Author: Andre Coleman

Reflection is defined by Stenhouse 1975 p 144 as ‘ a capacity for autonomous professional self-directed through systematic self- study’. Discuss how a coach utilises reflective practice to enhance their coaching performance

The aim for this essay is to discuss how a coach can use reflective practice to improve his/her coaching. Reflective practice is an idea used in education studies and pedagogy. It was introduced by John Dewey, he defined reflection as ‘active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it, and the further conclusions to which it tends’ (Dewey, 1910). Dewey recommended that before a coach can achieve effective reflection three personal characteristics been to be in attendance.

Open-mindedness- this is the yearning to want to learn more than you already know
Wholeheartedness – this is the enthusiasm to want to learn more about a specific subject
Responsibility- this is to take the accountability of your actions, positive or negative.

However, it is also important to understand other definitions of reflection as not all research has reached an agreed definition

Jarvis (1992 p180) claims that “reflective practice is something more then thoughtful practice. It is that form of practice that seeks to problematise many situations of professional performance so that they can become potential learning situations and so the practitioners can continue to learn, grow and develop in and through practice”.

Dewey (1910 p39) defines reflection as the “active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it, and the further conclusion to which it tends”.

Reid (1993) in her definition also noted reflection as an active process rather than passive thinking. She states: “Reflection is a process of reviewing an experience of practice in order to describe, analyse, evaluate and so inform learning about practice.”(p305)

McKernan (1996) refers to reflective teaching as ‘… not a knowledge-bounded set of competencies which are learned during student teaching, but on the contrary teaching that reflectively supports… growth and professionalism through the questioning of policies, problems and the consequences of actions.’ This is true in relation to the coach.

Pollard (2002) suggests that ‘Reflective teaching is applied in cyclical or spiralling process, in which teachers monitor, evaluate and revise their own practice continually.’

According to Reid (1993) cited by Ghaye and Lilleyman (1997) reflective practice is: ‘Potentially both a way of learning and a mode of survival and development once formal education ceases.’ They believe that reflective practice is more than just skillto be used in one particular context but throughout life as well.

‘Reflective practice requires professionals to step back from themselves and the situation to examine all aspects of the teaching/learning act, including essential dispositions. It implies that they use an empirical, analytical review of their teaching and that they employ a moral and ethical framework to guide their analysis and modification of teaching behaviour.’ Boise State University (No Date)

In 1987 Schon stated that reflection can happen in two ways: ‘reflecting in action’ and ‘reflecting on action’. Reflecting on action occurs after the coaching has taken place, this can be aided with the use of another coach giving advice, or with the use of video. Fitzgerald (1994) defines ‘reflection on action’ as “The retrospective contemplation of practice undertaken in order to uncover the knowledge used in practical situations, by analysing and interpreting the information recalled”. ‘Reflecting in action’ refers to reflection taking place during the activity. It can be said that ‘reflecting on action’ is “engaging in a constant process of rapid feedback and adjustment by which skilful operators can adjust to circumstances and sustain high levels of effectiveness” Jackson et al (2004).

When reviewing a coaching session there a number of topics to take into consideration. The first and most important aspect of coaching to take into consideration is if the aims and achievements for not only the coaching session but also for the season as a whole. Reflection to see if goals were achieved for the season can only happen once the season has finished. The goals may vary from winning every game, to trying to win one game, if the goals are not reached e.g. the team lost all games then the coach will know that his method of coaching might not have been the most effective to use for the athletes in his team.

After a session there can also be a time for reflection, each session should have a clear aim or goal of a specific skill that needs to be improved, if at the end of the session the athletes have become more efficient in that skill then they session can be see as a success. On the other hand however, if the athletes have not improved during the session then reflection needs to take place to see why this is the case.

Another way that a coach can use reflection to enhance their coaching performance is to evaluate if there coaching is time and cost effective. It is not good coaching if for example, it takes a whole session to cover a skill that can be covered in five minutes. To evaluate if the session has been cost effective, there are a number of factors to take into consideration. The first of these is have the athletes improved? If they haven’t then they have paid to gain nothing. However, if the athlete pays very little for a session, where there is only one coach and a high number of children then the expectations of the athletes and parents will drop. Young children i.e. under 7s may be only attending the session as an alternative to babysitting, especially if the cost of coaching is less than that of employing a baby sitter.

A coach must make sure that what he/she is teaching is suited to the age group. For example, under 7s would not be capable of learning leg spin in cricket. Also at the other end of the spectrum you would not have the first team practicing basic drills such has hitting a tennis ball off a cone. Sometimes however, this is not that easy to plan for. For example, a group may have very extensive knowledge of one skill e.g. the front food drive, but have no idea how to play a pull shot. A coach can use reflection after the session to see if the performers have improved at the specific skill.

A coach can reflect on the use of coaching points, there is no use in using advanced coaching points for athletes who are not experienced e.g. telling a 7 year old to rotate their shoulders vertically when playing the front food drive. The same can be said for experienced athletes, you would not tell them for example to keep their eyes on the ball when catching it as they will already know this.

Coaches have to reflect on demonstrations, for the athlete to learn best the demonstrations need to be accurate and performed from many angles. The coach must also make sure that the athlete can see and is not obstructed by another athlete or the coach himself.

The coach can also reflect on the safety, this can be a rather easy subject to reflect upon. If there is an injury then the reason for that injury will need to be looked at and reflected upon. Safety could also be reflected upon when thinking about equipment, the equipment that is used may be faulty or broken.

All of the above are times when reflection can occur. Feedback from a number of people is very important when reflecting about a session. The athlete that you are coaching will give the coach a lot of feedback; this can range from the improvement they make to their body language. Some more elite athletes will know what works for them so will inform their coach how they learn best. It can be hard to judge how much an athlete has improved from the beginning of a session to the end of one. It is important to distinguish how much if an the athlete has gained so a test like situation could be helpful to ensure that the coach is coaching in a way that is effective. For example, when coaching throwing in cricket, it can be useful to see how far the athlete can throw before any coaching has taken place, so that after the coaching you can see if the athlete can throw the ball any further.

Other coaches can help when reflecting about a session, especially if the coach is more experienced and or more qualified. The employer can also help with reflection, if the employer thinks that the athlete is improving then the coach will know that the way he is coaching is effective. But if the employer is not pleased with the improvement then change will have to be made. Parents can also play a large role in the reflective process, the parents may not be happy with the way that a coach is coaching. This may mean that the coach will have to change his coaching method, but only if the parent is knowledgeable.

Reflection can also be aided by the use of a video. A video can record the coaching session, and give the coach an incite to what he/she actually does. This can help as it will show demonstrations, body language and what exactly was said. It will also allow the coach to look back on sessions in the past looking to see how his/her coaching methods have changed. McKernan agreed:

‘…might use a video recorder to trap teaching performance as evidence or ‘data’ to be analysed. More importantly, such a film becomes a critical documentary for reflecting on practice…research can be undertaken by reactive methods such as observers, questionnaires, interviews, dialogue journals or through such non-reactive techniques as case studies, field notes, logs, diaries anecdotal records, document analysis, shadow studies.’ McKernan (1996)

Hanson believed that asking the students to fill in journals after each session would allow the coach to reflect properly. ‘I’ve had students make brief journal entries at the end of each session…it doesn’t take much time but reading and responding to the journal entries is time consuming. An approach taken from the values clarification literature is to ask students for one word that represents their behaviour that day.’ Hellison (1985)

Reflection makes the coach test their own behaviour, reminding them to act sensibly in their actions. Reflective evaluation shows areas where population, for example, children, have a bigger social need in addition to their individual sport. When creating training session it is vital to think of the childhood of that child.

Reflective practice demands the coach to examine their own behaviour honestly, reminding them to act responsibly in their actions. Reflective evaluation highlights areas where the population, for example, children, have a great social need besides their particular sport. When designing training sessions it is important to consider the childhood of that child. Extreme training sessions may ruin their childhood.

Reflective practice is detailed as being essential in increasing coaching effectiveness (Crisfield, 1998; Clifford and Feezell, 1997). Crisfield (1998) considers coaching efficiency to be determined by factors such as knowledge, skills, experience and philosophy.

In conclusion Pollard (2002) states the importance of the reflection within coaching. ‘The process of reflective teaching supports the development and maintenance of professional expertise.’ If a coach feels that they have nothing more to work on then they are not using reflection correctly, every coach no matter what level needs to use reflection to become a more competent coach.

The importance of reflective coaching is not just about finding and defining the problem. Organising, planning and acting upon it are essential also. There must also be re-evaluation to see if it has solved the problem and continual evaluation resumed. Reflective practice lets the coach value for different styles or methods of coaching. If a coach did not use reflective practice then he/she could not guarantee continual re-evaluation of their work.

McKernan (1996) refers to the coaching process as a ladder. ‘To get any higher performers must extend their ladder by making it longer through reflection and hopefully improvement, or they and their will be limited to the same level.’

Adapted from Department of Education for Northern Ireland (1999) cited by Pollard (2002) this mission statement sums up the truth of the reflective coach: ‘At the heart of becoming a good teacher is, above all else, being a learner-a life long learner.

To learn one has to ask questions of oneself…’

Bibliography

Johns C & Freshwater D (1998) Transforming nursing through reflective practice. Blackwell Science, London.

Reid B (1993) ‘But We’re Doing it Already!’ Exploring a Response to the Concept of Reflective Practice in Order to Improve its Facilitation, Nurse Education Today, 13: 305- 309.

McKernan, J. (1996). Curriculum Action Research: A Handbook of Methods and Resources for the Reflective Practitioner. Kogan Page

Pollard, A. (2002). Reflective Teaching: Effective and Evidence-informed Professional Practice. Continuum

Hellison, D. (1985). Goals and Strategies for Teaching Physical Education. Champaign, IL:

Human Kinetics

Schon, D. (1991). Educating the Reflective Practitioner. Oxford: Jossey-Bass

Crisfield, P. (1998). Analysing Your Coaching; The Start of Your Journey Towards Coaching

Excellence. Leeds: The National Coaching Foundation

Crisfield, P., Houlston, D. Simpkin, A. (1996). Coaching Sessions; A Guide to Planning and

Goal-Setting. Leeds: The National Coaching Foundation

Coaching knowledge’s, understanding the dynamics of sport performance, Jim Dickenson, 2007 A + C Black Publishers LTD.

Jarvis, P. (1992), Reflective Practice and Nursing, Nurse Education Today, Volume 12, pages 23-30.

Reed, J. Proctor, S. (1993) Nurse Education – a Reflective Approach, Edward Arnold, London.

Understanding sports coaching- the social, cultural and pedagogical foundations of coaching practice – Tania Cassidy- routledge 2004

Reflective practice and supervision for coaches- Julie hay, the McGraw hill companies- 2007

Reflection is defined by Stenhouse 1975 p144 as ‘a capacity for autonomous professional self-development through systematic self-study’. Discuss how a coach utilises reflective practise to enhance their coaching performance

Reflection is used to improve coaching performance through a variety of ways. Kidman (2001: 50) describes reflection as “a particularly significant part of empowerment whereby coaches themselves take ownership of their learning and decision making”. The coach is therefore very active in gaining information which could be beneficial to them. Dewey (1919: 3) describes reflection as “turning a subject over in the mind and giving it a serious and consecutive consideration”. By analysing information repeatedly and seriously, in depth knowledge is gained from it. *(DANS)*Pollard (2002) believes that “‘Reflective teaching is applied in cyclical or spiralling process, in which teachers monitor, evaluate and revise their own practice continually.” By being dedicated in analysing oneself, analysing others is possible.

A slightly different concept of reflection is introduced by Schon. The notion of, ‘reflection in action’. Schon (1983; 50) “Athletes think about what they are doing, sometimes even while doing it”. Expanding on this Schon highlights phrases like, ‘Keep your wits about you’ and ‘thinking on your feet’. Schons belief here is in game reflection is natural and beneficial.

Gilbert and Trudel (2001) believe Schons idea as a “separate type of reflection”. They also offer a different type of reflection which they call “retrospective reflection-on-action” which is further described as “that which occurs outside the action-present”. Their belief is that coaches reflect on concerns in between practise sessions and that reflection “still occurs within the action-present, but not in the midst of activity”. So they firmly believe that reflection-on-action is totally different to reflection-in-action.

Gilbert and Trudel (2001) consider reflection to utilise “a conceptual framework to understand how coaches draw on experience when learning to coach”

Ghaye and Lillyman (2000) bring forward the idea that the core of reflection is carried out in a series of ‘frames’.

Role framing – was the coaches role executed correct?
Value framing – examining if there was value-positions present?
Temporal framing – was the order of actions correct?
Parallel process framing – could the end result varied?
Problem framing – were problems noticed effectively?

These frames provide a practical way of analysing sport practises. Reflective practise can provide an efficient apparatus for monitoring and assessment of athletes.

Dewey (1916) who is considered heavily to be the ‘founder’ of reflection, gives three attributes which are needed in order to participate in reflective practise. Open-mindedness, described as “an active desire to listen to more sides than one, to give heed to facts from whatever source they come and to give full attention to alternative possibilities”. Whole-heartedness, which is being “absorbed in an interest”. Responsibility is also needed as consequences are accepted therefore “securing integrity in one’s beliefs”. Dewey’s’ beliefs have stood strong for eighty years and still provide modern coaches with a basic outlook on what is needed to be an effective reflective coach.

Methods of using reflective practise

There are a few ways in which reflective practise is put into action. By using a variety of methods coaches can expand from the basics and look more in detail depending on the type of information that is required.

Video analysis is one method used in order to aid reflective practise. A coach can record a session and therefore have exact details of what actions are taken. This allows for precise analysis in which athletes can also see themselves and what they could improve on. McKernan was a firm believer in video recording to aid coaching: ‘…might use a video recorder to trap teaching performance as evidence or ‘data’ to be analysed. More importantly, such a film becomes a critical documentary for reflecting on practice…research can be undertaken by reactive methods such as observers, questionnaires, interviews, dialogue journals or through such non-reactive techniques as case studies, field notes, logs, diaries anecdotal records, document analysis, shadow studies.’ McKernan (1996)(DANS)

Using other coaches is one way reflective practise can be more reliable and efficient. Analysis speed is increased as more coaches can observe and acknowledge similar issues that arise and whilst opinions may be divided, an overview of general problems can be addressed more easily. This view is backed up by Gould, Giannani, Krane, & Hodge (1990) “development of craft knowledge which can be fostered through the realms of practical

experience and interaction with other coaches.”

Using a cognitive based style, reflection can take place through demonstration. Coaches need to reflect on how demonstrations of skills are executed and the coach must ensure that when a learner is receiving a demonstration that it is of adequate quality for the athlete to learn and progress using reflection.

Demonstrations

Coaching points and ‘logs’ are a very basic and fundamental way of reflecting on a performer. By making key observations during a practise and after, a coach can identify the problem areas. The more experienced the coach the more this basic method is effective and less need for the more advanced methods. This kind of feedback is usually

Benefits to using reflective practise

“by reflecting on practise a coach may expose his or her perceptions and beliefs to evaluation, creating a heightened sense of self awareness, which in turn my lead to a certain openness to new ideas” (Hellison and Templin 1991: 9) Reflective practise can increase ability in perception and creativity. This is due to the self improvement the coach must make themselves but are rewarded through these attributes. These attributes could then be passed onto the learner and thus bridging a gap between coach and learner.(BOOK)

(PDF)Anderson, Knowles and Gilbourne (2004) state that “reflective practice is the latest topical strategic method that could help sports coaches explore their decisions and experiences, aiding them to make sense of the situation and directly influence the learning process.” This is clear that reflective practise can be used in order to help sports coaches. It is also considered one of the more modern uses of coaching in order to achieve higher ability in a more demanding results driven environment.

“Indeed, to maximise learning, critical reflection is the core difference between whether an individual repeats the same experience time and time again or learns from the experience in such a way that the individual is cognitively or affectively changed” (Boyde and Fales, 1983).(PDF) By using reflective practise Boyde and Fales suggest that there is a high chance of learning and developing skills rather than just repeating an experience with no eventual gain. They believe reflection is essential to this as without it there would be no way an individual would know if improvement took place or not.

“if a coach takes the opportunity to understand the consequences, both positive and negative, of the decisions made during a training session, they are better able to rationalise their decisions when under pressure” (Kidman, 2001).(PDF) Kidman here links this in with Schons ‘refelction in action’. This is necessary in high tempo environments and is vital in gaining a better decision making process. Whilst reflection is important before and during training or match environments, only ‘reflection in action’ can gain quick and often needed information to make decisions.

