general consensus.

The interviews in stage one were unstructured, whereas in stage two they were taped and structured. The problems of having an unstructured interview would of made the analysis of the data unreliable and complex in being able to validate the findings.

Stage Two

The initial phase to implement the survey

I would look at getting backing from the Education Department to conduct the survey. This would give the survey credibility and help to get participation from the schools’ management and teachers.

The letter to the Department of Education will contain this preamble:

Problem Definition i.e. The use of the Interactive White Board (IWB) in the teaching and learning environment and how it improves pedagogy.

With the event of new technologies used in the classroom there is a need for the system to be investigated. Increasing the knowledge of teachers in the use of IWB will give them knowledge of its’ potential as a tool in the pedagogy process.

If teachers feel more comfortable using the IWB it will benefit them in lesson planning, understanding the needs of their students and how to combat any difficulties their students may have.

The IWB is expensive, but it is here to stay, with the emphasis on using Information Communication Technologies (ICT) in the 21^st century classroom.

If a teacher feels incompetent in using the IWB they may not use it in primary schools. This could disadvantage the students when they go to higher education.

The aim is to ask primary schools to participate in a wide scale research project.

Data will be collected by way of:

An online questionnaire
Interviews
Observations

The survey will not contain any personal information on teachers or students.

Note: The preamble would be written as a letter

The letter will include the questionnaire and any other relevant material that will support the proposal.

Bu way of a bulletin, primary schools will be asked to participate in a large scale research project. The rational of which is to improve the use of new technologies in teaching and learning.

The schools will be told that the survey will be online and conducted by way of observation and interviews.

They will be able to pick which ones they would be happy to participate in.

The schools will be asked to register at an encrypted WEB site.

After registration the schools that register will be given a registration number.

The schools will be required to provide:

Size and type of school i.e. private, public, special ed etc
Subjects taught using IWB
The range of teachers experience
Location; city suburban, country

The schools will be then asked to fill in the online questionnaire (below)

The survey:

After collecting the online survey an analysing by way by way of graphs the second phase of the survey will come into place.

This will entail a suitably qualified person going to schools and conducting the observations and interviews e.g. retired teacher

The observation and interview will be conducted with an arrangement between the teacher and data collector.

The observer will note:

The subject being taught.
The grade being taught.
What the IWB was used for e.g. Internet, research etc.
Length of time the teacher used the IWB.
Whether it improved pedagogy or complemented it.
The competency of the teacher.

During the interview, the observer will ask the teacher:

How the IWB complimented their pedagogy.
Had they had training on the use of the IWB
How long had they been using the IWB
Would they like more training
Any issues they have with the IWB
Any improvements

The interviews should take no longer then five minutes with a tick box sheet and a small comment section.

The data collector will then log into the WEB site and upload all the data

Conclusion

Without large scale research it is very easy to generalise and come to conclusions that the researcher wants.

As we found at Docklands, Smith could not get a benchmark that would help him assess the effectiveness of using the IWB

Other researchers collected data from a small group, compared to the amount of schools, yet they tried to generalise their finding to the overall schools populace.

It seems that IWBs are going to be the future of teaching, therefore the Education Departments and Governments need to make certain data collected on the benefits of IWBs needs to quantitive and qualitive, without which could lead to problems in literacy and pedagogy that will impact on teachers and students alike.

Bibliography
Internet

Druin A, et al, http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/, Sydney Australia, 13 May 2006

Beauchamp Gary, http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/, Sydney Australia, 15^th May 2006

Hull University et.al, http://www.thereviewproject.org/about.htm,Sydney Australia, 27^th May 2006

Roschelle J, http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/, Sydney Australia 13 May 2006

Sudgen D, http://ferl.becta.org.uk/ , Sydney Australia, 27^th May 2006

Walker D, http://www.tes.co.uk/, Sydney Australia, 27^th May 2006

The complete addresses

http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/pdf/10.1046/j.0266-4909.2003.00028.x

http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/1475939x.asp

http://ferl.becta.org.uk/display.cfm?resID=2640

http://www.tes.co.uk/section/story/?section=Archive&sub_section=Online+Education&story_id=373324&Type=0

http://www.thereviewproject.org/about.htm

Bibliography
Internet

Druin A, et al, http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/, Sydney Australia 13 May 2006

Beauchamp Gary, http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/, Sydney Australia 15^th May 2006

Roschelle J, http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/, Sydney Australia 13 May 2006

The complete addresses

http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/pdf/10.1046/j.0266-4909.2003.00028.x

http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/1475939x.asp

Introduction

The issues surrounding the use of interactive whiteboards (IWB) and creativity forms the focus of this essay. This area provides an opportunity to look at the interaction between new technologies and classroom reality in the Primary school setting, both in theory and practice. The essay starts with a brief overview of interactive whiteboards within the classroom setting before looking more closely at encouraging creativity both in teaching and learning.

Teachernet (online) credits interactive whiteboards with the benefits of:

Improving understanding of new concepts
Increasing pupil motivation and involvement
Improving planning, pace and flow of lessons
Teachernet online, Interactive Whiteboards

As Cogill (2003, p. 52) points out in her research report for Bects/DfES on IWBs in primary schools, the uniqueness of IWBs lies in its design to be used by teachers for teaching at whole class level. Yet in order to achieve the goals quoted above it is clear that certain other systems need to be put in place, especially professional development and teacher training. For example, as Barber et al. (2007) point out, it is vitally important for teachers to be confident and familiar with IWBs in order to use them to best effect. They also need to have a solid understanding of how to work with, and inspire, creativity and why (e.g. see Loveless 2002). To this end, and in agreement with official policy, there has been an upsurge in texts designed to help teachers work with IWBs. For example, Cooper et al. (2006) give a pragmatic description of how one can use IWBs within all teaching areas, from Maths to Reading. Craft (2000) also argues for the potential to use new technology with creativity rather than following the view expressed by some teachers that ‘…computers, far from stimulating or fostering creativity, both represent and do the exact opposite of this’ (Craft 200, p. 88). In creating space to use technology creatively it would seem that the first stage is to support their classroom use through training teachers both at pre-service level and through ongoing professional development.

However, there is room for debate as to the depth of learning some of these formats inspire, seeming as occasionally do to seek to add entertainment rather than enrichment to learning. Whilst the funding made available through official initiatives, such as the National Grid for Learning (DfES 2003: DfES 2001) has encouraged schools to invest in new technologies, there is a need for systemic support to get the best out of it. For example Machin et al. found correlations between schools success with ICT and a ‘fertile background for making use of it’ (2006 p. 12). More pragmatically, Yelland (2007, p. 163) is one who warns that ‘not all software is positive for learning outcomes’ but then goes on to argue, in common with Machin et al. that it is the pedagogies generated by these new technologies that can create issues. Likewise Sutherland et al. (2004) warn that embedded use of ICT in the classroom can affect how knowledge is constructed. It is bearing this in mind that the following essay seeks to differentiate between, and concentrate on, creativity and not on the range of pedagogies that fall between poor practice and what has been referred to as edutainment.

It seems clear that IWBs can provide a fantastic support, especially for visual learners, and posses the potential to be used to support and encourage highly creative interactive and educational learning environments through a wide range of curriculum areas. The ability for both students and teachers to manipulate visual materials (e.g. numbers, words, pitures etc) via the IWB and interact with the information displayed has been credited with:

…increased pupil engagement, motivation and enjoyment, all potentially leading to improvements in pupil attainments

Jones & Vincent 2006, p. 2

However, research shows there is still considerable unfulfilled potential with the creative use of IWBs (Jones & Vincent 2006: Smith et al. 2005). Creativity in itself has been viewed as essential for the progress of society (Cropley 2001, p. 133) and the next section of this essay looks more closely at how IWBs can be used in a variety of creative contexts starting theory and exemplifying with practice.

Learning, or cognitive, styles are traditionally divided into visual, aural and kinesthetic and, in common with Gardner’s (1983) Theory of Multiple Intelligences, recognize what Craft (2000, p. 10) called a pluralist approach. This means catering for the various ways in which individual’s best absorb information and make meaning of it which in turn affects levels of student motivation. From the teaching perspective, creative planning is a means of overcoming individual barriers to learning and requires presenting information in a number of different ways. Cropley (2000, p. 148) saw this application of variety as encouraging creativity in students. IWBs ability to operate as a computer means that audio and video tracks, live websites and multimedia applications can be used to appeal to a range of students learning styles. Ideally, this engages their attention, thereby impacting on their motivation and encouraging creative thinking.

IWBs provide an opportunity to link or encourage student interests in a very visual and interactive way. The following takes an aspect of geography as an example of the ways that IWBs can enhance and allow creativity of teaching methods. When teaching the water cycle, the IWB can be linked to any number of live weather cams and channels both in the locality and internationally and show real time weather. Diagrammatic representations of the water cycle can involve the students moving the pictures or labels into the right order using the IWBs touch sensitive capability. Graphic representations of rainfall data or ‘what if’ questions connected with changes in rainfall can all be presented on the IWB. The IWB allows questions to be investigated and extra dimensions to be added, such as a 3 dimensional view of a rain drop or the response to a question regarding the different forms of water – solid (e.g. show ice cubes to glaciers), gas (e.g. show animated kettle boiling or a steam train running) or liquid (show rivers, seas etc). Notes can be added as the subject is discussed and saved for review the next time.

It has been commented that, even as early as Key Stage 1, science can be taught in too theoretical a manner (Charlesworth 2008). Yet in the Ofsted Success in Science report (2008), from which this information apparently derived, the use of an IWB is described as an effective component in a science lesson demonstrating how light works. The teaching strategies included whole class to small group work, role plays and investigative questioning with the IWB used make notes of the students ideas and ‘aid learning’ (Ofsted 2008, Sec. 18, p. 16). Although how the IWB was used to aid learning was not actually described, the suggestion is that it was a valued means of contributing to lesson management, flow and effectiveness.

Likewise in maths, the IWB can be used to easily display mathematical representations, be they numeric or conceptual, such as numbers or blocks on a clearly visible scale to the whole class. IWBs provide an excellent support to lesson modeling. This issue of visibility is clearly important and to be able to demonstrate things such as small blocks or coins to a whole class so all can see has been mentioned frequently, such as one of the teachers in Cogill’s research into IWB use in primary schools (2002, p. 25). The DfES has produced – and continues to do so – Interactive Teaching Programs (ITPs) within the Primary National Strategy. For numeracy, these provide curriculum linked interactive programs designed to contribute, not take over, the lesson. Other methods include those demonstrated by Cooper et al.(2006) who show simple ways to add to the dynamics of the lesson, for example using games with clipart to play number line football on the IWB and so on. The important point is that the IWB works in combination with other teaching strategies, not at the expense of, or to the exclusion of, a balanced well-rounded teaching approach.

Equally, the IWB is available to literacy and has an increasing array of supporting software (e.g. DfES ITPs). Cooper et al. (2006) exemplify the IWBs ability to provide students with focus through managing the amount of text visible and the method of presentation – font size and type, highlighted, shaded, hidden, revealed, coloured etc. This adds a dimension to focusing on text formats, from punctuation to spelling and can be very useful in identifying difference for students and helping the retention of information. At the same time, the IWB allows for connection to external media, for PowerPoint’s, video and audio clips, all of which add a dimension to the intended learning if used carefully.

IWBs can also be used to create an inclusive environment for students with special needs. As with the font, size and colour changes mentioned above, for students who may have issues with eyesight or problems interpreting words, IWBs can be used to add a dimension of size and impact. For students who find it hard to concentrate, the use of interactive, highly visible materials within their range of interest can easily be projected through IWBs, for example using cars as counters or horses as cursors. The ability to use the IWB to gather notes may also enhance assessment opportunities for the teacher and the savable nature of IWB notes means these are accessible when required in an easily usable format. All these elements not only add to the pace of the lesson and appear to add to the pace of the learning, they also add to the teachers resource bank both for teaching and evaluating progress.

