Author: Andre Coleman

1. Introduction

It is well known that physical activity, performed on a regular basis, is associated with significant positive physical and mental effects.

Physical activity plays an important role in the prevention of various chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, ischemic stroke, hypertension, obesity, diabetes mellitus, osteoporosis, colon cancers and fall-related injuries.

The English Chief Medical Officer (CMO) advises that adults should undertake at least 30 minutes of ‘moderate intensity’ (5.0- 7.5 kcal/min) physical activity on at least 5 days of the week to benefit their health.

However, in England the prevalence of physical activity at recommended levels is low. Recent data (2005) show that only 37% of men and 25% of women meet the CMO’s physical activity recommendation.

It is clear that despite these well-known benefits of regular physical activity, sedentary or inactive lifestyle remains a common problem.

To emphasise, at least 60% of the world’s population does not meet the recommended levels of physical activity required to induce health benefits.

In addition, it has been shown that physical inactivity and over-nutrition are associated with a substantial economic burden.

These figures contribute significantly to the World Health Organization data which suggests that globally there are more than one billion overweight and at least 400 million obese adults.

Promotion of physical activity behaviour has therefore become an important objective for the promotion of health and crucial in the prevention of the increasing burden of chronic diseases.

There is a plethora of physical activity interventions in existence and yet there remains little strong evidence as to ‘what works’, particularly in terms of sustainable physical activity behaviour.

Therefore the purpose of this review is to provide a summary of the effectiveness of interventions for physical activity promotion in adults.

This is to enable Durham CSP’s to make informed choices about the provision and promotion of physical activity amongst the communities they serve.

Review of physical activity interventions

2. Method

A synthesis of published work was conducted using a systematic search strategy.

The search strategy employed two main sources to locate published studies of physical activity interventions and given the timescales for this review included meta-analyses and existing qualitative and quantitative systematic reviews of physical activity interventions.

1) Electronic searches of computerised databases (SPORTdiscus, PsychINFO, Medline, Scopus, Highwire Press and PubMed);

2) Citations in papers identified by the electronic searches.

Keyword combinations for the electronic database searches included: physical activity/exercise, physical inactivity, obesity/overweight, treatment, intervention, weight loss/reduction program, promotion, adult and healthy lifestyle program.

The summary report therefore accounts for the evidence detailed in previous reviews in it’s narrative.

2.1Review Process

Searchers yielded 6627 studies of which 904 were reviews.

Importantly, searchers revealed three previously relevant systematic reviews of physical intervention data up to and including 2004 (foster et al., 2005, Hillsdon et al., 2005 and Cavill et al., 2006).

Studies were then evaluated on the basis of abstract and title for suitability based on suitability to review topic and/or intervention design.

As a result 484 studies were identified. The studies were then scrutinised further using the following exclusion criteria, reducing the number to 75 of the most relevant:

primary aim of the study not focused on physical activity promotion

age groups of participants under 16

non-healthy population

non-English language

It was been beyond the scope of this review to provide details of the individual nature of studies.

Instead interventions have been categorised by more general intervention characteristics and where possible salient references to individual interventions have been made.

This report attempts to provide the most up-to-date recommendations regarding future directions of physical activity promotion where at all possible.

The information presented here is supported by a catalogue of pdf’s containing references to all pertinent studies within this review and reviews of a similar nature.

The following summary report outlines the main findings from the review process.

Review of physical activity interventions

3. Evidence for physical activity promotion
3.1 Types of intervention

The evidence for the promotion of physical activity in adults is multi-faceted and varies in terms of quality and intervention design.

Despite the literature growing exponentially there is still a limited resource of high quality effective interventions to promote physical activity.

Generally interventions can be categorised into thee main areas: A brief description of each can be found below with more detailed descriptions including comments on the effectiveness in table 3.1:

3.1.1 Informational approaches

Informational approaches are designed to increase physical activity by providing information necessary to motivate and enable people to change their behaviour, as well as to maintain that change over time.

The interventions use primarily educational approaches to present both general health information, including information about cardiovascular disease prevention and risk reduction, as well as specific information about physical activity and exercise.

Informational approaches aim to:

§ Change knowledge about physical activity benefits

§ Increase awareness of how to increase physical activity in the community

§ Explain how to overcome barriers and negative attitudes about physical activity

§ Increase taking part in community-based activities

3.1.2 Behavioural and social approaches

Behavioural and social approaches focus on increasing physical activity by teaching widely applicable behavioural management skills and by structuring the social environment to provide support for people trying to initiate or maintain behaviour change.

Interventions often involve individual or group behavioural counselling and typically include the friends or family members that constitute an individual’s social environment.

Skills focus on recognising cues and opportunities for physical activity, ways to manage high-risk situations, and ways to maintain behaviour and prevent relapse.

Interventions also involve making changes in the home, family, school, and work environments.

3.1.3 Environmental and policy approaches

Environmental and policy approaches are designed to provide environmental opportunities, support, and cues to help people develop healthier behaviours.

The creation of healthful physical and organisational environments is attempted through development of policy that lends itself to creating supportive environments and strengthening community action.

To affect entire populations, interventions in this category are not directed to individuals but rather to physical and organisational structures.

The goal is to increase physical activity through changing social networks, organisational norms and policies, the physical environment, resources and facilities, and laws.

Review of physical activity interventions

Table 3.1 – Table of types of Physical Activity Interventions (adapted from Kahn et al., 2002)
Intervention typeBrief description of interventionComments on effectiveness

Informational approachesto increasing physical activity

Point of decision prompts

Signs placed by lifts and escalators to motivate people to use nearby stairs.

Messages on the signs recommend stair use for health benefits or weight loss.

Signs are thought to be effective in one of two ways: by reminding people already predisposed to becoming more active, for health or other reasons, about an opportunity at hand to be more active or by informing them of a health benefit from taking the stairs

There is some evidence to suggest that point-of-decision prompts are effective in increasing levels of physical activity in the short term.

This is taken as a measurement of increase in the percentage of people choosing to take the stairs rather than a lift or escalator.

There is no long-term evidence for this approach.

Customising the sign to appeal to specific populations may increase intervention effectiveness

Community-wide campaigns

Community-wide campaigns involve many community sectors in highly visible, broad-based, multiple intervention approaches to increasing physical activity.

Campaign messages are generally directed to large and relatively undifferentiated audiences through diverse media, including television, radio, newspaper columns and inserts, direct mailings, billboards, advertisements in transit outlets, and trailers in movie theatres.

Messages are often communicated in the form of paid advertisements, donated public service announcements, press releases, the creation of feature items, or a combination of two or more of these approaches.

Over the short-term this type of intervention is likely to be effective across diverse settings and population groups.

Effectiveness is enhanced when community members are involved in developing their own ongoing local initiatives (such as walking groups, small community events and sports teams).

Community-wide campaigns require careful planning and coordination, well-trained staff, and sufficient resources to carry out the campaign as planned.

Success is greatly enhanced by community buy-in, which can take a great deal of time and effort to achieve.

Inadequate resources and lack of professionally trained staff may affect how completely and appropriately interventions are implemented.

Community-wide education campaigns may also produce other benefits that can improve health and build social capital in communities i.e. a greater sense of cohesion and collective self-efficacy.

Social networks may also be developed or strengthened to achieve intervention goals, and community members may become involved in local government and civic organisations, thereby increasing social capital.

Mass Media Campaigns

Mass media campaigns are interventions that address messages about physical activity to large and relatively undifferentiated audiences.

The campaigns are designed to increase knowledge, influence attitudes and beliefs, and change behaviour.

Messages are transmitted by using channels such as newspapers, radio, television, and billboards singly or in combination.

Mass media strategies have been found to result in increased knowledge and motivation but have little sustained effect on physical activity participation unless they are combined with other community based strategies.

Mass media campaigns might play important roles in changing awareness of opportunities for and benefits of activity.

Can be used to build support for environmental and policy changes that improve physical activity behaviour and fitness, or both.

Behavioural and social approaches to increasing physical activity

Family-based social support

Family-based interventions attempt to change health behaviour through the use of techniques that increase the support of family members for behaviour change.

Moreover, a supportive social environment has been shown to increase maintenance of behaviour change.

These interventions typically target factors in the social environment and interpersonal and behavioural patterns that are likely to influence physical activity behaviours.

Interventions may be targeted to families with children or to spouses or partners without children. Programs typically include joint or separate educational sessions on health, goal-setting, problem-solving, or family behavioural management and will often incorporate some physical activities.

Families have the potential to influence activity levels of all generations but there is currently limited evidence about the effectiveness of interventions that target families.

The family is a major source of influence for children in the modelling of health behaviours and is, therefore, an appropriate target for intervention. However, the applicability of this type of intervention on adult physical activity participation has yet to be determined.

Social support interventions in community settings

These interventions focus on changing physical activity behaviour through building, strengthening, and maintaining social networks that provide supportive relationships for behaviour change.

This change can be achieved either by creating new social networks or working within pre-existing networks in a social setting outside the family, such as the workplace.

Interventions typically involved setting up a “buddy” system, making a “contract” with others to achieve specified levels of physical activity, or setting up walking or other groups to provide companionship and support while being physically active.

They are effective in helping people gain the skills and confidence needed to start or

resume regular physical activity.

They are effective in increasing physical activity participation in the short term.

Social support strategies also enhance education and skill development by up to 44 per cent.

Social support strategies have been found to be particularly effective for women and

minority community groups

Individually-adapted health behaviour change programs

Individually-adapted health behaviour change programs are tailored to the individual’s readiness for change, specific interests, and preferences.

These programmes teach participants specific behavioural skills that enable them to incorporate moderate-intensity physical activity into daily routines.

Behaviours may be planned (e.g., a daily scheduled walk) or unplanned (e.g., taking the stairs when the opportunity arises).

Many or most of these interventions use constructs from one or more established health behaviour change models such as Social Cognitive Theory,119 A Bandura, Social foundations of thought and action: a social-cognitive theory, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ (1986). the Health Belief Model or the Trans-theoretical Model of change These programs generally incorporate the following behavioural approaches:

setting goals for physical activity and self-monitoring of progress toward goals

building social support for new behavioural patterns

behavioural reinforcement through self-reward and positive self-talk

structured problem-solving geared to maintenance of the behaviour change

prevention of relapse into sedentary behaviours

The majority of these interventions are delivered face-to-face either individually or in groups.

Education and skill development programmes delivered either to an individual or in a group settings have been found to be effective in helping people increase and maintain physical activity in the short term.

They are most effective when they are based on an established theory of behaviour change and include social support strategies.

Structured interventions are resource intensive and rely on individual contact with programmes and practitioners. On their own, they do not have a significant public health impact because their reachis limited to the programme participants.

There is no evidence that more intensive counselling (up to 60 minutes) is any more effective than brief, opportunistic counselling (three to 10 minutes).

Brief advice from a health professional, supported by written materials, is likely to be effective in producing a modest, short-term (6-12 weeks) effect on physical activity

Environmental and policy approaches to increasing physical activity

Policy and environmental interventions focus less on individuals and more on the whole community and organisations (such as schools, workplaces and sporting clubs).

These strategies have considerable potential to increase community-wide physical activity levels by reducing social and environmental barriers to physical activity, and by ensuring the provision of facilities and resources for people to be active.

Policy approaches are needed to bring about changes in social and physical environments, and to act as catalysts for local decision making/makers to support physical activity development.

Characteristics of effective environmental and policy interventions include:

comprehensive long term strategies that focus on the social, physical, economic and policy environment

the involvement of multiple stakeholders from many sectors beyond health, including urban planners, local government, the transport sector, environmental protection agencies, criminal justice organisations, community organisations and special interest groups

the use of interdisciplinary teams and coalitions, including target groups and user groups.

multiple level interventions that focus concurrently on the social, physical, economic and policy environments – these interventions are most likely to be effective and have the potential to yield more sustainable change

the appropriate allocation of resources, given that considerable time is needed to establish policy and effect environmental change

evaluation that includes indicators for changes in attitudes and knowledge, as well as for changes in physical activity behaviour

the use of baseline, monitoring and long term follow-up measures.