“reflection is thought to have a potent role in helping to bridge the gap between education and knowledge that is generated through practice” (Ghaye & Ghaye, 1998).(PDF) Making coaches acknowledge their achievements is possible via reflection as it is a conscious and active way of fortifying the positives and negatives of individual and group practise.

Difficulties in using reflective practise

Whilst there is lots of evidence to strengthen the idea that reflective coaching is a useful practise, there are certainly problems that need addressing and limitations which clearly show it is not a full proof method even when applied properly.

Crum (1995) “If a practitioner holds a ‘training-of-the-physical’ view of coaching and believes his or her role is only to improve fitness and adopt a technical/utilitarian approach, then becoming a coach who reflects in depth is not going to be paramount”. Whilst reflective practise does have its place, it would seem that it is limited. Some areas such as social negotiation and mentality may be difficult to improve through reflection practise but in many environments that reflective practise is used these are vital skills. Playing in high tempo and contact sports require both of these skills in abundance and gaining it through the individual is the most logical approach but if reflective practise is used then the coach is providing the information and techniques which aren’t transferable to individuals in these areas.

“As many coaches will testify, written reflection, usually in the form of

‘logs’, are frequently sanitised to deliver what is deemed as being necessary knowledge, thus being corralled into conformity (Chesterfield, Jones, & Mitchell, 2007), possibly stifling coach creativity.”(PDF) Whilst Hellison and Templin believe in reflection in opening creativity, the basic form of a ‘log’ could be evidence that reflection does hinder creativity. Conformity is compliance with what already exists, if coaches comply to current practises such as ‘logs’ then there is no space for new practises to be introduced and composed.

(PDF)Johns (1995) argued that “reflective practice is profoundly difficult, and it is therefore necessary to have a detailed model that guides and supports coaches.” Reflection does require many skills and outside opinions to be useful. There is a certain amount of complexity that comes with reflecting before, during and after sessions. Gibbs six-staged cyclical model for example is a complex calculated formula designed to give detailed analysis and evaluation. Whilst this could be beneficial it is only useful to coaches with prior experience or high ability levels. So as a general overall practise reflection can be difficult.

“Trust is a vital part of a reflective conversation and, according to Maister, Green, & Galford (2002), trust is a two-way relationship where people can be honest and respect each others openness. Without a real trusting relationship with significant others (e.g. a tutor, mentor, supervisor, coach) personal reflections may stay ‘safe’ and predictable and the real issues may go unresolved.”(PDF) Social dynamic in any relationship is extremely important. The relationship between coach and athlete is as open to flux as every other relationship. Trust is vitally important and is open to change to high and low levels. If trust is broken then coach performance or athlete obedience could drop. Reflection here is then a problem if not enough trust is spread and responsibility fall onto other people to provide strength in connecting and creativity in avoiding playing the ‘safe’ option which could potentially break trust.

Conclusion

To conclude, I believe that reflection is a very useful practise for coaches to undertake in developing athletes. Reflection can take place before, during and after which makes it very flexible and adaptable to a variety of environments. The coach does however need a certain level of ability in order to reflect appropriately and constructively. Detail is paramount and a coach analysing a level too high above them will struggle using reflection.

I personally believe that the best method of reflection is video analysis. I think this because it gives an exact recollection of technical display and thanks to modern technology is available at a wide range of levels. It is, however, important that a coach doesn’t rely on one method such as video analysis. During a competition or quick based environment it may not be possible to use this method and therefore a variety of reflective methods should be learnt and applied by coaches. This will make them more rounded and adaptable to their environment.

One thing that I found intriguing was the amount of reflection that the coach must put on themselves. This ‘self reflection’ is vital as if this isn’t carried out coaches methods may stagnate or accurate analysis and therefore feedback for the athlete cannot be attained thus making the practise useless.

coach needs adaptable refelective ability, depending on the athletes, age, gender, ability etc…..
To sum up …….states and defines refelction very clearly “………..”

Real Madrid Club or what is more commonly known as Real Madrid has been perpetually considered as a money maker through its many ways of doing business and generating profit. This professional football club in Madrid, Spain has been attributed, with each rich history, to be earning millions of euros in its operation. The Santiago Bernabeu Stadium itself has been giving a lot of income for the club through the sales from the tickets of every football game. Fans flock the stadium and they actually pay too little attention with how much they pay compared to the benefit of the satisfaction that they get for every game seen.

One of the easiest ways in which they earn money is through their museum in which people pay in order to experience a tour and to be able to witness the rich history of their football club unfolding right before their eyes. For a die hard football fan of the team, the entrance fee to the museum can be assumed to be nothing compared to what you will see inside. Being the most valuable football brand inEuropeand being one of the best brands in the world, it is indeed worth throwing extra amount just to have a fair share of the Real Madrid experience.

Another way in which Real Madrid is earning money is through its players. The football players of the club are very well established and known in the global landscape of sports and advertising since they have actually become valuable brands themselves. A big part of their revenue can be attributed to the shirts and jerseys with their names which are selling like pancakes, especially for the fans. Not only through the shirts, they are also available through other items which can serve as an unforgettable memento of the club. For instance, David Beckham playing for Real Madrid has earned them a lot of euros especially considering the fact that Beckham is a global sports icon and that his brand value is very high. Every Beckham item being sold is a sure fire hit for the club to earn. RealMadridretains fifty percent of the image rights on every endorsement made by its players. In the case of Beckham, Real Madrid has the right to half of every earning from any endorsement made by the legendary and world-renowned football player. Like Beckham, Cristiano Ronaldo is also one of the major players of the club which is attributed to be a money maker. When Ronaldo was bought by Real Madrid from Manchester United, the club was then very much aware of how this deal will increase the value of their team and how they will generate more money in exchange for paying a huge amount just to acquire Ronaldo. Kaka being a member of the team is also another factor which will continue to increase the market value of Real Madrid and therefore would give the club more opportunities to generate more money.

Another way in which Real CMadrid is earning money is through advertisement. The football club’s stadium is full of ads from companies such as Coca Cola, Adidas, and Audi. The names of these companies scattered all over the club, and being attached on the uniforms of the players is money making machine for the company. They are paying Real Madrid a lot of money just to have the names of their brands associated on the name of the football club. From that way, the companies will benefit because during the game, the fanatics can be able to see the brands being advertised.

As a global brand name and a rich football club, Real Madrid is also an economic force more than just being a sports team. The prestige of the club itself coupled with acquiring some of the best players in the field of football are both contributory to the profit which the club has been generating. The company employs marketing strategies which will give them the pitch for both sports and business. The Santiago Bernabeu itself, serving as a venue for their game, can be already classified to be giving them passive income with every game. When the seats are taken, then the club is enjoying rocketing revenues. Their VIP areas balconies, which are sold at a higher price, are also giving them a lot of earnings. The Bernabeu has been also regarded as having a special magic which inspires visitors with the experience of the club.

The merchandising efforts of the club, particularly as far as the players are concerned, could be assumed as the greatest money maker. It allows them to earn through the use of the club’s brand and the popular image of their world-class football players.

QUESTIONS:

1. If you were part of the management of Real Madrid, what other marketing efforts would you extend to improve the image of the brand and to generate more profit?

2. Beckham and Ronaldo are some of the players generating profit for Real Madrid. Do you think that Real Madrid is successful only because of the popularity of their players which increases the brand value of the football club?

3. What is the sustainable competitive edge of Real Madrid against its competitors?

4. It is said that what Real Madrid lacks is a global marketing strategy. How do you think such aspect can be improved?

Pattern of Pre-Match Competitive Anxiety in Elite Male Rugby Union Players.

1. Introduction

Significant progress into the understanding of anxiety in sport has been made in recent years with the aid of research by such researchers at Burton (1988), Gould et al. (1987) and Martens and Gill (1976). In turn this has enabled sport psychologists to gain a deeper understanding into what causes competitive anxiety and the way in which athletes cope with it (Jarvis, 2006).

The ability to cope with anxiety in all sports is essential as it could make the difference between winning and losing a competition.

1.1 – Identifying the Problem

There is a lack of research into the effects of anxiety on sporting performance, especially in male rugby. In team sports it is particularly important to breakdown all aspects of the performance. The key issues researched in this paper are somatic and cognitive anxiety. From research it is clear that the failure to control these areas leads to unsuccessful teams (Yerkes & Dodson, 1968; Feltz, 1988; Martens et al., 1990; Cox, 1998; Weinberg & Gould, 2007).

1.2 – Research Aims and Questions

The main aim of the research is to examine the pattern of pre-match competitive anxiety in elite male rugby union players.

With the use of the CSAI-2 and interviews, the effects that anxiety has on sporting performance will be investigated.

There are three questions to be answered in this research piece:

How does cognitive state-anxiety affect sporting performance?
What affects does somatic state-anxiety has on sporting performance?
How can self-confidence affect the level of sporting performance?

According to LeUnes (1996), developments in the literature written around anxiety have focused on the multidimensional nature of the phenomenon. Therefore, all results will be analysed and compare with the predictions proposed by the Multidimensional Anxiety Theory by Martens et al. (1990) which is explained in the Methodology section.

1.2 – Importance of Research

The findings from this research will be beneficial to coaches as they will provide a better understanding of how anxiety levels affect performance. The research will also be important to athletes, in this case rugby union players, as they will gain a deeper understanding into the reasons behind their feelings of anxiety and self-confidence.

By gaining a further understanding in this area, performance levels can be increased with the aid of appropriate preparation during training and before matches. Coping strategies could also be introduced to the players to enable them to control their levels of anxiety prior to matches.

1.3 – Context

The research for this research project will take place at a local amateur rugby club. The club was set up in July 1898 and just before the Second World War the land was purchased and the pitches were laid. By 1975 the club had a fully erected club house with squash courts.

The club consists of 6 senior teams; Colts, Ladies, Vikings, Rhinos (Veterans), Wanderers and 1st XV. There are also teams for youth boys from U7 through to U17, and U15 and U18 teams for girls. The selected team for research is the 1st XV men’s team.

Although the research is being carried out in this local rugby club, the results and findings can be applied to any other sports club across the country. The level and gender of the club or team will however make a difference to how the players react to certain situations.

1.4 – Outline of the Study

This research will be split further into five further chapters:

Chapter Two: Literature review

in which I will be developing an overview of the field.

Chapter Three: Methodology

will explain how I set out to investigate my research and why I chose the methods used.

Chapter Four: Results

will present the findings of the research piece in chart form.

Chapter Five: Discussion & Analysis

explains what I found out during the research project. It will relate them back to my literature review and compare them to the Multidimensional Anxiety Theory.

Chapter Six: Conclusion

will explain my findings and close up the research project.

2. Literature Review

This literature review will be written in four sections. Each one will be looking into the effects of anxiety on performance in sport.

Section one will look at the definitions of trait and state anxiety and self confidence. Section two will be looking into the research around anxiety and its effects on performance, both positive and negative. The third section will be investigating the causes of anxiety; fear of failure, parental, peers and coaches’ influences, social physique anxiety, and location. The final section will be exploring the characteristics of anxiety during performance in sport.

Objective and Data Sources

This research project provides an insight into the affects of anxiety on the performance of a selected rugby team. Database searches were done using SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO and EBSCOhost in order to find significant literature. The key words rugby, anxiety, performance, coaches, location, parents, and team were entered into the databases to bring up relevant articles. Only appropriate, peer reviewed data was extracted for this review.

2.1 – Trait and State Anxiety, and Self-Confidence.

Anxiety can be defined as, “A state in which the individual experiences feelings of uneasiness (apprehension) and activation of the autonomic nervous system in response to a vague nonspecific threat.” (Barry, 2002:p230; Carpenito-Moyet, 2006:p11). “Anxiety is viewed as an enduring personality factor or trait referred to as A-trait” (Davies, 1989:p70).

2.1.1 – Trait Anxiety

Trait anxiety “is part of the personality, an acquired behavioural tendency or disposition that influences behaviour” (Weinberg & Gould, 2007:p79).

Individuals with a high level of trait anxiety have a tendency to regard certain situations as threatening, and respond to these with an increased level of state anxiety (Spielberger, 1971). For example, two hockey goal keepers are of the same standard yet one has a higher level of trait anxiety and finds pressure of saving the goals too much. This leads to him displaying higher levels of state anxiety. “Anxiety is also viewed as a temporary state, A-state which is evoked by particular situations” (Davies, 1989:p70).

2.1.2 – State Anxiety

State anxiety can be defined as an emotional state “characterized by subjective, consciously perceived feelings of apprehension and tension, accompanied by or associated with activation or arousal of the autonomic nervous system” (Spielberger, 1966:p17). For example, the level of an athlete’s state anxiety will change during a rugby match. Before the game the player may have a high level of state anxiety, during the game it may lower as they settle into the game, and finally during the last few minutes of a tight game it may rise again.

State anxiety can be split further into cognitive state anxiety, and somatic state anxiety (LeUnes & Nation, 1996). In support of this proposal that the two aspects of state anxiety can be dealt with as independent constructs, both Burton (1988) and Gould et al. (1987) have proven through research that sporting performance is affected by the type of anxiety being measured.

Cognitive anxiety can be defined as the “…mental component of state anxiety caused by such things as fear of negative social evaluation, fear of failure, and loss of self-esteem” (Cox, 1998:p98).

“Somatic anxiety refers to the physiological and affective elements of the anxiety experience that develop directly from autonomic arousal” (Martens et al., 1990:p6). Somatic anxiety is shown in responses such as increase in heart rate, breathlessness, sweaty palms, and muscular tension (Martens et al., 1990; Morris et al, 1981; Cox, 1998).

Research by Hanton et al., (2000) examined the cognitive and somatic anxiety levels in 50 rugby players and 50 target rifle shooters. Hanton et al. (2000) concluded that rugby players were more likely to report that somatic anxiety had a positive impact on their sporting performance. However, the target rifle shooters reported that it had a negative impact on their performance.

Somatic and cognitive anxiety can be tested using the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) developed by Martens et al. and first presented in 1982.

2.1.3 – Self-Confidence

Vealey (1986) defined sports confidence as the amount of confidence athletes possess about their ability to be successful in sport. Vealey (2001) suggested that self-confidence can be more traitlike or statelike depending on the time that it is measured. In essence, confidence might be something that an individual feels on a particular day (state self-confidence), or it might be part of their personality (trait self-confidence). Research carried out by Hall et al. (1998), suggests that self-confidence is closely related to perceived ability and is depressed with the onset of competition due to the increase in anxiety.

As explained in literature by Horn (2008:p66), self-confidence is “…rooted in beliefs and expectations.” If overall self-confidence is low and the player(s) expect something to go wrong, they are creating a self-fulfilling prophecy (Weinberg & Gould, 2007). This means that expecting something to happen actually helps it to happen. For example, if a team thinks that they will lose the upcoming match because they lost last time they stand a greater chance of losing than winning. “The expectation of failure leads to actual failure, which lowers self-image and increases expectations for future failure” (Weinberg & Gould, 2007:p323).

2.2 – Anxiety and Performance.

As a result of the development of the CSAI-2, the Multidimensional Theory of Anxiety has been recognised in the field of sport psychology (McNally, 2002). The Multidimensional Theory of Anxiety is based on the idea that anxiety is comprised of two distinct parts; cognitive and somatic (as defined in section 2.1). Both of these components have different effects on performance and can be manipulated separately in any occasion (Burton, 1998; Cox, 1998; McNally, 2002).

The Multidimensional Anxiety Theory predicts that cognitive state anxiety is negatively related to performance. However, the theory predicts that the somatic state anxiety is related to performance in an inverted U shape which can be seen in

Appendix 1

. Certain levels of anxiety can be advantageous for the performers, but only but to a certain level. Beyond this level the anxiety causes performance to decline (Martens et al., 1990; Hanin, 2000; Weinberg & Gould, 2007).

According to Endler (1978), there are five factors that can be responsible for an increase in state anxiety in an athlete; threat to an individual’s ego, threat of personal harm, ambiguity, disruption of routine, and threat of a negative social evaluation. A high level of anxiety is “…disadvantageous for optimum performance in competitive sport” (Davies, 1989:p71). This is demonstrated by the fact that more anxious individuals generally do worse in important events compared to less important events and practise sessions. This is supported by research carried out by Martens et al. (1990), Martin & Gill (1991), and Eys et al. (2003).

