Author: Andre Coleman

According to Ritzer, the Mcdonaldization of society has standardized the consumer experience. Critically discuss.

‘The McDonaldization of society’ was originally published in 1993 and has since been revised and republished several times. In this text Ritzer argues that a process of ‘McDonaldization’ has taken place in which ‘the principles of the fast food restaurant are coming to dominate more and more sectors of American society as well as the rest of the world’ (Ritzer, 2004, pg 1). This process has revolutionized the principles of business and transformed our experiences of production and consumption. Ritzer’s concept is based on the work of Weber and his theory of rationalization (Weber, 1964). Weber argues that modernity is characterised by instrumental reason, with an increased emphasis on efficiency, control and the use of technology. This was initiated by a decline in traditional authority and the influence of charismatic leaders. The authority of rationality is based on rules and the application of science, logic and reason. These rules are carried out by bureaucratic structures in which groups of peoples are organised into hierarchies, each having individual responsibilities. They must follow the rules and regulations set by those who occupy a higher level in the hierarchy (Ritzer, 2004). Ritzer uses his McDonaldization model to demonstrate this rationalization process. The bureaucratic characteristics of the fast food restaurant include a complex division of labour in which food is prepared elsewhere and delivered frozen. A crew of labourers then perform a specific role repeatedly, such as cooking food and serving customers. For Ritzer, the fast food restaurant has come to represent the growth of rationalization in the twentieth century and its increasing influence on everyday human interaction and personal identities.

Ritzer identifies four aspects of McDonaldization, one of which is ‘predictability’ and relates most closely with this essay title. This aspect of McDonaldization implies that all products and services are standardized, that is they are identical at any time and in any place (Aldridge, 2003). To standardize means it is free from any irregularities, all the products are made to conform to one another. Shlosser (2001) refers to this characteristic as ‘uniformity’ (pg. 5). This is the key to the success of any business franchise he argues. ‘Customers are drawn to familiar brands by an instinct to avoid the unknown. A brand offers a feeling of reassurance when its products are always and everywhere the same’ (Schlosser, 2001, pg 5). Both Schlosser and Ritzer argue that the success of the fast food industry, through the production and consumption of standardized products, have encouraged other types of industry to adopt these methods of business. This has meant that identical copies of various stores are now spread across the world, leaving smaller businesses unable to compete (Schlosser, 2001 and Ritzer, 2004). For example, Subway now has 27,000 outlets in 85 countries and Starbucks opens an average of 6 new coffee shops per day (Ritzer, 2004). Standardization has made its roads in areas like education, healthcare, shopping, leisure and sport.

It is worth concluding my introduction by outlining the other three characteristics of Ritzer’s McDonaldization theory. Then I will proceed to discuss the question of whether the McDonaldization of society has standardized the consumer experience. The first dimension is efficiency ‘the optimum method for getting from one point to another’ (Ritzer, 2004, pg 13). By following predetermined steps, businesses can function efficiently as every stage is carried out quickly and easily. This idea of efficiency is promoted by businesses as beneficial to consumers, but in reality serves their business interests as customers are increasingly providing their own labour while paying additional charges for the privilege. Ritzer offers many examples, such as salad bars, ATM machines and drive throughs. ‘A few years ago, the fast food chain McDonalds came up with the slogan “We do it all for you.” In reality, at McDonalds, we do it all for them. We stand in line, take the food to the table, dispose of the waste, and stack our trays. As labour costs rise and technology develops, the consumer often does more and more of the work’ (Ide and Cordell cited in Ritzer, 2004, pg 61). The second aspect is calculability, Ritzer argues that McDonaldization involves ‘calculating, quantifying. Quality tends to become a surrogate for quality’ (Ritzer, 2004, pg 66). Mcdonaldized products and services are quantified, tasks are done within a certain time and products are a specific size, numerical standards are applied to almost everything. The size of a Big Mac never changes (Aldridge, 2003). Microwaves in the home mean that meals can now be prepared in minutes, saving time for other activities. News broadcasts are condensed into minute snippets of information so we are not bogged down with detail and useless information. Ritzer argues that although an emphasis on calculability means that we can pay very little for large sizes, the quality of these goods are becoming ever more substandard. The final dimension of the McDonaldization paradigm is ‘control’. This involves the use of nonhuman technology to remove the uncertainties caused by human agency and to ensure that both employees and customers are ‘pliant participants in the McDonaldizing process’ (Ritzer, 2004, pg 132). Employees are not required to think for themselves or apply human logic to their work. They must follow instructions, push buttons on tills and scan barcodes. The skill and potential of human actors has become insignificant in a McDonaldizing world. Our everyday interactions are now based on the use of machines. Ritzer’s critique of these four dimensions is discussed in his chapter on the ‘irrationality of rationality’ where he acknowledges the benefits of the McDonaldization of society, such as increased variety, the availability of 24 hour shopping and increased speed of service. But despite the obvious benefits he argues that rationalization produces unreasonable systems in which human reason is undermined. His arguments mirror those of Marx and his discussion of alienation (1844).

Ritzer’s analysis of McDonaldiztion can be extended to many fields of consumption which have become increasingly standardized. For example, many argue that higher education has become McDonaldized. Previously, academics who teach in higher education were able to control their methods of teaching and dictate the nature of its content. This diversity in teaching styles and approaches has been reduced to a homogenized, product orientated system in which the student is now thought of as a customer. The quality of education is now highly controlled and regulated, teaching and research is bureaucratic and rationalized to serve economic interests. Evidence of this can be found in the emphasis on skills and employability placed on students as well as the use of postgraduate students and other low wage teaching assistants to lead classes. Higher education institutions are forced to compete with one another for funding and rank positions for the quality of teaching and research. Students opinions are now recorded by way of course evaluations which amount to surveys on customer satisfaction (Poynter, 2002). Lecturers and tutors are often required to develop and update new skills in technology in their teaching, this includes the use of power point and blackboard. Students also use technology in their studies in order to prepare them for their careers and the world of business. Although there is no national curriculum in place for higher education, this may change in the future and a national standard may be put in place (Hartley, 1993). This mass production of education is likely to cause a decline in its quality. Ritzer argues that we have seen ‘the ultimate step in the dehumanization of education, the elimination of a human teacher and of human interaction between teacher and student’ (Ritzer, 2004, pg 155). It is interesting that Ritzer suggests not only that university education has become McDonaldized, but that the subject of sociology has too. He discusses the McDonaldization of sociology textbooks and sociological theory or ‘standardized theory’ (Ritzer, 1998, pg 37) but does not consider his own contribution to this phenomenon in writing the McDonaldization thesis. Many argue that his books have made social theory more palatable for students (Smart, 2006).

There are many other examples of standardized consumer experiences. Ritzer identifies fie aspects of this standardization or ‘predictability’. Each can be related to specific areas of consumption. Hotel chains are a perfect example of ‘predictable settings’ the growth of these chains has changed the way we experience hotel stays, while previously they were very diverse and owned by individuals who ran them in different ways and offered varying services and amenities. Now customers know what to expect from well known chains as each establishment is identical to the next (Ritzer, 2004,). The existence of individually run guesthouses and bed and breakfast is not a thing of the past as Ritzer seems to imply. These types of hotels are still hugely popular by consumers who wish for a more traditional, less standardized experience.

The use of ‘scripted interaction’ has created a more routinized experience for the consumer, we encounter this form of pseudo-interaction on almost a daily basis in fast food restaurants and supermarkets as well as other places. Many supermarkets require their staff to follow a number of compulsory ‘steps’ when serving customers, such as great the customer, offer to pack, promote certain products, say goodbye etc. Ritzer argues that consumers are subjected to inauthentic, insincere, treatment. I would argue however that although workers are required to ask certain questions, it is not as scripted as Ritzer claims, many businesses encourage their staff to engage in natural conversation with them.

Ritzer highlights that employee behaviour has become set to a specific standard. Workers must dress and act in a certain way. Detailed employee manuals are often distributed containing the do’s and don’ts of the job. Disney is a good illustration of this, Bryman (2004) discusses the emotional labour of employees working in Disney theme parks in which they must act as characters when delivering service, they are required to present the idea that they are taking part in the fun and not simply working. They internalise the culture of Disney by using a specific vocabulary and adopting a Disneyized persona in their work.

The standardized nature of products, as well as the processes involved in their production, is another aspect of Ritzer’s ‘predictability’ theory. In McDonalds, the food is easy to prepare and pre-cut to look identical to one another. The methods of preparation are the same in every restaurant, as is the packaging in which it is served. Ritzer argues that simple menus ensure predictability and uncomfortable seating (which is often in short supply) ensures that customers eat and leave quickly. It is important to note however, that McDonald’s restaurant has changed in recent times, the menu has grown and now includes more healthy options and alternatives to the classic items like hamburgers and milkshakes. The decor and seating have also changed and is now much more vibrant, creating a dining experience in which customers are not forced to leave quickly but relax and take their time. This is something Ritzer may have to factor into the next edition of his book. He also argues that ‘regional and ethnic distinctions are disappearing from American cooking’ (Ritzer, 2004, pg 99). The predictability of food in a McDonaldized society means that the food consumed in one city, is the same as any other. The standardized nature of the food served in fast food restaurants means that we can purchase the very same product in most parts of the world he argues. This can be disputed in that there are always cultural variations in the food served in different countries, such as the meat used and sauces supplied the restaurant. Religious and cultural beliefs have an impact on the type of food on offer. The menus are certainly not as standardized and uniform as Ritzer claims. Turner (2006) identifies this as a major criticism of Ritzer and argues that ‘the extent and uniformity of McDonalds is not an illustration of cultural standardization’ (pg 82). He goes on to cite ethnographic studies which prove that McDonaldization is not a straight forward process.

Standardized consumer experiences also involve keenness by businesses to ‘minimize danger and unpleasantness’ (pg 102). Again, Disney theme parks are a useful illustration of this as they are extremely controlled environments free from crime and disorder. Shopping malls are another good example as they protect the shopper from the dangers of the outside world and provide a relaxed, upbeat environment.