Potential barriers to environmental and policy interventions include:

building new facilities is time and resource intensive

enhancing access to facilities requires careful planning, coordination and resources

success is enhanced by community “buy-in”, which takes time, resources and political commitment

in-adequate resources and lack of trained staff may affect the quality of the intervention and its evaluation.

Although limited evidence is available regarding the effectiveness of specific policy components, the literature indicates that a range of policy and environmental have considerable potential to increase community-wide physical activity.

Although the magnitude of change may seem modest compared with that produced by discrete programmes and individual behaviour change interventions, the number of people reached and the sustainability of change represents huge potential for a long term impact.

It is important to note that major infrastructure changes are expensive and can be only implemented gradually through planning and policy change.

The evidence suggests that responsibility must be shared across stakeholder groups, such as the health sector, the transport sector, decision makers in urban design, local government, environment groups and special user groups.

Smaller scale changes can be implemented with relatively low cost, such as strategies to address traffic and personal safety, walking trails, signage and access to walking maps.

There are still issues regarding what specific characteristics of a community are necessary for the optimal implementation of policy and environmental interventions.

It is also as yet undetermined whether creating or improving access to opportunities to be active is sufficient to motivate sedentary people to become active, give those who are already active an increased opportunity to be active, or indeed both.

Review of physical activity interventions

Case study 1: An active transport approach in Australia
4 Physical activity interventions

In general, current evidence suggests that the majority of programmes to promote physical activity in the UK can be sectioned into four categories.

NICE (2006) recently published a report that identified the most commonly used intervention strategies for increasing physical activity as:

§ physical activity referral schemes (PARS) and community based exercise programmes for walking and cycling

§ brief interventions

§ the use of pedometers to promote physical activity

The majority are delivered in or through healthcare/community environments and utilise specialist support.

Table 4.1 provides an overview of the evidence from the categories of interventions listed above.

4.1 What is the evidence like?

In general, despite the number and diversity of approaches to promote physical activity, current evidence presents a limited picture in terms of ‘what works’.

In a recent NICE review commissioned by the HDA (Hillsdon et al., 2005), reviewers concluded that whilst short term changes might be achievable based on current intervention design, long term change (represented by maintained physical activity participation) is much more difficult to achieve.

The review did however; identify key components of interventions that were deemed necessary to promote behaviour change. These were as follows:

§ interventions should be based on theories of behaviour change

§ interventions should teach participants skills relating to the control of behaviour

§ interventions need to tailor the content of the programme to the needs of the individual

§ interventions should seek to promote moderate physical activity and should not be solely focused on facility based physical activity

Interventions are most effective when participants receive regular contact with an exercise specialist, even in brief 3 to 10 minutes sessions. However, this does not represent a long term cost-effective approach.

Review of physical activity interventions

Table 4.1: Overview of the evidence of commonly used physical activity interventions in the UK
InterventionDescription of activitiesSummary of evidenceKey references

Physical activity Referral Schemes (PARS)

An exercise referral scheme typically directs individuals to a service offering an assessment of need, development of a tailored physical activity programme, monitoring of progress and a follow-up.

These programmes are typically 12 weeks in duration.

PARS are often local authority run and funded.

In addition PARS often share a community based physical activity programme element (walking or cycling groups). This is to say that individuals from local communities engage in physical activity together.

These additional (to PARS) community based programmes are often owned by the communities themselves but invariably run under the banner of PARS.

The Fitness Industry Association estimates that there are around 600 schemes in England.

A recent national survey reported that 89% of primary care organisations in England had an exercise referral programme.

It is common, but not exclusive, for PARS to include walking and cycling schemes.

These components are often defined as organised walks or rides and include national initiatives such as ‘walking the way to health’.

These elements of regular participation in moderately intense activity, such as brisk walking and cycling, are associated with health benefits.

They also represent activities that can become part of every day life, such as walking or cycling to work or school,

They are thus perceived more likely to be sustained than activities that require attendance at specific venues.

Despite the number of PARS schemes currently in existence, there is no solid evidence base for their effectiveness

Exercise-referral schemes have a small effect on increasing physical activity in sedentary people, but it is not certain that this small benefit is an efficient use of resources

Adherence to these schemes can be as low as 20-30%

Where increases in physical activity are evidenced these are rarely maintained

PARS also tend to focus on the needs of specific populations i.e. those referred for CHD risk factors, osteoporosis, arthritis, obesity, hypertension.

It is unlikely that these schemes will be of benefit to all individuals

One of the key assumptions with PARS is that individuals will be motivated to participate in physical activity as a consequence of receiving a prescription/advice from the GP

However, current evidence suggests that many individuals lack the lifestyle skills to be able to sustain behaviour change

The key challenges for future schemes are to increase uptake and improve adherence, perhaps by considering readiness to engage in behavioural change, or by considering individual differences in self-determination and behavioural regulation.

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Riddoch C., Puig-Ribera A., Cooper A. Effectiveness of physical activity promotion schemes in primary care: A review . London: Health Education Authority ,1998.

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McKenna J., Naylor P-J., McDowell N. Barriers to physical activity promotion by general practitioners and practice nurses. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 1998: 32: 242-247

Sowden, S L, Raine, R (2008). Running along parallel lines: how political reality impedes the evaluation of public health interventions. A case study of exercise referral schemes in England. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 62: 835-841

Johnston LH , Warwick J., De Ste Croix M., Crone D., Sidford A. The nature of all ‘inappropriate referrals’ made to a countywide physical activity referral scheme: implications for practice . Health Education Journal , 2004: 64(1): 58-69.

Department of Health. Exercise referral systems: A national quality assurance framework. London: Stationery Office, 2001.

Kirk AF, Mutrie N, Macintyre PD, et al.. Promoting and maintaining physical activity in people with type 2 diabetes. Am J Prev Med 2004;27:289-96

Lowther M., Mutrie N., Scott EM Promoting physical activity in a socially and economically deprived community: A 12 month randomized control trial of fitness assessment and exercise consultation . Journal of Sports Sciences, 2002: 20: 577-588

Lamb, S E, Bartlett, H P, Ashley, A, Bird, W (2002). Can lay-led walking programmes increase physical activity in middle aged adults? A randomised controlled trial. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 56: 246-252

Taylor A, Doust J, Webborn N. Randomised controlled trial to examine the effects of a GP exercise referral programme in Hailsham, East Sussex, on modifiable coronary heart disease ri

In the world of sports there is much competition. There is so much that many sport players try to cheat their way through by using performance enhancing drugs. The players use steroids, human growth hormones and many more. All performance enhancing drugs should be banned from sports.

The history of performance enhancing drugs goes back to the 1800s. There were two reported cases before the 1900s. The first known use was by a 24 year old cyclist named Arthur Linton in 1886. He died in a race from Bordeaux to Paris. The cause of death was said to be Typhoid Fever but he was believed to have taken trimethly which is a stimulant. The second known case happened in 1889. A French physician, Charles Edouard Brown-Sequard, extracted testicular fluid from dogs and guinea pigs and injected himself. At a scientific meeting in Paris he announced his findings saying that it made him feel younger and have more energy.

In 1935 German scientists, led by Adolf Butenandt, developed the anabolic steroid. Between 1940 and 1945 the Nazis began testing the steroids on humans. They used prisoners, Gestapos, and Adolf Hitler himself. They found that it causes aggression and with enough use it causes people to go crazy.

In 1954, the United States was given Performance- Enhancing drugs. When the Russians began to become good at powerlifting, a Soviet team doctor revealed his team’s use of testosterone injections to an American weightlifting doctor named John Ziegler. Ziegler then began to work on creating a refined synthesis that would produce a compound with muscle-building benefits of testosterone but without bad side effects such as a prostate enlargement.

The drug he created, called Methandrostenolone, was released by Ciba Pharmaceuticals under the name Dianabol.

In 1973, the German women’s swim team won 10 out of 14 gold medals in the inaugural swimming world championships in Belgrade. As a result, the Olympic committee in 1975 put anabolic steroids on a list of banned substances from the Olympics. Also, on the list, at that time, were any kinds of stimulants.

In 1983, the governing body of Pan Am stripped 3 gold medals from American weightlifter Jeff Michels and they took gold medals from 3 other Latin Americans for testing positive of anabolic steroids. Thirteen other members of the American track and field team withdrew from the Olympics. Overall 23 medals were taken, 11 of them being gold.

In 1988, sprinter Ben Johnson smashed the one hundred meter time by .14 seconds with a time of 9.79 seconds. He was then tested for anabolic steroids. He tested positive and his world record was deleted from the record books.

In 1990 the government stepped in and Congress passed the Anabolic Steroid Control Act which classifies steroids as a Schedule III controlled substance. This means that the trafficking of Anabolic Steroids is no longer a misdemeanor but a felony.

In 2000, Urinalysis tests are improved to detect EPO (erythropoietin). At this time though, blood doping was still undetectable. There are many dangerous risks around blood doping which consist of blood clots, strokes, and thrombosis.

After retiring from baseball in 2002, Kem Caminiti admitted that he used steroids in his 1996 National League Most Valuable Player award winning season. He is quoted saying “I have made a ton of mistakes. I don’t think using steroids is one of them.” In 2004 he died of a heart attack. He was only 41 years old.(Sports Illustrated)

The most recent major case of steroid usage is with Barry Bonds. He was an outfielder for the San Francisco Giants and was first accused of using steroids in 2003 but denied ever using any. The government accused him when they went to his trainer’s house and took papers saying that Bonds had been using an undetectable steroid. He was found guilty on obstruction of justice on April 13, 2011

Performance enhancing drugs should not be used in any sports. They can be harmful to the human body, gives players an unfair advantage, and it does not show true skill.

Many athletes, because of their drive to win, take too high a dose of Performance-Enhancing Drugs causing a high health risk. Both men and women can get bad side effects from them such as an increased risk of tendonitis, liver abnormalities and tumors, hypertension, heart and circulatory problems, prostate gland enlargement, aggressive behaviors, psychiatric disorders, and inhibited growth and development. Many of these are life threatening.

Taking these drugs could be considered cheating as well. While there may be many players in sports taking Performance-Enhancing Drugs, there are still many who do not. For the ones who do not use them they put in hours and hours of hard work to get stronger for the sport they play. Athletes that do take them get the same effect in a much shorter time frame and many of the drugs they take gives them more energy to work out harder and longer.

They also do not show the true skills a player may possess. For example, if a baseball hitter is a weak hitter but then takes steroids and works out while he is on them and gets really big and strong and starts crushing the baseball, he is showing the skills that the drugs helped him create. A Tuft University study showed that steroids can increase home run production by 50 percent showing that steroids are the reason why this weak hitter started crushing the baseball. Steroids help people get stronger a lot faster than if they did not take them.

There are also some good things that come of Performance-Enhancing Drug use in sports. More world records are set, if it was legal then less time and would be used to enforce the drug policy, and the focus turns away from the drugs and back onto the sport that is being played. All of these reasons can all make the sport be more entertaining.

Since these Performance-Enhancing drugs make athletes stronger, more records would be set. A study by a Tuft University physicist found that, on average, taking steroids increases the kinetic energy in a baseball player’s swing by about 10 percent, raises his bat speed by about 5 percent, and boosts the velocity of the hit ball by about 4 percent. These small increases all cause baseballs to travel farther and give players a 50 percent increase in homerun production which makes home run titles much easier to obtain. (Washington Post, Vedantam)

Performance-Enhancing drugs don’t only help baseball players break records, they help all sports. A sprinter by the name of Ben Johnson crushed the previous 100 meter dash record by .14 seconds with a time of 9.79 seconds. After the record breaking feat, he was tested for steroids and the results came back positive causing his record to not count. He would have had sole possession of the record if not for steroid bans.