Martens et al. (1990) suggests that somatic anxiety has an Inverted-U shaped relationship with performance, whereas cognitive anxiety has a negative linear relationship with performance as shown in

Appendix 2

. Similar results had been found by Parfitt and Hardy (1991). They found that there were both positive and negative effects for somatic anxiety during performance related activities just before an important event or match during the time that cognitive anxiety was at a high level (McNally, 2002).

Anxiety can be a huge setback for many athletes, especially those who take part in individual sports, such as tennis singles, and for those who play in ‘exposed’ positions, such as goalkeepers in hockey (Davies, 1989). Research has proven that there is an optimum level of anxiety for maximum performance. It was also proven that both high and low levels of anxiety are related to poor levels of performance (Yerkes & Dodson, 1968; Feltz, 1988; Martens et al., 1990; Cox, 1998).

According to research carried out by Martin and Gill (1991), a player’s level of anxiety varies depending on how important or challenging the match or competition is. More able players will therefore not be so adversely affected by high levels of anxiety, where as less able players will be as they see the match as challenging and good results will seem unrealistic. Sigmund Freud (1962) did a lot of research into anxiety. In 1962 he focused on the anticipatory nature of anxiety. From this research he concluded that some individuals expect to win or fail, and therefore become more or less anxious according to their expectations.

An important piece of research into state anxiety among successful and unsuccessful competitors who differ in competitive trait anxiety was carried out by Martens and Gill (1976). From the research they concluded that the individuals who maintained low levels of A-state throughout the competition were highly successful. This supports the research carried out by Martens (1990) and Parfitt and Hardy (1991) with the Inverted-U shaped relationship between anxiety and performance.

“Anxiety, therefore is a central factor in performance in competitive sport” (Davies, 1989:p72). It is exasperating and disheartening for a talented and committed sportsman when their performance crumbles during competition due to over-anxiety. This is avoidable if the individual is suitably prepared emotionally and emphasis is on the learning and enjoyment of the game. However, this could be difficult to enforce with a professional sportsman who may potentially have external rewards undermining intrinsic motivation (Weinburg and Gould, 2007).

2.3 – Causes of Anxiety.

This section will be looking into the issues surrounding the causes of anxiety in sports performers. These will include fear of failure, parental, peers and coaches influences, and event importance. Relevant literature has been reviewed and presented in the section below.

2.4.1 – Fear of Failure

“For many people, sport is an important arena in which one’s ability, motivation, and personality are scrutinized and evaluated by other people” (Leary & Kowalski, 1995:p122). Whenever individuals step onto the sports field they are at risk of showing themselves in an unflattering perspective. They may worry about displaying signs of being out of shape, unskilled, incompetent and unable to handle pressure to their fans, teammates, coaches and family (Passer, 1983; Davies, 1989; Leary & Kowalski, 1995; Jarvis, 2006). Research by Pierce (1980) concluded that youth sport participants worried more about making mistakes and underperforming than getting hurt and what others thought of them.

“One of the most potent causes of anxiety is the fear of failure…” (Davies, 1989:p73). This fear of failure would also be connected with the loss of prestige and humiliation. Research by Passer (1983) supports this theory as he found that fear of failure is a major cause of threat in competitive-trait-anxious children.

This fear of failure can be evident in superior performers as there is an increased pressure to perform well when playing a less able opponent. Losing to a lower ranked team or player could be humiliating and result in a loss of prestige and reputation (Davies, 1989; Leary & Kowalski, 1995). The player may have the ability and skills to win the match, but due to their constant worry of how they are going to perform they end up underperforming (Passer, 1983). However, for professional athletes this adverse affect of anxiety on performance will be less as they have learnt to cope with such situations and are able to deal with them accordingly.

An example of a highly skilled player is Roger Federer (aged 27). Federer met the young Spaniard, Rafael Nadal (aged 22) in the Wimbledon finals in 2008. Federer was the current Wimbledon champion and had held the title for 5 consecutive years; this would have been his 6th World Championship title. Federer’s defeat could have been due to the excessive amount of media coverage before the match adding to the pressure of him winning yet another title against a younger competitor. At the same time, the pressure would have equally been placed on Nadal to knock Federer off the top spot. Federer commented after the game “It’s not a whole lot of fun, but that’s the way it is. I can only congratulate Rafa for a great effort” (BBC Sport, 2008).The game was incredibly close; 6-4, 6-4, 6-7(5), 6-7(8), 9-7 (BBC Sport, 2008), and has gone down in history as the longest ever Wimbledon final.

2.3.2 – Parental, Peers and Coaches Influences

Parents and coaches can sometimes be far too pushy and ambitious and in turn increase the stress and anxiety levels within the athlete. According to Jarvis (1990), it is apparent that both high and low expectations of performance can be linked to levels of anxiety. The over-concern and high levels of anxiety shown by anyone close to the athlete is likely to heighten their anxiety also, and in turn could damage the chances of success. “Too much pressure from teachers, coaches and family can add tremendously to competitive anxiety” (Jarvis, 1990: p118).

Passer (1983) concluded from his research that highly anxious individuals are very worried about performing badly as this will bring about criticism and disapproval from their peers, parents and coaches. However, Smith et al. (1979) developed a coach-training program designed to help coaches create an environment for the athletes to feel comfortable and less anxious in. The Coach Effectiveness Training gives the coaches the skills and ability to create a …”socially supportive environment through frequent use of positive reinforcement, encouragement, and technical instruction, while discouraging the use of punitive behaviours” (Smith et al., 2006:p492). Smith et al. (1995) discovered through research that there were significant reductions in performance-anxiety among children who played for a coach that had experienced the Coach Effectiveness Training. The children who were exposed to trained coaches showed a decrease in levels of anxiety over the season, whereas the other group who were exposed to untrained coaches showed an increase on the Sports Anxiety Scale-2 (SAS) (Smith et al., 2006).

A frequent source of anxiety is the presence of spectators; these can be friends, family, coaches or even complete strangers. “Sometimes performance is enhanced, sometimes it deteriorates and sometimes there is little discernible difference” (Davies, 1989:p83). According to literature the performance of stable and confident players usually improves when an audience is present, whereas that of anxious players tends to decrease (Weinberg & Gould, 2007; Jarvis, 2006; Martens et al., 1990). Research also shows that the effect of an audience on superior players is positive, and for the less able player the audience presents them with an increase in anxiety and stress which in turn causes them to underperform. According to work carried out by Haas and Roberts (1975), Martens and Landers (1972) and Green (1983) the perceived role of the observer is an important factor for the athlete or performer. It has been suggested that if the observer occupies an important, judgmental role then this generates feelings of anxiety. The researchers found that on the other hand, if the spectators are seen as being positive and supportive, for example a coach, they will be generally welcomed by the performer.

2.3.3 – Event Importance.

“The more important a sporting event is, the more stressful we are likely to find it” (Jarvis, 1990: p118). However, it is important to remember that it is the importance of the event to the individual that is counts, not the status of the competition. An event may seem insignificant to most people but may be important to an individual (Weinberg &Gould, 2007). An example of this could be that an individual is competing against their old club team; there would be an increased desire to perform well and potentially beat them. Research carried out by Sanderson in 1977 on 64 of the best badminton players in England aged between 18 and 21; found that the perceived importance of the competition was a significant factor leading to A-State reactions (Sanderson, 1981).

Marchant et al. (1998) conducted an experiment with pairs of golfers. The golfers were either competing for three new golf balls, or a pair of new golfing shoes. Obviously, the golf shoes made the competition into a high importance one, and therefore the players experienced more anxiety than those competing for the golf balls.

An example of a player who was able to cope with the increase in anxiety is Jonny Wilkinson who took a drop goal to win England the 2003 Rugby World Cup in the final play of the game. If Wilkinson had been affected by the anxiety and pressure of the level of competition, he may have missed the goal.

2.4 – Anxiety: Performance Characteristics.

In sporting competitive situations, the anxious performer tends to become over-aroused, tense, and far too worried to perform to the best of their ability. The increase in muscle tension can interfere with coordination causing the performance levels to decrease (Burton, 1988; Smith et al., 2006; Weinberg & Gould, 2007). The feeling on inadequacy and lack of self-confidence hinders the sporting performance (Davies, 1989). For example in a competitive rugby match a player who suffers a high level of anxiety may lack confidence when going in for a tackle. This could result in the player passing him and scoring a try, but most probably resulting in injury as they are not fully committed to the tackle.

“The highly anxious person is slower to react in the stressful competitive situation than he is in the relatively relaxed conditions of practice” (Davies, 1989:p75). During tense, crucial parts of the match the over-anxious player may show unforced errors; for example in rugby they may miss a penalty kick and in tennis a double-fault may be played. Unforced errors may occur during the match; this can include forward passes, a knock-on, or a late tackle.

3. Methodology

In order to achieve the objectives of this research project, a variety of appropriate research methods have been chosen, using both primary and secondary data. Before research was collected it was important to establish a research process which acted as a framework throughout the research project. During this chapter the strengths and weaknesses of the potential research method is discussed and only the suitable and most relevant have been selected for this study.

3.1 – Paradigm Rationale

There are two broad research traditions; qualitative which answers questions such as ‘why’ and ‘how’, and quantitative which answers questions such as ‘what’ and ‘when’ (

See appendix

– page 27 table) (Gratton & Jones, 2004). As I am interested in researching a particular phenomenon I mainly carried out quantitative data collection. I measured how anxiety affects performance, both positively and negatively within the men’s 1st XV at Reading Rugby Football Club.

It was decided to mix quantitative data with qualitative data to make the research more credible and valid. Many researchers such as Nau (1995) and Jayaratne (1993) have suggested that blending qualitative and quantitative methods of research can produce a result highlighting significant findings from each. Henderson et al. (1999) suggests that using anecdotes and narratives to support quantitative data can provide clarity to the findings. Linking the two types of data can give a bigger picture of the issues around the subject. During this research project, quantitative data was collected to provide numerical data from a large sample, whereas the qualitative data collected provides rich data from a smaller sample (Gratton & Jones, 2004).

3.2 – Research Approach

The research question “Pattern of pre-match competitive anxiety in elite mate rugby union players” includes elements taken from both an inductive and deductive approach to research. When researching around the subject of how anxiety affects performance, a deductive approach appears to be more appropriate to the research project as it was unnecessary for the researcher to come up with a new theory. A large amount of research has already been carried out into the affects of anxiety on sporting performance, evident in the literature review.

For this piece of research the Multidimensional Anxiety Theory proposed by Martens et al.,(1990) was used. The theory is based on the idea that anxiety is comprised of two distinct parts; cognitive and somatic. The Multidimensional Anxiety Theory predicts that cognitive state anxiety is negatively related to performance, and that the somatic state anxiety is related to performance in an inverted U suggesting that there is an optimum level of anxiety (Weinberg & Gould, 2007; Burton, 1998; Cox, 1998; McNally, 2002).

3.3 – Participants

For this research into the effects of anxiety on performance, the men’s 1st team of the amateur Reading Rugby Football Club was chosen. They were chosen as there is the opportunity to meet with the meet every week.

From talking to the players it is apparent that the club has a mixture of professions; students, army personnel, mechanics, and business men. However, they all have one passion, and that is rugby. The ages of the players range from 18 to 38 years. There is a variety of experiences within the team; some players are in their first season of National 3 level rugby, whereas a number are in their fourth of fifth season at this level.

Training takes place on a Tuesday and Thursday from 7:30pm until 9:30pm. During this time the players train, have physiotherapy (if it is needed), and they also have a meal together before going home. The amount of time that the team spends together off the pitch is vital for the development of team cohesion.

3.4 – Data Collection

During this research project, data was collected using both questionnaires and interviews. This section will look at questionnaires and interviews separately explaining the different types of question, and the advantages and disadvantages of both.

3.4.1 – The Questionnaire Survey

Following the research in Chapter 2, the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 has been chosen for this research. The inventory is a sport-specific, self-report that has been proven to be a reliable and valid measure in competitive situations of cognitive and somatic state anxiety and self-confidence. The CSAI-2 consists of a three 9-item subscales that measure cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and self-confidence (Burton, 1988). Each of the 27 questions are rated on a 4-point Likert scale from “not at all” to “very much so”. The questionnaire was administered during the final hour before competition over a period of 14 weeks. The scores collected on each of the three scales provided a reference point from which to examine the rugby player’s patterns of multidimensional anxiety.

3.4.1.1 – Types of Questionnaires

According to Gratton and Jones (2004) questionnaires are possibly the most common method for collecting data in sports-related research. A questionnaire is simply “…a standardised set of questions to gain information from a subject” (Gratton & Jones 2004: 115). Questionnaires are associated with quantitative research where data is required from a large sample group. In this case the questionnaires measure the anxiety levels of the 1st XV team before matches.

There are three types of questionnaire; postal, telephone and face to face questionnaires. Postal questionnaires are given or posted to the participants who then complete them in their own time; they are then posted back to the researcher. Telephone questionnaires are completed by the researcher while talking to the participant over the telephone. Face to face questionnaires are completed with both the participant and researcher in the same location.

For this research the most appropriate way to collect data was to hand out self-completion questionnaires that were carried out face to face. Handing out the questionnaires saves postal and telephone costs, and also time. This was the best way for the researcher to collect the data that was needed before summarising it using tables and graphs (Gratton & Jones, 2004).

3.4.1.2 – Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires

Advantages

A well designed questionnaire provides little opportunity for the introduction of bias into the results. However, a badly designed questionnaire can sometimes lead to bias data, and therefore using questionnaires does not automatically mean that there is a reduction in bias (Thomas et al, 2005; Gratton & Jones, 2010).

The use of a questionnaire enables the participant to remain anonymous. This is advantageous when researching sensitive issues such as violence, drugs and, in this case the personal issue of anxiety. Enabling the participants to remain anonymous may increase the validity of the researcher’s results.

As the CSAI-2 is being used the research has been provided with a well-structured means of collecting quantitative data.

Inleiding

1.1 Aanleiding en beschrijving van het onderzoek

Een paar maanden geleden las ik een artikel in het Algemeen Dagblad dat ging over kinderen met overgewicht in de gemeente Westvoorne. In dit artikel werd beschreven dat 1 op de 6 kinderen in mijn woonomgeving last heeft van overgewicht. Hier schrok ik best van, aangezien ik dacht dat dit probleem niet zo’n grote rol speelde binnen mijn omgeving. Fout gedacht dus. Dit bracht mij op het idee om te onderzoeken hoe dit probleem heeft kunnen ontstaan en waarom sport zo belangrijk is voor de jeugd. Ook ben ik er benieuwd naar wat ons land doet om sport te stimuleren.

1.2 Onderzoeksvragen

In dit werkstuk zal ik de volgende hoofd- en deelvragen gaan behandelen:

Hoofdvraag

: Ieder kind heeft recht op sport, wordt dit ook voldoende nageleefd in Nederland?

Deelvragen:
Waarom is sport zo belangrijk?
Waarom sport niet ieder kind?
Wat doet Nederland en met name mijn regio aan dit probleem?
Wat kan sport betekenen voor een kind?
Resultaten

2.1 Waarom is sport zo belangrijk?

Sport is meer dan slechts lichaamsbeweging. Het leert mensen met elkaar om gaan, het verbetert de gezondheid en het biedt ontspanning. Met name jongeren tussen de 9 en 19 jaar kunnen door sport op een positieve manier worden beA?nvloed. Eerlijkheid en hulpvaardigheid, respect en je best doen voor jezelf en voor je team zijn belangrijke normen en waarden die je binnen iedere vorm van sport terug ziet komen. Daarnaast biedt sport veel voordeel voor zowel je geestelijke als je lichamelijke ontwikkeling.

Vooral voor kinderen is het goed om al op jonge leeftijd in aanraking te komen met sport. Op deze manier kunnen de ‘jonge’ spieren en gewrichten zich goed ontwikkelen en voorzichtig worden getraind. Ook kunnen kinderen weerstand opbouwen, waardoor ze minder vatbaar zijn voor bepaalde ziektes. Bovendien kan voldoende beweging er voor zorgen dat de bloeddruk op peil blijft en dat de kans op ouderdomsverschijnselen , bijvoorbeeld artrose (gewrichtslijtage), vermindert.

Naarmate een kind ouder wordt, kan het aan intensievere vormen van sport, zoals teamsport, gaan deelnemen. Presteren gaat hierbij een grote rol spelen. Binnen de teamsport trainen de teams meestal twee keer per week en in het weekend worden de wedstrijden gespeeld. Naast het verbeteren van de techniek, wordt er ook gewerkt aan het verbeteren van de conditie.