In essence, it is perhaps in the area of ongoing professional development that the creative use of new technologies, such as IWBs, needs to focus. When the teacher is motivated and confident, then that comes through in the teaching tools. Indeed the research looked at for this essay has generally agreed with Wood and Ashfield (2008) that new technologies such as IWBs can provide excellent formats for creating and inspiring creative teaching and learning, yet these depend on the teacher’s knowledge and ability to use the technology to achieve this. Becta supports this in its assessment of research and comes to the conclusion that:

In some subjects, the more experience the teacher has of using the interactive whiteboard the greater the likelihood of positive attainment gains for pupils

Becta 2007, online

Cropley (2001) argued that creativity is dependent on a wide range of factors, from cognition to personality, and this has to be considered within the context of the whole classroom environment. IWBs provide teachers with another means of teaching creatively through presentation in altered formats, especially when it comes to communicating with the class as a whole. However it is not alone in encouraging the creative skills of divergent (broad concept connections) and convergent thinking (focused concept connections) or in developing meta-cognitive thinking and accommodation, rather than assimilation, of information.

In conclusion, IWBs have the potential to be used extremely creatively for both teachers and students. However, as with many new technologies, their use needs to be supported both by school policy and professional development. As it is likely that these technologies will continue to develop considerably during the near future, it is not enough to teach the usage of specific technologies and think that is where it ends. Perhaps an ongoing mentoring program or collaborative approach to planning with a high IT content may help compliment continued professional development. The same criteria apply to pre-service teacher training whereby familiarity with current IT needs to be support by an ongoing ability to develop IT capacity. From the students’ perspective, well planned and imaginatively used IWBs provide a stimulating, engaging and motivating means of learning. It is clearly just as important to use this interface as a part of a holistic, well rounded curriculum as well as an area in itself and not enough to assume familiarity with contemporary technology without teaching it.

References

Audain, J., David, A., Flute, M., Fielder, S. & Cogill, J (2006) You can use an interactive whiteboard for ages 7-11, Scholastic

Barber, D., Cooper, L. & Meeson, G (2007) Learning and Teaching with Interactive Whiteboards : Primary and Early Years, Learning Matters

Becta (2007) ‘Becta response to the evaluation of the Primary Schools Whiteboard Expansion project, accessed 11^th January 2009, http://www.becta.org.uk

Becta (2004) ‘Getting the most from your Interactive Whiteboard: A guide for Primary Schools, accessed 10^th January 2009, http://publications.teachernet.gov.uk/eOrderingDownload/15090.pdf

Charlseworth, (2008) ‘Science teaching ‘too theoretical’, online article accessed 12^th January 2009, http://www.vnunet.com/vnunet/news/2219313/science-teaching-theoretical-ofsted

Cogill, J (2003) ‘The use of interactive whiteboards in the primary school: effects on pedagogy’, in ICT Research Bursaries: A Compendium of Research Reports, ICT in Schools Research and Evaluation Series – No, 16, Norwich: HMSO, available online at http://publications.teachernet.gov.uk/eOrderingDownload/DfES-0791-2003.pdf#page=54

Cooper, A., J., Botham, K. & Cromie, H (2006) You can use an interactive whiteboard for ages 4-7, Scholastic

Craft, A (2000) Creativity across the primary curriculum: framing and developing practice, London: Routledge

Cropley, A. J. (2001) Creativity in education & learning: a guide for teachers and educators, Kogan Page

DfES (no date) Interactive Teaching Programs (ITPs), accessed 12^th January 2009, http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/primary/frameworks/library/Mathematics.ICTResources/itps/

DfES (2003) Fulfilling the Potential: Transforming Teaching and Learning through ICT in Schools, Norwich: HMSO

DfES (2001) Survey of ICT in Schools 2001, Norwich: HMSO

Gardner, H (1983) Frames of Mind: The theory of multiple intelligences, Basic Books: New York

Jones, A. & Vincent, J (2006) ‘Introducing interactive whiteboards into school practice: one school’s model of teachers mentoring colleagues’ online article accessed 12^th January 2009, http://www.aare.edu.au/06pap/jon06333.pdf

Loveless, A (2002) ‘Literature Review in Creativity, New Technologies and Learning’ Report 4, Futurelab Series, Bristol: Futurelab, available online at http://www.futurelab.org.uk/resources/documents/lit_reviews/Creativity_Reveiw.pdf

Machin, S., McNally, S. & Silva, O (2006) ‘Summary of articles: New technology in schools: is there a payoff? Discussion Paper No 55’, Centre for the Economics of Education at CEP, accessed 12^th January 2009, http://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs.download.CP199.pdf

Ofsted (2008) Success in Science, Ref. No.070195, accessed 12^th January 2009, www.ofsted.gov.uk

Smith, H J., Higgins, S., Wall, K. & Miller, J (2005) ‘Interactive whiteboards: boon or bandwagon? A critical review of the literature’ in Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, Vol. 21, pp. 21-101

Sutherland, R., Armstrong, V., Varnes, S., Brawn, R., Breeze, N., Gall, M., Matthewman, S., Olivero, F., Taylor, A., Triggs, P., Wishart, J. & John, P (2004) ‘Transforming teaching and learning: embedding ICT into everyday classroom practices’ in Journal of computer Assisted Learning, Vol. 20 (6), pp. 413-425

Teachernet (online) ‘Interactive Whiteboards’, accessed 10^th January 2009, http://www.teachernet.gov.uk/wholeschool/ictis/infrastructure/iwb

Wood, R. & Ashfield, J (2008) ‘The use of the interactive whiteboard for creative teaching and learning in literacy and mathematics: a case study’ in British Journal of Educational Technology, Vol. 39 (1), Jan, pp. 84-96

Yelland, N (2007) Shift to the Future, Abingdon: Routledge

Investigate and discuss the use of ICT in teaching and learning Mathematics. Explore the use of MAPLE.

Illustrate and discuss:

1) Competence with the main features of a range of ICT:

ICT in teaching and learning mathematics is a requirement of the National curriculum and computer simulations can now place mathematics in a real life context. ^[1]There are a number of superior computer-based environments available to support this process. Some of these include dynamic geometry environments, graph-plotting packages, statistics and data holding packages and computer- algebra packages.

Graphing calculators can be used to teach the beginning of Algebra. Similarly pocket calculators are convenient and quick to access as well as being relatively inexpensive today and is a useful mathematical tool.

With the graphing calculator it is possible to determine that ‘every classroom could be turned into a computer lab and every student could own his or her own inexpensive personal computer with built-in mathematics software’ ^[2]

The researchers Arnold and Aus identified three generations of graphing calculators: scientific calculators with large viewing windows, e.g. The T1-82, those which were more versatile with a range of mathematical functions like the Casio – 98JOG and those with CAS and dynamic geometry like the TI-92. Several discussions can be had around the implementation of calculators in mathematics teaching and learning and the subject continues to spark debate. Although the resolution of a hand held calculator is not comparable with that of a computer screen there is no need to alter the setting of the classroom or have to gain access to a number of computers to use it for learning. With regard to computational skills and mental arithmetic again calculators come up for criticism although there is a definite argument to be had that suggests calculators do not compromise the application of basic mathematical skills, as long as those skills are developed first in a conventional environment using pen and paper based calculations. ^[3]

ICT can assist with turning algebraic symbols into graphical representations and vice versa. Using spreadsheets for algebra can encourage the use of letters to be interpreted as symbols and spreadsheet symbols can be used to solve mathematical problems^[4]. Spreadsheets can be utilized to introduce students to a range of mathematical ideas and as a more generic mathematical tool. Recent research also provides evidence that young people are beginning to use spreadsheets on their own home computers. ^[5]Dynamic geometry can be used to teach transformation geometry as it can for establishing properties of circles, functions and graphs.

Secondary level curriculum mathematics skills and the application of IT can be linked intrinsically by way of some of the following examples.

The pupils ability to develop skills of mathematical modeling through the exploration, interpretation and explanation of data can be enhanced by using the appropriate graphical representations for displaying information from a data-set, by experimenting with forms of equations in producing graphs which are good fits for data plots and using motion sensors to produce distance-time graphs.

Software can be applied in the context of learning about shapes, space and links with Algebra which automates geometric constructions, carries out specific geometric transformations and performs operations on co-ordinates or is able to draw loci.

Finally by entering a formula in algebraic notation to generate values and match a given set of numbers, this can support the Secondary level skill to explore, describe and explain patterns and relationships in sequences and tables of numbers. ^[6]

There are many reasons why mathematics teachers are reluctant to integrate ICT into teaching in the classroom. Many of the computer-based environments are complicated and teachers need to learn themselves how to use these tools effectively for doing mathematics. Although newly qualifying teachers have to pass a basic ICT test as part of their training, it is still difficult for teachers to know where to start, particularly some of the older generation of mathematics teachers. In the practical sense access to computers is not always possible for the benefit of every child being able to learn at the same time and sub-groups and individuals may have to be established in order to take it in turns to use a single computer in the classroom which can be time consuming and logistically difficult.

However computers and calculators can be considered to provide six major opportunities for students learning mathematics:

Learning from feedback – the computer can provide fast and reliable feedback which is non-judgmental and impartial. This can build students confidence and help them construct their own ideas.
Observing patterns – The speed of computers and calculators enables students to provide many examples when exploring mathematical problems.
Seeing connections – The computer enables formulae, tables and numbers and graphs to be linked easily. The result of seeing one representation and changes in the other helps pupils to understand the connections between them
Working with dynamic images – Students can use computers to manipulate diagrams and encourages them to visualise the geometry.
Exploring data – Computers enable students to work with real data which can be represented in a variety of ways. This supports its interpretation and analysis.
‘Teaching’ the computer – When students design an algorithm to make a computer achieve a specific task, they are urged to express their commands literally and in a correct order.^[7]
2) Demonstrate the ability to explore maths and solve maths problems using MAPLE in-depth.

MAPLE can be defined as a fundamental computer algebra software package which uses simple commands to perform complex operations and enables like by like analysis similar to using a pen and paper. It also allows pupils to focus on the underlying mathematical principles. ^[8]

In Darlene Wu’s Understanding of Calculus she uses a number of experiments to determine the benefits of MAPLE on a series of students. She adheres to the notion that most traditional algebraic features can be delegated to a computer. In particular using MAPLE most problems can be resolved and believe this should be riled out for the benefit of all students studying mathematics. The problem below was assigned to a group of students in a research environment:

Graph f(x) = ln(sin(x)*cos(x)) and

g(x) = ln(sin(x)) + ln(cos(x)). What is the relationship between the graphs? Does it

contradict the property ln(x*y) = ln(x) + ln(y)?

By using the graphs of these two functions together with the graphs of sin(x) and

cos(x), the students investigated the properties of sin, cos, and ln

and show their answers in writing.

Students used Maple to draw the two graphs easily, but they looked

entirely different. This led the researchers to wander whether this contradicted

ln(x*y) = ln(x) + ln(y)? And if so how would students explain it?

The experiment needed to be repeated several times, recalling the definitions and properties of ln, sin and cos and concluded that the students assumed the two graphs looked different, whereas they are identical as long as ln(sin(x)cos(x)) and ln(sin(x))+ln(cos(x)) are defined.

Wu’s paper concludes that it is necessary to train students to use mathematical methods effectively not just for the purposes of their job but for ‘the real world’ and that software programmes that help in this process are fundamental to their learning. However as a number of contradictions and problems emerged with equations through using MAPLE not only does Wu concede that students may become confused and panic if they cannot attribute the Mathematics problem to themselves or the Mathematics problem itself. She also notes that when teaching calculus it is important to consider whether such technology is still too overwhelming as well as students becoming dependent on its solutions, rather than working them out traditionally. ^[9]

In comparison to this notion another paper with MAPLE as its core area of study is Fitz-Gerald and Healey’s Enlightening the mathematics curriculum with MAPLE. This discusses the implementation of MAPLE to the undergraduate Mathematics curriculum in a large University in Australia. The overall consensus was that in applying MAPLE, traditional topics that were once unpopular with students were now being approached in a much more understanding and enthusiastic way. This experiment demonstrates the advantages of being able to encourage Mathematics by way of helpful software across new audiences who might not have been inspired previously to study in this area.^[10]

3. Identify the ways in which a particular ICT Software or graphics calculator can be used within a learning environment and the advantages/disadvantages of each in enabling effective maths learning.