Ritzer discusses and documents an extensive number of areas of consumption which are characteristically rationalized and standardized. At this point, the argument that McDonaldization of society has standardized the consumer experience’ is quite convincing. However, many writers have criticised Ritzer’s McDonaldization thesis and I would like now to outline a few of the critiques that have been put forward, some have already been mentioned. I will then summarise and conclude the essay.

Kellner (1999) points out firstly that Ritzer manages to cover a diverse number of areas simply because his thesis is ‘so broad as to conceptually grasp and interpret a wealth of data’ (pg. 186). Kellner argues that Ritzer’s theory relies too heavily on Weber’s work on rationalization. This generates a one-sided and limited optic that needs to be expanded by further critical perspectives ‘ (pg. 187). Ritzer’s methods of research are also quite limiting and can be described simply as journalistic, he uses every day, observable illustrations which are easy to relate to and discuss. Therefore he is heavily reliant on media articles to exemplify his arguments. Absent from his theory is a consideration of the subjective aspects of McDonaldization and the role of human agents. How do we as individuals view the McDonaldization process and how does it serve our interests? There seems to be too much focus on production, with a disregard for the diverse experiences and practices of consumption. Kellner suggests that cultural studies be included in the McDonaldiztion thesis. The McDonalds experience today for example, has arguably entered the post-modern realm, where McDonalds advertising has come to represent ‘ a quasi- mythical, hyper real world of Americana, family fun and good times’ (Kellner, 1999, pg 191). Kellner proposes that a multiperspective approach would be more valuable and the incorporation of the work of theorists such as Marx and Baudrillard would be useful.

O’Neill (1999) is also extremely critical of Ritzer and questions whether ‘McDonaldization’ is a sufficient theory to explain the changes to our experiences of consumption in recent times. He describes Ritzer’s books as ‘theory burgers’ only suitable for the ‘lay population’ (O’Neill, 1999, pg 53).he concludes his chapter with the statement ‘only you can stop teaching/reading Ritzer!’ (pg. 55).

To conclude, Ritzer has claimed that the fast food restaurant has standardized everything related to the production and consumption of goods. From the shape and size of fries to the scripting of human interaction. This revolutionary system is indicative of changes in other areas of social life today, and marks the beginning of future changes to come. Ritzer convincingly backs up his claims with an analysis of other phenomena such as education and leisure. By utilizing Weber’s classic work on rationalization and the iron cage of bureaucracy (1964) Ritzer applies and extends it to present day experiences of production and consumption. It is probably reasonable to say that the McDonaldization of society has standardized the consumer experience. But with his overly pessimistic analysis, Ritzer fails to offer any insight into the deeper social and cultural reasons and ramifications for this process. His theory is overly descriptive and presents a simplistic view of contemporary consumer culture. What is needed is, as Kellner argues, a theory which offers more than a one dimensional perspective and takes into account the subjective experiences and symbolic value of our practices.

Bibliography

Aldridge, A (2003) Consumption. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Bryman, A (2004) The Disneyization of society. London: Sage.

Hartley, D (1995) ‘The ‘McDonaldization’ of higher education: Food for thought?’ Oxford review of education. Vol. 21. Pp. 409-423. Published by Taylor and Francis Ltd.

Kellner, D (1999) ‘Theorizing/resisting McDonaldization: A multiperspective approach. In Smart, B [ed] Resisting McDonaldization. London: Sage.

Marx, K (1844) The economic and philosophical manuscripts. New York: International publishers.

O’Neill, J (1999) ‘Have you had your theory today?’ In Smart, B [ed] Resisting McDonaldization. London: Sage.

Poynter, G (2002) ‘Modules and markets: education and work in the “information age” in Hayes, D and Wynyard, R [eds] The McDonaldization of higher education. USA: Greenwood press.

Ritzer, G (1998) ‘The Mcdonaldization of American sociology: A metasociological analysis. In Ritzer, G [ed] The McDonaldization thesis. London: Sage.

Ritzer, G (2004) The McDonaldization of society: Revised new century edition. USA: Sage publications.

Schlosser, E (2001) Fast food nation. London: Penguin.

Smart, B (1999) ‘Resisting McDonaldization: Theory, process and critique. In Smart, B [ed] Resisting McDonaldization. London: Sage.

Taylor, S and Lyon, P (1995) ‘Paradigm lost: the rise and fall of McDonaldization’ International journal of contemporary hospitality management. Vol. 7 No. 2/3.pp. 64-68. MCB University Press.

Turner, B. S (2006) ‘McDonaldization: the major criticisms’ in Ritzer [ed] McDonaldization: the reader. California: Pine forge press.

Weber, M (1964) The theory of economic and social organizations. New York: The free press.

The problem of abandonment of babies that has become more serious over the years with more and more babies is being abandoned in our country. According to Syed Zahar, 2010, on Valentine’s Day, charred remains of a baby, believed to be a few days old, and was found in a rubbish bin in Kuala Krai, Kelantan. On March 21, a newborn baby girl was found abandoned in the rubbish dump of a shopping mall in Ipoh, Perak. Then on March 26,A a day-old infant was found dead in Kampung Melayu Subang. The latest data from the police showed that 65 babies have been dumped this year alone, 26 of them boys, 25 girls and the other 14 being foetuses. This brings the total to 472 cases since 2005, in more than half of which, or 258, the babies were found dead in our country and a total of 79 cases were reported on last year (The Star online, 2010). Official statistics reveal an average of 100 cases annually but these figures do not include abandoned babies who died after being abandoned or those babies that disposed off without a trace. So, this issue deserves urgent attention by everyone before it goes out of hand.

In our opinion, government should play an important role as to reduce the cases of abandoned babies by classify the abandoned baby cases as murder and attempted murder or enforced the law in our country. Those responsible for babies who die would be investigated for murder while abandoned babies found alive would be classified and investigated as attempted murder. Police should investigate and use modern technique such as the DNA test to identify the parents of the abandoned baby. Besides, police should also set up a special squad if they need to probe cases of abandoned newborn babies so as to track down the suspects swiftly. According to The Star on 17 August 2010, there is an 18-year-old factory worker and his 17-year-old girlfriend in Malacca became the first couple in the country to be charged under the Penal Code for baby dumping. The couple pleaded guilty to the offence, which carries a maximum sentence of seven years’ jail, a fine or both. This is the only way to bring those responsible for the death of a baby to justice. Many cases involving baby-dumping could not be resolved fast because of lack of information and expressed the need for public cooperation to help police to solve the cases. So, as a citizen in our country, it is now the time for the society had to be a “busybody”, especially in matters pertaining to social problems.

An NGO in Malaysia has opened the country’s first “baby hatch” for rescuing unwanted newborns as authorities’ battle increasing cases of abandoned babies (VR Sreeraman, 2010). A “BABY hatch” is a place where an unwanted child might be left anonymously by parents. The hatch has a small door which a mother can open and place her baby on an incubator bed. Once the door is closed an alarm bell will alert the NGO’s staff to the baby’s presence, after the mother has left. Although the “baby hatch” helps to avoid newborn babies being abandoned at the roadside or in a rubbish dump, but many people feel that it seems to encourage pre-marital sex. However, the aim of the “baby hatch” is to discourage women, especially young unwed mothers, from abandoning their newborn and instead have them placed with caring parents. According The Star newspaper, the baby boy abandoned at the baby hatch on 27 June 2010 has been adopted. The baby hatch, set up on May 29 by OrphanCARE, received its first baby on June 27 when an unmarried couple in their early 20s left the newborn there. With the establishment of the baby hatch, government hoped there would be a reduction in the number of babies being dumped. Besides that, NGO plans to place baby cots where mothers can leave their unwanted babies anonymously to save abandoned babies. Unlike the baby hatch, that the baby cots, which would be located at the premises of NGOs, were merely a place for women to place their unwanted babies. The baby cots would most likely be made of wood and designed with an umbrella-like shade to keep out crows and protect the child from the blistering heat. Once a baby is dropped in a cot, the NGO concerned would alert and contact the police and the welfare department. This objective is to protect the abandoned babies’ lives.

Nowadays, cases of baby abandonment usually results from unwanted pregnancies. So, educating youths on the risk of having sex, especially unprotected sex are needed. Sex education should include in our school syllabus, not just implemented as a brief part of other subject like biology, moral and physical education, but as a subject on its own. From the many cases as we know, it was found that many youths did not know their own bodies. Some did not even know that they will get pregnant if they have sex. So, these provide the authorities with a good reason that it is time we had sex education in our schools as one of the subject. Knowledge is power and sex education is not about free sex. Sex education is about giving our children informed choices. Sex education will teach the child about his or her body, changes to the body at puberty, hormones, how to form stable meaningful relationships, responsible relationships, unprotected sex, consequences of having sex and how to say ‘no'(Mariam Mokhtar, 2010). Awareness and education on sexual health will play a vital role in helping to reduce the number of unplanned pregnancies and cases of abandoned babies.

Besides, Government or non-governmental organization should provide shelter homes for pregnant unwed girls and unwed mothers to solve the problem of abandoned of babies that has become more serious in our country. Basically a young mother would abandon her baby because she is afraid. She does not wantA to keep her baby and she just wants someone to take it, keep it safe, and make sure it gets a good home because she might be unmarried. Because of this, the welfare department officers will be on 24-hours standby to help those having such problems and give them counselling. They should also take the initiatives to identify cases of unwanted pregnancies in their respective areas and provide assistance to the mothers to prevent them from abandoning their babies. While caution need to be taken in implementing any measure as not to encourage young girls to be involved in sexual relationship before marriage, it is equally important to ensure that those who have already crossed the line do not shy away from seeking help and doing the right thing.