Sporten in teamverband maakt het veel gemakkelijker om te gaan sporten, je doet het immers samen. Samen met je team vorm je een hechte club en door die teamspirit kun je elkaar motiveren om beter te presteren. Een keertje geen zin hebben zit er dus niet in, je kunt namelijk de rest van je team niet in de steek laten. Ook ontmoet je andere mensen. Ieder weekend neem je het op tegen andere tegenstanders en je leert op een juiste manier met elkaar om te gaan.

Tijdens het sporten gelden er regels, zowel tijdens de gymles op school, als tijdens het voetballen op straat of tijdens het sporten op de sportvereniging. Deze spelregels zijn nodig om het spel of de wedstrijd zo goed en eerlijk mogelijk te laten verlopen. Ook zorgen regels er voor dat sporten leuk blijft. Je aan de spelregels houden hoort nu eenmaal bij het spel, maar er zijn natuurlijk ook een aantal ongeschreven regels waaraan je je moet houden. Zo respecteer je altijd de beslissingen van de scheidsrechter en de fouten van je teamgenoten of tegenstanders. Een mooi woord hiervoor is fair play.

Bij tieners is het voor het eerst lichamelijk goed te zien wie er wel en wie er niet sport. Vooral rond deze leeftijd gaan de spieren zich sterk ontwikkelen. Bij niet-sporters blijft deze ontwikkeling uit. Niet-sporters passen vaak hun eetpatroon niet aan, aan de mate van hun lichaamsbeweging. Dat is gevaarlijk, omdat ook het vetweefsel zich rond deze leeftijd gaat ontwikkelen. Daarom is het voor tieners dus extra belangrijk om te sporten en zo hun lichaam niet te beschadigen, maar juist te ontwikkelen.

Sport werkt ook geestverruimend. Je ontsnapt eventjes van de dagelijkse routine en kunt voor een moment al je problemen vergeten. Bovendien kan sport je zelfvertrouwen vergroten. Met name als je door middel van sport wilt afvallen, word je door goede resultaten extra gemotiveerd om ermee door te gaan. Door zelfstandig te sporten krijg je vanzelf meer zelfdiscipline. Je wordt minder afhankelijk van anderen en doet gewoon je eigen ding. Ook leer je goed aan te voelen wat je wel en niet aankunt.

Tijdens het bewegen verbrand je calorieen. Deze verbranding zorgt voor een lager cholesterolgehalte. Een te hoog cholesterolgehalte is een van de hoofdoorzaken voor het krijgen van hart- en vaatziekten. Om deze ziekten te voorkomen is het daarom belangrijk om voldoende te bewegen en niet al te vet te eten.

Kortom, sport brengt veel voordelen met zich mee. Het goed voor je gezondheid, je geest en je sociale leven. Ook kan het nare ouderdomsziekten voorkomen en bovendien is het erg leuk. Daarom is het belangrijk dat zo veel mogelijk mensen gaan sporten!

2.2 W
aarom sport niet ieder kind?

Sport bestaat al eeuwen lang. De Oude Grieken organiseerden in 1776 voor Christus al de eerste Olympische Spelen. Tegenwoordig wordt sport gezien als een populaire manier van vrijetijdsbesteding. Er wordt steeds meer en op steeds jongere leeftijd gesport. Toch doet lang niet iedereen mee. Dat is erg jammer, aangezien sport erg goed voor je is.

In vergelijking met twintig jaar geleden is het aantal kinderen met overgewicht verdubbeld. In Nederland is zelfs een op de acht kinderen te zwaar en dit aantal zal naar verwachting in de loop der jaren alleen nog maar toenemen. Dit zijn geen goede vooruitzichten, omdat overgewicht grote gezondheidsrisico’s met zich meebrengt. Overgewicht wordt niet alleen veroorzaakt door teveel eten, maar ook vooral door te weinig beweging. In minder dan 5% van de gevallen wordt overgewicht veroorzaakt door ziekte, medicijngebruik of door erfelijkheid.

Dat het aantal kinderen met overgewicht is verdubbeld heeft niet te maken met het feit dat ze meer zijn gaan eten. Het heeft meer te maken met wat ze eten. Tegenwoordig eten kinderen veel meer tussendoortjes dan vroeger. Daarbij moet je denken aan snoep, chips en snacks. Hierdoor gaan kinderen minder eten tijdens de belangrijke maaltijden aan tafel zoals het ontbijt, de lunch en het avondeten. De tussendoortjes bevatten veel koolhydraten en suiker. Zij vervangen niet de voedingstoffen die de grote maaltijden bevatten.

Ook de stijgende welvaart heeft een hoop veranderingen met zich meegebracht. Zo komt het de afgelopen jaren steeds meer voor dat ouders na het werk ‘even snel iets makkelijks te eten ophalen’ of hun kinderen meenemen om eventjes wat te gaan eten in een restaurant. Ook technische innovaties in de keuken zoals de magnetron en de frituurpan maken het erg verleidelijk om iets te snacken in plaats van een verse maaltijd klaar te maken. Bovendien besparen magnetronmaaltijden een hoop tijd en moeite, je hoeft het er immers alleen in te schuiven en te wachten tot het klaar is. Voor de makkelijke weg kiezen is niet altijd even slim. Magnetronmaaltijden bevatten vaak veel energie en zout, in plaats van goede voedingsvezels en vitamines. In combinatie met onvoldoende beweging kan dit leiden tot een energieoverschot en later tot overgewicht. Kinderen hebben wat dat betreft weinig inbreng als het gaat om gezonde voeding. Ouders geven niet altijd het goede voorbeeld.

Ook fastfoodketens doen een duit in het zakje. Ketens zoals bijvoorbeeld MacDonalds richten hun reclame volledig op kinderen. Door de leuke verrassinkjes in de Happy Meal worden kinderen massaal verleidt tot een bezoekje naar de Mac. Om hun kinderen te belonen nemen ouders hun kinderen zo nu en dan mee naar de MacDonalds. Voor een keertje is dat niet erg, maar het moet natuurlijk geen gewoonte worden!

Overgewicht wordt uiteraard niet alleen veroorzaakt door te veel en ongezond eten, ook een gebrek aan beweging speelt hierbij een rol. Door de ontwikkeling van de televisie, de computer en de spelcomputers hebben kinderen steeds minder zin om buiten te spelen of om te gaan sporten. Ook scholen schenken weinig aandacht aan bewegen. Zij stellen cultuur voorop.

Als sport niet van huis en van school uit wordt gestimuleerd, kan je het de kinderen niet kwalijk nemen dat ze weinig sporten. Hier ligt een taak voor scholen en opvoeders. Zij moeten sport stimuleren. Ook sportvereniging zouden meer clinics en sportdagen kunnen organiseren om kinderen enthousiast te krijgen voor sport.

Natuurlijk zijn er ook een hoop kinderen die graag zouden willen sporten, maar dit niet kunnen vanwege hun gezondheid, handicap of door een gebrek aan financiele middelen thuis. Voor deze groep kinderen moet er een oplossing gevonden worden, zodat ook zij in aanmerking kunnen komen voor sport.

2.4 Wat doet Nederland en met name mijn regio aan dit probleem?

Het Ministerie van Volksgezondheid, Welzijn en Sport wil meer burgers stimuleren bij het kiezen voor een gezonde en actieve leefstijl. Sport en beweging horen hier natuurlijk bij. Het Nationaal Actieplan Sport en Bewegen richt zich op een gezonde dagelijkse dosis bewegen, waarbij alle mogelijkheden benut worden. Het NASB focust zich op vijf belangrijke gebieden, namelijk: wijk, school, werk, zorg en sport. Deze gebieden worden zo ingericht dat de omgeving moet uitnodigen tot meer sport en bewegen.

In 2005 heeft de overheid de zogenaamde beweegnorm ‘combinorm’ ingevoerd. Men voldoet aan deze norm wanneer er aan de Nederlandse Norm Gezond Bewegen en/of aan de Fitnorm wordt voldaan. Om binnen de NNGB te blijven moet men minimaal 30 minuten per vijf dagen in de week ‘matig intensief’ bewegen. Bij matig intensief bewegen moet je denken aan het maken van een wandeling of aan het doen van klusjes in en om het huis. Voor de jeugd tot 18 jaar wordt 60 minuten bewegen per dag vereist op een wat hoger niveau. De Fitnorm houdt in dat met minimaal 20 minuten intensief moet bewegen op minstens 3 dagen per week. De overheid maakt volop reclame voor dit nieuwe beleid, denk maar aan de 30minutenbewegen campagnes.

De sportdeelname van mensen met een handicap blijft nog altijd ver achter vergeleken met de deelname van mensen zonder beperking. Om sportdeelname toch maximaal aan te kunnen bieden, probeert de Rijksoverheid met het huidige beleid een grotere sportdeelname te realiseren bij mensen met een handicap. Samen met NOC*NSF en Gehandicaptensport Nederland is de overheid bezig met projecten om de jeugd, maar ook de instellingen waar mensen met een beperking wonen, ‘sportproof’ te maken. Sport en beweging zijn namelijk voor de gezondheid, deelneming en integratie van mensen met een beperking een grote toegevoegde waarde.

De overheid vindt dat jongeren te weinig sporten en bewegen op school en daarom wil zij andere mogelijkheden benutten zoals naschoolse activiteiten in samenwerking met sportverenigingen en de school, opvang en in de wijk, zodat de jeugd toch voldoende beweging krijgt. Om dit te kunnen verwezenlijken is er een goede samenwerking nodig tussen sport, onderwijs en andere lokale organisaties. Door het aanstellen van combinatiefunctionarissen wil de overheid sportverenigingen versterken en het dagelijkse sport- en beweegaanbod op en rond scholen verbeteren. Een combinatiefunctionaris is in dienst bij een werkgever, maar werkzaam voor twee of meer sectoren. In dit geval binnen het onderwijs, sport en/of cultuur. De combinatiefunctionarissen moeten straks de verpersoonlijking worden van hun wijk.

Veel verenigingen hebben te maken met een grote uitval van tieners en achterblijvende deelname van allochtonen, ouderen, chronisch zieken en mensen met een beperking. Het aanbod van de sportverenigingen sluit onvoldoende aan op de vraag van het publiek. Daarom slaan de overheid en de sportsector de handen ineen in het programma “Nieuwe sportmogelijkheden” om het sportaanbod te moderniseren. Dat moet leiden tot een aantrekkelijk aanbod, dat aansluit op de vraag van huidige en nieuwe leden.

Bij het programma “Meedoen alle jeugd door sport” wordt sport ingezet om volwaardig burgerschap te bevorderen en sociaal isolement te voorkomen. Ook overlast en probleemgedrag door jongeren moet op deze manier verminderen. ReA?ntegratie is nog een doel dat de overheid met dit programma probeert te bereiken. Mensen ontmoeten elkaar namelijk via sport en het overbrugt beperkingen, verschillen in religie, seksuele geaardheid, klasse en kleur.

Keyplayers! is een Europees netwerk van landen die pleiten voor een actieve jeugdparticipatie binnen de sport. Zij richten zich op jongeren tussen de 14 en 24 jaar. Jongeren moeten niet alleen deelnemen aan sportieve activiteiten, maar ook actief betrokken zijn bij de opzet en uitvoering ervan. Wanneer jongeren meer invloed hebben op het sport- en beweegaanbod, zal het ook beter aansluiten op hun wensen en zal de participatie vergroten. Ook zet deze organisatie zich in om gezondheid te bevorderen, overlast te verminderen en om persoonlijk te groeien. Sport en bewegen wordt hier als middel gebruikt.

In 2000 is het project WhoZnext van start gegaan. Het doel van dit project is niet alleen sportstimulering voor de jeugd, maar ook een actievere betrokkenheid bij het bedenken en het uitvoeren van sportactiviteiten. WhoZnext roept alle jongeren op om samen sportactiviteiten te organiseren. Dit kan in de buurt,op school of op de sportvereniging zijn.De WhoZnext-teams worden ondersteund door een volwassene, die gebruik kan maken van diverse sportinstrumenten. Deze instrumenten zijn door het landelijke projectteam van het Nederlands Instituut voor Sport en Bewegen beschikbaar gemaakt. In elke provincie zijn er commissies, die actief ondersteuning bieden bij de opzet van het project in de gemeente.

Met het project “WhoZnext & Johan Cruyff Foundation” willen de organisaties ook jongeren met een lichamelijke, verstandelijke of meervoudige beperking sportactiviteiten laten organiseren. Elk whoZnext-team krijgt vanuit de Cruyff Foundation activiteitengeld, whoZnext-kleding, geld voor een teambuildingsactiviteit, een toolkit en een gratis training. De school zorgt zelf voor een coach die het team gaat begeleiden en moet zelf a‚¬ 500 beschikbaar stellen aan activiteitengeld.

De Johan Cruyff Foundation is een organisatie die zich richt op het bevorderen van het geestelijk en lichamelijk welzijn van kinderen. Dit doen zij bijvoorbeeld door het aanbieden en stimuleren van sportactiviteiten, het financieel ondersteunen van organisaties en projecten met dezelfde visie en door sport in combinatie met onderwijs en gezondheidszorg te stimuleren, voor het belang van minder kansrijke kinderen en jongeren op te komen.Daarnaast schenkt de organisatie ook veel aandacht aan kinderen en jongeren met een handicap.

De Johan Cruyff Foundation wil niet alleen dat de projecten die zij steunt met sport en spel te maken hebben, maar ook dat de uitvoering ervan op sportieve wijze worden uitgevoerd. Veel elementen uit de sportwereld, zoals bijvoorbeeld het spelen in teamverband en een grote mate van inzet, zijn ook belangrijk bij het realiseren van projecten. Samenwerking en eigen inzet zijn van groot belang.

In 2003 is de Johan Cruyff Foundation gestart met het aanleggen van Cruyff Courts. Door de aanleg van de Cruyff Courtswordt defunctie van het oude trapveldje, weer terug in de wijk gebracht. Op deze manier krijgen de kinderen uit de buurt een veilige en goede plek om te spelen en te sporten. Er zijn ook Cruyff Courts aangepast. Dit zijn multifunctionele trapveldjes die zo toegankelijk mogelijk worden gemaakt, zodat ze ook voor kinderen met een beperking te betreden zijn.

Cruyff Court aangepast. Bron: http://www.cruyff-foundation.org/smartsite.net?id=854

Special Heroes houdt zich ook bezig met sportstimulering voor kinderen tussen de 6 en 20 jaar met een handicap. Via een uitgebreid sportstimuleringsprogramma, dat in overleg met de scholen wordt uitgevoerd, wil de organisatie laten zien en de kinderen laten ervaren hoe leuk sport kan zijn. De leerlingen krijgen op deze manier de kans om uitgebreid kennis te maken met sport- en beweegactiviteiten.

Het jeugdsportfonds Rotterdam is een middel om kinderen met financieel minder draagkrachtige ouders een kans te bieden om toch te kunnen sporten. Kinderen tussen de 4 en 17 jaar, waarvan het gezinsinkomen niet meer is dan 120% van het wettelijk vastgestelde minimuminkomen, kunnen in aanmerking komen voor een fonds. Het motto van dit fonds is dat financien nooit een belemmering mogen zijn om kinderen niet te kunnen laten sporten. Het fonds vergoedt twee soorten kosten. De eerste is de vergoeding voor de contributie van een sportvereniging en de daarbij behorende sportartikelen zijn de tweede kostenpost die worden vergoedt. De maximale bijdrage per kind per jaar bedraagt a‚¬250,-.

Een aanvraag verloopt altijd via een intermediair. Dit is iemand die op een professionele manier bezig is met kinderen, zoals bijvoorbeeld een meester of juf op school. Wanneer een aanvraag wordt goedgekeurd, zal het sportfonds de contributie direct naar de sportvereniging overmaken. De eventuele vergoeding voor de sportartikelen wordt gestort op de rekening van de intermediair. De ouders ontvangen dus nooit geld.

Sport is er voor iedereen en dus uitermate geschikt om mensen en bevolkingsgroepen te binden en de ongerechtigheden in de samenleving weg te poetsen. Voetbal is een van de populairste sporten in Nederland. Daarnaast spelen de voetbalclubs een belangrijke maatschappelijke rol. Zij nemen namelijk een centrale plek in, in de harten van de supporters en zij zijn daarom bij uitstek geschikt om mensen aan te spreken op hun gedrag, verantwoordelijkheden en zaken zoals hun gezondheid. Ook de voetbalclubs zelf profiteren van deze actieve opstelling: de club wortelt zich steviger in haar omgeving, de fans zijn meer betrokken en het doet de reputatie van het voetbal goed. De Stichting Meer dan Voetbal gebruikt de kracht van voetbal voor een betere samenleving. De kernthema’s van de Stichting zijn: Sportiviteit en respect, gezondheid en participatie.