In Horton et al’s The graphing calculator as an aid to teaching algebra the paper points out that calculators have become popular in the classroom for the benefit of convenience and speed. What the researchers also determined was that tutorials on the Casio FX2.0 and FX 2.0 PLUS models actually improved manipulative skills. Students beginning a college algebra course following the tutorial scored significantly higher on a test which involved solving linear equations and in addition made suggestions for the tutorial also contributing to an improvement in attitudes.^[11]

It is interesting to consider their benefits for something other than the obvious assumptions to be made about graphics calculators. In absolute contrast to all perceived theories Graphic Calculators In The Classroom: Students’ Viewpoints presents the results of a piece of research carried out amongst low achieving eleventh grade pupils in Portugal. This revealed that little improvement was gained from introducing graphic calculators to mathematics lessons as the pupils considered the impact of their teacher; their teaching style and personality to be of more educational value to them than the calculator, which improved very little in terms of their academic improvement where mathematics was concerned.^[12]

Another perhaps more important everyday negative aspect of graphic calculators is their inclusion of games and other non-educative devises such as phonebooks and personal organizers which can detract pupils away from the learning process in the classroom. In addition, the potential for students to store information and consequently cheat during examinations when they are allowed to take calculators in with them in a test environment. The other argument when weighing up some of the differences between hand-held devices and computer programmes is that a calculator can accompany a student into an examination, whereas a computer cannot. They are flexible and user- friendly as well as being able to be powered by solar energy which is of course far more beneficial to the environment.

Another advantage is the diminishing cost of calculators. They can be easily purchased anywhere at a relatively small price in comparison with a computer which ‘It has been suggested recently render(s) the use of graphics calculators much more attractive to schools than computers’^[13]

Interestingly in his research Spreadsheets, graphics calculators and mathematics education, Barry Kisane provides a suggestion for combining programmes into graphics calculators in order to maximize their potential, thus making them less of a calculator and more of a computer. And notes that ‘The inclusion of these essential features on graphics calculators seems to extend the range of influence of the spreadsheet as a useful device for mathematics education in secondary schools, and is deserving of attention to exploit it appropriately’.^[14]

Essentially perhaps the way forward with graphics calculators is to then modify and technologically enhance them further so that they can take on many of the characteristics of the computer whilst not having the capacity to store information that might prove potentially incriminating to a student in the examination room.

Bibliography

Bishop, A.J, Clements, M.A (2003) Second International Handbook of Mathematics Education: Springer

Cowan, P (2006) Teaching Mathematics: A Handbook for Primary and Secondary School Teachers: Routledge

Da Ponte& Canavarro (1993) Graphic Calculators In The Classroom: Students’ Viewpoints: Centro de Investigacao em Educacao da Faculdade de Ciencias

Fitz-Gerald & Healey Enlightening the mathematics curriculum with MAPLE, Essay taken from Maple V: Mathematics and Its Application : Proceedings of the Maple Summer Workshop and Symposium, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, August 9-13, 1994By Robert J. Lopez: Birkhauser

Horton, R. M., Storm, J., & Leonard, W.H. (2004). The graphing calculator as an aid to teaching algebra, Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 4(2), 152 -162.

Johnston-Wilder, S, Pimm, D (2005) Teaching Secondary Mathematics with ICT: McGraw-Hill International

Kemp, M, Kissane, B & Bradley, J (1995) ‘Assessment and the graphics calculator’ in Anne Richards (ed.) FLAIR: Forging links and integrating resources, Darwin, The Australian Association of Mathematics Teachers, 235-241.

(Also available at http://wwwstaff.murdoch.edu.au/~kissane/papers/aamt95.pdf

Kissane, B (2007) Spreadsheets, graphics calculators and mathematics education, In K. Milton, H. Reeves & T. Spencer (eds) Mathematics: Essential for learning, essential for life. 21st Biennial Conference of the Australian Association of Mathematics Teachers (pp 331-339), Hobart: Australian Association of Mathematics Teachers.

Rielly, C (2004) The Application of Computer Algebra Software in the Teaching of Engineering Mathematics, Higher Education Academy

Sutherland, R (2004) Teaching for Learning Mathematics: McGraw-Hill International

Wu, D, Some Examples on Using Maple to Increase Students. Understanding of Calculus, Sourced from: http://archives.math.utk.edu/ICTCM/VOL08/C052/paper.pdf, Date accessed,

“Resistance is Useless”
Introduction:

Today’s world or society is changing very fast with the help of ICT (Information Communication Technology). Everyday new technologies were developed to simplify the every days work, but there is a resistance to accept those new technologies among people. This is because of many people doesn’t like the “CHANGE” because they don’t like being changed. When change comes it brings resistance and fear to cope up with that or lose something valuable. Even many people could not understand how to use those new technologies or equipments. Many People have natural tendency to stuck with the way of work with whom they used to ,They often change and have faltering to change the way of work or equipments, Some people could not afford to adopt new technology or there is no support to demonstrate the way of using new technology. In medical field every day new technique or method or equipments were introduced but many physician, nurses and medical personal does not adopt these new technologies instead they continue working in there conventional way. New technologies are invented to reduce the work load as well as significantly improve the patient safety, patient satisfaction in the heath care system and also improve the hospital efficiency. As a example most of the hospital introduce the information database system where the hospital store all the information about the patient’s medical records, doctors information and all the staffs information about their education, salary, training etc.

In medical field or can say in eHealth the amount of resistance for the new technologies or equipments are much larger than other fields. In eHealth new technologies or methods are for better health care and lowered the healthcare costs, but physician, nurses and medical personals are hesitated to adopt these at first time because they came from different background. Even sometime the researchers or developers in medical technologies run out of budget or get budget to go or pass the research stage because of medical personal are unresponsive to those technologies or equipments.

Objectives
What are the factors while designing a system?
How a new system or technology will evaluate?
What are the ways to convince the people or the organization staffs who will to use this system or technology?
How would an organization introduce the new system or technology and prepare their employees to get the most of the system?
What are the reasons behind these resistances to new technology and methods in health care?
Discussions:
Lecture 4 (slide 46,48) advantages & disadvantages + Slide 32-37 (for evaluation)
Slide 8 focusing on benefits
Slide 24 – slide 30
Old people are pessimistic of new technology for usability inconvenience…
Conclusion:

It can be said that resistance is useless. Resistance is the biggest obstacle in developing new technology. Not only resistance always create problem there are lots of other factor involving to create problem to develop new technology both in medical sector as well as in other sectors. Most of the people have natural tendency to create resistance to the new things because they have fear to change the way of doings jobs. In other since resistance is useful to some extent it helps the developer to develop the new technology in more efficient and user friendly way, So that the end user can get the most of the system. It is more important to have in mind while developing new technology for whom they are developing, in which situation and context the user will use this tools, As well as which task it will solve otherwise resistance will always come to adopt the new technology.

Reference:
“Improve ICT systems in healthcaImprove” by Dr. Isabella Scandurra [Ph.D]
http://www.icup.org.uk/reports%5CICUP763.pdf
http://www.bridges-to-technology.com/page26.html
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6947/6/1
http://www.deloitte.com/view/en_US/us/press/Press-Releases/press-release/8696c52c23d85210VgnVCM100000ba42f00aRCRD.htm
http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/crosscuttings/change_resistance.html
http://www.schulersolutions.com/resistance_to_change.html

Learners As IndividualWhat is Learners as individual

What is an individual learner and what do they look like? To answer this question, I need the meanings given by many educators. Howe other learners can become the individual learners?

‘In sum, I believe that the individual who is to be educated is a social individual and that society is an organic union of individuals. If we eliminate the social factor from the child we are left only with an abstraction; if we eliminate the individual factor from society, we are left only with an inert and lifeless mass. Education, therefore, must begin with a psychological insight into the child’s capacities, interests, and habits’ John Dewey, from ‘My Pedagogic Creed’, School Journal vol. 54, (January 1897), pp. 77-80

“An individual is a person or any specific object in a collection. In the 15th century and earlier, and also today within the fields of statistics and metaphysics, individual means “indivisible”, typically describing any numerically singular thing, but sometimes meaning “a person.” (q.v. “The problem of proper names”). From the seventeenth century on, individual indicates separateness, as in individualism. Individuality is the state or quality of being an individual; a person separate from other persons and possessing his or her own needs, goals, and desires.” Gracia, Jorge J. E. (1988)

“Learner is an individual involved in the acquisition of knowledge or skills in a technological learning system.”Legendre, (2000:1)

“It is not concerned with one specific method, but allows for any method which the individual leaner finds beneficial to his’ learning purposes.” Fenner & Newby (2000)

I, from the meanings given above, conclude that learners as individual is the learning styles that learners seek to the new modern learning strategies and they can learn autonomous. This styles include with personality, intelligence, attitude and attitude. They just get the rough guidance from the teacher in the class and then they and bring it to be increased and link or integrate with other fields. These learners have to often practice themselves as it be their habits. A learning style is an individual’s preferred way of learning.

What are Learning Styles?

Before we deeply study into how to best advantages from making your learning style out, we need to spend a few moments studying the several types of learning styles and how to best identify which learning style group you appropiate into.

Learning styles point to the variance in your ability to amass as well as incorporate information. Basically, your learning style is the method that best allows you to gain and use knowledge in a specific manner. Most experts agree that there are three basic learning styles. Each individual may holds a single style or could possess a joining of different learning styles. In most cases, the personalities of a learning style can even be noticed at a quite young age. Once you have identified your particular learning style you will be able to identify ways in which you can adapt the learning process and your studies to maximize your education.

Visual Learners

Individuals who fall into this type usually learn through what they are able to see with their own eyes. Visual learners are those students who navigate for the positions at the front of the class, must have front row theater seats and love to be right up front for sporting events in order to get the best view. Visual learners have a orientation to describe everything that they see in terms of exposures. These learners love visual medias such as photos, diagrams, maps and graphs. They habitually are good writers and will commonly perform quite well on written assignments.

Auditory Learners

Auditory learners are very good listeners. They tend to consume information in a more proficient manner through sounds, music, discussions, teachings, etc. These individuals will be more probable to record lesson so that they can revision them at a later time for study goals. They recognize books on tape and may find that reading aloud will help them to keep information. Rather than written statement, auditory learners tend to do better on verbal presentations and reports.

Kinesthetic Learners

Kinesthetic learners are tactile learning. This means that they learn best through moving, doing, acting out and touching. Projects that are acted in nature are best for kinesthetic learners. They tend to become thwarted when they must sit for long phases of time. They enjoy deportment experiments, exploring and accomplishing tasks.

These students are independent and seek for the missing knowledge by themselves. They may have characteristics listed below; They…

are able to break up an organized visual field and keep part of it separate.
surpass at retrieving names.
conceive visual cues and are better at math.
prefer learning surroundings that require least interaction.
enjoy discovery learning and individualized self-paced learning.
are more likely to be males.
My Experience with the individual learners.

I can much less meet students like this in my classroom, for my being Thai traditional condition teacher. Thailand has the specific cultural for the younger men have to express their respect to the elder ones. My students gain knowledge just in the limitation of curriculum and the instruction I have given. The materials related to the identity of individual learning are also lack. It may be caused by the poor country and the condition of environment that Thai students are the students in the developing country-that means have not been developed yet.

However, I think this can be developed and changed by changing the crisis to become the chance. We can see various problems and this is the chance to diagnose and resolve them. It’s the time to take together between teacher and students. Individual learners must consist with personality, intelligence, psychology and behavior. All the aspects must be deal together by realizing the differences of individual.

Strategies to be learners as individual

There are activities might guide the learners to be independent and individual. They can be flexible , not arranged in orders, depending on their readiness and which condition. There are 16 strategies shown here.

Readiness / Ability

Teachers can use a variety of evaluation to find a student’s ability or readiness. Also, to learn new knowledge concepts students may be generally working below or above level or may be purely lack necessary required skills.

Changing the level of query and thinking skills and compacting the curriculum and are useful strategies for accommodating differences in ability or readiness.

Adjusting Questions

During large group discussion activities, teachers indicate the higher level questions to the students who can deal them and adjust questions accordingly for student with greater needs. All students are answering important questions that demand them to think but the questions are goaled towards the student’s ability or readiness level.

With written test the teacher may assign specific questions for each group of students. They all answer the same number of questions but the involvement needed varies from group to group. However, the alternative to go a parted from minimum requirements can be available for any or all students who indicate that they require an additional challenge for own their level.

Condensing Curriculum

Condensing the curriculum means assessing a students knowledge, skills and attitudes and providing alternative activities for the student who has already mastered curriculum content. This can be accomplished by pre-testing basic concepts or using performance assessment methods. Students who demonstrate that they do not require instruction move on to tiered problem solving activities while others receive instruction.

Row Assignments

Row activities are a series of related tasks of varying complexity. All of these activities relate to crucial understanding and key skills that students need to acquire. Teachers assign the activities as alternative ways of achieving the same goals taking into account individual student needs.