Most cases of abandoned babies were due to weak family institutions and where the responsibility of bringing up a child was left to other parties. So, parents and family members are actually also playing an important role to prevent the unwanted pregnancies so that it will not becoming rampant in our country. Most of the parents in our country are full time workers that force them to spend about 10 hours out of their house per day. As a result, most of their children are abandoning of love and time by their parents. Their parents are too busy with their work and career development. This situation can cause lack of time between the family members. In relation to that their children tend to find others affection among their peers. It can contribute to their feeling in trying new things such as find someone who loves them or having sex with their partner. When parents come to know of their children are pregnant before they had married they will blame the whole world instead of helping them and providing the necessary support to them. Parents or family members should not blaming others if their children became pregnant or gave birth to babies conceived out of wedlock but take the necessary steps to support them in times of distress. As you all know, raising a baby as a young teenager is already tough but dealing with the stigma will let the parents and the child feel more pressure. This is why counselling from social agencies do their big part in helping these women deal with the discrimination.

In our point of view, teacher should teach young people commit to abstaining from sex until marriage to avoid unwanted pregnancies through education because people also believe that it is morally wrong for the people to have sex before they are married. Since sex is one of the natural force that one cannot resist, as human being we can resist having sex at the wrong time or we should use the effective contraception to avoid unwanted pregnancies. The use of effective contraception, such as the oral contraceptive pill and condom not only reduce the risk of getting unwanted pregnancies but also reduced the rate of HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Syndrome) infection. We may not be able to stop our teenagers from having sex before marriage, but we can at least tell them about responsibilities and consequences of having unprotected sex before married.

Government and non-governmental organization should also set up a special school for pregnant teenagers to let them complete their education to ensure a better future for them. They should not be alienated and left feeling as if they have been excluded from the society when they got pregnant. The school will also take care of the needs of pregnant teens and this, indirectly, will rid of negative perception against them. Arguments that say setting up such school or the baby hatch would encourage teenagers to be involved in premarital sexual activities should be considered, but we should look at this by taking into consideration that it is already happening, baby dumping has already happened. So what is wrong with setting up the school to give them a venue, a place for them to seek help and save themselves from being trapped in the cycle further. I think we have to give them a second chance, which is more important. The reality is that it is already happening and we need to take action to address the problem, otherwise we will lose young individuals who could contribute to our country.

Last but not least, another way to overcome abandoned babies is to create awareness through media. Every country should have a common reminder to their citizen by advertising through any sorts of media whether it is newspaper, television, radio and etc. The citizen will also be educated not only through school but also through media. Media plays a huge part in creating awareness and by doing so it could help to minimize the rate of abandoned babies in the future. People who are not educated are the main problem to this cause because they don’t know the value of a new born life and abandoned the baby for the sake of themselves. Through media can also promote ways to handle unwanted babies rather than abandoned them on valleys or dustbins. The role of media is essential because it can deliver a message throughout the nation in a split second and at the same time a lot of people will receive their message at once. Media is the best and fastest way to promote or create awareness among other roles. Media serve as a constant reminder to people about how to react and prevent abandoned babies happening and to also promote alternative to donate the babies rather than to leave at somewhere and let the baby die off. In other ways of it is cruel to deal with the issue that way and the babies is paying the price for the mistake their adult are making. That is wrong because there are still so many ways to handle things and people prefer to handle things the wrong way to protect their dignity and to cover the shameful things that has happen to them. There is no dignity left for those who their abandoned babies in dark alleys so why care to protect them?

Baby dumping has become a hot topic with newspapers highlighting new cases almost every day. We think that, in solving the issue of abandoned babies, the main goal should be towards creatingA awareness among youths that abandoning of babies is not the easiest way out. We have to let them know there are places and people that can provide help and it’s also these NGO’s duty to reach out to those going through unwanted pregnancies.

Society too should play their part by understanding the problem and not discriminate unwed mothers. Accidents happen and human make mistakes are no way to redress an initial oversight. In conclusion, let’s hope morals of the people in this country not deteriorate as we take this road towards achieving the status of a developed nation. After all, it’s not much use in having a first-world infrastructure and system when the citizens are still in a third-world state of mind.

Iranian women have fought for the equal rights throughout the 20th century. In this paper I intend to argue about feminism in the present urban communities in Iran. Iran is a vast country and discussing women situation in the rural areas makes this essay totally different. The women’s movement in Iran has both expanded and transformed since the revolution. Before the revolution the liberation of women was connected to the process of secularisation. Under the Islamic Republic, however, women are increasingly making arguments for the expansion of their rights by pointing to protections under the constitution, while others are reinterpreting Shari’ah law. Some scholars have referred to the emergence of ‘Islamic feminism,’ a term that highlights the difference of approaches that coexist within the women’s movement in Iran. As a result, the terrain of women’s rights is one of unprecedented cooperation among disparate groups on the one hand and severe ideological and political struggles on the other.

In discussing these approaches in present urban areas of Iran, it is of vital importance to distinguish between three groups of women who I will talk about them. The first group is women who identify themselves as Secular feminists and are under the influence of women movement in western societies. The second group are women who try to reach equal rights for men and women but as they try to do so under the guidance of Islam and national identity, they make a distinction between themselves and western feminism which they believe will lead to corruption as there is now in the West. They can be named state feminists or Islamist feminists in Islamic Republic of Iran. Minoo Moallem writes about one of these women, Zahra Rahnavard who is one of the equal rights activists and the wife of opposition leader Mir Hossein Musavi in the recent demonstrations against government after the 2009 presidential election in Iran:

Zahra Rahnavard … charged the West with being a system where women are made into “decorative objects.” She calls upon her Muslim sisters to question what the “sham civilizations” have made of women, not to act like dolls, and not to display a debilitated will. She asks women to refuse to be part of the harems of the rulers and the communal harems of the streets. Her allusion to the collective appropriation of women in the streets and her rejection of unveiling have made it possible for her to think of contractual structure of the Muslim family and veiling as sites of women’s agency. For Rahnavard, it is through unveiling and Westernization that Muslim women have been turned into objects to be possessed by all men in the public sphere. To resist capitalist rulers and challenge sexual objectification, she asks women to return to veiling and the Muslim family, where women are considered subjects rather than objects of the marriage contract. (2005; 185)

The third group includes mostly secular educated women who are not familiar with the notions of western feminism but as a result of modernisation in Iran and under the influence of global mass Media are aware of women situation in other countries and try to simulate a modern life like the ideal type of a western woman for themselves. They have combined some traditional values of an Iranian woman and some modern values of a western woman. As Reza Ghasemi in his acclaimed novel, The Nocturnal Harmony of the Wood Orchestra, describes Iranian women in their transition to modernity:

The history of invention of Modern Iranian women is like the invention of car. The difference is that the car was first a carriage with changed content (They removed the horses and replaced the engine) and then slowly the appearance changed but the modern Iranian women first changed the appearance and then when they had been looking for appropriate content, they faced the trouble… So everyone as to their personal tastes and their mental demands made a combination of traditional female with modern woman which can be stand in a range of a woman wearing Chador to miniskirt. This woman asks to share in all decisions, but asks all the responsibilities from man…She asks man to work equally in home but at the same time considers the man who works in home of poor character and weakness. (1996; 86)

Considering the distinction between these groups, I will argue about feminism as a political movement to gain equality and to free women from oppression in Islamic republic of Iran and the role that each group plays in obtaining this goal.

Liberal Feminism:

Actually in today’s Iran, liberal feminism is the only perspective that can hardly breathe under the pressure of the Islamic government. This feminism always has two aspects which are against the government’s will in Islamic republic of Iran. Abdee Kalantari believes that in a political theology that divides the political sphere into good and evil and sees the west as enemy (evil), feminism as a modern western movement is a threat to the whole existence of this theology (2007). In other hand, fighting for the equal rights in law usually opposes Islamic rules which are not easy to face. Hence, women movement not only has to fight with the deep traditions of Islam in the society but also to protect itself against the fundamentalist government which obtains its legitimacy from these traditions.

The Islamist ideology denies women individuality, autonomy and independence and this is inside this Ideology that the key objective of Iranian’s women’s rights activists, both secular and Islamic, became the modernization of family law and women’s equal rights in matters of marriage, divorce, and child custody. Other concerned issue is domestic violence, with many articles in the feminist press describing domestic violence as both a social problem and a violation of women’s rights. A third concern was women’s under-representation in formal politics and the need for greater participation in parliament, the local councils, and the highest political offices. These are the reforms that both Islamist and Secular activists are still fighting to reach them.

The Islamist feminist do not seek to deny the rules of law and they insist on the preservation of Islam, family and marriage even when it comes in opposition of equal rights. Their aim is to suggest a more flexible interpretation of Islam rather than the one that the government presents. This group can be criticized in the same way that Zillah R. Eisenstein’s has criticized the liberalism because of feminizing the private sphere and the separation they make between public and private spheres. She argues that this separation could be the basis to liberalism’s downfall. As it becomes clear that liberalism is incompatible with equal rights for women, feminism will search for alternative grounds to build its agenda. This gendered separation of spheres will lead liberalism to a lack of concern with the forms of oppression that take place in the private sphere(1981) and that is the same concern that secular feminist in have in Iran.