A weightlifter by the name Jeff Michels won 3 gold medals in the 1983 Olympics because of his use of steroids. His medals were stripped because he tested positive for steroids but that helps to show that steroids do help athletes become stronger and provide for tougher competition. This tougher competition would make people work harder to strive for their goals that they want to achieve.

Money can also be saved if athletes could use Performance-Enhancing drugs. Instead of spending money on doctors to test players and investigators to investigate the players found using the drugs, they could just let it all go and save millions of dollars. With the money they save they could buy new equipment for each team. It would also give the leagues more time to decide on ways to make money.

The focus of league officials would come back to the sport being played. Instead of them worrying about who has been taking Performance-Enhancing drugs and how long they need to suspend that person for, they could worry about who hit a walk-off homerun in the bottom of the 9th or who just won the gold in the Olympics all without worrying about what they did to get so good.

Performance enhancing drugs should not be allowed in any sport ever and the government should stay out of the entire struggle with these drugs in sports. The problems with Performance-Enhancing drugs has increased over the years but if the government stepped in and tried to deal with it, it would just give them another responsibility that they may not be able to handle. They may also be able to take steps that are too drastic such as throwing people in jail.

Performance enhancing drugs are very harmful to the human body and should never be used in sports. They cause many life threatening sicknesses such as heart attacks and heart disease. They also provide unfair advantages and do not show an athlete’s true skill. There are good sides to it as well such as the added strength it gives athletes causes better records, more home runs, faster people, if they were legal then less time would be used to enforce the drug policy, and they would turn the focus away from drugs and back to the sport being played. Even with the good that can come out of Performance Enhancing drugs they are not worth the fatal risks and being known as a cheater for the rest of an athlete’s career. Keep all Performance Enhancing drugs out of sports forever.

Should Performance Enhancing Drugs Be Illegal?

There are many different types of ‘performance enhancing drugs’. Athletes commonly use performance enhancing drugs to boost endurance, strength, adrenaline, energy, stamina and concentration. This essay will elaborate on reasons as to why performance enhancing drugs should be illegal in all codes of sport, specifically. These three main reasons include the effects performance enhancing drugs can have on an athlete’s person, integrity of athletes and sporting events or meets. As well as disadvantages other competitors, who choose not to use performance enhancing drugs, experience and are not creating an even playing field.

Sporting competitions and events are at their most competitive and entertaining when all athletes are using their naturally abilities and not relying on performance enhancing drugs to power their efforts. Sporting competitions are supposed to be a showcase of a person’s natural ability, their mental strength and how far they can push their bodies whilst performing against some of the best athletes in the world. Sporting competitions should not allow the use of performance enhancing drugs because they change the natural ability and make-up of the athlete and their performance, possibly awarding the athlete with untrue medals and prizes for their supposed achievements.

Athletes not using performance enhancing drugs, whether this is due to the athlete not wanting to risk their health by taking performance enhancing drugs, not being able to fund the taking of drugs or just because they think it is wrong, can be disadvantaged compared to athletes who do take the drugs. These specific athletes have the tendency to have higher achieving, performance enhancing drug using, athletes chosen over them for positions in teams and events. This then causes non-drug taking athletes to spend less time practicing their chosen sport, to lose money if competing in professional competitions, to lose mental and physical strength as well as compromise personal success. Also a majority of division one competitions involve teenagers as well as adults. Taking performance enhancing drugs for a teenager would have a worse side affect on their body than it would on an adult.

Sportsmen who use performance enhancing drugs may suffer physical effects including liver and kidney damage, baldness, skin discolouration, testicular shrinkage, a higher voice, infertility and breast growth. Women however, may experience liver and kidney damage, deepening of the voice, breast reduction, menstrual cycle irregularities and facial hair growth. As well as these physical effects, men and women both can be subject to emotional distress, severe mood swings, hallucinations and violence on and off the field. Performance enhancing drugs, if taken by an adolescent, can cause long term health problems and stunt the person’s further development. A recent study of high school students in America shows that statistics on students who used steroids rose from 1.2% of 40 kids to 1.7% of 40 kids in one year.

Therefore, performance enhancing drugs can cause complications on an athlete’s health, mentally and physically, are untrue to what sporting events are about and their ethics and disadvantage many athletes as well as imbalance the playing field. All of these reasons strongly indicate that performance enhancing drugs should be illegal in all codes of competitive sport.

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URL:http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/184_03_060206/orc10359_fm.html

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this report is to provide information about the participation level of people of Scotland in Football. This report is based on the findings in the document from sportscotland: Sports Participation in Scotland 2007, Research Digest no. 108. Interviewing is done using the questions from the Scottish Opinion Survey (SOS) run by the TNS System Three. The results of the findings are based on interviewing about 1000 adults comprising approximately 480 men and 520 women and 250 children every month. This shows that there is a consistency in the sample size with age and sex of the people interviewed. Football has been one of the most popular and frequent participating sports among others both with children and adults of both sexes. This report will focus on a three year basis survey on the trends and the participation level in football.

PARTICIPATION OF CHILDREN IN FOOTBALL

Football has been the most popular sports with children (8-15 years) during the survey years. According to the survey 52% children have participated in football at least once a month between 2005 and 2007. Swimming is ranked second with a participation level of 37% only.

PARTICIPATION OF CHILDREN BY SEX

A more detailed approach can be made to explain the popularity of the sports considering the sex of the participants. With boys aged between 8 years and 15 years football has been the most popular sport with a very high participation level of 74.5%. Cycling is second to football with a participation level of only 36%. Popularity of the sport is considerably low with girls who are aged between 8 years and 15 years. Football participation is only 27% with girls of this age group who are more attracted to swimming (42.9%), cycling (34.8%) and dancing (31.1%).

FREQUENCY OF PARTICIPATION WITH CHILDREN

Frequency of participation refers to the average number of days participated in four weeks. With boys and girls aged between 8 years and 15 years the frequency has been calculated excluding the data from the peak months. The frequency of participation in football at least once a month for the three year period is 3.1 making it the most popular sport among the children. Average number of days participated in a month is 3.4 by boys of the age between 8 years and 15 years while with the girls of the same age group the number is 2.3.

FOR CHILDREN FOOTBALL IS NOT A SEASONAL SPORT

The findings show that participation of children in football remains the same all over the year both with boys and girls. Participation level in the peak months was found to be exactly the same as they were all over the year excluding the peak months. This suggests that football does not attract children only in the peak months. It is a sport where the children keep themselves engaged throughout a year hence not making it a seasonal sport.

NATURE OF PARTICIPATION AMONG CHILDREN

Participation in football has been in different forms. Children play their football in streets or gardens or wastelands where they are very relaxed and in a lesser competitive mood. They also participate in 11-a-side matches and 5-a-side indoor and outdoor matches.

Majority of the children (34%) participating in the sport played in streets or gardens or wastelands the survey being done in peak months. Only 17% of them participate in 11-a-side games out of which 26% are boys and 6% are girls.

Table 1: Participation of children (8-15 years) in different forms of the game by sex (at least once a month) 2005-07: peak months

All

%

Boys

%

Girls

%

In street/garden/wasteland

34

49

17

11-a-side games

17

26

6

5-a-side games (all)

17

26

6

5-a-side games (outdoor)

13

20

4

5-a-side games (indoor)

8

11

4

Notes:

Percentage of participation in football for children was 52. The figures in all participants’ column for street/garden/wasteland, 11-a-side games and 5-a-side games (all) sum up to 68, because of multiple participations. Similarly the figures of 5-a-side indoor and outdoor rows sum up to 21 instead of 17, because of multiple participations. This illustration holds true for the other columns also. Total participation for boys was 74% and for girls was 27%.

PARTICIPATION OF CHILDREN THROUGH CLUB MEMBERSHIP

Participation in football in less competitive levels has resulted in low club memberships (28%). 31% of boys who play football are members of a club while only 16% of girls playing football have a club membership. This shows that boys were around twice as likely as girls to be the member of a football club.

TRENDS IN PARTICIPATION OF CHILDREN OVER THE LAST 10 YEARS (1998-2007)

Looking at the trends in participation in football for children (8-15 years) over the past 10 years on a 3 year basis survey it can be concluded that there has been a gradual decrease in participation level but it has been always above 50% making the sport most popular among others over the years.

PARTICIPATION OF ADULTS IN FOOTBALL

When it comes to adults (16+), the results are based on surveys during the peak months and in the same time frame participation level in football (10%) is only second to swimming (16%). This decline in participation is understandable as participation in sport is strongly age-related. The survey shows that participation in some type of sport is 96% with children aging between 8 years and 11 years (excluding PE). This figure goes down to 29% with the over 55 category.

PARTICIPATION OF ADULTS BY SEX

Considering sex of participants, football has been the most popular sport with men with a participation level of 18.9%. Results show that football loses its popularity with adult women considerably and the participation level is as low as 2.3%. These results are based on participation in peak months.

FREQUENCY OF PARTICIPATION WITH ADULTS

The frequency of participation of adults in football during the peak months is 1.6 and has not been among the most frequent sports with the likes of cycling (3.8), horse riding (3.2), etc. The average number of days when adult men participated in football is 1.6 while the figure is 1.5 with women.

NATURE OF PARTICIPATION AMONG ADULTS

Adult men and women have played their football in the different forms of the game. They have played in the streets, gardens or wastelands. They also have participated in 11-a-side and 5-a-side games.

Unlike children, adult men have taken part in more competitive games than those who have played in streets, gardens or wastelands. Women have very little participation in competitive games with less than 0.5% participating in 11-a-side games and only 1% in 5-a-side games.

Table 2: Participation of adults (16+) in different forms of the game by gender (at least once a month) 2005-07: peak months

All

%

Men

%

Women

%

In street/garden/wasteland

4

5

2

11-a-side games

3

6

*

5-a-side games (all)

6

13

1

5-a-side games (outdoor)

4

9

*

5-a-side games (indoor)

4

7

*

Note:

Percentage of participation in football for adults was 10. The figures in all participants’ column for street/garden/wasteland, 11-a-side games and 5-a-side games (all) sum up to 13, because of multiple participations. Similarly the figures of 5-a-side indoor and outdoor rows sum up to 8 instead of 6, because of multiple participations. This illustration holds true for the other columns also. Total participation for men was 19% and for girls was 2%.

The asterisk (*) indicates less than 0.5% participation.

PARTICIPATION OF ADULTS THROUGH CLUB MEMBERSHIP

Percentage of adult football participants who are the members of a club is 25. 27% of male football participants have a club membership while only 6% of female who play football are club members. This shows that men are four and a half times more likely to take a club membership as are women.

TRENDS IN PARTICIPATION OVER THE LAST 13 YEARS (1994-2007)

The trends in participation in football for adults over the past 13 years on a three year basis survey show a good consistency with the participation level ranging between 9% and 11%.

CONCLUSION

Club membership has been low in football for both children between 8 years and 15 years and adults over 16 years. Only a quarter (25%) of the adult participants in football is club members while with children the figure is just above the quarter mark (28%). This is mainly due to the nature of the participation. Around two-thirds (49% of the 74%) of the number of boys aged between 8 years and 15 years have played their football in streets or gardens or wastelands throughout the year. A major portion of the girls participating in football (17% of the 27%) have played in the same form of the game. This might also be considered as a reason for the gradual decrease in the trend of participation in football among children. Children might be encouraged to become members of different clubs by organizing free coaching sessions once or twice a week round the year for club members. Other attractions may include more competitive football matches between clubs in different forms of the game to ensure maximum participation. This might also encourage them to continue with participation at an older age.

Identify and evaluate the influences a parent can have on their child’s sport or physical activity.