Veel Eredivisieclubs dragen hun steentje bij aan de maatschappij. In dit geval richten we ons op voetbalclub Feyenoord. Scoren op Zuid is een samenwerking tussen Feyenoord, de deelgemeente Feijenoord en Rotterdam Sportsupport. Het project heeft twee belangrijke speerpunten, namelijk: sport en educatie. Feyenoord wil de deelname van jongeren aan sportieve activiteiten en een gezonde levensstijl stimuleren .Daarnaast levert de club een bijdrage aan het verhogen van de motivatie van kinderen bij het volgen van onderwijs en het stimuleren van taal- en rekenvaardigheden. Dit project zal plaatsvinden in de wijken, op scholen en in de Kuip. Vaste ambassadeurs voor Scoren op Zuid zijn: Karim El Ahmadi, Georginio Wijnaldum en Leroy Fer. [1]

Sinds augustus 2003 werkt Feyenoord samen met het Erasmus Medisch Centrum Sophia. De club probeert op verschillende manieren het leven van zieke kinderen op een leuke manier te veraangenamen. Een van deze activiteiten is de jaarlijkse Sophia Dag. Tijdens deze dag wordt een tribunevak in zijn geheel gereserveerd voor de zieke kinderen en hun families. Daarnaast zijn de mascottes en vlaggendragers kinderen die behandeld worden in het Sophia en stellen de Unithouders plaatsen beschikbaar voor kinderen die niet in staat zijn om op de tribune plaats te nemen. Ook wordt er tijdens wedstrijden gecollecteerd door tientallen vrijwilligers. Als tweede grote activiteit heeft het Erasmus MC aan het begin van ieder seizoen de primeur van de nieuwe selectie. Nog voor de Open Dag presenteert de selectie zich in het ziekenhuis. Op deze manier zijn ook zieke kinderen een beetje verbonden met sport.

Een andere organisatie die zich bezig houdt met de gezondheid en de sportparticipatie van de jeugd is Scoren voor Gezondheid. Dit is een initiatief van de Eredivisie, de Sponsor Loterij, het Ministerie van Volksgezondheid Welzijn en Sport, het Nationaal Instituut voor gezondheidsbevordering & Ziektepreventie en de Stichting meer dan Voetbal. Alle achttien clubs uit de Eredivisie hebben zich bij dit initiatief aangesloten. Het project start met een clinic en een fit- en gezondheidstest in het stadion van de betreffende Eredivisieclub. De spelers uit het team gaan kinderen uit groep 6,7 en 8 van de basisschool helpen bij het kiezen van een gezonde levensstijl. Dit doen ze door de kinderen een contract te laten tekenen waarin zij beloven 20 weken lang het projectprogramma te volgen. Het programma vindt zowel op school als op de club plaats. De kinderen gaan dus naar de voetbalclub en de voetballers komen op bezoek in de klas. Iedere vier weken wordt er een apart thema behandeld. Het programma kan bestaan uit de volgende thema’s:

sport is cool;
elke dag ontbijten;
gezond en verantwoord bewegen;
gezonde voeding;
lidmaatschap sportvereniging.

De reden waarom er juist gekozen is voor professionele voetballers als begeleiders van dit project, heeft te maken met het feit dat kinderen enorm opkijken naar hun idolen. Ze zien een profvoetballer als rolmodel en om te kunnen presteren heb je een gezonde levensstijl nodig. Voetballers kunnen dit als geen ander uitstralen. De kinderen zijn hierdoor vaak beter gemotiveerd om echt hun best te doen en hun levensstijl te veranderen.

Stichting PUSH is een welzijnsorganisatie die een bijdrage wilt leveren aan actieve en gezellige wijken/buurten. Om dit doel te kunnen bereiken organiseert de organisatie gevarieerde activiteiten te organiseren die begeleid en uitgevoerd worden door vrijwilligers, bewoners, stagiaires of professionals. De activiteiten vinden plaats in de volgende gemeenten: Bernisse, Brielle, Hellevoetsluis, Ouddorp, Rozenburg, Spijkenisse en Westvoorne. Stichting Push doet ook aan sportstimulering. Hierbij richten zij zich op kwetsbare groepen in de leeftijdscategorieen 6 tot en met 12 jaar, 12 tot en met 18 jaar en 55+. Het doel van de projecten zijn gezondheidsbevordering, sportkennismaking en participatie. Enkele voorbeelden van activiteiten zijn: sportdagen en gezondheidsprojecten op basisscholen, WhoZnext en [email protected] op middelbare scholen en sporttoernooien in de wijk tijdens de schoolvakanties.

Ook mijn gemeente, de gemeente Westvoorne, draagt zijn steentje bij voor de jeugd. In het huidige beleid staat vastgesteld dat basisscholen de kinderen tijdens de gymlessen kennis moeten laten maken met diverse sporten. Dit stimuleert de overstap van school naar vereniging. Het is de bedoeling dat de leerlingen kennis maken met meerdere takken van sport, zodat zij een gerichter keuze kunnen maken voor een bepaalde sport. De leerkrachten zullen een zogenaamde zapkaart ontwikkelen samen met de plaatselijke sportverenigingen. Dit houdt in dat de docenten en de plaatselijke verenigingen afspreken welke sporten er tijdens de gymlessen worden behandeld, zodat enthousiaste kinderen de overstap van gym op school naar sporten bij een sportvereniging in de buurt makkelijker kunnen maken.

Middelbare scholen in de buurgemeenten Hellevoetsluis en Brielle worden benaderd om het sportorientatie programma in beeld te kunnen brengen. De verenigingen uit Westvoorne zullen een aanbod doen voor alle leerlingen dat aansluit op het programma van de sportorientatie op school. Als tennis bijvoorbeeld in de maand april op school aan bod komt, zorgt de tennisvereniging ervoor dat er een aansluitend aanbod is op de vereniging voor de leerlingen die daar interesse in hebben. Het aanbod van de school en de verenigingen zal op elkaar afgestemd worden. Alleen als de gemeente Westvoorne een bepaalde sport niet aan kan bieden dan wordt in de omliggende gemeenten gekeken naar een vereniging die dat wel kan.

2.5 Wat kan sport voor een kind betekenen?

Sport is er voor iedereen. Verschil in leeftijd, klasse, geslacht en afkomst doen er op dat moment niet toe. Je zou dus kunnen zeggen dat sport verbroedert. Buiten dat is het niet alleen goed voor je lichamelijke ontwikkeling, maar ook voor je sociale ontwikkeling. Door te sporten, omdat moet je veel mensen. Misschien zelfs wel vrienden voor het leven.

Dat weet ik zelf maar al te goed. Van kleins af aan ben ik bezig met sport. Van paardrijden, voetballen, tennissen, zeilen, zwemmen tot fietsen, ik heb het allemaal gedaan. Toen ik een jaartje of acht was, ben ik voor het eerst in aanraking gekomen met hockey. Een vriendinnetje uit mijn klas had op een middag training en vroeg of ik zin had om met haar mee te gaan trainen. Sindsdien heb ik zeker negen jaar fanatiek gehockeyd. Heerlijk vond ik het. Niet alleen het spelletje, maar ook de gezelligheid.

Mijn team bestond uit meiden van verschillende scholen. Dit maakte het extra leuk om naar de trainingen te gaan, omdat je hen op school niet zag. Samen vormden we een ontzettend hecht team en hadden we heel veel lol met elkaar. We sleepten elkaar door de zware trainingen heen en wisten elkaar goed te motiveren als een van ons het eventjes niet meer zag zitten. We leerden hoe we moesten samenwerken en respect te hebben voor elkaar, de scheidsrechter en voor de tegenstander. Ook leerden we hoe we winst het beste konden vieren, want winnen deden we zeker!

Doordat we met elkaar zijn opgegroeid hebben we elkaar, maar ook het publiek zien veranderen. Waar eerst onze trotste ouders ons aan stonden te moedigen, kwam plaats voor onze mannelijke fans. Natuurlijk mochten onze ouders ook nog steeds komen kijken.

Zeker naarmate we wat ouder werden en voor het eerst uitgingen, is het contact hechter geworden. Het kwam ook steeds vaker voor dat we na de training op de club bleven hangen en gezellig wat met elkaar en natuurlijk met het mannenteam gingen drinken. Helaas betekende dit weinig goeds voor onze hockeyprestaties. Van topteam gleden we af tot bierteam, maar dat kon ons weinig schelen. Zelfs met de grootste katers deden we ons best en hadden we het tijdens de trainingen en wedstrijden ontzettend leuk met elkaar. Iedere zaterdag gingen we met veel plezier naar het veld en natuurlijk altijd nog stiekem een beetje voor de winst, ook al kwam dat nog zeer zelden voor. Tijdens wedstrijden werd er niet meer overlegd over de juiste aanvalstrategie, maar hadden we het meer over waar we ‘s avonds eens naartoe gingen, wat we aan gingen trekken en of je dat ene leuke tasje van de ander mocht lenen.

Nadat de meeste meiden een vervolgopleiding gingen doen en dus stopten met hockey, is het team uit elkaar gevallen. Ik heb toen nog een jaar in een ander team gehockeyd, maar het voelde niet meer zoals het voor mij was. Ook ik ben gestopt. Wel zien we elkaar nog altijd wekelijks en doen we nog vaak leuke dingen samen. Dat is toch best bijzonder.

Sport is dus ontzettend belangrijk. Het heeft een enorme kracht en heeft voor iedereen een andere betekenis. Voor mij betekent sport vooral ontspanning, verlichting en plezier. Ik vind het heerlijk om na een lange schooldag lekker buiten te gaan skeeleren, te hardlopen of te zwemmen. Ook ga ik graag naar de sportschool. Tijdens een zware les Bodypump of Spinning zet ik even mijn verstand op nul en kan ik mijn ei kwijt. Sport is ook heel leerzaam. Zeker wanneer je sport in teamverband leer je een hoop over samenwerking en respect. Zelfstandige sporters krijgen geleidelijk meer zelfdiscipline. Tijdens het sporten ontmoet je ook veel mensen, dat is ook erg belangrijk.

Forcial MA2 houdt de stemming erin na de zoveelste nederlaag.

3 Beantwoording hoofdvraag en conclusie

Na het beantwoorden van mijn hulpvragen, heb ik voldoende informatie om mijn hoofdvraag te kunnen beantwoorden. Naar mijn menig doet Nederland genoeg om meer iedereen aan het sporten te krijgen. De mogelijkheden zijn er zeker, alleen moet men deze ook grijpen!

Zelf heb ik erg goede ervaringen met sportstimulering via school. Ik volg sinds twee jaar het vak Bewegen, Sport en Maatschappij (BSM). Hierdoor ben ik in aanraking gekomen met verschillende sporten en heb ik ook meegedaan aan de projecten [email protected] en WhoZnext. Samen met mijn klasgenootjes hebben we een sportdag georganiseerd voor de brugklassers. De voorbereidingen waren enorm, maar het resultaat mocht er zeker wezen. Door het sportorientatie programma op school ben ik gaan Bodypumpen, ook heb ik het tennissen weer opgepakt. Sportstimulering via school heeft dus wel degelijk invloed op kinderen.

WhoZnext-team HellevoetZnext.

Contents (Jump to)

Introduction

Principles and best practice in coaching

The effectiveness of different styles of coaching in different contexts

How models of coaching can help practitioners

Conclusion

References

Introduction

Sport, as a physical education concept, is governed exclusively by principles, rules and regulations. More than any other form of education, ethics dominate the culture of sport. Indeed, in an era dominated by the breakdown of rules and regulations and the increasing emphasis upon the needs of the individual over the collective, sport can in some ways be seen as the last bastion of the team ethic, helping to infuse in people a sense of belonging and of togetherness. For this reason, the ideal of best practice is a highly important contemporary topic one whose measure can be meted out in the fact tat the business community in the twenty first century is looking with increasing respect at the achievement of high?achieving sports coaches such as Sir Alec Ferguson in order to create a model for success within their own corporate teams. The following essay seeks to look at the ways in which these principles pertaining to best practice can best be applied in a variety of modern sporting contexts.

Principles and best practice in coaching

The ideal of sport has changed markedly in the past fifteen to twenty years (Polley, 1998)^[1]. What was once seen as leisure and/or a recreational activity is now viewed primarily as a vehicle through which one can instigate deep-seated cultural and societal change. This is especially true in the UK which has a particularly insipid connection to sport with a variety of games considered endemic in British society; indeed, many of the most popular sports in the world were played first in Britain and their governing bodies still reside within British state borders. As a result, as Dawn Penney (2000:59) declares, sport, society and equity are interlinked to a degree that has only very recently been acknowledged by academic, specifically sociological, study.

“Physical education and sport are part of our social and cultural worlds. The relationship is dynamic, with the policies and practices of physical education reflecting, but also clearly shaping (reproducing and/or challenging), the values and interests of broader society.”^[2]

It is for this reason that the concept of ‘best practice’ has attained a new level of significance in recent years relating specifically to the adoption of the finest possible academic, psychological and ethical procedures especially with regards to children and young people so as to prepare them mentally and physically for the multiple demands of adult life whether this be in a sporting or non?sporting context. ‘Best practice’ utilises research conducted primarily between the years 1950 to 1980 with the implementation of these strategies taking place over the past thirty years. It is a wholly recent phenomenon and, as such, is lacking in some areas of research compared to other fields of sociological study. However, in the twenty first century the amount of attention devoted to the subject is likely to increase with the dual spectre of globalisation and commercialisation making sports a highly lucrative hub of activity.

The principles governing the concept of ‘best practice’ are centred upon the twin aims of forging a common sense of unity and teamwork within a group of players and at the same time to nurture individual skill and flair on a one-to-one basis so that the more gifted players’ skills are honed without neglecting the primacy of the team as the over-riding ethos of ‘best practice’. This essential dualism which resides at the epicentre of ‘best practice’ coaching concepts is inherently affected by the evolution of sports players as they grow up. For instance, young players (aged six to ten years old) are much more inclined to gravitate towards the individual element of sports and competition with the group dynamic coming at a later age (developing primarily between the ages of twelve and sixteen). For this reason, there is no ‘best way’ to ‘best practice’; no right or wrong. Rather, there is a great exchange of fluidity between concepts, principles and practices that should be implemented on an individual basis. This is as true of coaching adults (clients) as it is of coaching youngsters where Jennifer Rogers (2007:7-10)^[3] has outlined six core principles that ‘define’ the role of the coach in the modern era. These are:

The client is resourceful (the coach’s sole aim is to work with the client to achieve all of their potential – as defined by the client).
The coach’s role is to spring loose the client’s resourcefulness.
Coaching addressing the whole person: past, present and future.
The client sets the agenda.
The coach and the client are equals.
Coaching is about change and action.

The common denominator outlined by Rogers is that coaching is always triggered by change – be it a change in age, in circumstance, in style or technique. Furthermore, because change is the currency in which the coach does business, there is bound to be wildly fluctuating styles of coaching that fit wildly different social and cultural contexts and it is towards these different styles and contexts that attention must now be turned.

The effectiveness of different styles of coaching in different contexts

It has been shown that the evolution of young people greatly affects the implementation of coaching methods pertaining to the precarious balance between coaching the individual and the group dynamic. This is necessarily dependent on the kind of sport being coached: team sports such as football require a dedication to the team ethic while sports such as tennis and golf stress the individual element of competition. Sports such as cricket combine the team ethic with a heavy emphasis upon individual ability, certainly with regards to batting, which is a very solitary skill that requires intensive levels of concentration and individualism (Palmer, 1999)^[4]. Thus, in the first instance, effective coaching requires the practitioner to tailor his or her coaching style to the sport in question and then to further tailor these coaching techniques to the age group of the team or individual being coached.

This inherent diversity in coaching styles is also true of the economic context of coaching adults. Certain sports require greater levels of economic participation than others. Golf, for example, is an expensive sport that demands that the participant is well funded so as to purchase the necessary equipment such as clubs, bags, clothing and, most importantly, membership to a golf club. The same can be said of tennis and cricket where the equipment is a vital part of the ultimate success or failure of the technique of the client in question. Economic context is also important with regards to the psychological element of coaching with the social, cultural and political problems of urban poverty playing an important part in the types of coaching techniques which are likely to yield the best results from any given demographic. There can be no doubt that a coaching style employed for a group of middle class practitioners with free access to capital, time and resources is going to be markedly different from the kind of coaching style deployed for children and adults who do not have access to the same luxuries and who therefore are going to respond to different coaching techniques.