In contrast, the secular feminists work through small-scale Non Governmental Organizations (NGO) and try to develop some analyses of women’s collective interests and their oppression in private as well as public life. They have noticed the issues that have been argued in the history of feminism in the west. They write about equal rights as well as body, sexuality, power, homosexuality, violence, pornography and so forth. The problem is that they cannot publish their ideas and normally internet is the only media they can use to raise their voice to be heard. There are many feminist websites that represent this group and they keep working despite the filtering of the government. (e.g. http://www.irwomen.com, http://www.meydaan.com, http://www.feministschool.com ) .Hence, the middle class urban women are the most common audiences of these activists, since the other groups access to the internet is limited. This lack of audience urges this question that whether there is a feminist women movement in Iran? If there is, will it stand against Repression, censorship and attacks of the fundamentalist government and even the traditions of a religious based society? As Ahmadi argues that secular feminism faces two barriers in its way, first is the framework of an Islamic republic where fundamentalists hold absolute power over certain state institutions and the other is an “inside force,” a “from within” perspective which has been needed to alter the dominant fundamentalist discourse”(2006). Hence, in obtaining liberal demands of women movement in Iran is of vital importance for secular feminism to keep its unity with the Islamist feminists, since as Ahmadi elaborates it is the group that not only can expand the domain of dialogue with clerical scholars, but also are able to overcome long-term hatred toward western feminism in Cultural context of Iran (2006)

These activists could has been labelled as a group of urban middle class ladies who could not be regarded as speaking for all women in Iran until the August 27th of 2006, when they launched a campaign named “One Million Signatures for the Repeal of Discriminatory Laws”. The aim was to collect one million signatures in support of changing discriminatory laws against women in their country, but what made this effort important and even a danger for the government, though the organizers of the campaign considered that its demands conform to Islamic principles, was the way they used to collect these signatures. The concept is simple and revolutionary, melding education, consciousness-raising and peaceful protest. Starting last year, women armed with petitions began to go to wherever other women gathered: schools, hair salons, doctors’ offices and private homes. Every woman is asked to sign. But whatever a woman decides, she receives a leaflet explaining how Iran’s interpretation of Islamic law denies women full rights. The material explains how Iran’s divorce law makes it easy for men, and incredibly difficult for women, to leave a marriage, and how custody laws give divorced fathers sole rights to children above the age of 7. [i]

The One Million Signatures Campaign is a new and innovative movement because it has not taken shape around one progressive and famous central figure, rather it is a broad movement, where activists visit with other women, engage in face to face discussions with them, they go home to home, and explain to each woman about women’s rights. Any signature is equal to conscious these activists tried to make for women from any background and any class. Their main goal is to create a dialogue among citizens and educate them about their rights and it makes women to become sensitive to their status under the law and in society. It seems that the Consciousness raising groups are the inspiring idea of this campaign. The Idea that women should gather in small groups and give accounts of their own lives and how they ‘became’ a ‘woman’ and then they will understand to which extent, they share similar problems with other women with different backgrounds and ages and these problems produce by social relations and institutions. As Pilcher and Whelehan argue we can consider the main success of these groups in inspiring many women to turn to feminism (2004) and that is the same success that Iranian secular feminists try to reach. They hope to involve women, not all of whom were actively involved in feminism, but all caught up in the debates of the time and seized by the urge to fight for their equal rights in law and make the process of one woman’s coming out of false consciousness into enlightenment, possible.

The campaign success in changing the laws is comparable with NOW, (National Organization for Women) founded by betty Friedan in 1966, as both expressed not as a self-conscious political theory, but as a ‘common sense’ application of pre-existing values to women’s situation. As Bryson argues NOW’s campaigns gained some early legal victories changing laws and could amend the United States constitution to give women equal rights which very nearly succeeded, and it has been a major force in changing attitudes to women in education, employment and the media. Despite the criticisms that later feminists made about equal rights campaigns such as NOW for focusing narrowly on formal legal and political rights which ignores economic (2003), cultural and sexual exploitation and oppression of women, I think that such campaigns are the basic steps of opening debates about other forms of oppression in the traditional and religious society and fundamentalist government of Iran that will take a position against such debates in that level.

Marxism Feminism vs. Post Feminism:

Since Russia has been the most powerful neighbour of Iran in the contemporary history, this country has had a great influence on the history of Iran. That is why Marxism as an ideology has the greatest effect on the history of modern Iran after Islam. Before the Islamic revolution in 1979, Classical Marxists worked within the conceptual notions laid out by Marx, Engels, Lenin, and other nineteenth-century thinkers and dreamed of a society without classes as they believed that existed in USSR. These groups were an undeniable factor in the triumph of revolution, but due to vast suppressions and executions of the new Islamic government in 80s, these groups lost their power and prevalence within the society, but the Marxism discourse has still an inevitable impact on the Iranian intellectual prospect.

The secular feminist as a part of Iranian intellectual discourse are not an exception. This group besides the equal rights movements has always tried to theorize the roots of patriarchy in Iran and Marxism feminism has been one of the most useful perspectives for them to do this work. Many of these theories regard classism and capitalism as a key factor which work parallel with patriarchy in women’s oppression (Look at Afshar; 1983). This analysis suggests women to fight with all the displays of capitalism to free them from oppression. They criticize the new Iranian woman in her support of capitalism and the way that Iranian women present their bodies which is one of the most important areas they see as capitalism system uses to oppress woman. As Shahidi states a practical consequence of this approach to the “woman question” was the de-sexing of woman, clearly visible in the baggy clothes and absence of cosmetics among female activists. These women oppose the compulsory veil but believe that with or without a scarf, a woman-doll will remain the same (1994).

In the contemporary history of Iran, the woman body has been the main indication of political change. [ii] It is an interesting point that the binary of mind/body which is traceable in western thought, present itself in Iran with the beginning of the project of modernization. Reza shah saw unveiling as one of the most important markers of Westernizing and the Islamic republic made veiling compulsory in order to make an anti-western society and in all these fundamental changes women’s body has been the object of change. If the Reza shah project made many women to stay in home and even quit going to school [iii] the veiling did not make the modern Iranian woman who I recognized them as the third group of women who make efforts having equality with men, to leave the public sphere. They continued to work and study alongside men and they used their body especially their faces to object compulsory veiling which had tried to ignore their body. Young and older, the Iranian women defy the Islamic hijab publicly, and confront the state’s Islamic body politics with a body politics of their own. The youth mock the Islamic hijab, deconstruct it, reform it, and make it succumb to their modern desires. They reveal their hair in public by pushing back their mandated headscarf, transforming it into a garment used for their beautification. Against all cultural mandates of the Islamic state, they reveal their body curves under their remodeled and modernized “Islamic” garb. They wear loud makeup, walk elegantly, and bring their sexuality to the public. They reject the control of their body by the state, and celebrate their womanhood by defying the Islamic hijab. Since eyes, nose and hands are the only features on show, eye make-up is applied with scientific precision and Tehran has become the nose-job capital of the world. Iranian women spend one million dollar in make-up industry every year [iv]

Oppressing by the government and morality police, these women have been always criticised by a large group of secular feminists who believe that wearing make-up and presenting the sexual body are the representation of objectifying woman by capitalism. Ezzat Goushegir in his praise of Ariel Levy’s book; Female Chauvinist Pigs, writes in his personal weblog [v] that this is the same raunch culture in Iran that in the universal capitalist system, uses the ideas of feminism about equality and emerge women to appear as a face of capitalism in the society and by this way marginalizes the true demands of women movement. He considers Marxism as a perspective that challenges this objectification and Commodification [vi] . (2007)

Marxist feminists believe that cosmetic surgeries and make-up industry are two effective instruments of capitalism which not only objectify women, but also make them to pay money for correcting their body image into the Ideal body of Capitalist society. They deny these things as Levy denies them to be liberating and rebellious. Levy argues that how women decide to give meaning to sex industry by producing the fake idea that presenting their sexuality would empower them (2006). I am not going to criticize this book and even I agree with Levy to some extent. The problem is that how Iranian feminists use the book and translate western feminists’ ideas to apply them on the totally different context. Levy in this book refer to sexist TV shows which distribute the illusion of liberation among women, shows that means the pornoization of culture for Levy (2006). It is the culture that benefits Capitalism, but how about Iran? As I mentioned the history of Iran is not the history of capitalism, it is the history of religious ideology. In Iran power is not within the bourgeois’ class but at least in contemporary Iran in the hands of clerics (Mullahs) who do not necessarily own economical capital. The most obvious reason for this claim is that the opposition in Iran never could blame the leaders of Islamic republic for having wealth. This is religious capital that structures the power in Iran and ironically this power agrees with secular feminists in the issue of objectification of women and two different thoughts leads to same consequences in the cultural context of Islamic Iran.

If Levy talks about shows such as Girls Gone Wild in America, Iranian Women appearing in television programs will not be allowed to wear make-up because it is against Islamic law, “repulsive jokes” between men and women on television or radio is also prohibited [vii] No Magazine has the right to publish a woman’s face on the cover and using plastic woman models with head (even with hijab) in clothing shops is forbidden. In this cultural context a new reality has emerged in Iran, a reality created by women. The Iranian women are playing an instrumental role in the grassroots challenge to the Islamic Republic through their deconstruction of the hijab and their direct challenge of the state’s body politics. Challenging the Islamic dress code, they use the everyday life as the site for gaining rights and respect from the society and the state. They demand the right to live as free women. Humiliated, assaulted, and arrested randomly for being women, they have gained resilience, lost their fears of confronting the state, and battled the repressive social and cultural Islamic codes of conduct. Using deviance as a weapon, they are creating a reality unimagined by the architects of the Islamic Republic.

Naomi Wolf in her book beauty myth has the similar idea as Levi and argues that Women should be able to adorn themselves with pretty objects when there is no question that we are not objects. She believes that they cannot be free of the beauty myth unless they can choose to use their faces and clothes and bodies as one form of self-expression out of a full range of others. She claims that public interest in a woman’s virginity has been replaced by public interest in the shape of her body (1991). We cannot ignore that Iranian women still live in a society that virginity is more than a public interest; it is a religious and legal rule. The rule that has been ignored by these women using solutions such as Hymenoplasty [viii] and this is a surprisingly hot topic in Iran. It is of vital importance to consider if any great theory which we believe in is applicable in other contexts. Wearing make-up and cosmetic surgery is kind of self-expression for Iranian woman, a self who express itself standing against the fundamental laws of ignoring her. It is a kind of resistance against the discourse of fundamentalism.