A child’s involvement in sport or physical activity starts from a very early age and is

an important factor to their development in terms of their social skills, self esteem

and their level of health. Children who are physically active tend to be healthier and

reduce the risk developing health issues such as obesity and more serious health

issues in later life. The department of health (DOH) (2010) reports that current

recommendations for physical activity for children is that all children aged between 5

and 18 years old take part in 1 hour of physical activity every day. In 2006 70% of

boys and 59% girls were active for 1 hour per day. However, the level of physical

activity fell in girls over the age of 15 years to 45% (DOH, 2010). In terms of social

skills it can benefit a child psychologically by giving them a sense of well being and

increase self esteem. Healthy behaviours that are adopted from an early age will

hopefully continue throughout their adult lives. There are a range of influences that

impact on a child’s physical activity or sport involvement. A fundamental starting

point is parents, peers and teachers. Keegan et al (2009) states that parents play a

vital role in the influence of motivating their child to play sport . The role of the

coach/teacher focuses heavily on the instruction and assessment of the child, The

influence from peers is through competitiveness, collaborative and social behaviours. .

Role modelling has been suggested as a huge form of influence in relation to a

childs participation in sport. This is where children mirror the behaviours of their

parents, this is known as observational learning or modelling (Bandura, 1986).

Bandura argued that there is a four step process in observational learning these are

Attention, where the individual sees the behaviour being carried out. If the attention

is detracted this will have a negative effect on observational learning. Memory,

where the individual is able to store and recall the observed behaviour. Behaviour,

where the individual must have the skill to reproduce the behaviour, and motivation,

this describes the individual having the motivation to carry out the behaviour when

they have the opportunity to do so. Bandura’s research found that when someone

witnessed certain behaviour they were more inclined to adopt that behaviour of their

own for example active parents have active children (Freedson and Eveson, 1991).

However Trost et al (2003) suggested that parental role modelling may not be a

sufficient influence of sport. He reported that parental support was associated with a

child’s involvement in physical activity both directly and indirectly through positive

perceptions. Parental support includes parental enjoyment of the sport or physical

activity, the parents perceived importance and the parental behaviour towards sport

and physical activity. Parents cannot help their child develop skills, however parental

supportive behaviours for example travel, offering lifts to practice, buying equipment,

allowing practice time and observing activities (Keegan et al, 2009) increased levels

of confidence. Children whose parents exhibited positive beliefs and behaviours

about their childs competency reported higher levels of competence (Babkes and

Weiss, 1999). Parents who perceive their child to have ability are much more

likely to provide that emotional support. A parent’s level of physical activity is not

directly linked with their children, however active parents are more likely to have

active children through encouraging behaviour and providing them with more

opportunities.

In a study by Bois et al (2005) they also found that parents can affect their childs

involvement in sport and physical activity both direct and indirectly. This is through

role modelling and through beliefs of their child’s competence. Both fathers and

mothers are influential in different ways by different processes. Mothers adopt a

more indirect approach by giving love, praise and encouragement. Where fathers

have a very different approach and are more direct by giving specific advice on how

to improve their skills and saying if they performed good or bad. The more a

child perceived that they were competent in an activity the more likely they were to

engage in that activity (Laprinzi, 2010). Access to physical activity is an important

responsibility for parents. How parents perceive our parks and playgrounds is an

issue for children living in todays society and can often rely on after school activities

such as football and gymnastics.

Eccles theory focuses on parents shaping their child motivation through their own

beliefs and values . Eccles et al (1991) stated that parental beliefs form an important

platform in socialization behaviours. Parents who expect a child to be successful in a

sport will display behaviours that will influence a child’s motivation to pursue this

sport or activity. These behaviours are normally displayed in relation to their own

beliefs and the child’s beliefs are developed through the feedback in which they

receive from their parents. Parental values refer to how important a particular sport

or activity is to their child and the value it holds. For example how important is my

child’s participation in football as opposed to swimming .This would normally be

based on the parent’s beliefs and how they perceive their child’s competency at that

particular sport. More importantly children will adopt both parent’s beliefs and their

motivation will arise from beliefs originated by their parents. The Eccles model was

originally developed to explain socialized gender differences in children’s

achievement and motivational behaviours “it does not predict the nature of parent’s

involvement in sport in a competitive sport setting” .

Parents who stereotype gender roles influence the nature of socialization. Studies

have shown that parent’s perceptions of their child’s competency can be greatly

influenced by their child’s gender. Parents who believe that boys should play sport

will be encouraged to be more physically active than girls and work harder in sport

(Eccles and Harold, 1991).Parents may also be seen to encourage ‘gifted’ children

but de emphasise with less skilled children. However in a study by Kimmerick et al

(1998) they found that neither mothers or fathers had gender differentiated

perceptions of their child’s competence.

Important research is needed to explore the affects of parental involvement in sport,

as parents are highly involved and visible in sport, they can influence their child not

only positively but negatively . Although research is limited it’s important that we

gain a better understanding of a parent’s involvement and behaviour in competitive

youth sport. Low levels of pressure and less emotion and high parental satisfaction

and praise have all lead to a Child’s motivation and enjoyment of sport. However,

over parental involvement has lead to anxiety (Fredricks and Eccles, 2004). In other

research parents that are more involved in competitive youth sport has been

highlighted by sports organisations. Researchers are becoming more aware of the

type of behaviours that parents display in competitive youth sport and call for more

research on parent’s actual behaviours (Holt et al, 2008).

The manner in which a child perceives or interprets a message from their parents will

influence their psychosocial and affective outcomes (Eccles et al, 1991). If parents

provide positive comments and re enforcement following an activity this promotes

intrinsic motivation and has a positive affect (Babkes and Weiss, 1999). However,

negative comments and lack of re enforcement produces low intrinsic motivation.

Expectations and behaviours from parents are concerns which have been

acknowledged by coaches and the behaviours of the coach is often seen as

problematic by parents. Parents and coaches need to come to an understanding that

they both have important roles to play. Parents need to acknowledge that coach will

have goals and objectives and will need to critically evaluate their childs performance

in addition to offering experience and expertise, parents should support this role.

Cox (2010) suggested that the role of the coach and the parent should be

dual rather than independent, although we are able to differentiate between the

coach-athlete role and parent-athlete role. A coach displays behaviours of instruction

in response to skills thus increasing intrinsic motivation and self esteem this

perceives greater autonomy which relate to satisfaction and enjoyment of the sport.

Whilst it is important that parents have a level of involvement in their child’s sport or

physical activity it should be addressed that success will depend on the quality of

parental involvement. Over involved parents result in high levels of parental pressure

can lead to lowered self esteem. Where parents who lack interest in the child’s

activity they are unlikely to provide any emotional support resulting in their child not

taking part or seeking support from elsewhere for example teachers or coaches

(Wuerth et al, 2002). Parental involvement lies on a continuum and somewhere in

the middle would be ideal. Undoubtedly parents play a highly fundamental role in

their child’s sport or physical activity and can be identified through modelling,

support, direct in indirect help and by providing opportunities (Cox, 2008). Parent’s

beliefs, values and behaviours have a huge influence on their child. How a parent

perceives their child’s competence or ability can influence the level of emotional

support they provide thus determine how successful their child may become in sport.

References

Anderson, C.B., Hughes, S.O., Fuemmeler, B.F. (2009)’ Parent-Child Attitude Congruence on Type and Intensity of Physical Activity: Testing Multiple Mediators of Sedentary Behaviour in older children.’ Health Psychology. American Psychological Association 2009. 28 (4) pp. 428-438

Babkes, M. L., & Weiss, M. R. (1999). ‘Parental influence on children’s cognitive and affective responses to competitive soccer participation.’ Pediatric Exercise Science 11, pp.44-62

Bois, J.E., Sarrazin, P.G., Brustad, R.J., Trouilloud, D.O., Cury, F. 2005 ‘Elementary schoolchildren’s perceived competence and physical activity involvement: the influence of parents’ role modelling behaviours and perceptions of their child’s competence’ Psychology of Sport and Exercise 6 (2005) pp.381-397

Cox, M., Schofield, G., Kolt, G.S.’Responsibility for children’s physical activity: Parental, child, and teacher perspectives’ Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 13 (2010) pp. 46-52

Department of health (DOH) http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publichealth/Healthimprovement/PhysicalActivity/index.htm

[accessed 22nd March 2010]

Eccles, J. S., & Harold, R. D. (1991) ‘Gender differences in sport involvement: Applying the Eccles expectancy-value model’.Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 3 pp. 7-35.

Fredricks, J. A., & Eccles, J. S. (2005). ‘Family socialization, gender, and sport motivation and involvement.’ Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 27 pp. 3-31

Freedson, P. S., & Evenson, S. (1991). ‘Familial aggregation in physical activity. ‘Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 62 pp. 384-389

Holt, N.L., Tamminena, K.A., Blacka, D.E., Sehna. Z.L., Wallb, M.P.

‘Parental involvement in competitive youth sport settings’ Psychology of Sport and Exercise 9 (2008) pp.663-685

Keegan, R.J., Harwood, C.G., Spray, C.M., Lavallee, D.E. 2009 ‘A qualitative investigation exploring the motivational climate in early career

sports participants: Coach, parent and peer influences on sport motivation’

Psychology of Sport and Exercise 10 (2009) pp. 361-372

Loprinzi, P.D., Trost, S.G.’Parental influences on physical activity behaviour in preschool children’ Preventive Medicine 50 (2010) pp.129-133

Trost, S.G., Sallis. J.F., Pate, R.R, Freedson, P.S., Taylor, W.C., Dowda,M.’ Evaluating a Model of Parental Influence on Youth Physical Activity’ Am J Prev Med (2003)

Wuerth, S., Lee, M.J., Alfermann. D.’Parental Involvement and athletes’ career in youth sport’ Psychology of Sport and Exercise 5 (2004). Pp. 21-33

1. Introduction

On 6th July in Year 2005, London has been selected as the host cit of 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games . The Olympic Games will be held on 27 July 2012, with the Paralympics following from 29 August 2012, (, House of Commons – Public Accounts – Thirty-Ninth Report) therefore, the organizations which have the provision of a fixed duration of the Olympic Games related. Progress has been made in a number of areas London was chosen to host the Games, in the key projects, re-routing underground Olympic Park, including the power line. (The Report of 2012 London Olympics, 2009) Olympic Delivery Authority has also begun the procurement activities, including the appointment of Delivery Partners, to support the management of Olympic Delivery in venues and infrastructure. (Annual Report and Accounts 2006-2007, Olympic Delivery Authority)

1.1Experiences of Olympic regeneration

l The failure of Helliniko Olympic Complex after 2004

There were 22 permanent new venues built for the 2004 game. The rest of the competition venues have been renovated to cater for larger audiences.

Only one out of the 33 competing venues was temporary and intended for removal afterward.

Helliniko Olympic complex (one of the two Olympic complexes):

—Six Sporting venues: Kayak, Hockey, Baseball, Softball and two indoor arenas.

—The complex has been left derelict since 2004.

l Successes in Atlanta

Before the Olympic, the Centennial Olympic Park’s neighbourhood was a run-down as is East London.