Acceleration/Deceleration

Accelerating or decelerating the step that students move through syllabus is another way of differentiating instruction. Students demonstrating a high level of competence can work through the curriculum at a faster step. Students facing difficulties may need adjusted activities that allow for a slower step in order to experience success.

Flexible Grouping

As student performance will transform it is important to permit movement between groups. Student’s readiness varies depending on personal intellects and interests, so we must remain open to the concept that a student may be below grade level in one subject at the same time as being above grade level in another subject.

Even highly talented students can benefit from flexible grouping. Always they benefit from work with intellectual peers, while seldom in another group they can experience being a leader. In either case peer-teaching is a valuable strategy for group-work.

Peer Teaching

Many times a student may have personal needs that require one-one instruction that go beyond the needs of his or her partners. After gaining this extra instruction the student could be selected as the “inhabitant expert” for that concept or skill and can get valuable practice by being given the chance to re-teach the concept to peers. In these situation both students can get benefit.

Learning Profiles/Styles

Another filter for assigning students to tasks is by learning style, such as adjusting preferred environment such as quiet, lower lighting, formal/casual seating, or learning modality: auditory (learns best by hearing information) visual (learns best through seeing information in charts or pictures) or kinesthetic preferences (learns best by using concrete examples, or may need to move around while learning) or through personal interests. Since student motivation is also a specific element in learning, understanding individual learning styles and interests will grant teachers to apply right strategies for developing intrinsic motivational techniques.

Student Interest

Interest surveys are often used for determining student interest. Brainstorming for subtopics within a curriculum concept and using semantic network to explore interesting aspect of the concept is another effective tool. This is also an effective way of teaching students how to focus on a manageable subtopic.

Reading Buddies

This strategy is particularly useful for younger students and/or students with reading obstacle. Children get additional practice and experience reading away from the teacher as they develop fluency and comprehension. It is important that students read with a specific purpose in mind and then have an opportunity to discuss what was read. It is not essential for reading buddies to always be at the same reading level. Students with varying word recognition, word analysis and comprehension skills can help each other be more successful. Adjusted follow up tasks are also assigned based on readiness level.

Independent Study Projects

Independent Study is a research project where students learn how to develop the skills for independent learning. The degree of help and structure will vary between students and depend on their ability to manage ideas, time and creativity. A adjustment of the independent study is the buddy study.

Buddy Studies

A buddy study permits two or three students to work together on a project. The expectation is that all may share the research and analysis information but each student must consummate an individual output to demonstrate learning that has taken place and be answerable for their own planning, time management and individual accomplishment.

Learning Contracts

A learning contract is a written understanding between teacher and student that will effect in students working independently. The contract helps students to set daily and weekly work goals and develop management skills. It also helps the teacher to keep evidence of each student’s advance. The certain assignments will vary according to personal student needs.

Learning Centers

Learning Centers have been used by teachers for a long time and may contain both differentiated and compulsory activities. However a learning centre is not necessarily differentiated unless the activities are varied by difficulty taking in to account different student ability and readiness. It is important that students understand what is expected of them at the learning centre and are inspired to manage their use of time. The degree of structure that is provided will vary according to student independent work habits. At the end of each week students should be able to account for their use of time.

Anchoring Activities

A student can do these activities at any time when they have completed present assignments or it can be assigned for a short period at the beginning of each class as students arrange themselves and prepare for work. These activities may be related to specific needs or improvement opportunities, including problems to solve or journals to write. They could also be part of a long-term project that a student is working on.

In conclusion, learners as individual is the one of methods encouraged the instructional progress. The characteristics defined the individual learners are given various by educators. They can be added and developed or also cut. These behaviors can be raise by the agreement of teacher and student. Learners as individual is also related to the research of many psychologists realizing the individual differences and it also includes with the assessment. We should assessment the students’ outcomes by be aware of their individual differences.

Reference Sources

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_styles

http://www.futureknowledge.org/background/the-perspective-of-the-individual-learner

http://www.instructorweb.com/info/learnstyles.asp

http://www.learning-styles-online.com/overview

http://people.usd.edu/~ssanto/styles.html

http://www.lsda.org.uk/files/PDF/1543.pdfhttp://www.questia.com/Index.jsp

http://www.saba.com/education/individual_learners.htm

http://www.tefl.net/esl-articles/learning-styles.htm

Coffield, F., Moseley, D., Hall, E., & Ecclestone, K. (2004). Learning styles and pedagogy in post-16 learning: A systematic and critical review. www.LSRC.ac.uk: Learning and Skills Research Centre. Retrieved January 15, 2008:

Keefe, J. W. (1979) Learning style: An overview. In NASSP’s Student learning styles: Diagnosing and proscribing programs (pp. 1-17). Reston, VA. National Association of Secondary School Principles.

Marzano, R. J. (1998). A theory-based meta-analysis of research on instruction. Mid-continent Regional Educational Laboratory, Aurora, CO.

Merrill, D. (2000). Instructional Strategies and Learning Styles: Which takes Precedence? In Robert Reiser and Jack Dempsey (Eds.) Trends and Issues in Instructional Technology. Prentice Hall.

Hayman-Abello S.E. & Warriner E.M. (2002). Child clinical/pediatric neuropsychology: some recent advances. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 309-339.

Stewart, K. L., & Felicetti, L. A. (1992). Learning styles of marketing majors. Educational Research Quarterly, 15(2), 15-23.

Gracia, Jorge J. E. (1988) Individuality: An Essay on the Foundations of Metaphysics. State Univ. of New York Press.

Indian Watch industry is estimated to be around 1600 crores and Titan is riding on top of it with a market share of over 50%.This is a super brand that has changed the way we look at ( or wear) watches. A marketing success story, Titan is a brand that will be of interest to most of the marketers. Titan , a brand from TATA was launched in 1987. During that time Indian watch market was dominated by HMT . At that time watches were seldom stylish and was catering to the basic need of knowing the time. Titan changed all that. With its stylish watches and smart advertising ,Titan took the market by storm. Titan infact changed the way watches was manufactured and marketed in India.
HMT , a public sector company seldom bothered to respond.

Titan initially pioneered the concept of ” Gifting watches”. The ads captured the essence of gifting and along with the trendy music, easily caught the imagination of the market.
Customers who were fed up with ugly time machines welcomed the brand and Titan had a dream run for many years.

Titan faced lot of problems later when the competition began to eat up the lower end of the market. Besides that, there was another problem. The brand was lacking innovation. To be more precise, the customers were bored by Titan.There was nothing new. Gifting proposition was no longer working .

During this period, Titan made a big mistake. It wanted to play the volume game. For that Titan launched another brand Sonata. Sonata was a huge success because it was a cheap product but at the cost of the mother brand Titan. Titan was perceived to be a premium brand but with Sonata ( at that time ” Sonata from Titan”) endorsed by Titan took away the premium image from the mother brand. It was a big costly mistake.

Titan realised this mistake and took away the Titan brand from Sonata. Now Sonata is endorsed by Tata not Titan.

Titan realising that the market wanted something to be excited about watches began an extensive marketing campaign. Titan carefully segmented the market and developed different subbrands for each segment. Sub brands like Edge, Steel, Dash, Nebula , Classique, Royale, Fast Track , Raga, and the recently launched Wallstreet . By having various products / models and subbrands, Titan was able to create freshness about the brand.

Titan also moved away from gifting . Titan was positioning itself as a fashion accessory rather than a time keeping device.
Titan also found its persona in Aamir. Aamir provided the much needed edge to the brand. Titan was careful in keeping the brand above the celebrity.
The ads were fresh and neatly executed.

Titan also was pushing another strategy . Watches was perceived as a one time buy and consumers seldom owned multiple watches. So Titan pushed the concept of ” Matching Watches to Clothes” in the recent commercials.

Since men are becoming more serious customers of fashion accessories, this is strategy that is worth trying out. For Titan, even if the concept fails, It has created the much needed freshness in the brand.
Titan also made its presence in the ladies watch segment. It have a sub brand Raga targeting the upwardly Mobilee ladies in the premium segment.

Titan also relaunched the FastTrack brand of watched aiming the target segment of 18-30 yrs old.

Earlier Fasttrack was targeted at 20-25 year olds and positioned along the line ” Cool watches from Titan”. Then the company found out that the youth in the age group of 11-20 years account for 42% of watch buying in India. Based on this insight the company relaunched the brand lowering the target segment to 18-30 year olds with the baseline ” How many you have?”. Again the strategy aimed at promoting the multiple watch owning concept. Fasttrack also launched a range of fashion accessories like Sunglasses trying to be a lifestyle brand.

Indian watch market is clearly segmented and lot of serious players are fighting out in these segments . The lower volume segment has HMT, Sonata , Maxima fighting it out. The mid segment has Titan, Timex etc and the premium segment has Titan ,Citizen etc. The super premium segment is also hotting up with lot of international brands setting shops in India.

Titan has carefully created a market for itself through careful segmentation and branding strategies.It is a brand that showed the world that Indians are good in Branding.

Introduction

The field of Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) is a rapidly expanding area within UK settings, in state-funded and in private educational arenas, and because of the changing nature of immigration, ESOL teachers are challenged with meeting the demands of diverse and complicated ethnic/linguistic groups (Chan, 1998). Learning English is seen as a necessity for immigrants or long term visitors to the UK, although the field is complicated by political debates and social discussions around funding, socialisation, naturalisation and the erosion of traditional cultures and languages. However, it does seem that language fluency in English is key to proper integration into British society, and is supported by the “UK Government’s policy response to refugees and asylum seekers [as] outlines in the White Paper Secure Borders, Safe Haven: Integration and Diversity in Modern Britain (Home Office, 2002) [which] set out proposals for a curriculum of English language, IT and citizenship classes for refugees and asylum seekers” (Morrice (2007) p 156). While the Therefore, it is essential that ESOL provision is not only provided, but is designed in ways which can encourage learners to acquire real proficiency and fluency, without disempowering people or undermining their nationality (Halliday, 2005).

The literature on the pedagogies of ESOL teaching is diverse and outlines ways in which second language acquisition can be facilitated effectively, with teachers having their own take on pedagogy and on the ways in which students work, alone or with each other, in learning English (Dagenais et al, 2008; Burns, 2006). While linguistics studies directly address issues of grammar, syntax, construction, coherence and cohesion, the more practical aspects of developing practical fluency in English for speakers of other languages relate to classroom strategies that can support this. This essay will explore two aspects of ESOL teaching, that of group work, in which ESOL students are encouraged to work together on key tasks, with the aim of improving fluency (Haneda, 2005), and the provision of feedback, either peer feedback or tutor feedback, to enhance fluency. Both are contentious issues, because they can spell difficulties in the management of learning experiences (Holliday, 2005), and could be seen positively or negatively. This essay will look at some of the literature on this subject, and attempt to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of group or collaborative work, and of different types of feedback. The author will then draw conclusions from the literature to inform ESOL teaching practice.

Discussion

Group work is a popular means of building on constructivist theories and pedagogies by supporting students to apply new knowledge in given situations. In ESOL teaching, it provides opportunities to practice new words, conversations, sentence constructions, and functional elements of communication, such as making a particular type of telephone call or initiating a conversation. However, group work in this context can be viewed negatively as well, partly because of a fear that groups with the same first language will simply lapse into their own tongue rather than always speaking English, and that as learners they will not recognise each other’s mistakes. The latter point will be dealt with in some more detail below, in the exploration of types of feedback. But in relation to group work, types of collaborative or group learning or practice have been shown to be of great benefit to students of English.

Some authors have found that pair work or small group work in this context does help improve language fluency and competence (Long, 1996; Pica et al, 1996), perhaps because these activities provide different opportunities and options for ESOL learners which are not possible during teacher-led activities. These students may find themselves able to become more confident in a setting which is not only smaller, but comprises only peers who are also ESOL students. Johnson 91995) argues that learners who interact and engage with each other in these ways feel more self-efficacy and control over their own learning. However, others argue that small group work in peer-only groups does not necessarily help with issues such as pronunciation (Morley, 1991) and proper grammar (Widodo, 2006; Widdowson, 1978). Another particular issue for group work is that of English intonation, which can be particularly difficult and may represent for some the last hurdle of English fluency and comprehension (Atoye, 2005; Morgan, 1997).