Hence, Body and sexuality is the battlefield of first and third groups. Two secular groups which must be united in opposition with fundamentalism that does not believe in basic rights for women, while both these groups to some extent believe in equal rights for men and women. The ironic side of this battle is that how secular Marxist feminism and Islamist feminism with two different approaches to women issue; blame the third group which is the main potential force of fighting patriarchy, to objectification of women or in their word for acting like dolls. It is true that strong roots of tradition still exist in the third group. They do not identify themselves as feminist because what they have learnt about feminism is women who try to work and wear like men; women who make them misunderstand feminism when there is not a long history of feminism in Iran to make the idea clear for them. Although they do not identify themselves as feminists they have almost same ideas with the new generation of feminists in west: the third generation or wave, which its life powerfully has shaped by popular culture, particularly music, television, film and literature as they believe to fight with women oppression. Media figures represent third wave icons in their tendency to refuse to adhere to a feminist party line, but also in their resistance to comply with the types of ‘feminine’ behaviour deemed compatible with media and mainstream success. (Pilcher& Whelehan; 2004) In other words these women as Genz and Brabon reveal are merging notions of personal empowerment with the visual display of sexuality. These women does not manipulate their appearance ‘to get a man on the old terms’ but ‘has ideas about her life and being in control which clearly come from feminism’ (2009; 93). Although these Iranian women do not identify themselves as feminist but their notions of sexual freedom come directly from the Iranian feminism that has fought for women freedom and equality during the last 100 years. [ix]

Secular feminism has two ways to walk in. The first is to stand against this group and blame them of objectifying their femininity and the other is to stand beside them to fight against fundamentalism which is the greater force of oppression for both groups than patriarchy. In the second solution I believe that Secular feminism should try to make other women familiar with basic notions of feminism such as economical independence and equal payments’ and other non-radical ideas that is bearable for a society in transition to modernity and not completely modern. Secular feminist must notice that Islam as an ideaology has a great power in the life of even most of secular women. Mohanty in her article on the problem of western feminism on theorizing women issues in developing coutries, referring to Modares, criticizes feminist writings which treat Islam as an ideology separate from and outside social relations and practices, rather than a discourse which includes rules for economic, social and power relations within society (1988; 70). Hence secular feminism which is affected by the west must look over the feminism history and experiences in the west and try to match them with the cultural context of Iran. I do not believe that feminism in Iran and west has to go to the same way. Although the third wave feminism is an idea that comes after the long history of first and second wave feminism in west, the Idea of sexual power that this generation emerge is the fact that young women in Iran practice against the government every day. This practice’s influence is obvious by the number of morality polices that the government use to control these women. Hence, post feminism is a perspective that worth applying not only imagined as a chronological distinction between second and third wave feminism in the cultural context of Iran. This attitude in Iran must not consider as backlash but as a conjunct to the first group to be influent in Iran. Secular feminism has to satisfy these women who object feminist theories which failed to address their problems.

Conclusion:

In this essay I distinguished three groups of women who can be helpful to reach equality and freedom from oppression in the current cultural context of urban middle class women in Iran. The conjunction between secular feminists and Islamist feminists who try to find liberation through the organized movement for constitution amendment and consciousness rising is traceable. I see this trend as the most relevant perspective for Iranian society that benefits both urban and rural communities in Iran. In the second part I tried to criticize the orthodox Marxism that has a deep root in the history of Iranian intellectualism and its influence on secular feminism in Iran as well. I think that this trend will lead to a separation between secular feminist and secular women who both are fighting against the fundamentalism in Iran. Secular feminism, using the postfeminist notion of sexual power can analyze the practice of these women instead of blaming them to objectifying their sexuality. If feminists look at postfeminism as a turn to cultural differences and not as a chronological event in the west, they can move on faster and easier in the way of freedom from fundamentalism and patriarchy as well.

Notes:

In January 2009, President Obama signaled his commitment to improving the lives of working women with the signing of the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Restoration Act. By signing this act into law, President Obama signed a significant shift in the view of American polity toward the status of women in the workplace. While this change is significant in the upward mobility of women, only a small portion of women in the workforce will benefit from this new law.

Introduction

Many explanations have been offered by scholars for gender-wage disparity. Pay disparities have often been attributed to the segregation of women in certain female-dominated occupations, disparities in professional skills, education, and experience, and differences in family status, as well as the role of industry and wage structure. What that said, evidence still suggests that at least part of this gender pay gap is due to discrimination which may be subtle and even unconscious. While the pay disparity exists in nearly every traditional field, jobs associated with male roles continue to be better paid than jobs associated with roles that are considered traditionally female even though these jobs may often require the same skill level. Women dominate jobs in nursing, home health assistance, child care, teaching, cleaning, and food preparation; most of which replace things that women historically have performed in the home for free. While women are making strides in our white collar sections of our economy, working-class America has not yet benefited from this economic and cultural power shift.

Jobs held mainly by women are paid at rates that on average are 20% less than those equivalent jobs held mainly by men. Improvements in pay for women have been related to a greater presence of women in the labor force, rising educational attainment, and the movement into professional and managerial jobs, but there still continues to be an unexplained gender pay gap against women. Today, women with the same amount of education and experience earn 81 percent of what men do; although, this is better than the 60 percent they earned in 1980. This pay gap has persisted and remained relatively consistent for the past 2 decades.

Historical Relevance & Social Welfare Policies

Recent research indicates women now make up almost half of the American work force and earn 60% of college degrees in America. Empowerment alone is not entirely responsible for this revolution. Politics has played a big role in the movement of women into the work force. A number of policies in the 1960s seemingly targeted gender discrimination in the labor market. Legislative efforts that have attempted to address this problem include the Equal Pay Act of 1963, Title IV of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and subsequent amendments, the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA), and the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Acts of 2009 and 2012. These changes along with the rise of the service sector and the decline in manufacturing have supported and encouraged the entrance of women into the American workforce, but progress has not been uniform as seen in the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA).

The Equal Pay Act

On June 10, 1963, the Equal Pay Act (EPA) was passed by Congress dictating that women and men must receive equal pay for equal work on the recommendation of President John F. Kennedy’s Commission on the Status of Women. Under the mindset that men were the heads of households and therefore where the primary income producer in families, women had previously been paid less when employed in identical jobs. Regardless of the fact that in many homes women were considered the breadwinners for reasons ranging from death or disability of a spouse, divorce, and/or single parenthood. The EPA prohibits gender-based pay discrimination among employees within the same work place who do “substantially equal” work. Although gender can no longer be viewed as a drawback, demonstrable differences in seniority, merit, the quality or quantity of work, and/or other considerations might merit different pay can be used if proven. The statute of limitations for filing a suit is 2 or 3 three years, depending on whether the discriminatory act is intentional. In order to recover under the act, a woman must prove that an employer paid higher wages to men, male and female employees conduct an equal amount of work that requires equal skill, effort, and responsibility, and men and women performed the work under similar working conditions. The act establishes four main defenses for employers. An employer may pay a male employee more than a female employee if the employer can establish that payment is based upon a seniority system, a merit system, a system whereby earnings are based upon the quantity and quality of production by the employees, or a differential based upon any other factor other than the sex of the employees. While the first three of these defenses have been the subjects of litigation, the fourth exception if often litigated more frequently.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is considered our nation’s benchmark legislation. Signed into law on July 2, 1964, the Civil Rights Act paved the way for future anti-discrimination legislation and President Lyndon Johnson asserted his commitment to President Kennedy’s legislative agenda, Passage of the Act ended the application of Jim Crow laws, which had been previously upheld by the Supreme Court in the 1896 case Plessy v. Ferguson. Congress eventually expanded the Civil Rights Act to strengthen enforcement of these fundamental civil rights. These changes were needed to strengthen the original proposal submitted by President Kennedy in response to the racially-motivated violence across the South which occurred during tumultuous summer of 1963. Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act and subsequent amendments prohibits employment discrimination on the basis of sex in a broader set of categories, including hiring, promotion, and other conditions of employment. It requires filing a complaint with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission within 180 days after an intentional discriminatory act. Although the inclusion of the word “sex” in the original draft of this 1964 Act was considered a joke, this inclusion has become the basis for most gender-based discrimination policy in the United States. As a result of fears regarding the impact of this legislation on his predecessor, congress adopted the Bennett Amendment into bill shortly before its passage in 1964. “Interested parties” feared that an employee filing suit under Title IV could file a wage discrimination case without the need to prove “equal pay for equal work” as required under the EPA. The Bennett Amendment provides that an employer may pay his employees different wages based on gender if the provisions of the Equal Pay Act authorize such differentiation.

Executive Order #11246

On September 24, 1965, President Lyndon Johnson issued Executive Order #11246. Generally considered the nation’s first affirmative action order, Executive Order #11246 requires companies receiving federal construction contracts to ensure equality in the hiring of minorities. The order was amended in 1967 to include gender discrimination.

The Family Medical Leave Act of 1993

The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA) was signed into law by President Bill Clinton on February 5, 1993. FMLA is considered a labor standard classifying requirements for eligible employers and also a major milestone in the legal support of family life. FMLA recognizes that family life events have an impact on the workplace and requires the workplace to accommodate those events to provide job protection. Entitlements for employees who meet FMLA eligibility requirements include job protection and unpaid leave for a qualified medical and family reason. Eligible employees may take up to 12 work weeks of unpaid leave during any 12 month period for the serious health condition of the employee, parent, spouse or child, or for pregnancy or care of a newborn child, or for adoption or foster care of a child. An FMLA-eligible employee is an employee who has been in the business at least 12 months and worked at least 1,250 hours over the past 12 months. Work must be done at a location where the company employs 50 or more employees within 75 miles. FMLA does not apply to workers in businesses with fewer than 50 employees, part-time workers who have worked fewer than 1,250 hours within the 12 months preceding the leave and a paid vacation, workers who need time off to care for seriously ill relatives other than parents, workers who need time off to recover from short-term or common illness like a cold, or to care for a family member with a short-term illness such as child, and workers who need time off for routine medical care, such as check-ups.

The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996

The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA) dictates that families receiving public assistance under the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families program take personal responsibility for their low-income lives and that paid work is essential to moving the family out of poverty. The PRWORA represents the change in the welfare system that no longer permitted poor families to receive assistance while staying at home with children. With the passage of PRWORA, Congress essentially ended single mothers’ entitlement to income support by emphasizing paid employment.

The Lily Ledbetter Fair Pay Restoration Act

In 2009, President Obama signed the Lily Ledbetter Fair Pay Restoration Act, which allows victims of pay discrimination to file a complaint with the government against their employer within 180 days of their last paycheck, not as previously stated the first paycheck. Victims were previously allowed 180 days from the date of the first unfair paycheck.