Economic context, demographic context and age context are further compounded by the increasingly common problem of multiculturalism and, specifically, globalisation, which has obvious consequences for teachers, mentors and coaches operating at all levels of society throughout the UK. When one thinks, for instance, of the impact of language upon coaching (relaying tactics, pointing out areas of strength and weakness, and, most significantly, attempting to instil a team ethic) one can see the extent to which the role of the coach is inexorably intertwined with the fate of mass movement of peoples across the planet in the twenty first century. As Jones (1997:27) declares, “there is no more important task within the wider coaching process than that of communication.”^[5] Bains and Patel (1994) have long pointed out the blatant under?representation of Asians playing professional football in England despite some areas in the Midlands and the North-West of England having urban areas with a higher than 50% ratio of ethnic communities.

“Recent Sport England national statistics confirmed that people of South Asian origin have markedly lower participation rates than other minorities or the indigenous population.” (Collins, 2003:75)^[6]

This anomaly with regards to the high numbers of Asians living in modern Britain and the disproportionately small number of Asians playing football, it has been argued, is due to coaches indulging in outmoded stereotyping when it comes to coaching players from the Asian community. Asians are still seen as primarily academic achievers over sports players and where they are perceived as sports players they are still pigeon?holed in typical Asian images of cricket players; rarely are they ever seen as potential professional footballers. Likewise black players are still seen as primarily quick, powerful players; rarely, the tactical brains or the spiritual heartbeat of the side.

This cultural element to sports coaching is exacerbated by the historical gender divide between males and females in a sporting context. Here, just as with ethnic people, stereotypes remain the dominant coaching paradigm. Girls and women are expected to play traditionally female sports such as netball, hockey, lacrosse, swimming and tennis. This, however, is in direct opposition to the growing numbers of women playing traditionally male?dominated sports such as rugby, cricket and football with the latter in particular experiencing a veritable boom in female interest since the beginning of the 1990s.

“A generation ago, sport was a core, patriarchal institution in a larger, contested gender order. Now, with the dramatic growth of girls’ and women’s athletics participation, sport no longer simply or unambiguously plays this reactionary role in gender relations. Sport is now more internally contested.” (2002 introduction xxii)^[7]

It is, in the final analysis, up to the sports coach to take each of these mitigating factors and contexts into account so that the practitioner is able to coach skills and techniques that are relevant to the contemporary era as opposed to perpetuating anachronistic stereotypes that do little to advance civilised society in both a sporting and non?sporting context.

How models of coaching can help practitioners

Studying different models of coaching represents the scientific element of sports mentoring whereby the student and practitioner can attempt to explain the essence and purpose of coaching via the development of models (Fairs, 1987:17-19)^[8]. It can be separated into two distinct camps: the ‘of’ coaching camp and the ‘for’ coaching camp. Models ‘of’ coaching are based upon empirical research investigating best practice while the ‘for’ coaching models are idealistic representations that arise from attempts to identify a concrete set of assumptions about the coaching process. The majority of practitioners tend to employ a symbiosis of the two models incorporating an ‘of’ and ‘for’ model of best practice. In this way, empirical data can be used in a realistic setting that takes into account the age, skills and other contexts that affect the coaching process. However, these two models of coaching underline the extent to which academia and intellectual analysis has come to dominate the empirical study of sports performance when in fact the first hand experience of established practitioners ought to form the basis of all models of coaching sports. The difference, essentially, comes down to one of theory and practice with the concept of ‘expertise’ necessarily clouded by the arguments of the academics and the professionals respectively. Once again, though, the individual element of the coaching process must be highlighted so as to reflect the inherent complexity that takes place within the field of sports with vastly differing levels of skill and ability being matched by the vastly different psychological reactions to slumps in form and technique.

It is, ultimately, up to the national governing sports bodies to ensure that the primacy of holistic coaching practice does not become relegated at the expense of literature, theory and academia (Lyle, 1999:1-24).^[9] For this reason, organisations such as Sport England have been established by the central government in a bid to impose a centralise model for sports development on regionalised sports bodies so as to directly influence and aid practitioners. The primary model deployed by Sport England is the “traditional sports development continuum” – a pyramid which locates foundation as the core, base value followed in hierarchical terms by participation, performance and, finally, excellence (Bramhan et al, 1999:3).

This generic model is dovetailed by more advanced models for practitioners to use with athletes at a professional or elite stage in their sports. As is so often the case it is the Australians who represent the pinnacle of academic research into the coaching process with the revolutionary ‘Old Way, New Way’ technique correction model offering an intensive ‘one session’ approach to the problem of proven performers suffering seemingly inexplicable dips in form and technique with the case of Australian fast bowler Jason Gillespie standing tall as the most prominent example of therapeutic success achieved via sports practitioners embracing new means of solving old problems. ‘Old Way, New Way’ is consequently a manifestation of the much sought after collaboration between academic researchers and sports practitioners which works on a psychological as well as a physical level in a bid to continue the sportsperson’s quest for skill development and continuous technical improvement.

Conclusion

There has never been so much research dedicated towards the practice of sports, sports psychology and best practice in sports coaching the likes of which has been witnessed in the past decade. This has served to help to transport sport from a marginalised recreational activity to a mainstream study of human behaviour and psychical endurance. Furthermore, bearing in mind the increased proliferation of televised sports across the global media apparatus, the vastly increased participation of women in sports in the contemporary era and the shift in focus at a governmental level towards much improved health and physical exercise resources, this level of research is only likely to be elevated in the years and decades to come. Thus, ultimately, the models, contexts and best practices outlined herein require constant updating so as to keep up with the unprecedented rate of change taking place within the global sports coaching community.

References

Bramhan, P., Hylton, K., Jackson, D. and Nesti, M. (1999) Introduction, in, Bramhan, P., Hylton, K., Jackson, D. and Nesti, M (Eds.) Sport Development: Policy, Process and Practice London and New York: Routledge

Collins, M.F. (2003), Social Exclusion from Sport and Leisure, quoted in, Houlihan, B. (Ed.) Sport and Society: a Student Introduction London: SAGE

Fairs, J. (1987) The Coaching Process: The Essence of Coaching, in, Sports Coach Journal, Volume 11, Number 1

Jones, R.L. (1997) Effective Instructional Coaching Behaviour: A Review of Literature, in, International Journal of Physical Education, Volume, 24, Number 1

Lyle, J.W.B. (1999) The Coaching Process: Principles and Practice, in, Cross, N. and Lyle, J.W.B. (Eds.) The Coaching Process: Principles and Practice for Sport Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann

Messner, M.A. (2002), Taking the Field: Women, Men and Sports Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press

Palmer, G.V. (1999) Cricket Coachmaster: Batting Mechanics London: Gary Palmer

Penney, D. (2000) Physical Education: In what and who’s Interests? , in, Jones, R.L. and Armour, K.M. (Eds.) Sociology of Sport: Theory and Practice London and New York: Longman

Polley, M. (1998) Moving the Goalposts: A History of Sport and Society since 1945 London and New York: Routledge

Rogers, J. (2007) Coaching Skills Buckingham: Open University Press

1

Dissertation

Introduction

The popularity of football and the impact it has on many people can globally can be justified by the fact that more than 1.1 billion people viewed the FIFA World Club in Germany in 2006 (FIFA, 2006). Therefore, with the demand for entertaining football as high as ever, researchers and coaches have attempted to develop a strategy to produce and develop talent, however such processes takes eight to twelve years of training (Grant, 1999). Yet, as football is a business integrated sport, stakeholders often stress in yielding immediate returns from expensive investments. Thus, the KFA (Korean Football Association) still tend to allocate the majority of resources and funding to elite football set ups resulting in K-league football teams to hire proven foreign athletes rather than nurturing and developing local talented athletes (KFA, 2009). This may possibly be due to the benefits as Holger Preuss (2000) suggested that successful football teams are more likely to attract lucrative foreign investments through sponsorship and media rights. Evidently, many of the world’s leading and most famous football teams including Barcelona and Manchester United possess numerous world class athletes originally based from different countries and cultures.

Subsequently, the characteristics and formation of football teams are very similar to that of multi-national organisations. In this ever so competitive sport, failure to manage cultural diversity in football teams may upset and provoke stakeholders such as the chairman and board of directors to take action in most scenarios the manager being replaced. Moreover, the management of cultural diversity is concurrent in the media yet minimal scientific research is present regarding the effects on football teams. Therefore, the purpose and aim of this study is to further research and understand the methods of managing cultural diversity in football teams with the aid of Pohang Steelers Football Club.

Literature Review

Business organisations are changing at a phenomenal pace because of globalisation, outsourcing, telecommuting and deregulation with employees including football coaches seeking alternative approaches to working (Daft, 2002). Furthermore, with ethnic conflicts and issues constantly arising in today’s society, it is inevitable that various demands must be met in order to maximise productivity and synergy (Cascio, 1995). Furthermore, Elashmawi & Harris (1993) stated management currently is increasingly multicultural and Daft (2002) also supported this claim and added that synergy is present when a culturally diversified team understand the individuals’ roles, create norms and produce effective communication structures and utilise individuals’ strengths to enable the team to achieve set targets.

Consequently, communicating effectively as a football coach is a very complicated process (Watt, 1996). Moreover, athletes during sporting operations on the field use verbal and non-verbal communication in a variety of ways that are both culturally and individually motivated (Kippenberger, 2000). This suggests that that the use of language, hence the use of verbal language within a multicultural football team could be the biggest barrier to enable cohesion through effective communication (Elashmawi & Harris, 1993). Therefore, this suggests that the coach must acknowledge that to effectively manage multicultural football teams, it is essential to understand that different behaviours and communication styles must be present (Husting, 1995). Effective communication strategies

This is extremely evident during matches and training and a crucial component to successfully managing the team is the style of leadership of the coach (Watt, 1996). This could be due to the fact that within sports coaching the central responsibility of the coach is to enhance performance (Lyle, 2002). However, in sports coaching there are no correct or incorrect approaches and attributes that coaches are favoured to possess yet Watt (1996) suggested that a common leadership approach is the transformational style. Such style showcases leadership attributes including integrity, honesty and commitment through development of a vision, inspiring and selling the vision with motivation and over viewing the vision (Hodgetts & Luthans, 2003).

Studies suggest that younger athletes may produce natural ability and talent at a tender age and follow the youth system of some big clubs (Owen, 2005). This suggests that the developmental stage and correct guidance is the key to transitions that players have to experience. Failure to do so can result in the stagnation of the development of technical attributes (Nicolaou, 2008). Furthermore, it can also lead to the loss of interest for the athlete as football may no longer be perceived as ‘fun’, since younger athletes mostly play without competition but due to the early introduction of playing to win the emphasis is too great on performance (Reed, 2007) as the two FA’s introduce competition from a young age. Therefore, further investigations should be conducted in countries with solid football set ups to be used as a benchmark for both The KFA and The FA to compare, contrast and further enhance the understanding of necessary changes allowing ratifications to occur. Holland is a country with only a 50 year history since the formation of the professional league. Despite of the lack of resources Holland has produced a very successful team constantly challenging for the highest honors. This directly corresponds to the fact that amongst the 2500 clubs within Holland, 95% have a fully functional youth academy. (Helsen, Hodges, van Winckel & Starkes, 2000). With the successful system present in Holland which contrasts drastically with the fragile structure in England and Korea.

Due to the agreement of the ten year or 10,000 rule between researchers, athletes should train on average three hours daily for ten years (Salemela, 1998). This asserts that long term training and development needs to occur for successful development rather than a ‘peaking by Friday’ approach (Balyi and Hamilton, 1999). Furthermore, (Balyi and Hamilton, 1999) research also stated that sports can be classified as early specialization or late specialization, the former referring to sports that requires sport-specific training such as gymnastics and diving whereas the latter referring to sports that require a generic approach to training such as football and rugby.

The early learning stages of athlete development can be viewed as most fundamental since this is the period where basic skills are nurtured through the act of ‘playing’, such as kicking, striking, catching and running as this leads to the enhancement of cognitive and motor skills (Gentile, 1972). The development of FUNdamentals (Appendix 0.1) is also the first stage of the Late Specialization Model which emphasizes the importance of the development of physical capacities and fundamental movement skills (Balyi, 2004). Furthermore, Gentile also stated that coaching younger athletes should not only promote getting the basic idea of movement but also introduce a diversified program which works on both closed and open skills. This is contrary to what Hoare suggested as he claimed that younger players hold a tendency to follow coaches and when success is yielded they move on to the next developmental stage (Hoare, 2000). Therefore, the act of copying adults from younger athletes implies the need for qualified coaches at youth level and may suggest that investment on the standard of coaching could be a vital element of success. On the other hand, (Gentile, 1972) suggested that repetitive practice in a diverse set of environments is important, as younger athletes may show consistency in performing a set skill but understanding the process of how the skill is achieved is different. Hence, understanding the know-how process of skill acquisition and execution are achieved and produced at the latter stages of the LTAD model when players reach ages of 16, where movements and skills are performed automatically known as the autonomous stage (Schmidt, 1987). This autonomous stage directly links to the stage 3- Training to Compete Stage and stage 4- The Training to Win Stage whereby skills nurtured and developed from younger ages are put to test under various competitive environments of a 50:50 ratio of competition and training. However, the introduction of competition and playing to win at an early age may hinder the development of athletes rather than provide a competitive edge as today’s athletes mentality involves winning at all costs (Volkwein, 1995). Therefore, in Korea numerous youth academies train athletes with drills with the intentional outcome of success through attainable goals rather than just winning.

Contrary to the LTAD model which stresses the importance of timing and coaching within the stages of development, literature should be reviewed within the cultural and coaching differences. Countries such as Holland and Spain hire highly experienced and qualified coaches for training sessions and monitoring the development of individual athletes. (Salmela, 1995). Furthermore, the coaches from Holland are also a force mentionable with some of the best coaches in the world. Not only did Rinus Michels receive the coach of the century award in 1999 by FIFA, in 2006 World Cup there were four Dutch coaches present. Although in England the youth academies do consist of former professional players as coaches at youth level, Korean professional academy coaches are not as qualified with the vast majority of coaches only holding the equivalent of level 1 coaching badges. This results in the coaches targeting training sessions with the view of minimal technical knowledge and drills catered for elite level athletes rather than providing attention to individual young athletes’ requirements. This virtually ignores the development of late bloomers or developers as individuals develop both physically and technically at different ages (Kolb, 1984). In addition, failure to cater individual requirements is detrimental as individuals’ knowledge of the concept of motor skills and performance vary and higher skilled athletes demonstrate qualities such as maximum certainty, minimal energy expenditure, and minimum movement time which are crucial criterions that showcase the quality of elite athletes (Guthrie, 1972). In addition, (Snow, 2004) also concluded that when younger athletes are allowed to play in the optimal environment that caters the individual’s age group, the performance will also match.

However, Brazil obtain some of the most technically gifted players in the world and this was due to the lack of structure at a young age but more so on the free play aspect without instruction. Such unstructured play can encourage creativity and confidence whilst (Balyi, 2003) suggested that such play with minimal instructions could possibly be difficult to grasp. Thus, an incorporation of structured and non-structured activities could return positive results in the younger athletes’ development. Yet, the current English and Korean clubs show less stress on such activities and provide a stronger emphasis on constant guidance from a younger age. Moreover, the Korean counterparts training at U-17 level is more rigorous in terms of quantity of training sessions a week than professionals. (KFA, 2001)

Conclusion

The creation of the ‘Five Stage Model of Late Specialization in Sports’ was originally directed at producing high performance Alpine Skiers over a eight year cycle and hence a direct use of such development model could possibly be unsuitable for football which questions its validity with the use in a football environment. Furthermore, a scientific interrogation of the model is virtually impossible as it refers to minimal science and includes no research data. This shows that in spite of such model being widely across sports governing bodies as guidelines and powered the way forward for big projects within sports development, it lacks creditability in a scientific point of view.

However, with such wide acceptance of the model and for the purpose of this research, a conclusion can be drawn that with Balyi’s change of the model in 2001 to suit different sports, and the modification made by The FA and KFA the respective models do not identically copy but partial overlapping features do occur. Balyi’s model although aimed at long term athlete development has a final stage known as the Retirement/ Retraining stage but this feature is a transition and not that of the athlete development to produce elite athletes. Hence, there could be questions raised whether it is a performance development model or retention of players for participation.