After the Olympics, the 21-acre park performs a dual mission as:

—Georgia’s lasting legacy of the Centennial Olympic Game

be located in Stratford, East London, Lower Lea Valley, and houses the main venue of the following:

The Olympic Stadium

The Aquatics Centre

The Hockey Centre

The Velopark (Containing Velodrome and BMX Circuit)

Four Multi-Sports Areas (in one building)

(Construction Projects of the 2012 London Olympics, 2006)

(London 2012 Constructing the Olympic reality, Andrew Bolton)

2. Construction Projects

For the construction industry, the London Olympic and Paralympic Games Organizing Committee said it would involve a 80,000 – seat Olympic stadium, an Aquatics Centre, 4 Multi-Sports Arenas, a Velopark, Hockey Center, as well as numerous training, catering broadcasting development and security facilities. (http://www.colby.edu/personal/t/thtieten/trans-jap.html)With regard to the Olympic Village, the Committee also mentioned that it would consist of approximately 4,000 residential accommodation units, which will be the construction of housing 17000 athletes and officials, the formation of more than 200 nations.(Consrtcution Projects of the 2012 London Olympics,2006)

The most important is that these long-term achievements are very wide-ranging and, directly or indirectly related to property, redevelopment and construction activities, sustainability, regeneration and infrastructure.(http://www.constructuk.com,2006)

2.1 Master plan in Construction

From the report of “Construction Projects of the 2012 London Olympics”, explained, the Olympic Park master plan by the London Development Agency (LAD) and BuroHappold from leading industry consultants including engineers, project managers and architects Huokemeisi Team support to sports, Alies and Morrison, Foreign Office Architects, consulting Faithful and Gould and Mott MacDonald.(Construction Projects of the 2012 London Olympics,2006)

The overall plan for research, it is easy to find, the Olympic Games will be held at venues across the country with the main focus on the Olympic Park. The park will be located in Stratford, East London, Lower Lea Valley, and houses the main venue of the following:

The Olympic Stadium

The Aquatics Centre

The Hockey Centre

The Velopark (Containing Velodrome and BMX Circuit)

Four Multi-Sports Areas (in one building)

(Construction Projects of the 2012 London Olympics,2006)

(London 2012 Constructing the Olympic reality, Andrew Bolton)

2.2 The Strategy for Sustainable Construction

The sustainable construction strategy (http://www.dft.gov.uk/about/strategy/transportstrategy/hmtlsustaintranssys?page=2) is a joint industry and Government initiative designed to promote leadership and behavior change, as well as provide the benefit in the construction industry and the overall economy. Its purpose is to achieve sustainable development and construction of a common vision: to provide a clarity business-to-the Government’s position, so that a variety of regulations and measures for sustainability; Setting and commitment to higher standards in order to help achieve the specific areas of sustainability; Production industry and the Government’s specific commitments to take sustainable construction agenda forward. (The big build: structures Milestones to 27 July 2010, Olympic Delivery Authority, 2009)

3. Transportation

By the Sixth Special Report of Session 2006-2007, which belongs to the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games Transport concluded that in all of the plans to provide the delivery system acrossed all the model is fully established, they are expected to reach the propose which bellowed: (Transport for the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympics Games: The Draft Transport plan: Olympic Delivery Authority Response to the Committee’s Third Report of Session 2006-2007, the House of Commons, 2007) In order to make the best use of existing transport infrastructure, form improve service levels to achieve the best possible value for the money, and only the establishment of new infrastructure where it is vital and leaves a legacy. The use of cost-effective temporary solution, if necessary, to meet the temporary peaks which demand for the travel of the Olympic Games in the absence of inheritance. If the new infrastructure or services needed for the ODA’s strategy is to utilize existing expertise and processes to deliver them. The ODA has been delivered with partners in the UK under a series of agreements and Britain’s well establishment of transportation industries, offering on behalf of railway projects. Partners include Transport for London (TfL), Network Rail and Docklands Light Railway (DLR), each of the implementation of projects of all transportation experience. This experience has been further strengthened directly related to work into the management of recruiting a lot of experience in ODA transport team. (London 2012 Accessible Transport Strategy for the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games, May 2008)

3.1 The strategy for Transport

And about the strategy of accessible can use: The 2012 Olympic Games will be a catalyst to improve the whole of London and the UK’s transport network accessibility. The Olympic Delivery Authority (ODA) target for 100% of the spectators’ access by public transport, cycling or on foot to the Olympic Games. And also make sure the ticket to the Games, including free travel by public transport in London for the activities of the day to encourage the spectators to use the transport system. There will be a 35 km pedestrian and cycle paths, an area of increasing. (These slides refer form London 2012 Accessible Transport Strategy for the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games May 2008)

3.11 Docklands Light Railway (DLR)

Docklands Light Railway Limited (DLRL) (http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/modesoftransport/1530.aspx)is the organization; with the railway’ own assets. In the Department of Transportation as part of its role is to oversee operation of the railway and program development to meet the needs of the east.

Form the report of the 2012 Olympics; it mentioned that ODA co-funding early procurement form 22 additional rail cars to 55 of the beginning of the formation of three-cars to run in 2012 (rather than two-cars operators).The new requirements, under-river channel expansion of Woolwich Arsenal’s official development assistance has made a contribution to the signal and power engineering. The first tunneling drivers southwards to Arsenal station completed in December last year. And also a wide range of infrastructure projects across the DLR; which affect a network of 17 to three-car trains in 2012 (in a 50 per cent of the capacity between Lewisham and the Bank to increase). To guaranteed the ability to Prince Regent Station and Customs House official station development assistance funds to serve the Excel event improvement works. Ensure that City Airport expansion on time and below the budget. Then the new platform of DLR and access in Stratford Regional Station to the service needs of long-term growth. ODA is co-financing of the North London Line into the operation of the DLR operation, South and East of Stratford Regional Station, which is in progress. (http://www.communities.gov.uk/thamesgateway/overview/london/lewisham,2009)

3.12 London Underground

All Line train lengthening the individual increase of 17 per cent capacity (has been already completed, in January 2006), moving block signals will be installed in order to reduce 25 percent in December 2009 journey time, further enhance capacity. In addition, there are several large background schemes between 2009 and 2012; including all District line trains refurbished fulfill the plan. (Transport for the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games: The Draft Transport plan: Olympic Delivery Authority Response to the Committee’s Third report of Session 2006-07, the House of Commons, 2007)

3.13 National Rail Projects

In particular, the ODA is essential to stable away from the Stratford Train parking facilities to the west of the Lea Valley railway lines. West Ham station enhances passenger service for mainline commuter station signals increase the capacity of trains per hour stopping. In a wide range of capabilities, more and more on the design and preparation of Stratford Regional Station to start the project site. In addition, there are eight local, regional or national railway projects schemes to improve railway transportation capacity, reliability and travel for all users (http://www.dgp.utoronto.ca/people/modjeska/Cities/lynch.html), the ambience, as well as the Olympic Games provide specific benefits, these include:

(1) Enhanced to a higher frequency among the metro style between Richmond and Stratford-service of the North London Line. (http://www.dft.gov.uk/about/strategy/transportstrategy/hmtlsustaintranssys?page=2) (2) By the summer of 2010 to extend the delivery and reconstruction of East London Line Highbury and Islington, connect with Stratford (http://www.railwaypeople.com/rail-projects/stratford-city-development-17.html), in the North and Crystal Palace in the south of London. (http://www.dft.gov.uk/about/strategy/transportstrategy/hmtlsustaintranssys?page=2) (3)Between the completion of St Pancras, Stratford International, Ebbsfleet and Paris/Brusseis, it has the high-speed connection. (Transport for the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympics Games: The Draft Transport plan: Olympic Delivery Authority Response to the Committee’s Third Report of Session 2007-2007, the House of Commons, 2007) (http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200607/cmselect/cmtran/484/48404.htm)

4. Community

It is clear that regeneration goal: into a new prosperous and sustainable society of the Olympic Park in east London, and as an investment and development opportunities, the success of the catalyst.

During the Olympics, in 246 hectares of Olympic Park facilities include permanent and temporary facilities, including the Olympic stadium, the aquatics center and velodrome. There will also be the Olympic Village, media center and new parks, all over the Lea Valley waterways. (, 2009)

After the Olympics, the park’s sports legacy will be in fulfilling our plans and to participate in community’s traditional elite sports core of the obligations. The focus of activities and its affiliated schools sports facilities will be retained for sports clubs and local communities, as well as the adaptation of elite and amateur athletes.

Another 1 million new homes will develop the Olympic Park itself. These 40% will be used for families; a large proportion of affordable housing.They will participate in all of the elements of a good community: schools, libraries, shops, cafes, restaurants, green space and community facilities, to the development of the major cultural and tourist attractions. (The budget for the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games Fourteenth Report of Session 2007-08, Home of Common Community of Public Accounts)

Has the improvement of transport services, and many parks are under way, including the Docklands Light Railway extension, an increase of the silver-line capabilities and Stratford Regional Station upgrade.Around the park, people enjoy through the canal Towpath, footpaths and cycle networks, greater access to parks and open spaces.

5. Case study

These cases play the significant role for the 2012 London Olympic Games and Paralympic Games, which are Lewisham, Stratford, and Canary Warf.

5.1 Lewisham

Lewisham as one of the closest geographical neighbors to the host boroughs, Lewisham represents a gateway to the games and the capital.

Lewisham town center is the city’s major retail area and an important railway hub with mainline, Docklands Light Railway (DLR) and bus interchanges.

Lewisham Couil is ready to care the realization of the Gateway scheme focuses on the city center plan of action. The scheme will provide 1,000 new homes, new shopping and improve the environment. (http://www.communities.gov.uk/thamesgateway/overview/london/lewisham/lewishamtown/)(http://www.communities.gov.uk/thamesgateway/overview/london/lewisham, 2009)The Gateway development is the key to eliminate the existing roundabout to make better use of land is currently surrounded by traffic.

Rearrange the road at the junction of the railway line; new development opportunities are being created. This will create a well-designed transport interchange, new housing and new employment opportunities; enhance the existing town center links. (http://www.communities.gov.uk/thamesgateway/overview/london/lewisham2009)In the further investment plans of the High Street, this center with regard to the expansion and reconstruction of Valley shopping center and public areas renovated.At the appropriate time, in the Lewis Grove Island and Engate Street redevelopment may occur as soon as possible. Other areas, the planning consent of more than 200 homes each year, including Thurston Road and Venson Sites.

5.2 Stratford

This massive development plan will bring nearly 5,000 homes and 30,000 jobs to Stratford, and has obtained outline-planning consent. Newham Council’s Development Control and Licensing Committee approve the Stratford City development; will change rundown rail lands as a major shopping and commercial area. ()

The plan includes 465,000 square meters of offices, about 11,000 people, 150,500 square meters of retail space, up to the 2000 hotel bedrooms in 4,850 new homes. There is also a drop-in in health centers and primary health care center, plus community facilities including an employment bureau and youth facilities. (,2009) There will be a four-form of primary and secondary school, which could for 900 students, a four-classroom nursery and facilities for lifelong learning, plus a large number of public open spaces, games areas and water features facilities. A library, tourist information centers, nurseries, day-care facilities, public services and security offices, offices and civil society groups and religious sites, facilities, facilities are being planned. (http://www.contractjournal.com/constructionspace/photos/olympic-park/olympic-park-projected-view-looking-south-982.aspx, 2009)

The application will now be referred to the Mayor of London, Deputy Prime Minister’s Office and the Secretary of State for Transport. (http://www.contractjournal.com/constructionspace/photos/olympic-park/olympic-park-projected-view-looking-south-982.aspx, 2009)

Also must rise to a legal agreement between all parties in order to reduce environmental and transport network development. Newham accepted as part of the agreement at any time ?150.4 million pounds welfare of the community.

The project covers an area of 73 crosses the railway land, has become with the railway industry to reduce redundant. (http://www.contractjournal.com/constructionspace/photos/olympic-park/olympic-park-projected-view-looking-south-982.aspx, 2009) Consultation exercise has been going on between the local planning authorities, statutory undertakers, transport bodies, the major landowners and local communities.

Stratford City scheme, including 4500 for the 11,000 inhabitants, 46.5 million square meters of commercial office space and 15 million square meters of the town center, a total of three department stores and 120 shops and cafes. (http://www.contractjournal.com/constructionspace/photos/olympic-park/olympic-park-projected-view-looking-south-982.aspx, 2009) The development surrounds the Startford Channel Tunnel Rail Link international station, which will open in 2007. The proposed of Stratford City will begin construction in 2006, completed in 2009 following the development of the city center and 2020, the stage of completion. This will create a new business area as a gateway to Europe, only 2 hours from Paris to London. The new Stratford International Station will be placed within easy reach of the railway in Europe. (http://www.rao;waypeople.com/rail-projects/stratford-city-development-17.html, 2009) The development will create local employment opportunities for local people, including the 15000 construction jobs and up to 30,000 retail and office work.