Interpretation of Such Policies

The 1963 Equal Pay Act and Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act combined are thought to settle the matter of equal pay in law. In 1963, when the Equal Pay Act was passed, full-time working women were paid 59 cents on average for every dollar paid to men. This means it took 49 years for the wage gap to close just 20 cents; a rate of less than half a penny a year. [1] In a 2007 U.S. Census Bureau report in, median pay for women is less than of men in each and every one of the 20 industries and 25 occupation groups surveyed. In fact, men working in female-dominated occupations still tend to earn more than women working in those same occupations. According to the Institute for Women’s Policy Research, if equal pay for women were instituted immediately across the board, it would result in an annual $319 billion gain nationally for women and their families (in 2008 dollars). [2] Over her working life, a typical woman could expect to gain a total of $210,000 in additional income if equal pay were the norm (these numbers include part-time workers). [3]

The Equal Pay Act and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act are important laws, but they are hard to enforce, and legal cases are extremely difficult to prove and win. Part of the problem is that many women can be underpaid without knowing it. Many companies continue to make it taboo to discuss salaries even though in some cases these policies are unfair and/or sometimes unlawful. In addition, without knowing what a job truly pays, women can devalue themselves when negotiating a new salary. Suing is also not a practical remedy for women since awards are limited under the EPA to 3 years’ worth of pay, which may make it difficult to find a lawyer to accept the case. In addition, the EPA does not allow participation in class action lawsuits for wage discrimination, and since discrimination is almost never in the form of a smoking gun, women still continue to suffer from “the glass ceiling and old boy’s network.” Recent court decisions and settlements reveal women earning low wages, faced with systemic discrimination in hiring, pay, promotions, or working conditions. In 2011, the Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs (OFCCP) settled lawsuits against 3 employers in low-wage industries for systemic sex discrimination. [4] Although this civil action is promising, the Supreme Court has recognized the “fear or retaliation leads many victims of pay discrimination to remain silent.” Low-wage workers face substantial risk of retaliation by standing up to an employer to challenge discrimination and often remain silent. Unavailable resources also make options for low-wage workers difficult. Women who complain are labeled troublemakers which may follow them as they seek other employment. Employers often fight back aggressively and seek to ruin the credibility of the employee as they seek to defend the company. Women are often subjected to questioning about their sexual history as well as gynecologic medical records in efforts to intimidate them in court. Legal cases can be extremely difficult to prove and win since enforcement of the laws is complaint-driven and, unfortunately, most of the information needed to prove a complaint is held by employers. Pursuing an equal pay case under these circumstances can be devastating to the personal lives and finances of the plaintiffs.

The first Executive Orders addressing discrimination in private sector grew out of the unique labor market conditions created by America’s entry into World War II. The basis for these orders was felt to fall under the President’s authority to provide for national defense. A significant national commitment was signaled by the Johnson administration to social policy. By issuing Executive Order #11246, President Johnson signaled his belief that to truly level the playing field affirmative measures were required to undo the consequences of the historic exclusion of minorities and women from many areas of the workplace. The President’s authority to issue this Order derived from his authority to ensure that government procurement was conducted in an economical manner. The relationship between the supply of labor and these Executive Orders is evident in that the eradication of discrimination is empirically related to economy and efficiency in government. As a byproduct, research has determined the effects of affirmative action on the gender pay gap estimating that employment of women increased somewhat faster in contractor firms as a result of the effects of affirmative action, but women have seen greater employment opportunities in the economy as a whole most particularly in the public sector. In the private sector or those contractors that are not subject to affirmative action provisions, affirmative action laws and regulations are few and far between. Under Federal law, only 2 types of private-sector employers are required to implement affirmative action plans; those that have federal contracts or subcontracts in excess of $50,000 and those that have at least 50 employees. This translates to 1 in 4 American workers holding jobs in the private sector covered by mandatory federal affirmative action programs. The role of these policy changes cannot be ruled out in both the increase in the gender pay disparity.

Coverage under the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 is far from universal and many low-wage, single-income workers simply cannot afford to take time-off from work without pay. Low-wage workers in particular would benefit from expanded paid leave policies as they are less likely to be covered by the federal policy since they are considered the working poor and are in greater need of pay during time-off from work for major life events. Women make up 59% of the low wage service-related work force with nearly two-thirds of those earning minimum wages. Women in low-wage positions often have significant demands on their time including, but not limited to holding down multiple jobs, raising children, pursing education, and training. Many single-mother families live paycheck-to-paycheck and may fear being easily replaced by their employers. Lack of information about better paying jobs or options available to them, lack of transportation, and the inability of low-wage female workers in single income families to easily recover from job loss all factor heavily in a decision to challenge discrimination or remain silent.

The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 was at the time considered a “reassertion of America’s work ethic.” This Act single-handedly increased the poverty rate of low-wage families, most of them headed by single mothers. This legislation was passed in the middle of the strongest labor market in decades, especially for low-wage work, and was followed by sharp increases in the employment of unmarried mothers. The hope was that as former single welfare mothers entered the labor market they would eventually climb the job ladder; although, research has shown that wage profiles for less-educated workers remain stagnant even if earnings profiles slope upward. Female workers with low levels of education not only typically earn less; they are also hit hard by the wage gap. Less-educated, low-wage workers experience little wage growth while working for the same employer and only limited gain. Their experience is also less meaningful than for that of more-educated workers when moving to a new employer. The occupational segregation of men and women into different jobs in the service sector explains the single-largest portion of the gender pay gap, 49.3 percent. Many jobs that women have historically held by women are underpaid when compared to men’s jobs that require similar levels of skill. A traditionally male job can earn more a traditionally female job. It is not that the male job has a much higher level of skills than the female job, but that our society values these jobs differently and this is a choice we make. Jobs considered traditionally female have been systemically undervalued for such a long time that we think it is natural, but in fact this is an ongoing legacy of past discrimination. [5]

Finally, The Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Restoration Act provides women with a critical tool to challenge discriminatory pay practices, but it will not change pay disparity. The Act amends Title VII and restores the law that existed before the Supreme Court’s 2007 decision in the Ledbetter case with regard to the timing of legal challenges. With a record number of women currently participating in the workforce, wage discrimination hurts the majority of American families by compromising their economic security today and their retirement security tomorrow. Rising employment rates have forced an unprecedented number of women into the position of primary breadwinners for their families. This alone makes pay equity even more critical. While the Ledbetter Act does not end pay disparity, it brings women one step closure to making real progress in pay disparity. Stronger incentives are needed for employers to follow the law, women need to be empowered to negotiate for equal pay, strengthen federal outreach, and education, and enforcement efforts such as those contained in the now failed Paycheck Fairness Act are needed. Discrimination would then be deterred due to strong penalties for equal pay violations as well as retaliation against workers who ask about wage practices or disclose their own wages.

Criticism/Critical Debate

The consequences of the wage gap are both widespread and numerous. When women are paid less than men, the means by which they support themselves and their families is compromised. The number of single-family households has risen dramatically over the past 4 decades. The increase in the number of single-mother families can be correlated to the increase in child poverty in the United States. Unsurprisingly, single parent families headed by women are nearly twice as likely as single parent families headed by men to live below the poverty level. Although most children reared in mother-only households do well, there may be adverse consequences for others. By earning less, women will automatically experience the disadvantage of a less stable economic status and may be less likely to question their wage status due to fear of poverty.

The wage gap disparity is also visible in fringe benefits, which currently make up about 30 percent of total compensation. Lower wages means lower lifetime earnings resulting in lower pension benefits upon retirement. The lack of coverage or lower benefit levels may not be a problem for some women, since they receive benefits through a spouse, but for other women, lack of adequate health or pension benefits from their job is a serious problem. As with wages, the gap in fringe benefits is thought to be related to differences between men and women in human capital and job characteristics. Some studies contribute differences in human capital to motherhood and parenting responsibilities since women are largely responsible for childrearing in our society. The correlation is that women are felt to less likely than men to gain work experience and skills, and therefore, are less likely to qualify for high-paying jobs; however, studies have demonstrated that when controlling for sex-based differences in work hours, work interruptions, and part-time work, childless women earn no more than mothers and single women earned no more than married women. Thus, these wage disparities are not exclusively attributable to motherhood, and factors other than unequal sharing in childrearing duties must be at play. Supporting studies have found that in narrow sections of students graduating from the same law school with the same amount of experience, the human capital argument failed to explain the gender-based wage disparities in the American labor force.

Another consideration for the wage disparity can be found in the role of industry and wage structure. This discrimination clearly starts the second women begin their first job, and follows them no matter where they go or what they do. New graduates not only make less, but continue to make less with each subsequent degree and the gap actually widens as they progress. Women make less than men no matter what industry or occupation they enter. This can be attributed to the decline in blue-collar jobs where women are under-represented. The rise of women in blue collar jobs has benefited women in that traditionally men have been more likely to be union members than women. Union representation has historically helped to increase the gender pay gap, but the share of unionized workers who are female has increased as unions have grown in certain public sector and service-related occupations that have a greater share of female workers. This in itself has played a relatively small role in the declining gender pay gap.

Public sector and service-related occupations remain crucial for women. Women have historically been overrepresented in public-sector employment. Public sector jobs generally pay more than jobs in the private sector raising the average pay for women in our contemporary economy, but recent decisions by many state and local governments to respond to diminished revenues and budget shortfalls by cutting public-sector jobs have had substantial economic effects on women. Although state and local public-sector workers have significantly higher levels of education than their private-sector peers, they are consistently underpaid relative to similar private-sector workers in similar jobs, and the disproportionate share of women and minorities working in state and local government has also translated into higher rates of job loss for both groups in these sectors. Affirmative action has played a significant role in public sector jobs, but this has mainly benefited white women, many of which are not coming from the lower-class labor market. According to the United States Labor Department, the primary beneficiaries of affirmative action are white women. The Department of Labor estimated that 6 million women workers are in higher occupational classifications today than they would have been without affirmative action policies.