A final conclusion of any data collected is impossible due to time constraints, as a third year student with only a given time period to collect data it was impossible to review all literature available on youth-set up of different countries and LTAD models. Hence, research and review could be biased. Furthermore, due to the development of athletes taking ten years and 10,000 rule, it is only possible to criticize the LTAD development model through extensive scientific experiments that are impossible due to time and budget restraints. Further investigations should be conducted to put-to-practice the LTAD model not just in Alpine Skiers but other relevant sports to discover the relevance and validity of such model in the respective sports. Therefore, without such tests The FA and KFA’s LTAD model could be a unreliable source to base youth development schemes on.

Methodology

Research Question

Comparative study of two premier league football club’s in different countries analyzing the youth development process including LTAD structure/system and why one is more successful in developing young athletes.

Hypothesis

Due to the success and popularity of the English Premier League, the English youth developmental process will be better in producing more elite athletes measured in a percentage base (Number of athletes entering system and exiting as elite).

Introduction

A specially designed interview will be prepared during the course of this project regarding the current situation of the youth-setup and the links to the LTAD development model from Balyi. This interview will be conducted primarily on the phone as subjects are in Korea and in England that are working at elite football which results in a tight schedule. The interview key points will be recorded on paper and necessary translation will take place regarding the Korean interviewees whereas the English Interviewees will be straight forward.

This qualitative data gathered through an interview will provide an expert insight to the developmental process of young athletes within football in both countries and whether the LTAD model actually works within football. Moreover, with the collected data it will be possible to evaluate both countries systems and eventually answer the reasons why one system is more successful in producing elite athletes. In addition, a comparison between Korea, England, Holland and Spain will be made as the current system regarding talent development in the last two countries is viewed as the world’s best. This would provide a better scenario for further improvements that could be made for The FA and KFA and could use such data as a benchmark towards further initiatives and projects.

Method

This research design will be in the form of a case study that investigates through the use of a interview or test procedures. Data successfully collected will be through open questions and certain data will be in the form of interval data as even with figures and data such as percentage base comparison. Such methods will be an attempt to determine which country has a better system in developing talent.

The use of primary data collection will provide a unique set of data currently unavailable in literature and sources which allows a different perspective to provide new evidence to relate to the hypothesis and research question. To tackle the question an interview will be conducted through international calls to Korea with the use of specifically designed questions to retrieve relevant information. The information will then be recorded by text and used for data analysis. On the other hand, the interview with the interviewees in England will be conducted in an actual interview format face-to-face due to the proximity of the interviewees in relation to the researcher. The complete interview should take 25-30 minutes per person for completion, however there are possibilities that it may take longer as there are two elite level coaches who will be interviewed and further knowledge and data can be retrieved.

Data Analysis

Upon successful collection of results, an analysis of data will be conducted to enable the evaluation of the youth development set up in Korea and England. Individual interviewees’ opinions will be analyzed in regards to whether personal experiences within football suggest that the current systems in the respective countries need altering. However, due to some of the questions being in the form of open questions there could be an element of personal opinion which could lead to bias. However, the validity of the personal perspective is crucial as two elite level coaches in the highest level of football shows creditability in opinion. Due to the use of interview as the main qualitative technique, the interviewees’ emotions and motives of their opinions can be understood to the evidence provided. Furthermore, the questions could be asked in detail to specifically cater the research question, enabling access to information only applicable to the study with accurate and precise responses.

The main emphasis on the analysis of data collected will be to acknowledge the utilization of Balyi’s LTAD model for athlete development and whether it is suitable for use within football in developing talent. Also, questions regarding percentages and figures will be asked in order to perform a percentage base comparison between the two countries. However, due to the differences in variables including amount of player entering the system and exiting will be different in the two countries. Such qualitative technique could be crucial in contrasting the overall success rate of which system produces more elite athletes successfully.

Subjects

The interviewees’ that will be utilized for this interview will be four people working in elite football with two from Pohang Steelers Football Club and two from Fulham Football Club. These participants will be conveniently selected due to the difficulties in gaining access to further elite coaches for interviews. Each subject will have had at least 10 years work experience in professional top level football for validity measures.

Ethical Procedure

All research conducted should be through an ethical background understanding not only the researchers rights but also the rights and safety of subjects. Prior to the arrangement a consent form will be sent to the interviewees to agree upon as an ethical procedure. This procedure is set forth in order to agree on the purpose of this interview, its use and relevance to this project. The interviewees are all pre-selected which can be considered as convenience sampling as elite coaches and subjects with validity are extremely difficult to gain access to, yet due to former work experiences such subjects were available. However, all subjects will be treated fairly and equally with the same set of questions to ensure a fair investigation.

As there will be interaction between different people there is a strong responsibility to ensure that the researcher’s relationship should be of professional manner and that all questions and answers are kept confidential. This is because various interviewees may have conflicting viewpoints and beliefs in regards to the club’s or national governing body’s vision and philosophy and that failure to keep such information confidential could lead to current job commitment problems. Thus, the individual names of the interviewees will be undisclosed and will not be mentioned within this project. Careful consideration will take place when conducting the interview as ethically this interview should be conducted without bias yet the viewpoints of the interviewees will be biased as the answers will be catered towards not only facts but also personal opinions. Moreover, the relationship present will be unique in the sense that having worked together previously, there could be a closer relationship than if an interview was conducted with strangers. However, the beneficence outweighs the risks as data gathered would provide a thorough insight on the current systems from professionals that are currently working under the systems.

Results

Results will be in the presented in the format of a summary in text with bullet points highlight key data collected. This is the only method possible from such use of interview technique as data will be mostly opinions and analysis of the current development model. The limitation of such method is that the data collected will not be clear and easy for reference for the readers of this study yet it will be the only method for data presentation.

Possible Risk

There are a few risks involved with this study relating to the process of gathering data from subjects as interview questions will be done on the phone which does not provide body language or other hidden motives for analysis. Furthermore, the subjects will include two former elite level athletes turned coaches with two sports development officers that allows minimal viewpoints and opinions which could result in bias. However, due to the use of identical quantity of subjects and position at the football clubs, the data will still be relevant for a direct comparison between the viewpoints and current system of youth development at the two countries. Furthermore, data including person opinions from the subjects will be kept confidential as conflicts may arise between the philosophy and set of beliefs provided by the FA which maybe different to that of individuals opinions.

Interview questions
Describe the current state of the youth-set up in your country.
The FAs have utilized the LTAD model as the main source of data to base most initiatives on, however there is no scientific proof in the LTAD model set forth by Balyi, what is your view on this?
Therefore, based on your answer to question 2 do you think it is right for the FAs to use the LTAD model when it is not proven in football?
What changes must be made to ensure the development of younger athletes?
Which stage is the most important in the LTAD model? And why?
What is the percentage of athletes that exit the LTAD system successfully as professional athletes?
What percentages of young athletes enter the LTAD system?
Is the LTAD system catered for individual development or merely a model to relate to when setting out new initiatives?
How do you judge the success of the youth set-up? Is it by how many athletes become professionals?
What are the most important elements in developing young athletes?
How do you think the FA used the LTAD model in the set up of the whole system?

The benefits of polymetric exercises for soccer players and the importance of when in a training session these type of exercises should be implemented.

Introduction

The subject of exercise and physiology is a broad topic. Researchers have known for many years that exercise benefits the body in various ways and there is not a practicing physician anywhere that does not recommend it to his/her patients. But the actual effects of exercise on a person’s ability to perform an activity are not well understood. Whether the increase in ability to perform is due to what is known as “muscle memory”, increased muscle mass, or simply based on repetitive motion is hard to determine in a quantitative sense. In the next few pages a case will be made for what are known as polymetric exercises specifically for increased soccer playing ability.

In order to explore the subjects of exercise and kinesiology it is necessary to have an adequate amount of background information beforehand therefore before delving directly into the core subject matter, a few general principles will be discussed to provide a framework of thinking for the remainder of the paper. A few principles that are crucial to the understanding of the effects of polymetric exercise are muscle physiology, various exercise regimes, and finally the basics of polymetrics and why they work.

Muscle Physiology

The human body is made up of hundreds of muscles from the most minute (i.e. the muscles that close your eyelid) to very large conspicuous muscles (quadriceps, gluteus maximus, etc.). The large muscles are generally the ones that human beings “train” to become stronger and more adept, however all muscles have the same basic structure. Each muscle is made up of a series of strands of tissue known as muscle fibers. These fibers work together as one large unit to form what we know as muscle groups. The major muscle groups that most people know about and understand the location of are the bicep brachi(biceps),pectoralis major (pecs), quadriceps femoris (quadriceps), and rectus abdominas (abs). These groups are the major muscle groups that people tend to “workout or train” in order to lose weight or tone up and are the muscles with which the majority of the population is most familiar with.

While a working knowledge of the major muscle groups is sufficient for the everyday layperson going to the gym, to really understand what is involved in the build up of muscle mass and the accumulation of what is known as “muscle memory” it is necessary to understand what is going on at the cellular level. Muscle cells work together with the nerves to perform actions. The body’s nerves create an electrical impulse triggered by a potassium gradient which then stimulates the muscle cells into action. Even though this entire process takes much less than a second, there are still ways of maximizing the efficiency and output of the muscle cells. Some of the muscle cells are part of what are known as fast twitch muscle fibers and others are part of slow twitch muscle fibers. These concepts will be discussed more in the next section.

Fast twitch versus slow twitch muscles

Experts usually split muscles into two general groupings or types. The first type is called fast twitch muscle fiber. Fast twitch muscles are the muscles that react quickly to stressors (ie sprinting, jumping, or punching). The fast twitch fibers are usually what are termed the “shorter” muscle fibers. Even though the actual physical length of the fibers are no different from the “longer” or slow twitch muscle fibers, the term short refers to the type of energy they use and the types of activities that these muscle fibers are suited best for. Fast twitch muscle fibers are better suited for activities that require quick movements for short amounts of time. For instance, sprinters build up fast twitch muscle fibers, so do boxers, and to an extent soccer players do as well (Vannatta 2002). These muscle fibers are powered by “quick or fast” energy which is provided by ATPs produced by carbohydrates. In order to build up these fast twitch muscles specific types of exercises work best. General exercises (jogging, weight training, calisthenics) will build the muscle fibers up to a certain point, especially if this is the first activity in a while or ever for that matter. However, once a reasonable level of fitness is achieved it begins to get harder to realize increased fast twitch muscle enhancement. It is due to this new plateau of difficulty that researchers have developed different types of exercises to specifically address the fast twitch muscle fibers (Pollock et al 1998).

There are several different types of exercises that can be used to overcome fast twitch muscle fiber plateaus. These exercises employ techniques that capitalize on movements that require quick employment of energy. A few examples of exercises would be anything that requires jumping, dexterity drills, or footwork drills. All of these exercises increase the muscle memory of the fast twitch muscle fibers. Muscle memory is defined as the tendency for muscles to “remember” or acquire a propensity for the motions of a specific action. This is due to a muscle’s direct feedback mechanism connected with growth. Once a muscle is stressed and the stressor is removed, the muscle takes time to recover. Depending on the amount of stress, the muscle can take varying amounts of time to recover. Also, once the muscle is stressed it will not only recover to the original state of the muscle but it will increase its resistance to stressors to the point of the initial stress event (Rhea et al 2003). In other words, once the muscle fiber is torn by work (ie exercise) it will repair itself to a point where it can resist the same type of exercise stress again later and in the process builds up an increased muscle mass. It’s the accompaniment of muscle memory exercises and the increased resistance to stressors that leads to the abolishment of a fast twitch muscle fiber performance plateau.

While fast twitch muscle fibers rely on quick use of energy, slow twitch or long muscle fibers require the use of sustainable energy found in slower burning sources such as protein and fats. These muscle fibers are better suited for types of activities that require muscle endurance. Slow twitch muscle fibers are responsible for activities such as long distance running, rowing, and cycling. Long muscle fibers must be equipped with the stamina needed for endurance events, as well as be able to work in conjunction with the fast twitch muscle fibers for quick bursts of speed. No one has solely fast twitch or solely slow twitch muscles. Each person has a specific ratio of slow to fast twitch muscle fibers that determines what kind of sports or activities that they are better suited to (ie endurance vs. sprints). In other words, marathon runners have more slow twitch muscle fibers than do sprinters and boxers have more fast twitch muscle fibers in comparison to cyclists. Although the ratio of muscle fiber types plays a role in determining the types of sports and activities that a person participates in, it is not a completely “firm” method of deciding on the type of performance expected from an individual.

Some sports, like soccer, are activities that require a fair amount of both slow twitch and fast twitch muscle fibers in order to perform at the highest level, and this holds true for many sports (Ekblom 1986). Therefore the question is “how can athletes enhance the performance of both their slow twitch muscle fibers and fast twitch muscle fibers with one series of exercises?”. In the past there has not been a good answer to this question. Coaches and athletes have simply trained one set of muscle fibers on one day and then train the other muscle fibers on the next days. In this way all of the muscle fiber types were being trained, but not in a single training session, and thus the simulation of a game or competitive event was not accurately depicted. However, recently kinesiology has taken an interesting turn with regard to training multiple muscle groups at the same time. The next section will discuss a few of these techniques at length.

Exercises to train multiple muscle groups

Researchers have determined that there are sets or groupings of exercises that can effectively train both slow and fast twitch muscle fibers, as well as training multiple muscle groups, concurrently. This group of exercises is collectively known as polymetric exercises. The meaning of the word polymetric is just as its roots imply. These are exercises that employ techniques to train multiple (poly-) muscles at once using different movements (-metrics). There are several different types of exercises that are all considered polymetric exercises. These exercises include all non-isolationistic movement, or in other words, any exercise or movement that trains more than one muscle or muscle group at a time. These exercises can include plyometric exercises, isotonic exercises, polykinetic exercises , polytonic exercises or compound exercises. We will look at each type briefly as a preliminary procedure.

Plyometric Exercise

Plyometric exercises are a group of exercises that many organized sports teams and athletes are familiar with. Plyometrics are usually implemented in what are also known as “drills”. These can include such practices as box jumping, jump roping, line hops, etc. Basically, plyometrics serve to recreate certain situations that the athlete may encounter during a competitive event. This could be anything from jumping over a would be tackler, making a quick turn to avoid an opponent, or jumping over a hurdle. There are many plyometric drills that are employed by various coaches and one only needs to decide on the specific movements that are used in the activity that they are involved with in order for new drills to be designed. Plyometrics are very good at training the fast twitch muscle fibers to react with greater efficiency and at a higher rate than the original state of the muscle. Even though most polymetric muscles are good at training both types of muscle fibers, plyometric exercises in general do not do a good job of training the slow twitch muscle fibers and thus are considered an earlier stage of exercise development than other more advanced polymetric exercises.

Isotonic Exercise

Isotonic exercises are a group of exercises that stresses a constant load of resistance against the opposing muscle. These are most easily generalized as the weight lifting exercises that people perform in a gym such as: bicep curls, bench press, and standing barbell rows. Most experts agree that the use of free weights for these exercises is essential because free weights tend to employ more muscle groups at the same time in order to balance the weight. It is due to the act of balancing muscle groups that more muscle mass may be gained by using free weights instead of machines. Its important to realize that not all isotonic exercises can be called polymetric exercises. In most cases the use of isotonic exercises necessitates the employment of more than one muscle group or type of muscle fiber at a time and therefore may be classified as a polymetric exercise, however in some cases isotonic exercises may isolate a single muscle or muscle group in which case they can no longer be considered a polymetric exercise.

Polykinetic Exercise

Polykinetic exercise literally means multiple motion or multiple movement. Dancers and tennis players perform these exercises most frequently in order to increase their “spring” or vertical jumping height. Polykinetic exercises sometimes are misclassified as other polymetric exercises such as polymetrics. Polykinetics use multiple motion exercises to employ as many muscles as possible in one specific exercises. Again, polykinetics much like plyometrics are used mostly to train fast twitch muscle fibers, however if the exercises are performed for a longer period of time then these could also be used to train the slow twitch muscle fibers as well.

Polytonic Exercise

Polytonic exercise is not actually a separate division of polymetric exercise but is simply used interchangeably with polymetric and plyometric when discussing various sports training activities. Literally polytonic means “multiple tones” and was originally applied to Greek orthography.

Compound Exercise

Compound exercise is also simply another way to express the idea of an exercise which involves multiple muscle employment. However, most researchers acknowledge compound exercises as those that involve a great deal of balance as well as the actual movement of the exercise. There are now specific tools that are used in conjunction with compound exercises which include such items as balance boards, balance balls, posture correcting exercise balls, etc. All of these items are designed to force the person exercising to not only employ their muscles during the exercise, but also use them to balance themselves and the weight at the same time.