5.3 Canary Wharf

Canary Wharf is home to a high concentration of headquarters and is an established financial services centre rivalling the City.(Preparations for the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games— Risk assessment and management, Thirty-ninth Report of Session 2006-2007, House of Commons Committee of Public Accounts

) Companies, including Barclays Bank, Reuters, Citigroup, HSBC and Morgan Stanley. About 65,000 people work here and the region is expected by 2010, employing 10 million people- including 3,000 employees, to 70,000 volunteers and a lot of contractors. ()

To the area offer most affordable rates for a number of commercial and industrial property accumulations in London. The A13 and A2 corridors either the River Thames east side of the corridor is more active regions running the new industrial and logistics development. Canary Wharf offers some of the best office space in London. (http://www.telegrapgh.co.uk/sport/othersports/olympics/london2012/5925603/london-2012-olympic-legacy-company-set-to-create-new-east-london-community.html, 2009) Contrast to the Commerce: from High-Profile, award-winning range of the region’s Canary Wharf development in a well-developed environmental technology, manufacturing, R & D, logistics and distribution centers of industrial facilities.

East London City Airport is designed for business travel. Quick check-in service, management personnel can sit less than 30 minutes after the aircraft left the desk. London International Airport is all within 60 minutes of Canary Wharf. The Jubilee line connects Stratford and Canary Wharf’s major railway terminals, while the Docklands Light Railway (DLR) to connect Canary Wharf and other East London City and direct. This station serves the heart of Canary Wharf’s financial and media district. It architecturally stuns station, includes over 200 shops, waterside bars and restaurants. (http://www.thinkinglondon.html, 2009)

6. Conclusion

As we have known, the Olympics take more effects to London, to UK. However, from another side, whether we think about the slides below:

The movement of middle class families into urban areas causing property values to rise and having the secondary effect of driving out poorer families

The Docklands regeneration was criticized for reinforcing the social divide between rich and poor

With 30% post-games housing being affordable to low income families, there will be an imbalance of rich and poor in the society

Will the area revert to poverty or gentrify?

Maybe above all the slides told that everything has two sides, good and bad. At present, from this research project, it proved that most of the direction of Government doing were advantage, those will bring more effects to people, although bring some Negative aspects. They are unprecedented for a development of this nature.

Case Study B

Modern life is becoming increasingly sedentary realizing the fact that inactivity contributes to health problems (Blair, 1997; cited in Sallis & Owen, 1999). Controlled research on physical activity interventions is a relatively new area of investigation for exercise scientist. However “there is increasing recognition that interventions to change behavior should draw on theories of behavior and behavior change in their development” (Michie et al., 2008, p.661). Particularly it is preferred using theory-based interventions because the evidence that they include indicate further understanding on how to develop interventions. After acknowledging the theory, comes the modeling phase of the intervention (Michie et al., 2008). The modeling develops the actions that need to be taken, in order to achieve the preferred behaviors by hypothesis and testing its target. The present study will examine a 39 year old, obese male with type 2 diabetes and mild depression, with the purpose of maximizing his adherence to the doctors’ recommended scheme. Reinforcing strategies in adopting exercise are complex because people react differently to the same reinforcement (Weinberg & Gould, 1999). Therefore the unique needs of the client should be considered.

The most important health behavior theories include self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is a proximal and direct predictor of intention and of behavior (Schwarzer & Luszczynska, no date). According to Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1997) self-efficacy is a personal sense of control that facilitates a change of health behavior. Schwarzer & Luszczynska (no date) state that “self-efficacy beliefs are cognitions that determine whether health behavior change will be initiated, how much effort will be expended, and how long it will be sustained in the face of obstacles and failures” (p. 1). In addition self-efficacy influences the effort one puts forth to change risk behavior and the persistence to continue striving despite barriers and setbacks that may undermine motivation. Self-efficacy is directly related to health behavior, but it also affects health behaviors indirectly through its impact on goals behavior (Schwarzer & Luszczynska, no date). Therefore to maximize the client’s adherence to the exercise scheme; the client needs to develop a strong self-efficacy. The way that is suggested to the client to develop self-efficacy is through the Health Belief Model (HBM).

According to the HBM when people are feeling vulnerable to a disease wouldn’t take immediate action to prevent it unless the disease was to be perceived as severe to them (Weinberg & Gould, 1999). It is critical then to indicate to our client his present medical condition and prove to him the future severity of his condition if he does not follow the doctor’s exercise scheme. For the client’s obesity problem they should be pointed out some evidence-based interventions. For instance that obesity is linked to various cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, and cancers. Statistics have found that 17.5 million people died from cardiovascular diseases only in 2005 (Anne, J, 2008). Also another study has found that high-fit men reduced their risk of dying by 71%, compared with the low-fit men (Barlow et al., 1995; cited in Sallis & Owen, 1999). This study can be presented to the client as vicarious experience and show him that it is not impossible to become fit. A severe fact for our client that should be concerning is that between 60-90% of cases of obesity, develop diabetes II (Diabetes Data Group 1979; cited in Shephard, 1997). In addition, to signify the clients’ severe position, evidence suggests that depression plays an important role in the worsening of diabetes (Talbot & Nouwen, 2000; cited in Sacco et al., 2005). Therefore these findings should be used in order to facilitate the HBM to act upon our client and make him realize the necessity of the immediate action that needs to be taken.

By now, if the previous strategy is applied to the client; he should have developed a positive attitude and motivation regarding exercise. Even though, according to the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen & Madden, 1986) his intention to exercise will likely to be weak unless he has a positive subjective norm towards exercise and perceived behavioral control (Weinberg & Gould, 1999; Schwarzer & Luszczynska, no date). “This subjective norm is the product of beliefs about others’ opinions and the individual’s motivation to comply with others’ opinions” (Weinberg & Gould 1999). For this it is suggested to the client to inform his social circle that he is taking an exercise program. Consequently he would not want to fail his social circle expectations and this would boost him with some extrinsic motivation. Therefore the support of his social environment is crucial on developing a positive subjective norm. Schwarzer & Luszczynska (no date) acknowledge self-efficacy and behavioral control as almost synonymous constructs and therefore there is no need for further implementations.

Having mild depression, our client has symptoms that affect negatively his mood. Having depressive mood is generally accepted that not only you have disturbed psychological well-being but also connections between mood and health have been discovered (Melamed, 1995; cited in Berger & Motl, 2000). As the doctor prescribed to the client the alternative treatment of exercise we can understand that exercise is related to desirable changes in mood (Berger & Motl, 2000). The type of exercise for mood enhancement is more effective when it is enjoyable (Berger & Motl, 2000). However, Berger & Motl suggest that four aspects of exercise mode are the most important for mood improvement: abdominal and rhythmical breathing, absence of competition, closed or predictable activities, and repetitive and rhythmical movements (Berger, 1996; Berger & Owen, 1988; cited in Berger & Molt 2000). These should be taken in account for the clients exercise so he can maximize the benefits of exercise. For the frequency of the exercise literature suggests a regularly weekly schedule with a minimum of five days and duration of 30 minutes. The exercise suggested for the type II diabetes and obesity patients should be of moderate intensity (Department of Health, 2007).

Hypothetically if the client succeeds in achieving the recommendations of the strategy mentioned before, Prochaska et al (1992; cited in Weinberg & Gould 1999) argues that individual’s progress is moving back and forth through stages of change while trying to adapt in an exercise program. This is the Transtheoretical Model (TTM) and it has five stages. First stage is where our client is at the moment and it’s called the pre-contemplation stage. In this stage the client has little or no intension to start exercising and he is uninformed about the long term consequences of his present behaviour. The second stage is where the client needs to be after the exercise adherence strategy is introduced to him for the first time. In this stage he is still inactive but he is considering starting exercising. With the help of the HBM on improving his self-efficacy towards exercise, the client will then move to the third stage which is the preparation stage. In this stage he will be exercising but not as much as he is suppose to. When his self-efficacy is strong enough then he can move to the fourth stage; the Action stage where the client is expected to perform his weekly exercise routine but with a great risk of relapse. The strategy for preventing the relapse from happening that will be use in our clients case is the method of reinforcement. Positive reinforcement should be use in the case of a potential relapse as “psychologists highly recommend a positive approach to motivation to avoid potential negative side-effects of using punishment as the primary approach” (Weinberg & Gould, 1999). In our clients case the positive reinforcement should be achieved using feedback that motivation serves as a stimulus for positive feelings (Weinberg & Gould, 1999). With the positive reinforcement the client should be motivated in continuing the exercise scheme for longer duration than the doctor subscribed him; leading him to the Maintenance stage of the TTM. In this ideal stage the client will be exercising regularly for more than six months with a low risk for relapse.

For further understating of the TTM, Self Determination Theory (SDT) could be useful because they motivation given to the client progress though stages with the ideal stages of intrinsic motivation. However much of what people do is extrinsic motivated by i.e. social pressures, rewards etc (Deci & Ryan, 2000). According to SDT when a person initiates certain behaviour, his motivation type can range from amotivation to intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Therefore applying this to our client; different motivation needs throughout the stages 1 and 5 of the TTM are needed in order to get the wanted behaviour. This can be achieved again through different types of reinforcement. During the initial stages of the exercise program, desirable outcomes should be rewarded (Weinberg & Gould 1999). This will facilitate an extrinsic motivation but as the client progress from stage 4 to stage 5 of the TTM, intrinsic motivation could be more helpful through feedback (Weinberg & Gould, 1999).

In this assignment we have seen how from theory interventions are extracted in order to facilitate our client maximize his adherence to the suggested exercise scheme. To sum up our clients’ strategy to do so we start with that basic framework of the TTM. In this 5 stages of the model the client will need to develop strong self-efficacy in order to progress. To achieve strong self-efficacy we used the HBM that according to; people that are feeling vulnerable to a disease wouldn’t take immediate action to prevent it unless the disease was to be perceived as severe to them. The HBM with the assistance of reinforcement methods will help initially the client to adhere to the scheme but he will be extrinsically motivated until the 4th stage of the TTM. For the client to move to the 5th and final stage his motivation towards exercise should be intrinsic for avoiding relapse. Consequently the most important part of the strategy is gaining strong self-efficacy before starting exercising because self-efficacy is what influences one’s effort to change risk behavior (Schwarzer & Luszczynska, no date).

References:

Anne, J (2008) ‘Cardiovascular Diseases’, www.articlesbase.com [online]. Available at: 546624.html (Accessed: 12 March 2009).

Berger, B, G, & Motl, R, W (2000) ‘Exercise and Mood: A Selective Review and Synthesis of Research Employing the Profile of Mood States’ Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 12, pp.69-62.

Deci, E, L, & Ryan, R, M (2000) ‘Self Determination Theory and the facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social development and Well-Being’, American Psychologist, 55(1), pp. 68-78.

Department of Health (2007) ‘DH Statement on Exercise Referral’, 7930.

Michie, S, Johnston, M, Francis, J, Hardeman, W, & Eccles, M (2008) ‘From Theory to Intervention: Mapping theoretically derived behavioural determinants to behaviour change techniques’, Applied Psychology: an International Review, 57(4), pp. 660-680.

Sacco, W, P, Wells, K, J, Vaughan, C, A, Friedman, A, Perez, S, & Matthew, R (2005) ‘Depression in Adults with type 2 Diabetes: The Role of Adherence, Body, Mass Index, and Self-Efficacy’ Health Psychology, 24(6), pp.630-634.

Sallis, J, F, & Owen, N (1999) ‘Physical Activity & Behavioral Medicine’ London: SAGE publications.

Schwarzer, R & Luszczynska, A (no date) ‘Perceived Self-Efficacy’, National Cancer Institute [online]. Available at: http://dccps.cancer.gov/brp/constructs/self-efficacy/index.html (Accessed: 12 March 2009).

Shephard, R, J (1997) ‘Aging, Physical Activity and Health’, USA: Human Kinetics.

Taylor, C, B, Sallis, J, F, & Needle, R (1985) ‘The relation of physical activity and exercise to Mental Health’ Public Health Reports, 100(2), pp. 195-202.

Weinberg, R, S, & Gould, D (1999) ‘Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology’ 2nd edn. USA: Human Kinetics.