Conclusion

The empowerment of women is considered to be one of the greatest changes in the past 50 years. This has been manifested in equal rights acts, changes in social welfare legislation, and changes in employment legislation such as the Lilly Ledbetter Act. The changes have all in one way or another corresponded with the rises in the labor market that have both supported and encouraged the entrance of women and minorities into the American workforce. Improvements in pay for women have been related to a greater presence of women in the labor force, rising education attainment, and the movement into professional and managerial jobs, but pay disparity still persists.

Historically, legislation favoring the elimination of discrimination in the workforce has been used also to support economic growth. This would suggest that the driving factor behind this legislation is not discrimination or gender parity, but capitalism/the economy. Executive Order #11246 and The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 are examples of this. The impact of these Acts on low-wage female workers is evident. More low-wage single-mother households are living in poverty at this time than ever before. In fact, there has been no legislation to date to protect part-time and contingent workers at all and their numbers are growing. These workers are not eligible for time-and-a-half overtime, minimum wage protections, and they have very little job security. Most low-wage single-mothers are also not covered by the Family Medical Leave Act.

The impacts of the Equal Pay Act of 1963, Title IV of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and its subsequent amendments, as well as the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Acts of 2009 and 2012, are largely felt to be in the public sector, which is subjected to monitoring and oversight by the EEOC, and in the private sector in the form of blue collar jobs which are dominated by unions. Unions provide better benefit protection, safety protection, and job security. Lilly Ledbetter herself benefit greatly from protection in her job due to her union. Studies have shown that women who have had the benefit of being supported by union membership experience significantly less pay disparity. Low-wage workers often find it hard to unionize, especially in the private sector as this is often discouraged by employers. Workers are often bullied and intimidated to discourage talk of union membership. Strong unions in these sheltered areas would greatly benefit low-wage workers.

Better enforcement of existing laws and regulations is also needed as well as stronger laws such as the Paycheck Fairness Act to address this issue. Lawsuits will not have a significant impact on pay disparity as individual wage discrimination cases are very expensive to pursue and difficult to argue. Private cases also do not have an important impact on the labor market. Class-action lawsuits are rare and are usually based on many employees and one employer or a few employers, and are generally not feasible in wage disparity cases. As previously mention, they are forbidden under the EPA. Finally, the fact that this problem is not concentrated in one area or agency makes it difficult to assess. Change is needed from outside these organizations. Federal standards should be adopted to specifically address pay inequality at all levels of government and even in the private sector.

Internet Sources

American Civil Liberties Union, www.aclu.com.

The ACLU takes an active role in defending the freedoms granted to American citizens by our Constitution and laws of the United States in this country. The ACLU brings many discrimination cases on behalf of workers each year, testifies in front of Congress on behalf of women’s issues, and works hard to lobby for women’s rights in the workplace.

National Committee on Pay Equity, http://www.pay-equity.org/.

The National Committee on Pay Equity is a coalition of organizations working to eliminate sex-based and race-based pay discrimination to achieve pay equity.

The American Association of University Women, http://www.aauw.org

The American Association of University Women advances equality for women and girls through legislation, research, advocacy, and philanthropy. Its mission is a community to break through economic and education barriers so that women have a fair chance.

There are obvious outgrowing numbers of gays and lesbians communities in our country and all over the world. People become increasingly engaged into homosexual affiliations. Many variables influence the emergence of sexuality in all young people. These variables are changes in biological processes, relationships and community interactions.

The level of acceptance between gays and lesbians has changed over the years. The researchers would like to determine the level of acceptance of the society between gays and lesbians.

This study was conducted with the purpose of analyzing the factors that lead to the acceptance of society between gays and lesbians. This study identified the variables and factors influencing and may affect the society’s level of acceptance between gays and lesbians.

Statement of the Problem

The study aimed to determine the factors that lead to the acceptance of the society between gays and lesbians.

Specifically, it sought to determine the following:

– What is the demographic profile of the respondents in terms of:

age
sex
civil status
religion
educational attainment

– What are the attitudes and behaviours of gays and lesbians which contributes to the level of acceptance of the society?

– What are the factors that influence the emergence of being homosexual individual?

– What are the challenges faced by lesbians and gays on the acceptance of the society?

– How the respondents are reacting to communities of gays and lesbians?

Significance of the Study

The study has significance to gays and lesbians, as they will be aware of the level of acceptance of the society to them and the factors that contribute to the willingness of the society towards them.

To the parents, that they will be aware of the condition of their children, as the findings were presented to them, they will be encouraged to improve their views and beliefs regarding homosexuality.

To the society, that they will be aware of the happenings to the homosexual based on their opinions, beliefs, and views, as they give it in relation to their acceptance and may find ways to improve the level of acceptance between gays and lesbians.

Scope, Delimitations & Limitations of the Study

The respondents of this study include 25 lesbians, 25 gays, 25 parents of either lesbian or gay, and 25 individuals who have gay/ lesbian friends. They will be asked regarding attitudes and behaviours of homosexuals which contribute to their level of acceptance in the society. They will be given chances to give their opinions, views and beliefs regarding homosexuality.

Definition of Terms

The terms included in the research paper will be defined to facilitate understanding of the study.

Lesbian. Homosexual woman; the condition in which a woman is sexually attracted to, or engages in sexual behaviour with another woman.

Gay. Homosexual man; the condition in which man is sexually attracted to, or engages in sexual behaviour with another man.

Homosexuality. The condition of being sexually attracted, covertly, or overtly, by members of one’s own sex.

Society. Organized and interdependent community.

Morality. Degree of conformity to moral principles.

Acceptance. Willingness to accept.

CHAPTER 2

Review of Related Literature and Studies

This chapter includes discussion on related literature and studies both foreign and local, which provides relevant facts about the society’s level of acceptance between gays and lesbians. It also aims to determine the level of acceptance from past to present.

Foreign Studies

On the study conducted by the researchers at the Kaiser Family Foundation entitled “Inside- out : A report on the Experience’s of Lesbians, Gays and Bisexuals in America and the Public’s Views on Issues and Advices Related to Sexual Orientation”. The are two national public opinion surveys: one, to gather information on the experiences of seslf-identified lesbians, gays and bisexuals: and the second to gauge the general public’s attitudes towards this group and their views on key policy issues related to sexual orientation. They did it to determine where the public really stands. Researchers found out that large majority of self-identified lesbians, gays, and bisexuals believe that there is more acceptance today compared to a few years ago. One third from their respondents say that their family or a family member has refused to accept them. According to the research, lesbians are more likely to report not having been accepted by their families.

It was found out that majority of the general public reports knowing someone who is gay, lesbian or bisexual believes that there is more acceptance of lesbians and gays today compared to a few years ago. Most say that greater acceptance is either good for the country or does not matter one way or the other. The majority also believes that homosexual behavior is a normal part of some people’s sexuality. Individuals age 65 and older those with a high school education or less and those who do not have lesbian and gay co-workers, friends or family members are least likely to have accepting attitudes towards lesbians, gays, and bisexuals. Religious affiliation also has significant effect on attitudes and level of acceptance. Overall, the public is increasing accepting gays and lesbians in the society.

On the study conducted by Elizabeth Mehren entitled “Homosexuals finding more Acceptance. Poll says” states that gays and lesbians have experienced a dramatic rise in acceptance over the last two decades, according to a new Los Angeles Times Poll-2004. In ltwo Los Angeles Times polls in the mid- 1980s and other data from the same era, the level of sympathy toward gays and lesbians was half what it is today. Researchers found out that gay people in general are feeling more comfortable in society and society is feeling more comfortable with gay people. The study revealed that 62 percent say their community accepts gays and lesbians.

Based on the survey conducted by the members of the Public Agenda Organization entitled “Ambivalence and Mixed Messages”, acceptance of gays and lesbians has risen significantly, and currently about half of Americans say homosexuality should be an acceptable lifestyle. Survey questions about whether American society should accept homosexuality often draw different responses depending on the examples mentioned which is an indication of public ambivalence. Questions that raise the issue of fair treatment typically draw much higher levels of public support. For instance, substantial majorities of Americans say they support equal protection for homosexuals against hate crimes and equal rights in terms of housing and jobs. surveys show that slight majorities say a gay person could be a good role model and as good a parent as anyone, yet they are divided on whether they would allow a homosexual to baby-sit their child and half say they oppose allowing gay couples to adopt.

The survey conducted by the faculty & staff of The University of Arizona entitled “Equity’s 1992 Campus Climate Report” was aimed to investigate the climate for gays, lesbians, and bisexuals on campus. Majority of their sample comprised of heterosexuals. They allow their respondents to rate in the scale of 1-10 on every question. As a result, majority placed 8 to 10 range on the level of acceptance with the women expressing high level of acceptance than men. Respondents’ employment status had no significant impact on the acceptance scale, with no major differences surfacing among faculty, staff, and graduate students. They also asked if their religion influences their views on homosexuality; seventeen percent of the respondents marked “yes.” But not only religion appeared to influence people toward negative views. A series of items asked respondents to characterize the level of respect shown for gays, lesbians, and bisexuals by others in their department, specifically their immediate supervisor, co-workers, department head, and students. All in all, the responses to questions about respect levels in departments reveal that the immediate environment for gay, lesbian, and bisexual members of the University is not a particularly good one, but that department heads and supervisors show generally higher levels of respect than co-workers and students.

Justin J. Jagosh, in his thesis entitled “Moving toward understanding and acceptance: Parents’ experiences after finding out their children are gay, lesbian, and bisexual” aimed to explore how the parents will accept their child’s sexuality. Through qualitative inquiry, 12 Canadian parents (7 mothers and 5 fathers) were interviewed to develop an in-depth analysis of their thoughts, feelings, and actions in relation to having gay, lesbian, and bisexual children. He found out that parents went through a process of understanding and acceptance, in which they made sense of past experiences they had with their children, reacted emotionally to finding out, changed their perspectives on issues, and shared their experiences with others. There are still hindering factors but with the strategies suggested in which researchers, educators, health professionals, media personnel, parent support groups, and parents themselves can use like some mentioned above, it will not be difficult for parents to understand and accept their gay, lesbian, and bisexual children.