McDonough (2004) carried out a small-scale research study which “explored instructors’ and learners’ perceptions about the use of pair and small group activities in a Thai EFL context, and examined whether the learning opportunities theoretically attributed to pair and small group activities occurred in an intact classroom” (p 207). The study also looked at whether the learners showed improved outcomes (McDonough, 2004). McDonough (2004) found that “learners who had more participation during the pair and small group activities demonstrated improved production of the target forms, even though they did not perceive the activities as useful for learning language” (p 207). This would suggest that these activities might improve elements of fluency and skill, but this study does not demonstrate how this occurs, nor does it look in detail at language fluency, which is our concern here.

Li and Campbell (2008) carried out a study in New Zealand which examined “Asian students’ perceptions of the much-promulgated cooperative learning concepts in the form of group work and group assignments”, and “found that Asian students valued highly the significance of classroom group discussions where they could interact with students from other cultures and backgrounds, improve their English-language skills, enhance their cultural understanding and provide them with opportunities to make friends” (P 203). Again, this underlines social elements of group working in ESOL learning which may be important in developing true fluency, because the elements of language skills and enhancing cultural understanding can be related to development of deeper-level fluency. Not all the outcomes of this study were positive, however, and LI and Campbell (2008) also found that these Asian students “held intensely negative views about group assignments that required students to complete a project as a group with shared marks determined by the performance of the group” (p 207). This may have something to do with the learner orientations of these students, or it may have to do with other factors. Li and Campbell (2008) found that “contributing factors affecting group dynamics included members’ attitudes and willingness to cooperate and contribute as a team, the composition of the group, students’ competing demands on students’ time and attention, heterogeneity from the natural abilities of students, and the varying cultural values and beliefs held by group members” (p 207). Because Li and Campbell (2008) found that group assignments that were assessed seemed to disempower the students in their study, it would suggest that group activities which are collaborative have a different meaning than group activities which are assessed, and this should be taken into account when applying group working to ESOL classrooms. However, the study does suggest the group learning itself enhanced competency level (Li and Campbell, 2008). The negative responses to the group assessment activities may have had something to do with students’ preconceptions or expectations about their ESOL learning (Bordia et al, 2006). Expectations which are not fulfilled might negatively affect responses to and evaluations of these learning activities (Bordia et al, 2006). These expectations, of course, may originate in the background, culture and previous experiences of the learner, which would suggest that teachers need to take into account these kinds of expectations and find ways to address them.

Ewal (2004) describes a study which focuses on the student perspective on group work, in which “21 students and their teachers participated in a collaborative forum in which they explored the use of small group work in their L2 classroom.” (p 163). This study found that by engaging students, in an almost metacognitive way, in learning about how the group work affected their learning and behaviour, the students were able to discover the benefits of group work for themselves, in improving their literacy and fluency, and in supporting peer bonding, confidence and self-efficacy (Ewal, 2004). In this study, small group behaviours changed as the students became aware of these behaviours and of the functions of the group and the class as a whole (Ewal, 2004). This demonstrates that while group work is still viewed along pedagogical lines as a requisite of proper learning, through application and testing of knowledge, the dynamics of group work require some attention, and may act as militating or mediating factors in the effectiveness of group activities. Ewal (2004) concludes that “teachers should be attentive to opportunities to discuss language learning and classroom-related issues with their students” (p 175). This adds an extra dimension to the concept of group work, as functioning for students on many levels, not simply on a praxis/practice level.

Of course, the discussion of group work leads us neatly into the concept of peer feedback, which is connected to the theories on group activities and just as contentious, it seems. Rollinson (2005) shows how although peer feedback has been supported in ESL classrooms, teachers and students are less than convinced of its efficacy and usefulness.

Rollinson (2005) argues that proper training and procedures for peer feedback in ESOL classrooms is the key to making such feedback effective. Hu (2005) seems to echo this, that peer feedback can enhance learning, but does acknowledge that these activities need monitoring and that peer review situations can be problematic. Feedback and review of English language proficiency can be formalised into learning activities in the classroom context. Al-Hazmi and Scholfield (2007) describe an action research study which was aimed at improving English language writing proficiency in Saudi Arabian university students. This study involved “a regime of enforced draft revision, using a checklist” in which two groups were involved, one trained in peer revision, the other doing their own revision (Al-Hazmi and Scholfield, 2007 p 237). These authors found that “there were clear draft improvements in quality, especially in mechanics, despite only modest amounts of meaning-changing and multisentential revisions being recorded” Al-Hazmi and Scholfield, 2007 p 237). The most significant finding from this study demonstrated that the students enjoyed and responded positively to peer review (Al-Hazmi and Scholfield, 2007). This may simply underline the fact that language learning is as much a social as an individual process (Dagenais et al, 2008; Roberts and Baynham, 2006; Schellekens, 2007)

Formal tutor feedback is also an essential component of developing fluency, although again, the form that this takes can affect its value. Hyland and Hyland (2006), for example, agree that feedback is vital in terms of encouraging learning and consolidating that learning, and demonstrate that it is used in process-based classrooms and in genre-orientated learning environments. It may seem obvious to some that tutor feedback is important, but teachers and learners should be aware that feedback has different purposes, as well as different forms, and while it can be difficult for some students to assimilate feedback and correction, it is through signposting mistakes as well as successes that students can learn how much they have learned.

Feedback itself has expanded to encompass not only written comments from the teacher, but language workshops, conferences and even electronic feedback (Hyland and Hyland, 2006). Lyster and Mori (2006) examined the effects of explicit correction, recasts, and prompts on learner uptake and repair, and found that “instructional activities and interactional feedback that act as a counterbalance to a classroom’s predominant communicative orientation are likely to prove more effective than instructional activities and interactional feedback that are congruent with its predominant communicative orientation” (p 269). This suggests that feedback must be specific to the task and to the context, and also that there is a need for a deeper understanding of the pedagogical dimensions of formal tutor feedback, and the purpose that this feedback serves. This also shows that the emergence of the communicative classroom is not necessarily the final evolution of the ESOL context (Campbell and Duncan, 2007).

However, there are those who have argued strongly against written feedback, and the trends in ESOL teaching in recent years has been to avoid this (Bitchener, 2008). However, research by Bitchener (2008) shows that in some cases, written feedback enhances learning:

The study found that the accuracy of students who received written corrective feedback in the immediate post-test outperformed those in the control group and that this level of performance was retained 2 months later.

Bitchener 2008 p 102.

This would seem to suggest that there is value in providing written tutor feedback. Lochtman (2002) also shows the value of oral or verbal feedback, but underlines the need to give different kinds of feedback depending on the language learning context, the task, and the learner, suggesting that while this feedback is beneficial, it is only so if it meets the needs of the individual learner.

One of the issues with fluency is also related to currency (Taylor, 2006), and it could be that the provision of both types of feedback is central to understanding the current use of various idiomatic forms as well as of slang and vernacular. While many ESOL teaching contexts shy away from teaching ‘common’ spoken forms and focus on formal, correct English, feedback from a tutor, for example, can help to draw comparisons between the two forms and allow students to develop awareness of when it is appropriate to use the different types of English expression (Taylor, 2006; Wallace, 2006). This ability to speak fluently is much more complex than simply learning linguistic form, it is about attaining a degree of comfort and ease with using the language, and using it appropriately and ‘naturally’. All of these approaches to supporting language learning could be said to be fostering this development, but only if they are properly planned, and managed, and it seems that quality ‘teaching’ and facilitation is still required.

Conclusion

This essay demonstrates that there is a range of literature to support the development of language fluency in ESOL classrooms through group work and through interactive processes of learning, and through the provision of tutor feedback and peer feedback. There are issues and challenges with ESOL learning in relation to developing verbal skills, because verbal language requires real-time interaction and the ability to respond to different cues and situations. It would seem from the literature cited above that the use of group work in ESOL learning needs to be planned carefully and designed to ensure that learning is not impeded by individual differences or by the negative aspects of group work, including frustration between learners with different levels of competency, and difficulties in group work which is assessed formally.

Collaborative learning may be a strength in developing fluency, and this could be incorporated with peer feedback, but it would seem that this is only truly effective if the students are ‘trained’ and supported in giving feedback to ensure it is fair and an constructive, and given in the appropriate spirit. Similarly, it would seem that feedback may assist in developing fluency, but the literature cited does not provide strong or conclusive evidence that formal feedback is good for this, despite its value in developing written and verbal language skills. More research is required in looking at different kinds of feedback in supporting fluency. However, the literature does indicate that feedback must be individualised and meet the needs of the learner.

References

Al-Hazmi, S.H. and Scholfield, P. (2007) Enforced revision with checklist and peer feedback in EFL writing: the example of Saudi university students. Scientific Journal of King Faisal University (Humanities and Management Sciences 18 (2)237-267.

Atoye, R.O. (2005) Non-native perception of English intonation. Nordic Journal of African Studies14 (1) 26-42.

Bitchener, J. (2008) Evidence in support of written corrective feedback Journal of Second Language Writing 17 (2) 102-118.

Brillinger, K. (2003) From Theory to Practice: Creating Intermediate ESL Reading Materials Based on Current SLA Research and Theories, Newsletter of the Association of Teachers of English as a Second Language of Ontario, 29(3), 1-6

Burns, A. (2006) Surveying landscapes in adult ESOL research, Linguistics and Education, 17, 97–105

Campbell, C. and Duncan, G. (2007) From Theory to Practice: General Trends in Foreign Language Teaching Methodology and Their Influence on Language Assessment. Language and Linguistics Compass 1 (6) 592-611

Chan, M..M. (1998) What We Already Know about Teaching ESL Writers (Research in the Classroom). English Journal 77 (6) 84-85

Chen, R. and Hird, B. (2006) Group Work in the Efl Classroom in China: A Closer Look. RELC Journal, 37 (10) 91-103.

Dagenais, D. Beynon, J. and Mathis, N. (2008) Intersections of Social Cohesion, Education, and Identity in Teachers, Discourses, and Practices Pedagogies: An International Journal 3 (2) 85 – 108.

Ewald, J.D. (2004) A classroom forum on small group work: L2 learners see, and change, themselves. Language Awareness 13 (3) 163-179.

Ferris, D.R. (1994) Lexical and syntactic features of ESL writing by students at different levels of L2 proficiency. TESOL Quarterly 28 (2) 414-420.

Haneda,. M. (2005) Some Functions of Triadic Dialogue in the Classroom: Examples from L2 Research Canadian Modern Language Review 62 (2) 313-333

Hyland, K. and Hyland, F (2006). Feedback on second language students’ writing. Language Teaching, 39 83-101.

Holliday, A. (2005) The Struggle to Teach English as an International Language New York: Oxford University Press.

Hu, G. (2005) Using peer review with Chinese ESL student writers. Language Teaching Research 9 (3) 321-342.

Johnson,K.E. (1995) Understanding communication in second language classrooms New York: Cambridge University Press.

Lochtman, K. (2002) Oral corrective feedback in the foreign language classroom: how it affects interaction in analytic foreign language teaching International Journal of Educational Research 37 (3-4) 271-283.

Long, M. (1996) The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In Ritchie, W. and Bhatia, T. (eds) Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (413-468) San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Lyster, R. and Mori, H. (2006). Interactional Feedback And Instructional Counterbalance. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 28 , 269-300

McDonough, K. (2004) Learner-learner interaction during pair and small group activities in a Thai EFL context System 32 (2) 207-224

Morgan, B. (1997) Identity and intonation: linking dynamic processes in an ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly 31 (3) 431-450.

Morley, J. (1991) The pronunciation component in teaching English to speaker sof other languages. TESOL Quarterly

Morrice, L. (2007) ‘Lifelong learning and the social integration of refugees in the UK: the significance of social capital’, International Journal of Lifelong Education, 26(2), 155-172

Olivo, W. (2003) Quit Talking and Learn English!”: Conflicting Language Ideologies in an ESL Classroom Anthropology & Education Quarterly 34 (1) 50-71

Pica, T., Lincoln-Porter, F., Paninos, D. and Linnell, J. (1996) Language learners’ interaction: how does it address the input, output and feedback needs of L2 learners? TESOL Quarterly 30 59-84.

Roberts, C. & Baynham, M. (2006) Introduction to the special issue: Research in adult ESOL, Linguistics and Education, 17, 1-5

Rollinson, P. (2005) Using peer feedback in the ESL writing class ELT Journal Volume 59/1 ELT Journal 59 (1) .