Introduction to globalisation

The aim of this paper is the processes what has led football to globalisation and discuss how these processes manifest in the modern football. That essey will introduce reader to globalisation in general, early diffusion and development based on Therborn’s 6 wave model, contemporary model of globalisation, as well as movement of players, commercialisation of global football, global football in sponsorship, advertising and the media. Althought you can find answers on the questions like: How media affect to the football? What was before and after entering TV companies such as BSkyB and ITV to the football? Football – whose game is it now? Evaluetion a series of global processes and their effects on football globally as well as establishment of global governing organisations and global tournaments. All of that with facts and evidence, analysis and reserch you can find below in that essey.

We live in an age of globalization. The term ‘globalisation’ evokes many responses both positive and negative. What exactly is ‘globalisation’, who are the main players and what are its economic, social, cultural and environmental impacts? Globalisation has developed out for a long term of social processes. As pointed out by Guilianotti and Robertson (2004) the recent history of football in particular, can serve both as an illustration and as an indication of the extent of transnational interconnectedness. Football is something much bigger, rather than game or even a way of life. This distinct reflexion of inconsistent tendencies of the modern world with all its pleasures and grieves. Football represent not geographical zones but social classes and political ideas. Unlike baseball or tennis football bears cargo of century hatred and historical biases. It is sports with real rates. It is capable to break ruling modes and to generate liberation movements.

Early diffusion and historical development

Football’s international diffusion occurred during the late 19th century. The contemporary history of the world’s favourite game spans more than 100 years. It all began in 1863 in England, when rugby football and association football branched off on their different courses and the Football Association in England was formed – becoming the sport’s first governing body. Football, following the path of modern industrialism, spread from England to Europe (Duke 1995), North America (Waldstein and Wagg 1995) and South America (Guttmann 1994), and eventually the African continent (Stuart 1995). Accounts of the diffusion of the game to different parts of the world underline the intrinsic interrelation between football and industrial globalisation. As more and more regions became integrated into the emerging capitalist global economy (Pohl 1989) the leisure practice of football standardized in its rules and nationalized in its demands on time and space – continued the cultural equivalent to the changing processes of industrial production. Robinson observes, for example, that global elites, regardless of their nationality, increasingly tend to share similar lifestyles and interact through expanding networks of the transnational state. Globalization is in this way unifying the world into a single mode of production and a single global system and bringing about the integration of different countries and regions into a new global economy and society. But the new global capitalism is rife with contradictions, such as the growing rift between the global rich and the global poor, concludes Robinson. (W.I. Robinson 2004).

Globalizations are not new phenomena. At least six historical waves, beginning with the spread of world religions, may be identified. An attempt is made to systematize the effects of globalizations on different world regions and social actors. Issues of governance are raised, focusing on states and norms. Accroding to the Therborn’s six wave model in the first wave we can see first mass migration of people, the same situation we can find in football industry. As Wagg stated, football seems to belong to everyone and, on the other, the game – rather like the land in the enclosure movements of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries – has been taken from the people and used for profit. In this later formulation, then, the nation of British football’s social and political history, from the Second World War to the turn of twenty-first century, is founded in ideas of social exclusion. (Wagg 2004).

The contemporary model

Nowadays football is the most popular and highly globalised sport on the planet, Mr Blatter also said the global football market, by Fifa’s calculations, was one of over one billion people. According to the Delloite report the European football market alone was worth 14.6 billion Euro in 2008. England’s Premier League clubs now pay their stars over a billion in wages, it has been revealed.The colossal bill – equivalent to 1.2 million pounds per player – emerged as figures were issued for the season before the current one concludes.Roman Abramovich’s Chelsea paid out the most in wages – 172 million pounds. Runners-up Manchester United had a salary bill of 121 million pounds. Third-placed Arsenal forked out 101 million pounds, followed by Liverpool, whose players earned 90 million pounds, according to football finance analysts Deloitte. These football clubs are now identified as a global brands, for example Manchester United fan base is 75 million people around the world. The contemporary model is also marked by a series of global migrations, at the moment in the English Premier League playing about 50% of foreighn players, but in 1992 there was just 11 registred players from overseas.

Media and commercialisation of global football

Along with the technology of the industrial revolution that produced the steamboats, railroads, and mass transit that moved people to leisure events, the rapidly evolving technology of mass media brought the drama and the exticement of sporting events to the people. The mass media, more than anything else were responsible for promoting organized sport from a relatively minor element of culture into a full-blown social institution. (Lever and Wheeler 1993:126).

By the time television first appeared on the scene in the mid to late 1930’s the patterns of “mobile privatisations” were already established. Television was part of a second generation of mass media that reinforced the structures of decentralised, private and suburban life. As Silversone argues, ‘the space for television had been created by a social and cultural fabric already prepared’. This social and cultural fabric was in turn an expression of the ever more central role of rationalised mass consumption in capitalist societies. Thus the social, cultural and economic premises of the rise of television were interrelated with those of the rise of modern football.

These standardized practices of mass consumption reflected in the rise of television and radio were epitomised in the economic regime of Fordism. Regular Fordist work and leisure patterns led to the manifestation of the weekend as place of consumption for the Victorian wage-earner, combining ‘both social identity and privacy’ (Cross 1997:120). The establishment of half-Saturdays had been a cruicial premise for the rise of professional football in Englang. Now, the extended leisure time of the Fordist weekend became the focal point of the consumption of mediated sports. This is underlined by the rise os Saturday afternoon sports magazines on American and British television (Goldlust 1987;Whannel 1991). Fordism, suburbanization and mass consumption thus constituted a triangle whereby both television and football were soon firmly integrated into the every day life of millions of viever. Television incorporated the stable and cyclical sports calendar into its schedules and thus reproduced and reinforced the temporal organisation of Fordist leisure practices.

In the modern football, for example, Premiership clubs are being bought at a time when the income of each of the league’s 20 teams is set to soar following a recent record-busting overseas television rights deal. Booming demand from Asia and the Middle East has allowed the league to tie up contracts worth ?625 million for broadcasting rights for the next three seasons, boosting overall media income to ?2.725 billion; 60 percent above previous levels. (Delloite: football industry report). Several Leagues (such as the French, German and English leagues) have recently renegociated broadcast contracts and have secured significant revenues for their clubs for a number of years. In Spain, Superclubs like Real Madrid and Barcelona have individually negociated broadcast contracts. The Premier League is the most popular and the most lucrative domestic football league.

The sports goods industry is dominatd by Nike, Adidas and football ‘kit wars’ regularly occur at the World Cup and in the leading national leagues. The major TV leagues are in Europe – the big five and the lesser five or six. Football has become a significant ‘content filler’ in the age of new TV technology – satellite, cable digital, telephony and internet. As Rupert Murdoch referred to it – ‘a battering ram’ for opening a new markets (Cashmore 2003:64). Alongside this are the stars and star clubs who benefit from almost constant commercial and media exposure – especcially, but not only, Beckham, Ronaldo, Real Madrid, and Manchester United. These players and clubs are representative of a new trend in the international financing of football. After the colapse of the football bubble economy in 2001, clubs have tried to explore new income sources by expanding their customer base worldwide. In particular, the economically vibrant East Asian regions has been a preferential destination for marketing managers and promotion tours. As Shimizu points out that David Backham’s two visits to Japan in summer of 2003 were mainly commercial – promoting endoresments for TBS (beauty salons), Meiji Seika (confectionery), Castrol (oil) and Vodafone (mobile phones) in June and his new team Real Madrid in August. According to a report by the Sports Business Group at Deloitte, one reason most top clubs have continued to see revenue increases and post strong profits is that they have lucrative multi-year broadcasting and sponsorship deals that have not been affected by the recession. BSkyB and Setanta pay out roughly $1.8 billion a year for Premier League rights. Arsenal, Liverpool and Schalke 04 have multi-year deals with Emirates, Carlsberg and Gazprom that pay these clubs over $15 million a season. More than half of the 20 clubs with the highest revenue signed current uniform sponsors within the last two years. The deals are good through 2013, on average, protecting teams’ biggest source of sponsorship revenue (along with stadium-naming rights). On the broadcast side, German, English and the top Spanish clubs all have deals in place through 2014, with French rights due for renegotiation in 2012 and Italy set to return to centrally sold rights in 2010.

At the turn of the twentieth century, centralized, urban leisure started to compete with more decentralized forms of consumption aided by the rise of new technologies such as the telegraph and railways (Ingham and Beamish 1993). New communication technologies helped to establish the national dimension of sport by enabling sports results to be communicated instantly over long distances. Radio reporting was immediate and, crucually, national rather than local. When Preston North End won the FA Cup in 1938, many listeners in Britain could for the first time follow the event on their radio sets simultaneously. Thus mass communication crucially contributed to the social and territorial diffusion of football.

Sports has become more commercialised in the past twenty-five years. Equally it is almost passe to say that contemporary football is big business. In 1994 Sepp Blatter claimed that football was bringing in US$163 billion annually, more than General Motors could make selling cars (cited in Smith 1997:144). Elsewhere the commercial development of football, and especially the economic aspect of the World Cup, has been assesed in great detail (Guilianotti 1999). When Bourdieu argued that television has acted as the ‘Trojan horse’ for the introduction of the commercial logic into football he was only partly accurate since commercial interests have always been present in sport. The development and growth of the global media was one of the main reasons of commercialisation of football as well as people who have money and time to spend and invest for a long time perioud.

Television sport throughout the world is dominated by football. There is football and then the rest sports. FIFA’s empire has grown accordingly. Several Leagues (such as the French, German and English leagues) have recently renegociated broadcast contracts and have secured significant revenues for their clubs for a number of years. In Spain, Superclubs like Real Madrid and Barcelona have individually negociated broadcast contracts. The Premier League is the most popular and the most lucrative domestic football league. The most significant process which helped to increase global commercialisation of football, is development of a global media profile. Because just after big TV deals football became a billion game just because of media football players can earn millions pounds. For example, in Britain, since 1992 rights fee’s have increased enormously from 191.5 millions pounds to 1 billion 700 millions pounds, and every year the amount of money coming from the TV rights is growing up. As Delloite financial specialists argued that the outcome of the Premier League broadcast rights negociations and the values achieved is likely to be a key driver in determining the ranking of English clubs in the Money League in future seasons.

Money led to foreighn players

The globalisation of football has been marked by a considerable increase in the recruitment of foreign players throughout various leagues. But not only a players are moving around the world, in June, Manchester City became the eighth current Premiership club to be taken over by foreign investors. Aston Villa, Chelsea, Fulham, Liverpool, Manchester United, Portsmouth and West Ham United are also owned by foreign businessmen. As Giovani Trapattoni argued: “Really, there has been a globalisation of football, and my view is that it has been good for the game. If you look at football in Europe especially, the standard is now very high”. A lot of money has come into the game in these leagues and it has been used to combine all these different cultures in some exceptional teams. According to figures released by the Brazilian Football Confederation (CBF), no fewer than 857 players left the country’s sunny shores for foreign leagues in 2004. Though just short of the previous year’s record, the number is further proof that Brazil’s dream academy is alive and well. Answer on tthe question why foreighn players migrate around the world, is simply – money. But in some cases money is’t a first factor when player make a decision where to move, a good example can be Russia, salaries in Russian Premier League are on the same level like in Big Five leagues in Europe. So when player make a choice where to move Spain or Russia for equivalent amount of money, his choice usually will be Spain. The major factor to make this decision is cultural engagement and geographical reasons.

Conclusions: Diminishing contrasts and increasing varieties?

The world’s richest clubs are prospering despite the global recession. The financial crisis has yet to derail the world’s most valuable football teams. Forbes Magazine’s calculations shows the top 25 teams are now worth, on average, $597 million, 8% more than the previous year.

“The outcome of the Premier League broadcast rights negociations and the values achieved is likely to be a key driver in determining the ranking of English clubs in the Money League in future seasons”.

These clubs posted operating income (in the sense of earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization) of $42 million during the 2007-2008 season, 20% more than the top 25 clubs earned the previous year. There are now five clubs (Manchester United, Real Madrid, Arsenal, Bayern Munich and Liverpool) worth at least $1 billion. Only the National Football League (American Football) has more billion-dollar teams (19).