Why does polymetric training work?

The idea and principle behind polymetric training is to “get the most bang for your buck”. Exercise kinesiologists have developed methods to get the most muscle fatigue and consequent recovery in the least amount of time and energy expenditure. This age of technology is the fastest paced since the industrial revolution and does not appear to be slowing down any. Therefore it is imperative for today’s athletes to be able to train as many muscle groups as possible in one session, while still maintaining a high level of performance. Polymetric exercises allow this to happen and in some cases have been shown to provide the best possible training for the competitive event for which they are intended (Noda et al. 1998).

The Ins and Outs of Polymetrics

Polymetric exercises have been shown to improve the ability of many sports teams and athletes to perform at amazingly high levels when employed correctly. The types of activities that are performed are very important and should be specific to that particular sport.

For example, it has been shown that soccer players need the recruitment of both fast twitch and slow twitch muscle fibers. Soccer is a sport that requires not only stamina to last the entirety of the game while running almost constantly, but also demands small bursts of speed and energy in order to outdistance your opponent or to save the ball (Reilly 2005). In the case of soccer then, it is absolutely essential to not just train for endurance or for speed, but for a combination of the two. By utilizing polymetrics it is possible to not only train both slow and fast twitch muscle groups, but is possible to do this at the exact same time. The optimal conditioning program is the implementation of a holistic fitness approach as stated by Reilly (2005).

While the types of exercises are extremely important, another aspect of training which is often overlooked is that of the time of training. This is not referring to the time of day, but rather the time in the training regime. It is believed that the sequence in the exercise routine is linked to the overall performance of the participant later in a competitive event. Using the concepts of strength and endurance as potential results, it is possible to make a few generalizations concerning training.

First, an athlete will have the most energy during the beginning phase of an exercise or workout routine and will be able to produce the most power. We can say that this is when his/her strength is at its highest level throughout the entire routine.

Secondly, if an athlete wanted to increase his/her strength to the optimal level he/she should train their bodies at the point when their strength is the highest initially so that the amount of stress on the muscles is the greatest, leading to the most growth.

It would seem reasonable then to assume that in order to gain the most strength gains an athlete would do some sort of polymetric training early on in their workout routine. Since polymetrics would work multiple groups and the athlete is working these muscles early, the greatest increase in athletic ability would be in strength instead of endurance.

However, if we assume that at the end of a workout period an athlete’s muscles are at their weakest point or are the most tired/stressed, then it is reasonable to say that the opposite is true if the polymetric exercises are performed at the end of a workout session. If performed at the end of an exercise period, polymetric drills will increase the endurance of an individual since the muscles will not be exerting the most force (ie strength) that they are capable of, but will instead be utilizing the longterm energy sources in the body.

Conclusion

Polymetric exercise encompass a wide range of workouts, drills, and exercise regimes which all help to stress the body’s muscles in many different ways. In the case of soccer players it is of the utmost importance that these techniques be employed. According to Reilly (2005) today’s soccer players are enjoying an increased physical ability and game tempo compared to decades in the past. This is due not only to better medicine and technology, but also to the increase of high end research performed in the disciplines of physiology and kinesiology. It is an obvious assumption that the temporal aspect of exercise is extremely important in determining what muscles are stressed and how. This paper has shown that in order to increase strength, athletes should perform polymetric drills at the beginning of an exercise routine and to increase stamina or endurance one should perform polymetric drills at the end of a practice or exercise period. This claim is significant in that it implies that polymetrics may be more important to athletes as they increase their basal fitness level and approach loftier performance levels in an effort to perform at their absolute best. It is necessary for research to continue to be done in this area so that athletes may continue to increase their performance levels naturally and without pharmaceutical enhancement.

Fitness components in sport Health related components
Cardio-vascular endurance

Cardio-vascular endurance is how the body supplies oxygen to fuel the muscles when participating in sport or high endurance events and situations. It does this through the heart, blood vessels, blood and respiratory system. Footballers need cardio-vascular endurance when the play because they need to be able to run throughout the whole 90 mins. Oxygen to the muscles is what allows them to do this. Swimmers need cardio-vascular endurance when they do long distance races e.g. 1500m swimming race where their body need a descent supply of oxygen to the muscles from start to finish. Boxers need to have excellent c-v endurance to be able to compete at a strong pace throughout a fight. Their muscles need oxygen in order to work throughout a fight so that they can throw punch after punch and block after block. Both these motions need the muscles to contract, flex and tense.

Muscular endurance

Muscular endurance is the ability to perform repetitive or sustained muscular contractions against some resistance for an extended period of time. Muscular endurance allows athletes to do more strenuous work. Footballers need muscular endurance to be able to repeatedly use muscles throughout a match e.g. in sprinting a player uses the quads and caths over and over throughout the game. In swimming they use their muscles continually over the race e.g. in butterfly they use most if not all the bodies’ muscles to drag themselves through the water. Boxers need muscular endurance to be able to continuously throw punches from round one to round twelve because they need to be swinging away for the whole fight but if they cant then they wont be able to fight the whole twelve rounds.

Muscular strength

Muscular strength is the ability of an athlete to perform a sport at a sustained high tempo for a short amount of time. Footballers need muscular strength to be able to exert strength when they shoot the ball from a long distance so that it travels fast and with power towards their target. Swimmers use strength when they push of the back board after a length in order to start the next lap. This requires the use and strength from the quads, calfs and foot muscles for the push off. In boxing when a fight needs to dodge a shot they may use the tactic of leaning back to avoid the punch. This requires the use the abdominal muscles. These need strength to be able to support his upper body as he leans back.

Flexibility

There are two types of flexibility. They are static flexibility and dynamic flexibility. Static is when an athlete slowly stretch and hold the position for a period of time. Dynamic is when an athlete makes a quick movement in which they stretch. In football a goal keeper needs flexibility when he stretches for the ball e.g. when the ball is heading for the top corner. Swimmers need good flexibility to be able to stretch their arms out properly and have a good stroke length e.g. Michael Phellps showed good flexibility when he was waiting on the starting board by showing his arm span and stretching it to its relaxed max before the start of the race. Boxers don’t really need too much flexibility but the one time they do need is when they lean back. They stretch the back throughout this movement.

Body composition

Body composition is the amount of fat, bone and muscle in the human body. Athletes need different body compositions to perform different sports. Footballers need to have a slim body composition because they need to be able to carry their weight around the pitch. If a footballer is fat then it makes it harder to run for long periods and also makes it harder to carry their own body weight. Swimmers need to be slim so that they can travel through the water faster and smoother. Depending on a boxers weight class a boxer needs to big and heavy or thin and light. This is so they can perform fairly at their weight class.

Skill-related fitness
Balance

Balance is a skill that is naturally learnt after birth but can be developed further by an athlete so they can perform their sport properly. Balance is important because we must stay in a state of complete balance when performing are sports So that we don’t fall over when performing. Some athletes need more balance than others. Footballers need balance when they shot. They put their arms into a supportive stance for when they hit the ball so that they don’t lose their balance. Swimmers need balance when they are getting ready to dive in at the start of a race. A good balance can give them a good start allows them to get a head start. Boxer need balance so they can throw strong punches and put their whole body weight behind the shot also when they dodge shots they need to have good balance to enable them to recover into the stance quicker.

Speed

Speed is the quickness of a limb over a distance in time but it does not just affect the legs it involves all limbs and body parts from legs, torso to arms. Some footballers need to be fast this needs speed e.g. a winger needs speed because he is expected to run the lines to create the opposition with a problem. Swimmers need speed when they lash through the water to keep a good stroke per minute time. Boxers need speed when they throw a jab so that they can catch the opponent off guard and also so they can get out the way of any counter punches.

Power

Power is the ability to apply force quickly. “A simple equation for power is: muscular strength X speed = Power”. http://somatotype.net/nzfitness/pages/CompOFfit.htm . Power contains speed because in order to apply force you need speed. Footballers need power when shooting at goal. They need the quads and the calf’s to gather up power on their way to the ball so that the shot can be harder and faster. Swimmers need power to be able to pull them through the water at pace e.g. when they do the freestyle they need to have fast, strong and powerful stokes. Boxer throw punch after punch, these punches need to be fast and power full so that they are unseen and effective e.g. a hook needs to be fast and power full so that the opponent does not see it and even if he does block the shot it will still hurt.

Reaction time

Reaction time is the time it takes for an athlete to react to a situation that is happening very quickly (The time taken to react to any stimuli). A goal keeper in football needs to have fast reacting times to be able to react to shots coming from 50yds to 2yds. Swimmers need to be able to react to the starting alarm as quickly impossible so that they are not left behind and can establish a lead. For boxers to be able to dodge in coming punches they need to react to the earliest stimuli and duck and swerve out the way.

Agility

Agility is the ability to stop and change direction or movement quickly. Footballers need agility because the game can change so quickly e.g. the goalkeeper blocks a shoot but the ball lands right in front of the goal, the player with best agility should react quickest and move fastest in order to defend it or strike it into the goal. Swimmers don’t really need to be to agile but one place they do need it is when they are turning around for the next length because they need this switch of direction to be as quick as possible also being in water makes it harder because of the extra resistance. Boxers need to be agile unless they want to take hit after hit without getting out the way. When a boxer is be attacked by his opponent he will need the agility in his muscles to be able to move lightening quick to get out the way.

Co-ordination

Co-ordination is the ability to do something in a combination continuously. Footballers need co-ordination so that they can move the ball fluently between their legs because in football it’s not just putting on foot in front of the other it also about judging the speed of the ball and your own speed. Then when you shot you need to have placed your feet in the right places this takes co-ordination. Swimmers need co-ordination throughout a race. It quite easy but they need to co-ordinate when they should come up for oxygen so that they don’t lose their speedy pace for example in the freestyle the swimmers have a number of strokes that they prefer to do before they come up for oxygen. This is all quite simple but if you lose your count and co-ordination then you can do too many stroke or too few and lose your oxygen pattern.

Phisical activity for children

Outcome 1

Introduction

This report provides information about the key benefits of physical activity for children in two categories of age 2-6 and 6-11 years old. This report will present of areas of development of the above age stages, which contained: physical, intellectual, skill, and psychological/social/emotional.

Physical development is a process that begins in the human childhood and lasts until late adolescents focuses on the ability of gross and fine motor, and maturation. Physical development involves developing control over the body, especially the muscles and motor coordination.

Intellectual development is best defined as the child’s ability to think and understand the world. The way in which the child takes and processes information related to carers and experiencing the effects of the world in all areas of development.

Skill development

Stages of Development Children Aged 2-6
Physical changes

Physical development of children of preschool age is slower and more stable than in infancy, however remains dramatic. Some important factors affecting the physical development during the preschool include changes in the child’s brain, gross and fine motor skills and health. Toddlers soon acquire the leaner, more athletic look associated with childhood, as the children around age 3 begin to lose their baby fat. The child’s body and legs grow longer and make your abdominal muscles, tightening the abdominal appearance. However, even at this early stage of children life, boys have more muscle mass than girls. From age 2 to 6 physical proportions continue to change, as their heads are getting smaller, but they are still larger than the school children’s. Also, head proportion from large is changing to the body even out, what have an impact on the balance but that improve coordination.

The using of energy system is less efficient than adults, what can be notices during exercise that the children breath heavier, sweats more and also heart rate is faster than the adults. The hot or cold environment has a much bigger impact than on adults too. As they are suffer more from overheating, becoming too cold, but also dehydrating. The energy system is affected by not fully developed aerobic system, as the oxygen can be supply a fraction of required by the working muscles. Young children are not able to exercise in high intensity, because their anaerobic system is still not fully developed.

Intellectual development

At this stage, babies eventually enable to cope with separation from parents. Language develops as children grow into toddlers and their world expands. Symbolic understanding and appear pretend play skills there. Children begin to work on their experience, such as feeding a doll or a car.

In the preschool years, children expand their understanding of pre-academic skills. They learn to identify colours, shapes, numbers, and letters. They also begin to demonstrate phonemic awareness. Some children may even begin to read familiar sight words as they reach age five. Pre-schoolers also develop more elaborate symbolic and cooperative play. For example, peers work together to act out a theme such as playing house, with each player having a defined role.

Skill development

Motor skills are physical abilities or capacities. Gross motor skills involves the use of large body movements, and this includes running, jumping, jumping, turning, jumping, throwing, balancing and dance. Fine motor skills, which include drawing, writing, and tying shoelaces, involve the use of small bodily movement Motor fine skills involves the use of a small body movements, such as drawing, writing, and tying shoelaces, involve the use of a small body movements. Both above skills are develop and are refined in early childhood, but the motor skills develop more slowly in preschool. The comparison of the running abilities of a 2aˆ?yearaˆ?old and a 6aˆ?yearaˆ?old, will show the limited running skills of the 2aˆ?yearaˆ?old. But when compare the trying shoelaces of 2 and 6 year old the difference will be even more striking. The 2aˆ?yearaˆ?old has difficulty grasping the concept before ever attempting or completing the task.

Physical activity

For this age group, any physical activity is indicated, i.e. including both forms of light physical exercises, as well as, more vibrant and energetic suggestions. Providing children with adequate physical activity and game play is an important step to developing their physical fitness, which not only promotes the health of young children but significantly enhances their psychological development and social skills in the long run. It is evident that physical activity is essential to the whole-person development of young children. For young children, the amount of physical activity is more important than the intensity. Physical activity can enhance the development of young children’s gross motor and fine motor skills, and to foster their good health habits and self-care ability. Therefore, physical activity of any intensity level should be covered, e.g. daily activities of light intensity such as slow walking and packing school bags, activities of moderate intensity such as cycling, stair climbing or engaging in teacher-led large-muscle activity sessions, and even activities of vigorous intensity such as chasing and running around, dancing, swimming etc. engaged after school. Of course, activity of a higher intensity can enhance cardio-respiratory fitness and stimulate bone growth; it can also enhance their development of physical fitness and motor skills. For the maximum health benefit of young children, teachers can consider administering a suitable amount of higher intensity activity. As younger children’s leaders, teachers should give them ample opportunities to experience different kinds of physical activities within a safe environment. This is to train the young children’s fundamental motor skills, which are essential for them to cope with daily needs. Children may acquire better physical fitness and movement skills for participation in various sports activities in the future.

Stages of Development Children Aged 6-11
Physical changes

Children aged 6-11 experience many of physical changes occurring in their bodies. The coordination of arms and legs increases, also ability for use their fingers and hand in such things as crafts and writing improves. Furthermore, can be noticed the growth in interest in games with rules and organised sports.

Intellectual development
Skill development
Physical activity
References

LAM, P Y, 2011. Phisical Actvity. Phisical Actvity for Children Aged 2-6, [Online]. Available at: http://www.startsmart.gov.hk/files/pdf/02052012_physical-Eng-d.pdf [Accessed 13 March 2015].

Physical Development: Age 2–6.[ONLINE] Available at: http://www.cliffsnotes.com/sciences/psychology/development-psychology/physical-cognitive-development-age-26/physical-development-age-26. [Accessed 13 March 2015].

Babies and Young Children: Diploma in Child Care and Education – Jo Brewster, Pauline Jones – Google Books. 2015. [ONLINE] Available at: https://books.google.co.uk [Accessed 14 March 2015].

Appendixes
Table 1 Benefits of physical activity for young children

BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY FOR YOUNG CHILDREN

Physical

Promoting the growth of muscles and bones • Promoting cardio-respiratory endurance • Enhancing immunity • Developing motor skills in preparation for engagement in sports activities in later years • Preventing chronic diseases such as hypertension, obesity, cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes mellitus

Psychological

Building up self-confidence and self-esteem • Learning and building of sportsmanship • Enhancing willpower and perseverance • Shaping the sense of self-worth • Learning to control emotions • Relieving anxiety and pressure

Social

Strengthening communication and presentation skills • Promoting creativity and imagination • Developing a sense of responsibility • Learning to observe rules and respect others

Table 2 Physiological signs and examples of physical activity by intensities

Intensity

Physiological signs

Common activity examples

Light

Breathing rate and heart rate normal; able to talk as usual

Slow walking, playing toys, dressing up, grooming, packing school bag

Moderate

Noticeable increase in heart rate and breathing rate; able to talk in short sentences or word-by-word

Brisk walking, cycling, paddling, playing slides, swinging, circuit games, hopscotch, tossing balls

Vigorous

Significant increase in heart rate and breathing rate; difficult to talk with ease

Running, rope skipping, dancing, playing in park, playing football, swimming