Schellekens, P. (2007) The Oxford ESOL Handbook Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Seedhouse, P. (2005) Conversation Analysis and language learning. Language Teaching (2005), 38: 165-187 Cambridge University Press

Shin, H. (2006) Rethinking TESOL From a SOL’s Perspective: Indigenous Epistemology and Decolonizing Praxis in TESOL Critical Inquiry in Language Studies 3 (2&3) 147 – 167.

Taylor, L. (2006) The changing landscape of English: implications for language assessment ELT Journal 60(1):51-60

Wallace, C. (2006) The text, dead or alive: Expanding textual repertoires in the adult ESOL classroom, Linguistics and Education, 17, 74-90

Widdowson, H.G. (1978) Teaching language as communication Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Widodo, H.P. (2006) Approaches and procedures for teaching grammar. English Teaching: Practice and Critique. 5 (1) 122-141.

Zamel, V. and Spack, R. (2006) Teaching Multilingual Learners across the Curriculum: Beyond the ESOL Classroom and Back Again. Journal of Basic Writing (CUNY), 25 (2) 126-152.

Governmental Control Over Curriculum and the Impact on Teachers as Skilled Professionals

Introduction

Caldwell and Hayward (1998) state that the need for reform in England’s school system was realized in 1976 (p. 1). Yet, it was not until 1988 with the Education Reform Act instituted under Margaret Thatcher that a “national curriculum, national tests” and control of the schools by the government began to become a reality (Caldwell & Hayward 1998, p. 1). Murnane and Steele (2007) contend that national involvement in the public schools was intended to support the learners, as well as the teachers (p. 15). However, because of the continued awareness by governments that Western educational institutions were lagging behind the accomplishments of Eastern schools, continued changes in the area of education and government’s control over it have completely altered the educational landscape (Murnane & Steele 2007, p. 15). This is because of an adopted neo-liberalist policy approach that has favored markets over learners and policies over teacher effectiveness (Apple 2001, p. 182). As a result teachers are becoming “deskilled” and incapable of maintaining their own control over their effectiveness in the classroom (Hall 2004, p. 3). As this control subsides, therefore, teachers are leaving the profession due to frustration and an inability to maintain their professional capabilities in the schools. This knowledge provides evidence that the neo-liberalist policies that have been adopted in the United Kingdom are not achieving the end results as once forecast and that there is perhaps a need to reconsider these policies in order to ensure that teachers that are the foundation of education retain the skills and knowledge that is necessary to instruct society’s children.

Neo-Liberalism

Apple (2001) indicates that there was once a “classical liberalism” that existed in relation to the schools and those policies related to education that impacted teachers and students (p. 182). However, Apple (2001) states that as time has progressed the classical liberalism of the state policies has been altered toward a “neo-liberalism approach” (p. 182). According to Apple (2001), it is important to understand the differences between these two types of views of education because these differences are at the core of the educational issues that schools in many countries face today (p. 182).

Olssen (1996) defines classical liberalism in the schools as a method of “freeing those within the schools from state control” (p. 337). Olssen (1996), on the other hand, specifies that neo-liberalism supports the state’s role in controlling education by “creating a market…[that involves] the conditions, laws and institutions necessary for its operation” (p. 337). Apple (2001) argues that when an education “market” is, therefore, created it is a market that seems to suggest “individualization” (p. 182). However, the individualization of the market is subjected to the controls of the government and the policies that force parents, teachers and students to act in a certain manner, leading to the end results that the state intended from the start (Apple 2001, p. 182). This is because the actions of the entities connected to education are restrained by the boundaries set forth in the policies of the government and as those boundaries become more tightly fixed the actions of the parties are more predictable.

Choice and Influence on Teachers

Apple (2001) expands on this notion by examining the middle class in society (p. 182). Apple (2001) stipulates that when parents of different nations in the middle class are given the opportunity of school choice the government knows that those parents will naturally begin placing their own criteria and/or expectations on schools (p. 182). Consequently when parents are unhappy with the curriculum at one school the teachers at the school are forced to alter that curriculum in order to meet the demands of the parents or they will loose the students within that school (Apple 2001, p. 182). The loss of students within a school means the loss of government funding, the loss of jobs, the lack of teacher’s ability to provide resources and ultimately the loss of the school itself in the community. Therefore, as Apple (2001) indicates, the government policies may be suggesting that people have a greater choice; yet, what is actually occurring is a more significant control of schools through the ability of parents to actively use choice to influence curriculum in relation to the schools (p. 182). As parents influence how the curriculum is created, consequently, teachers are placed under greater scrutiny and are forced to expand their offerings in the classroom – even if these offerings include learning that the teacher is not knowledgeable or skilled in.

Brooker (2003) contends that the manner in which parents and private entities are capable of influencing the education of students is evident in the United Kingdom with the inclusion of computer technologies in the elementary classroom (p. 261). Over the past decade there has been such a significant increase in the demand for computer technology training of young students. Yet, those schools that do not conform to this expectation are loosing students (Brooker 2003, p. 261). In general this is because parents, manufacturers and the government insists that if children are not trained in the use of computers at an early age they will not be capable of competing with their peers or those in the outside world later on (Brooker 2003, p. 261). Yet, Brooker (2003) argues that technologies in the classroom has impacted teachers negatively due to the fact that many of today’s teachers are not skilled in the use of computers and they are not capable of acquiring the knowledge needed to instruct their students adequately (p. 261). This is because, in general, many schools fail to provide teachers with new training that will support the increase in the instructional scope and teachers do not have the ability to seek outside skill training and maintain their work schedule at the same time.

New Teacher Training

The concept of choice and control offered by the government is also being reflected in proposals by government entities associated with initial teacher training (Apple 2000, p. 1). Apple (2000) specifies that in the current educational climate what is being considered is the “deregulation” of teacher training as a means of promoting competition among institutions of higher learning (p. 1). Essentially what this causes to occur is that colleges and universities are freely allowed to choose their own approaches to teaching and teachers have the choice of training institutions that they prefer. However, as time progresses it becomes apparent to schools and the communities that support them which teachers are trained effectively and which are not (Apple 2001, p. 182). This occurs when standardized test scores are revealed from students, reflecting directly back on the teacher’s abilities to educate (Apple 2001, p. 182). As a result, when enough teachers from a particular institution are incapable of developing learners that can pass standardized tests that institution begins to realize a decline in enrollment (Apple 2001, p. 182). Although teachers in training are given the choice of schools to attend and colleges are given freedom in determining how those teachers are training, ultimately it is the governmental control of policies that impacts whether or not the institution of higher learning will survive and what curriculum will be used to teach teachers in society. In the neo-liberalist approach to education there is evidence that the freedoms that are being given to colleges and universities are instead tools that negatively impact teachers entering the profession, often with the new teachers being unaware that they are ultimately slated for failure before they even begin their careers.

Able Students

Ball, Bowe and Gewirtz (1994) stipulate that governmental control over education further impacts teachers and curriculum due to the fact that teachers and schools begin to attempt to avoid students with special needs and “seek out able children” (p. 19). This is because special needs students require a greater amount of teacher time, teacher expertise and teacher interaction with students that takes away from the teacher instructing “able” students who do not have special needs (Ball, Bowe & Gewitz 1994, p. 19). In England, Ball, Bowe and Gewitz (1994) state that this intent to encourage able students enrolling in schools by teachers and administrators is directly related to the “publication of performance indicators such as examination league tables” because schools find it difficult to explain that test scores may be low due to an abundance of special needs students (Ball, Bowe & Gewitz 1994, p. 19).

Yet, Gerwitz, Ball and Bowe (1995) further argue that control of the curriculum and teacher performance is also related to the students of different cultures (p. 6). For example, in England it is known that African American students traditionally have difficulties in the schools because of the large segment of this population that is impoverished (p. 6). Poverty is correlated to the abilities of the students, with those in the impoverished classes historically performing less successfully on standardized tests (Gerwitz, Ball & Bowe 1995, p. 6). Apple (2001), therefore, states that this causes teachers to develop curriculum that targets students who are more capable of learning and ignores those students that standardized testing was intended to support in the first place (p. 182).

Fragmentation

Allen and Ainley (2007) contend that as time progresses the governmental control over the curriculum in the schools is continuing to expand, impacting how teachers not only teach, but changing what is taught to students, causing a fragmentation of teacher control over their own labor (p. 1). An example of this exists within English schools as education reform is focused on vocational education for students beginning at age 14 (Allen & Ainley 2007, p. 1). According to Allen and Ainley (2007) the government came to the conclusion that there was a decline in students graduating from schools with marketable skills and this impacted their success after public schooling (p. 1). The issue, therefore, became less concentrated on a student’s ability to read, write and perform simple math and more on specifically training students to function in specific jobs once they have left academia (Allen & Ainley, 2007, p. 1).

Allen and Ainley (2007) indicate that this brings about two specific issues. First, while teachers in the United Kingdom have indicated that they do not support this policy, teacher organizations throughout the country have ignored teacher protests and called on educators to ensure that the policies are successful (Allen & Ainley 2007, p 1). Second, programs for vocational training are being largely created in schools that instruct low income or impoverished students, with those students in high performing schools working with a traditional curriculum (Allen & Ainley 2007, p. 1). What this means is that while governmental policies are once again suggesting that there is choice in relation to education, the policies are ensuring that only those choices that support what the government deems appropriate for education will be made (Allen & Ainley 2007, p. 1; Chitty 2004, p. 160). Furthermore, Murnane and Steele (2007) state that this causes teachers to be inundated with having to cope with a curriculum that is ever-changing and that they believe they no longer have control over (p. 15). As a result teachers are leaving the teaching profession in vast numbers and this is creating a greater shortage in the teacher workforce than ever before (Murnane & Steele 2007, p. 15).

Conclusion

Duggan and Pole (1996) suggest that the dissatisfaction in the teacher workforce began to be ever apparent in the 1990s (p. 139). Hall (2004) states that this is an issue that has increased over time because of policies such as “the Literacy and Numeracy Strategies in primary school and the Key Stage 3 Strategy in secondary schools”, as well as the inclusion of technologies and standardized testing that “constricts teachers” and their capabilities throughout the curriculum (p. 3). According to Hall (2004) the types of control connected to the schools and the deskilling of teachers are endless (p. 8; Appendix 1). Consequently there is an increased teacher workload, decreased teacher satisfaction and a reduction in the number of teachers that want to or are capable of instructing students in the manner in which government and/or society demands. For the future of education in the Western world this could mean that the attempt by government to regulate education and create more successful outcomes for students in England has the opposite effect, as is indicated by Hall (2004, p. 3).

The research indicates that the original intent of education to create students that were capable of being productive citizens after their educational careers ended became extremely complex when it was realized that Western students did not achieve at the same rate as Eastern students. Therefore, a neo-liberalist policy toward education by the government was adopted, suggesting that choice was available to parents, teachers and students and that a greater freedom in education would exist. Yet, the research also demonstrates that the idea of choice was restricted by the policies related to education that were adopted by the government and that these policies minimalized the choices that actually existed. Moreover, these neo-liberalist policies became so intricately woven within education that the choices made by those connected to education could be predicted and manipulated with ease. For teachers this has meant that they are overworked, under-trained and unprepared for the demands of the modern educational system and given few options as to how they can overcome these issues. This knowledge provides serious implications for the educational system because as teachers continue to become frustrated due to their increasing deskilled status they are leaving the teaching workforce. This knowledge provides evidence that the neo-liberalist policies that have been adopted in the United Kingdom are not achieving the end results as once forecast and that there is perhaps a need to reconsider these policies in order to ensure that teachers that are the foundation of education retain the skills and knowledge that is necessary to instruct society’s children.

Appendix 1

(Hall 2004, p. 8).

1. Regulated market control: metaphors of the market and consumer demand are imposed upon schools; success and profits go to those who best meet consumer demand. Teachers’ work is evaluated in terms of measured outputs set against cost. Competition is the key element in relations between schools. (Ball, 1994)

2. Technical control: this is embodied in structures rather than people – in, for example, notionally ‘teacher proof’ teaching materials and text books, and in specified competences (Apple, 1988, 1996)

3. Bureaucratic control: hierarchical power is embedded in the social and organisational structure of institutions – jobs are differently divided and defined, have different salaries, and supervision, evaluation and promotion arrangements. The potential for establishing a career operates as a control mechanism.

4. Corporate control: the focus of the institution is on economic rather than social good. A competitive ethos prevails. Managers focus on economic goals. The head teacher is perceived more as a line manager than as a first among professional equals.