“With its capitalistic bent, European soccer rewards the best-performing clubs with higher broadcasting revenue,” the magazine said in a report Thursday. “Leading the charge is the world’s most valuable sports franchise: English Premier League champions Manchester United, worth $1.87 billion.”

Indeed, Forbes reports Manchester United posted $160 million in operating income, with its stadium, Old Trafford, pulling in more than $200 million in ticket and concession revenue last season.

Spain’s Real Madrid ranked as the second most valuable at $1.35 billion, followed by another English club, Arsenal at $1.2 billion, Germany’s Bayern Munich at $1.11 billion, and England’s Liverpool at $1 billion, according to Forbes.

By comparison, the most valuable Major League Baseball team is the New York Yankees, worth an estimated $1.3 billion as of last April, while the most valuable National Football League team is the Dallas Cowboys, valued at $1.6 billion last September, according to Forbes.

“Burnished by that relative stability and by the sport’s growing popularity throughout China and Southeast Asia, big-ticket investors have continued to pour money into England’s Premier league,” the magazine points out, noting the sale last fall of England’s Manchester City to Sheikh Mansour Bin Zayed Al Nahyan for nearly $385 million.

“The value of European football is still there,” said sports banker Robert J. Tilliss, founder of Inner Circle Sports. “The demand from broadcasters and sponsors has continued to rise.”

References:
Globalisation

Armstrong, G., & Giulianotti, R. (1997). Entering the Field: New Perspectives on World Football. Oxford: Berg.

Armstrong, G., & Giulianotti, R. (2001). Fear and Loathing in World Football. Oxford: Berg.

Armstrong, G., & Mitchell, J. (2008). Global and Local Football: Politics and Europeanisation on the Fringes of the EU. London: Routledge.

Back, L., Crabbe, T., & Solomon, J (2001). The Changing Face of Football: Racism, Identity and Multiculture in the English Game. Oxford: Berg.

Cashmore, E. (2000). Making Sense of Sports. London: Routledge.

Coakley, J. (2003). Sport in Society: Issues and Controversies. Boston: McGraw – Hill.

Coakley J., Dunning E. (2000). Handbook of Sports Studies. London: Sage.

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Mental Toughness: What is the Real Difference Between Winning and Losing?

When it comes to being successful, you can never find a substitute for hard work. In the corporate world, you need to learn the ropes of the business and spend countless hours on reading books and attending seminars on self-improvement. In sports, you have to train consistently in order to reach your full potential.

But what if during an important business meeting, you suddenly had a mental block and anxiety followed? As a result, you forgot to mention an important point and because of it, the business deal fell apart. Same thing can happen in a Jiu-jitsu practice session where a sudden lapse in judgment could lead to a reversal, and in a matter of seconds, you were the one tapping out. How come we can be so prepared in doing something and then lose just like that?

UFC 117: Anderson Silva Vs. Chael Sonnen

Sonnen dominated the first four rounds of this championship match by using his wrestling skill. In round 5, Sonnen went for another takedown. Almost two minutes is left, and the audience is in awe. A new champion will be crowned, the long-time reigning champion will be defeated, the one considered as the GOAT (Greatest of All Time) will lose— the unthinkable will happen! Sonnen is on the guard again and continued with the ground and pound to add more damage to his opponent. Silva threw a few punches from the bottom and Sonnen lifted his left arm to block. In the process, Silva quickly positioned his leg behind Sonnen’s neck and a leg triangle was in place. Silva secured the hold and one of the greatest comeback fights in sports happened….Sonnen tapped out! He was only 1 minute and 50 seconds from being a champion.

A lot of professional fights end up this way; one lapse in judgment can make or break a career. Some fighters learned from it but some of them never recovered. Concentration makes you apply everything that you have learned in training. Success starts in the mind but unfortunately, not everyone can sustain that concentration during a fight. When two combatants face off, you can take advantage of your skills and concentrate on executing it. However, if both fighters have a similar skill set and conditioning, the only deciding factor here is how mentally tough they are. Who will break first? Who will make the first mistake? That’s when you need to be mentally tough more than physically tough.

Relaxation and Concentration

Mental toughness encompasses not just fighting sport but all competitive sports and other areas in our everyday life, including our job. Several competitors can be so good in practice but underachieves in the actual competition when the pressure of the game starts to mount up. Lebron James was called “Lechoke” before, and it only stopped when he won an NBA championship not just once but twice. Now, people in the media and fans think that he can surpass Michael Jordan and be the GOAT in basketball.

Concentration is the ability to have that laser-like focus on what’s important and to let go of all distractions. However, in order to concentrate, you should be relaxed. Relaxation is defined as the state of being calm despite pressure. Take note that relaxation and concentration are interacting mental skills—they work hand in hand. You cannot be mentally tough if you don’t have both.

Float like a butterfly (be relaxed) and sting like a bee (concentrate and hit the target). That’s how Muhammad Ali became the GOAT in boxing! Keep in mind that being relaxed means that you are excited in a good way. If you are totally relaxed, you will fall flat during the competition. You need to be pumped up and ready for action. Like physical conditioning and learning skills, being relaxed also takes practice—the more time you invest in it, the more it will develop.

During boxing, if you are relaxed, you can see the incoming punches and you will be able to dodge them easier. If you are nervous and under pressure, you are more likely to close your eyes as the opponent’s gloves hit towards your face. If you are too anxious, your body will tighten up and you won’t be able to execute all of the skills that you have learned during practice. That is the reason why fighters have their entrance music as they walk their way towards the ring or the octagon—it makes them feel relaxed.

Another way to relax is to embrace and accept nervousness. It’s very normal and once you accept the reality, then you will be calmer. Pre-competition rituals such as mumbling repeated words and doing rhythmic movements that could take the fighter’s focus away from distractions are also of great help.

When it comes to defense, breathing plays a very important role. You can be the best striker but without oxygen, you will be like a race car without a fuel. Thus, deep, slow breathing is needed before and during the competition. Throwing combination punches and kicks or going for a reversal during a jiu-jitsu match requires a lot of air in your oxygen tank. If you don’t breathe properly, you won’t be able to recover and soon, your legs will feel heavy, your arms will start falling, and it’s your turn to get punched in the face.

Laser-Like Concentration

A laser pen doesn’t dance all over the place when you focus it on an object; it will stay there as long as you allow it to. Concentration is all about focusing on the present situation. Recalling failures in the past or worrying about the future will not help. Do what you need to do at that very moment. Before you drink water, you don’t try to determine where it came from or think whether you will sweat it out or urinate afterwards. Be honest. You just drink it, right? Likewise, when you are competing, you can only control the present. So, focus on what needs to be done right now and focus on it like a laser!

Don’t Drift Away

Losing your focus can happen during a match but it’s up to you if you want to drift away or return to focus. A bad call from the referee, trash talk, boos from the crowd, intimidation by your opponent and a lot of other stuff like these can break your concentration. However, remember to compete the way you have been trained. A secured submission can slip by if one of the basic jiu-jitsu techniques is not well-executed. A sure win can turn to a loss, so the focus should be within YOU – you may drift away but return as quickly as you can.

Conclusion

All your hard work will become futile if you are not mentally tough. Remember that a sharp mind can cut deeper! So, the pain, the struggle, the exhaustion, the thought of giving up— all of these will take your game or career to the next level!

The Lakers were founded in 1948 and named after Minnesota. They were named after Minnesota because it was the land of ten thousand lakes. The Lakers have become a great franchise because of their player and their great sportsmanship. Pro Basketball has been around since 1898, only seven years after the game was invented.

The Lakers hired John Kundla as their first coach from Saint Thomas College. The Lakers then won the 1948 NBL Championship. The next year the team moved to BAA (which is another basketball league) and also won the Championship. In 1979 they moved to California. The old Lakers owner traded the team, The Forum and the Kings to Jerry Buss for a 70 million dollar deal.

After the purchase, Jerry Buss wanted the Laker games to be the most exciting event in Los Angeles, so he introduced the Laker girls dance team. This attracted many viewers. In their half century of basketball, the Lakers have had many outstanding players and many memorable games. This has made many Los Angeles residences die hard fans.

Their team colors are, purple gold and white. They have played in many world wide arenas. The following arenas are, Minneapolis Auditorium, Minneapolis Armory, L.A. Memorial Sports Arena and the Los Angeles Forum. The Lakers currently play at the Staple Center located in down town Los Angeles. Which can hold up to18,997 people per game.

The NBA was formed in 1949 and the current coach of the Los Angeles Lakers is Phil Jackson. The Lakers have 14 championships, 29 conference titles and 28 division titles. They are currently in the Pacific Division, also in the Western conference. The Lakers are currently in the NBA finals vs the Boston Celtics.

Some of the Lakers best memories began on, November 5^th when the Lakers beat Baltimore and went onto winning 32 more games in a row. They lost their first game on January 9^th to the Milwaukee Bucks ending their 32 game winning streak. In one of the many playoff games. In the playoffs the Lakers swept the Bulls. In the finals the Lakers played the Knicks. New York won the first game but that was it. The Lakers reeled off 4 straight victory wins.

In 2000, 2001 and 2002 the Lakers wons back to back Championships. The Laker bacame the NBA’s first Champions in the 1949 -50 season. In 1984 through 1985 Lakers finally beat the Boston Celtics in the finals. Over the years the Lakers have had many all star players on the team.

The Lakers have one of the most exciting players, who is known as now MVP player Kobe Bryant. Bryant rose to national prominence in 1996 when he became the first guard in league history to be drafted out of high school. Bryant and then-teammate Shaquille O’Neal led the Lakers to three consecutive NBA championships from 2000 to 2002.

Since O’Neal’s departure following the 2003-04 season, Bryant has become the cornerstone of the Lakers franchise, and was the NBA’s leading scorer during the 2005-06 and 2006-07 seasons. In 2006, Bryant scored a career high 81 points against the Toronto Raptors, the second highest number of points scored in NBA history. He was awarded the season’s MVP in the 2007-08 NBA season after leading his team to the 2008 NBA Playoffs as the first seed in the Western Conference.

In 2003, Bryant made headlines when he was accused of sexual assault at a ski resort in Eagle, Colorado by a hotel employee. Bryant admitted an adulterous sexual encounter with the accuser, but denied the sexual assault allegation. In September 2004, prosecutors dropped the case after his accuser informed them that she was unwilling to testify. Bryant’s accuser brought a separate civil suit against him that was ultimately settled out of court.

Later in the season, it was reported that Bryant would change his jersey number from 8 to 24 at the start of the 2006-07 NBA season. Bryant’s first high school number was 24 before he switched to 33. After the Lakers’ season ended, Bryant said on TNT that he wanted 24 as a rookie, but it was unavailable, as was 33, retired with Kareem Abdul-Jabbar. Bryant wore 143 at the Adidas ABCD camp, and chose 8 by adding those numbers.

During the 2006-07 season, Bryant was selected to his 9th All-Star Game appearance, and on February 18, he logged 31 points, 5 rebounds, 6 assists, and 6 steals, earning his second career All-Star Game MVP trophy.

Here are some of the well known players in the Laker history. Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Wilt Chamberlin, Magic Johnson, James Worthy and Jerry West. Jerry West became the only player in the NBA on the loosing team of the finals to win the MVP award. This is to show you how good the players were on the team, even though they lost. Jerry West picture is the NBA logo. It was taken when he was in college.

The Los Angles Lakers are the 2^nd most valuable team in the U.S.A., valued at 568 million dollars. They also have the 2^nd most Championship following Boston. The Lakers are notable for having (at the end of the 2005-06) the most wins (2,905), the highest winning percentage (61.5%), the most finals appearances (28) of any NBA franchise, Lakers are still continuing their legacy and keeping their fans happy and proud. I’m proud to say that I’m a die hard Laker fan.

^Sources

www.wikipedia.org
^{The Los Angeles Lakers Basketball Team By William W. Lace
www.nba.com/lakers/history/history.html#36}