5. Ideological control: hegemonic beliefs – for example, that a good teacher has certain characteristics – become part of the dominant ideology within schools. These ideas and beliefs are reinforced in pre-service and in-service training. Certain conceptions of teachers’ work become naturalised – for example, a move away from child-centred discourse to market based discourse.

6. Disciplinary power: Foucault (1977) shows how, by means of the technologies of power – hierarchical observation, normalising judgment and examination –individuals are ‘disciplined’ into ways of understanding their work. Minor procedures and routines are specified (times, dress, expected responses) in ways that become anonymous and functional within a school; teachers and others within the school regulate their own behaviours to meet these expectations. Smyth describes this as a ‘triumph of technique over questions of purpose’

Bibliography

Allen, M. and Ainley, P. (2007) Education make you fick, innit? London: Tufnell Press.

Apple, M. (2000). Power, meaning, and identity. New York: Peter Lang.

Apple, M. (2001). Markets, standards, teaching and teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education. 52(3): 182-207.

Ball, S., Bowe, R., & Gewirtz, S. (1994). Market forces and parental choice. In S.

Tomlinson (Ed.), Educational reform and its consequences (pp. 13-25). London: IPPR/Rivers Oram Press.

Brooker, L. (2003). Integrating new technologies in the UK classroom. Childhood Education. 79(5): 261-289.

Caldwell, B., and Hayward, D. (1998). The future of schools: Lessons from the reform of public education. London: Falmer Press.

Chitty, C. (2004). Education policy in Britain. London: Palgrave.

Duggan, R., and Pole, C. (1996). Reshaping education in the 1990s. New York: Routledge.

Gewirtz, S., Ball, S., & Bowe, R. (1995). Markets, choice, and equity in education. Philadelphia: Open University Press.

Hall. C. (2004). Theorizing changes in teacher’s work. Canadian Journal of Education Administration and Policy. Retrieved January 1, 2009, from http://www.umanitoba.ca/publications/cjeap/pdf_files/hall.pdf

Murnane, R., and Steele, J. (2007). What is the problem? The challenge of providing effective teacher for all children. The Future of Children. 17(1): 15-35.

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Table of Contents (Jump to)

Introduction

Application

Core Technology

Competitors and Market data

Future trends and Conclusion

References and Bibliography

Introduction

The term Electronic-Technology (Also referred to Information Communication Technology) or E-Technology originates from the fact that most of these technologies are electronically facilitated. E-Technology has become a commonplace entity in all aspects of life (Carr, 2003). Across the past twenty years the use of E-Technology has fundamentally changed the practices and procedures of nearly all forms of endeavour within business and governance (Oliver, 2002). Every organisation is looking to use the numerous advantages offered by these new evolving technologies and enhance their organisational prospects, be it business houses (E-commerce), banks (E-banking), educational institutions (E-learning, E-Training) etc. For the purpose of this report we will concentrate on the educational use of E-technology in the form of E-Learning.

People have always had a need to learn from people who aren’t in their immediate vicinity (Dede, 1995). In the early days, for example, guilds provided opportunities to be trained by skillful teachers and learn from experts. People traveled great distances to learn from the best. Today’s technologies allow us to do similar sharing but at a distance. Early models of such learning were known as correspondence study and were text-based because books and paper were the technology that was available at the time. As technologies change and expand, the options for learning expand with them. Because of the ongoing technological evolution and progress, it can and will be harnessed for learning. These new technologies that can be used for learning purposes are collectively better know as E-Learning technologies.

There seems to be no agreement on a unified view on the definition of e-learning as per the literature. The author of this report will use the definition of e-learning as proposed by NCSA:

“E-learning is the acquisition and use of knowledge distributed and facilitated primarily by electronic means. This form of learning currently depends on networks and computers but will likely evolve into systems consisting of a variety of channels (e.g., wireless, satellite), and technologies (e.g., cellular phones, PDA’s) as they are developed and adopted. E-learning can take the form of courses as well as modules and smaller learning objects. E-learning may incorporate synchronous or asynchronous access and may be distributed geographically with varied limits of time.” (NCSA, 2000)

Applications

A growing body of research supports that E-learning technologies, if appropriately used in the classroom, may allow students to create knowledge in a creative way by giving them opportunities to explore, interact, problem solve, and collaborate (Clarkson et al, 1999). Kirschner and Selinger (2003. p.6) elaborates by mentioning that these technologies offer the potential to: meet the learning needs of individual students; to promote equality of opportunity; to offer high-quality learning materials; and to increase self-efficacy and independence of learning amongst students of all ages. In the U.K., the Department of Education and Employment (DfEE) now known as Department for Education and Skills (DfES), believes that ICT can provide new levels of learning support and mentioned that: “We believe the ambitious and imaginative use of technology will be a central element in improving personalisation and choice across the system” (DfES, 2004, p.88). Some of the widely used applications of E-Technology in the form E-Learning in an educational setting are given below.

Data – logging and Graphing: In data-logging activities, learners need only to make decisions about what parameter to measure, in a suitably designed experiment, and to select the appro­priate sensor, to be able to record high-quality data. Barton’s (1997) comparative study of graphing using computer and non-computer methods has highlighted the flexibility afforded by the computer approach. Real-time plotting has time advantages over manual methods, in particular in encourag­ing pupils to focus on trends and patterns rather than individual data items. Spreadsheets and other types of software that provide graphing facilities enable pupils to explore the presentation of data in different graphical forms, and to look for trends and patterns in data.

Obtaining and transmitting knowledge: The facility of computers to archive large quantities of information and to permit its ready retrieval was of potential educational benefit for conveying knowledge. Software that is designed to exploit these properties includes multimedia resources such as CD-ROM (O’Bannon, 1997) and web-based materials accessed through internet ‘browsers’ .

Presenting and reporting: The presentational tools provided by word processing, desktop publishing, web-based and other specialized presentation software offer pupils powerful tools for presenting and sharing their ideas with others. As well as deciding what information they may wish to report, pupils can decide on styles and formats for presenting their ideas. This allows for a degree of creativity and exploration in the search for the most appropriate and effective format. We believe that the creative processes involved in producing reports and presentations help pupils to develop and secure their understanding of science.

Core Technology

E-learning technologies are available in a variety of types and forms. Electronic learning has existed before the Internet came into existence. It was known as computer-based training (CBT), where training materials, some were even interactive, were stored in floppy disks and later in CD-ROMs (Schittek et al, 2001). The CD-ROM version still exists today. The current Web-based form of E-learning is merely an enhanced version, capitalising on the latest computer technologies to incorporate the capability of multimedia and global accessibility of the Web. The technologies could include hardware (e.g. computers and other devices); software applications; and connectivity (e.g. access to the internet, local networking infrastructure and video conferencing) (Toomey, 2001). The capacity of these new technologies to support learning in a creative way through experience of simulations, problem solving, investigating and handling information is considerable.

With E-Learning, there is opportunity for high level interaction among students, the lecturers and the computer-mediated material. Teaching is flexible because as it can be conducted synchronously or asynchronously, contact is dynamic and can be as variable as the student or the lecturer desires and communication can take place through a variety of modes, such as email, chat, bulletin boards, etc all facilitated by the computer this can be viewed as distributed learning.

It is general knowledge that the most widely used of the E-learning tools in the education sector is electronic communication tool (Email). Academic teaching staffs are making themselves available for 24 through the use of email and bulletin boards. Bates (2000) notes that the use of electronic communication for most lecturers actually increases their contact with students, which can be very beneficial for the students. Lecture notes and other teaching resources are placed on the internet for students to access, and linking useful web sites to these resources enables students to navigate through relevant resources. Academic staff also employs published classroom resources that are directly linked to the internet. Learning or Course management systems are used to create an online environment which houses a multitude of resources – such as course outlines, listed resources, internal email, bulletin boards, discussion forums, synchronous communication and so on. Presentation software’s (PowerPoint etc) are also being widely used to enhance classroom teaching. Compared to preparing a “Chalk and talk” lecture, the preparation of appropriate presentation software requires more time although it may save time in comparison to preparation of detailed overhead transparencies.

However, if one has to concur on a single technology that has resulted in the exponential growth of E-learning, it has to be the internet.

The World Wide Web has made it possible for people to access primary sources of information on demand. Mastery of this tool has become essential in order to gain access to an ever-growing body of recent and up-to-date knowledge available electronically. The rate of job change has also caused a rethinking of the skills required for lifelong learning, such as skilful use of ICT. The potential is there for these new technologies to attract a more competitive market, thus making the institution a more financial and viable entity (Bates, 2000).

Competitors and Market Data

Government along with Industry leaders have identified the potential of E-Learning and this is clearly evident from the amount of investment made governments and the companies. For example the UK government has, “Programmes to invest an additional ?81m over three years awarded from HEFCE and HEFCW have been earmarked to support central objectives of the DfES’s E-strategy, the Science and Innovation Investment Framework: 2004 – 2014, and ‘Reaching Higher’, the Welsh Assembly Government’s strategy for the higher education sector” (JISC, 2006). The following figure shows the amount that has been set aside for E-learning which is an around 20% increase from the previous investment.

The industry is not left far behind either. Organisations view learning increasingly as a competitive advantage rather than just another cost factor (Urdan & Weggen, 2000). The industry is to a greater extent divided in two major groups. One that provides centralised learning management systems (LMS) with the most commonly used applications and the other group of companies are the ones who provide bespoke E-learning systems as per the requirements of their clients. The ability to sustain and compete in this growingly competitive market is evident from the increasing number of mergers that we have seen in the past few years especially in the LMS sector. The following table shows a recent market state after the mergers and comprise of the big players in the LMS or E-learning sector.

Even though the bespoke E-learning market is growing every day the companies are not as big as the LMS vendors. However, this is a positive sign and it enables small sized organisations to integrate affordable E-Learning solution into their business provided by these companies rather then the ones provided by the LMS vendors which are hugely expensive.

Commercial and social impact

There is absolutely no doubt that these E-Learning technologies are having a massive impact at commercial as well as social level. Some of them are mentioned below:

Online Social Communities – The asynchronous and synchronous communication ability of E-Learning systems has enabled institutions to cater for a variety of users by removing the barriers of time and distance. Users who are normally geographically disadvantaged have access to a variety of educational resources not usually at their disposal (Bates, 2000). This, in a way has lead to the evolution of online social networks (‘Myspace’, ‘second life’ etc). These networks are having an enormous social impact on the society in a positive way to a greater extent. Social networks are playing a instrumental role in learning environments as a major conduit of resource and knowledge exchanges (Cho, Stefanone, & Gay, 2002) and as a source of social support and socialisation for distributed learners (Haythornthwaite, 2002). There are abundant discussions emphasising the value and the impact of social networks in the studies of organisational learning (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998), knowledge management (Cohen & Prusak, 2001), and distance learning (Haythornthwaite, 2002).

Pedagogical Improvement and staff renewal – Teaching staff are able to preset information using a variety of tools in order to better relate to the content to the concrete realities of a given field of study. Innovative hands-on learning experiences are also made possible for students through computer simulation software. Asynchronous communication technologies are used outside the classroom to enrich classroom learning through discussion groups, mentoring and coaching (Burg & Thomas, 1998). The challenge of teaching with ICT has led to revitalizing teaching practice for academic staff (Bates, 2000).

Cost-effectiveness – According to Chute, Thompson and Hancock (1999) the potential financial savings associated with E-learning can be significant when compared to traditional methods. E-Learning can improve the cost-effectiveness of the operation of educational institutions in variety of ways. One way is by the ability to reach different students and in greater numbers. Academic teaching staff can be freed from many routine activities by replacing certain activities with appropriate technology (Deden & Carter, 1996). Leading firms such as CISCO, Motorola, IBM and Ford are already reaping benefits associated with E-learning with some of them having cutting costs in the range of a whooping 30 to 50 percent (Greengard, 1999).

Future Trends and Bibliography

Although the growth of E-Learning is considerable there are those who are sceptical about its potential. Cuban (2001) argues that although governments are spending substantial sums of money to develop and implement educational policy to fund E-learning; research reveals that these new technologies are often oversold and underused (Cuban 2001, cited in Kirschner and Wopereis 2003). Also, with respect to E-Learning being a driving force behind educational innovation and reform, research indicates that ‘the role of E-Learning is not as profound as one would expect” (Kirschner and Wopereis 2003, p. 107). This may be because ‘ICT is too often used as a modern and efficient substitute for existing learning and teaching materials and seldom as a vehicle for innovation and transformation of education’ (Kirschner et al 1995, cited in Kirschner and Wopereis 2003, p. 107). This has prompted the government to shift its attention from technology to pedagogy as shown below.

Whether or not someone is keen on using technology for learning, the fact is that it’s here to stay. Technology has become an essential way to handle the education, training, and retraining needs of an expanding knowledge society. According to a recent report on job skills, 50 percent of all employee skills become outdated in three to five years. In addition, experts say the percentage of jobs that fit into the category of “knowledge workers” is rapidly increasing (Moe & Blodgett, 2000). Even jobs that were traditionally thought to require fewer skills, such as retail sales, now commonly require computer skills and the ability to keep pace with product changes. Many blue-collar workers regularly use computers and databases in their work. We simply don’t have the capacity to support today’s educational and training needs by using traditional methods alone.

References

Barton, R. (1997). ‘Computer aided graphing: a comparative study.’ Journal of Information Technology for teacher education. 6(1), 59-72.

Bates, A. W. (2000). Managing technological change – Strategies for college and university leaders. San Fransisco: Jossey Bass.

Burg, Jennifer J., and Thomas, Stan J. Computers Across Campus. Communications of the ACM 41, 1 (Jan. 1998), 22-25.

Carr, N.G., (2003). IT doesn’t matter. Harvard Business Review cited by McCredie, J., 2003. Does IT matter to higher education? Educause Review 38 (6), 14–22.

Cho, H. Stefanone, M. and Gay, G. (2002), Social information sharing in a CSCL community, Proceedings of 2002 ACM CSCL conference, Lawrence Elbaum Associates, Boulder, USA (2002), pp. 43–53

Chute, A,G., Thompson, M. M., & Hancock, B W. (1999). The McGraw-Hill handbook of distance learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Clarkson P, Dunbar A, and Toomey R (1999) ‘Whole School Reform and the use of ICT. An evaluation of the Navigator Schools Project’ (Cited in Toomey R (2001) Information and Communication Technology for Teaching and Learning. Schooling Issues Digest 2. Canberra: Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs.)

Cohen, D. and Prusak, L. (2001) In good company: how social capital makes organisations work, Harvard Business Press, MA, Boston (2001).

Dede, C (1995). The Transformation of Distance Education to Distributed Learning. [Online] Available http://www.hbg.psu.edu/bsed/intro/docs/distlearn/ [Accessed on 06/02/2007]

Deden, A. & Carter, V. (1996). Using technology to enhance students’ skills. New Directions for Higher Education, 96, 81-92.

DfES (2003) ‘Fulfilling the Potential’ Transforming teaching and learning through ICT in schools, available at http://www.dfes.gov.uk

DfES (2004), Five Year Strategy for Children and Learners, July 2004. http://www.dfes.gov.uk/publications/5yearstrategy/docs/DfES5Yearstrategy1.rtf

DfFE (1998) ‘Teaching: High Status. High Standards. Requirements for courses of Initial Teacher Training. Annex B: Initial Teacher Training National Curriculum for the use of Information and. Communications Technology in Subject Teaching” (quoted in Pachier N (1999) ‘Theories of Learning and ICT” in Leask M and Pachler N (eci) (i 999) Learning to Teach using ICT in the Secondary school New York: Routledge.

Greengard, S. (1999). Web-based training yields maximum returns. Workforce, 78(2), 95-96.

Haythornthwaite, C. (2002) Building social networks via computer networks: Creating and sustaining distributed learning communities. In: K.A. Renninger and W. Shumar, Editors, Building virtual communities: learning and change in cyberspace, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2002), pp. 159–190.

JISC, (2006), Annual Review of Joint Information Systems Committee, UK, Available at http://www.jisc.ac.uk/publications/publications/pub_ar06.aspx [Accessed on 07/02/07]

Kirschner P and Selingcr M (2003) “The state of affairs of Teacher education with respect to Information and Communication Technology” Technology Pedagogy and Education 12 / J / pp. 5-1

Kirschner P, Hermans H J and De Wolf H C (1995) ‘Onderwijsvernieuwing en Informatie Technologie (Educational Reform and Information Technology)’ (Cited in Kirschner P and Wopereis I (2003) ‘Mind tools for teacher communities: a European perspective’ Technology Pedagogy and Education 12 (I) pp. 105-124.

NCSA (2000), e-learning – A review of literature, National Center for Supercomputing Applications, Available at learning.ncsa.uiuc.edu/papers/elearnlit.pdf, [Accessed on 08/02/07]

O’Bannon, B. (1997) ‘CD-Rom Integration peaks student interest in inquiry’ Computers in the Schools 13 (3/4) pp. 127-134.

Oliver, R. (2002). The role of ICT in higher education for the 21st century: ICT as a change agent for education. Available online at: http://elrond.scam.ecu.edu.au/oliver/2002/he21.pdf. Accessed [08/02/07]

Schittek M, Mattheos N, Lyon HC, Attstrom R. (2001) Computer assisted learning. A review. Eur J Dent Educ. 2001 Aug;5(3):93-100.

Toomey, R. (2001). Information and Communication Technology for Teaching and Learning. Schooling Issues Digest 2. Canberra: Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs.

Urdan, T. A., & Weggen C. C. (2000). Corporate e-learning: Exploring a new frontier. WR Hambrecht Co.

CPPD
Introduction

Reflection has become a fundamental component of professional development of teachers and lecturers in the Further Education (FE) and Higher Education (HE) sector (Harkin, 2005). The lifelong learning sector can be seen to transcend both these paradigms and contexts of post-compulsory learning. This essay addresses some key elements of reflecting upon the experience of a teacher in Beauty Therapy within the lifelong learning sector, addressing the intersection between the personal and experiential and the theoretical/pedagogical aspects of the role and its function.

Teaching roles and context within the lifelong learning sector

Teaching roles within the lifelong learning sector seem to be related to the kind of teaching, the kind of subject, and the kind of learner (Zukas, 2006), a three-way relationship which I have observed to be perhaps more negotiated upon a day to day basis than founded in one single pedagogical theory or framework. It is notable that within the lifelong learning sector, there seems to be a crossover between the vocational type of education, and more traditional ‘teaching’, and in particular, these roles of ‘teachers’ are very much based on how best to meet student needs. Therefore, it seems that one element of the teaching role within this context is related to learning ‘on the job’ or learning through doing (Eraut, 2004), and the ‘becoming’ element of the process of ‘becoming’ a teacher in this context is a response to the demands of the job, rather than a formal process which prepares you to carry out the role. While this might run against the theories of pedagogy, being a much more personal take on what the teaching role is, it is based on perceptions of professional identity as well as an understanding of dominant concepts of the role in a formal sense (Beckett and Gough, 2004). Austerlitz and James (2008) describe the emotional journeys that students go through in further education as a process of cognition through which emotions help students to appraise situations and develop knowledge and understanding.

This may be an important perspective to consider within the lifelong learning sector, because of the range of types of students and types of subjects that are prevalent within this sector. There is no single student demographic, no single approach to pedagogy, no one-size-fits-all model of teaching and learning. Bathmaker and Avis (2005) carried out research into professional identity formation amongst trainee FE lecturers, and found that “rather than identifying effective processes of increasing participation in existing communities of practice, a strong sense of marginalisation and alienation amongst trainees was observed” (p 47). Bathmaker and Avis (2005) suggest that this lack of engagement in communities of practice is “detrimental both to trainees and experienced lecturers if they are to actively engage in building new forms of professionalism for the future” (p 47). I would draw from this the concept that formal training processes do not necessarily positively contribute to role formation, definition and professional identity, and that learning is much more experiential and interactive. Hagger et al (2008) support this view, and suggest that experiential learning dominates learning of this type.

Own teaching role and context within the lifelong learning sector

My own teaching role is to teach and support students to learn on two levels. The first is to learn the practical skills and abilities of the beauty therapy industry, so that they can become capable, effective practitioners. Beauty therapy is no ‘soft option’. In fact, there is a great deal of precision, dexterity and deeper learning involved in acquiring the skills to function as a therapist. The second element of the learning is for students to develop knowledge and understanding of the body, of health, of individuals and their holistic wellbeing, in order to contextualise the activities that they carry out within their roles, and to be able to provide suitable treatments, therapies and the like to appropriate clients. The third element of the role is to support students to develop the communication and interaction skills necessary to be able to bring together knowledge and practical skill into their own ‘professional role’ and identity, and work effectively as a therapist within a team. My role within this setting is to ‘teach’, but also to facilitate learning, raise difficult issues, support students to resolve complex questions, and act as a role model. Part of my role is to assess practical activities, and then provide feedback so that students can learn from their experiences and learn to improve their own practice through reflection and evaluation (Edwards and Nicoll, 2006; Solomon et al, 2006). My role also involves becoming more aware of the impact of my role on the students, and attempt to be as good a ‘teacher’ as I can be. More and more, however, my role involves other activities, including administration, engaging in marketing and recruitment activities, and looking for new topics and curriculum developments (Chivers, 2006).

Impact of own beliefs, assumptions and behaviours on learners and others

My own beliefs about learning affect not only the learners who I interact with, but also their interactions with others, particularly clients. I believe that my own actions, reflections, and the way I respond to emergent situations within the teaching context are likely to affect the students and how they learn as much as the formal, planned learning activities I provide for them. It is through reflection on my actions as a teacher that I have realised that reflection itself becomes a reflexive process, which changes the way I behave and react to students, which then changes their responses to me.

Austerlitz and James (2008) have developed a model which describes and captures PPD statements which are used in the further and higher education sectors (see Figure 1).

Figure 1 PPD Model (after Austerlitz and James, 2008).

A

Dominant emotion which is reported (or emotions)

B

Cause of the emotion (previous expectations, students’ goals, behaviour of others, issues of identity etc)

C

Object/focus of concern of the emotional response

D

Reported emotional intensity.

E.

The way the emotional response evolved.

F

Effects on aspects of learning.

This model encompasses many of my own beliefs about the ways in which students interact with their learning processes, and in particular, how they respond to my teaching and learning activities. Every aspect of learning must have an emotional element, and to exclude this from pedgagogical processes and theories is to overlook important aspects of how students learn and how they behave when applying that learning. Yet there is some evidence that current perceptions of teaching roles within the FE sector are also changing (Thompson and Robinson, 2008). I believe that the Austerlitz and James (2008) model could provide a means by which students could themselves identify the emotional elements of their learning and address this, through reflection, in proactive ways.

Impact of own professional, personal and interpersonal skills, including literacy, numeracy and ICT skills on learners and others.

I have used a range of teaching approaches, including some innovative use of ICTs, including using ICTs to make posters and mind maps, to encourage the application of new knowledge and exploration of complex situations. These have had a positive effect on some students who relate well to ICTs, particularly younger students, and have also helped students who are more visual learners. However, in relation to professionalism, I think it is my professional skills and experience which have positively impacted on students’ development of awareness and understanding of the complex interactions between beauty therapist and client. The current social construction of beauty, particularly in relation to ageing, raises issues about client experiences and emotional/psychological wellbeing (Paulson, 2008; Radley, 2000). Students need to understand the emotions and thoughts which underlie the desire that women have for the different kinds of beauty therapies, and be able to interact in a credible way with clients and meet their requests in appropriate ways. My own professionalism helps this because I set a good example, exemplify proper interactions, and support students to address often challenging issues such as intimacy, privacy, body-image and the like.

Conclusion

Overall, the most important aspect of my role as an educator is as a role model, and not simply as a role model of good communications behaviours or good practical skills, but as a questioning, reflective, responsibly practitioner, who sees clients as individuals, not just in relation to their treatments. It is important not to simply perpetuate traditional ways of working, but to question practice and the self in the professional context, and by acting as a reflective practitioner myself, I can encourage my students to develop similar skills and perhaps become better professionals because of it.

References

Austerlitz, N. and James, A. (2008) Reflections on emotional journeys: a new perspective for reading fashion students’ PPD statements. Art, Design and Communication in Higher Education 6 (3) 209 – 219.

Chivers, G. (2006) The work roles and development needs of vocational lifelong learning professionals in British higher education. Journal of European Industrial Training 30 (3) 166-187.

Zukas, M. (2006) Pedagogic learning in the pedagogic workplace: educators’ lifelong learning and learning futures. International Journal of Pedagogies and Learning 2 (3) 71-80.