Foreign studies

On the book overview of Lesbian, Gay and bisexual identities and youth by Anthony R. O’Angelli, Charlotte Patterson explore the psychological dimentions of lesbian, gay and bisexual identities from puberty to adulthood. There are changes in biological processes, relationship and community interactions influence the emergence of sexuality in all young people.

The article, Chasing the Rainbow; Is a Gay Population an Engine of Urban Revival? Cities are beginning to think so by Richard Florida sees that openness to the gay community is a good indication of the low entry barriers to human capital that are so important to spurring creativity and generating high-tech growth. The homosexuality represents the last last frontier of diversity in our society, and thus a place that welcomes the gay community welcomes all kinds of people.

Also an article in New Zealand by the LGBT organization on that country which is entitled “A Civil Union Ceremony in Wellington” last December 20006 states that New Zealand society is generally fairly relaxed in acceptance of gays and lesbians. The gay-friendly is epitomized by the fact that there are several Member if Parliament who belong to the LGBT community, gay rights are protected by the New Zealand Human Rights Act. And New Zealand is relatively small population. The LGBT community is small, but still visible, with Pride festivals and LGBT events held around the country throughout the year.

Local Literature

J. Neil C. Garcia in his book “Philippine Gay Culture: The Last Thirty Years, Binabae to Bakla, Silahis to MSM” tackles the perception of Filipinos to gays and lesbians from the last thirty years. The anxiety of Western civilization toward its many different genders- not just masculine and feminine-finds its fecund expression in the varieties of camp (butch/femme) and transvestisms (macho, queer, transvestophilic, transgenderist, etc.) which, over the last century, have come to be institutionalized as legitimate self-expressions within the gay and lesbian cultures of the United States, Europe and Australia, This anxiety is deeply rooted in the Judeo-Christian metaphysical tradition which, until recently, was a rather inexorable force in the Western subject’s life. On the other hand, this study has argued that the Philippines has its own dualist tradition in respect of sexual identity, and although it would seem that the effeminate bakla and the mannish tomboy attest to the fluidity of gender concepts and roles in our culture, at the level of desire they merely reinforce the babae and the lalake, whose pale reflections they are. Rafael cannot be farther from the truth when he ascribes to kabaklaan the parodic and self-reflexive character which it doesn’t (yet) possess.

As things stand, the dominant conception of the bakla identity strictly confines the bakla to an agonistic effeminacy (a poor copy of femininity). In fact, the masculine bakla is simply unthinkable. He therefore must be a closet case, or a double-dealing fraud (silahis). Suffice it to say, then, that at the core of the social construction of the bakla is “coreness” itself. As a recent ethnography reiterates, the bakla is a “man with a woman’s heart” who, like a real woman, deeply desires a real man to be happy.

The “silence” of local psychological institutions in the early sixties about homosexuality and homosexual counseling seems strange, given that globally, the problems of adolescent homosexuals never fail to make it in the agenda of any conference on juvenile mental health (for only obvious reasons). By the rest of the 1960s, as well as the early seventies, however, this situation had palpably changed, and homosexuality was made to belong under the aegis of psychological science, as may be proven by the existence of positivist works on it which were written around this time. (A partial listing of the sundry academic studies on homosexuality in the Philippines is included in the last section of this book). The consequence of this is the renewed and intensified medical psychopathologization of the bakla as inversion’s homosexual: a man whose psychological being does not coincide with his anatomic sex. Only this time, his sexuality has become the central defining feature of his by now “psychosexually inverted” identity.

He concluded that the bakla is the only kind of (male) homosexual Philippine culture has, relatively speaking, known; and therefore also the only (male) homosexual Philippine culture has discriminated against and/or dismissed as sick, deviant and sinful-as bakla, precisely. Any local text proclaiming itself gay or homosexual cannot help but relate itself to and to situate itself within kabaklaan, hence.

CHAPTER 3

Methods and Procedure

Research Methodology

The researcher used descriptive method in the study. Descriptive method of research is a fact finding study with sufficient and accurate interpretation of the findings. It describes what is. It describes with emphasis what actually exist such as current condition, situation practices, or any phenomena. Since the study is concerned in the Analysis on the acceptance of the society between gays/lesbians.

Subjects of the Study

The researchers chose 100 respondents divided into four categories. These composed of 25 gays, 25 lesbians,25 parents of gays or lesbians and 25 individuals who have gays or lesbians friends.

The Sampling Technique

The researchers used simple random sampling and the size of the population is 200 and the study of population is people who have known a friend or any related of gay and lesbians also the respondents and the parents.

Sample:

25 respondents

25 gays

25 lesbians

25 parents

Those 25 to sum up of 100 is from the population of 200 and was chosen by simple random sampling.

Procedure of Data Gathering

The researchers used in the method of collecting data is normative survey, researchers used this for its very effective and looking for the commonalities of the said subject. This would be the best and most appropriate method to use in data gathering.

Statistical Treatment of Data

The role of the statistical treatment of data in research. The researchers is considering much in the age and gender also their state of consciousness and the rationality and also the emotion are being needed through the research.

What if one of America’s most illegal plants was also one of the world’s most beneficial plants? Marijuana has a wide variety of different applications in society, but remains illegal by federal law.A Some states have decriminalized cannabis, but federal law does not recognize state law.A Suppose that by federal law, cannabis were a decriminalized or legal substance.A An entire new world of research could arise and each of its uses would become definitive.A Perceptions concerning the use of marijuana would likely be altered.A The decriminalization or legalization of marijuana would presumably cause many economical, industrial, and medical adaptations focused towards the benefit of the United States of America. Being an activist plays a key role in the decriminalization of marijuana.

Activism consists of efforts to promote, impede or direct social, political, economic, or environmental change. Activists for the legalization of marijuana have made great strides in 20 states to date based upon the supporters of its medical uses. Although Congress classified marijuana as a Schedule 1 substance (a category of drugs not considered legitimate for medical use) in 1970, instantly making it the most widely used drug in the U.S. Many disagree with this and the fight (in the media, courts, and on the streets) raises ethical issues, such as whether or not the government should be allowed to govern what people do in their own homes. In fact, up until the government started imposing restrictions in 1930, physicians still widely prescribed marijuana to their patients for a variety of reasons that are similar to the reasons people use it today (Bostwick, 2012).

Marijuana, as most people commonly know it, is actually a plant called hemp, or “cannabis sativa.” Hemp is any durable plant used since prehistory for many purposes, such as rope, paper, and clothing. The cannabis plant also produces three very important products that other plants do not (in usable form): seed, pulp, and medicine. The cannabis sativa plant grows as weed and cultivated plant all over the world in a variety of climates and soils (Legalizing Hemp 2). Marijuana has been used throughout history; in 6000 B.C. cannabis seeds were used as food in China; in 4000 B.C. the Chinese used textiles made of hemp; the first recorded use of cannabis as medicine in China was in 2727 B.C.; and in 1500 B.C. the Chinese cultivated Cannabis for food and fiber (Legalizing Hemp 2).

MEDICAL USES

PaulA Armentano, Deputy Director of the NORML (The National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws) Foundation, stated at the beginning of this year that scientists are investigating cannabinoids’ ability to moderate the pain associated with disorders such as multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and inflammatory bowel disease, as well as the cannabinoids’ role in the treatment of several neurological disorders including Alzheimer’s disease and Lou Gehrig’s disease (par.A 3).A The cannabinoids contained in marijuana have the potential to provide therapeutic relief for a multitude of diseases.A The potential therapeutic uses of medical marijuana include relief from clinical conditions like gliomas, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s, ALS, fibromyalgia, tourette’s syndrome, dystonia, HIV, hepatitis c, hypertension, diabetes, sleep apnea, gastrointestinal disorders, pruritis, incontinence, osteoporosis, and rheumatoid arthritis (Armentano, par.A 8).A ArmentanoA also stated in his report in theA Recent Research on Medical Marijuana:A Investigators are currently studying the anti-cancer properties of cannabinoids.A A growing body of preclinical and clinical data concludes that cannabinoids can reduce the spread of specific cancer cells via apoptosis (programmed cell death) and by the inhibition of angiogenesis (the formation of new blood vessels).A Arguably, these latter trends represent far broader and more significant applications for cannabinoid therapeutics than researchers could have imagined some thirty or even twenty years ago (par.A 4) If cannabis were to be decriminalized, an entirely new domain of medicinal research could possibly be unlocked.A The medicinal properties of marijuana including the transient as well as therapeutic relief to a broad list of clinical conditions could be further researched and bestowed upon society.A Allen F.A St.A Pierre states in his articleA About Marijuana:

Modern research suggests that cannabis is a valuable aid in the treatment of a wide range of clinical applications.A These include pain relief – particularly of neuropathic pain (pain from nerve damage) – nausea, spasticity, glaucoma, and movement disorders. Marijuana is also a powerful appetite stimulant specifically for patients suffering from HIV, the AIDS wasting syndrome, or dementia.A Emerging research suggests that marijuana’s medicinal properties may protect the body against some types of malignant tumors and are neuroprotective.A (par.A 10)

Newer and healthier methods of the application of THC (Tetrahydrocannabinol) could be researched in order to prevent any negative effects that inhaling the combusted material of cannabis may have on your respiratory system. New branches of research dedicated to showing the positive aspects of marijuana could be possible decriminalization were set in motion. Canada has already benefited tremendously from their nation-wide legalization of marijuana. Andrew D.A Hathaway and Kate Rossiter state in their article on Canada’s society involving medical marijuana that “In 2001, Canada announced it would be the first country to legalize cannabis for therapeutic purposes and earmarked funding for clinical trials.A By June, 2007, legal access had been granted to about 1,800 patients with terminal illnesses and serious medical conditions” (1). Not only does cannabis have the potential to provide the United States with an extremely broad range of medical application, but this plant also has the potential to provide various industrial applications.

INDUSTRIAL USES

Hemp’s uses include but are certainly not limited to: fuel; food (hemp seeds provide an incredible source of protein-not only for people but for birds who seek out hemp seeds which have been mixed with other seeds); paper; textiles, (i.e. canvas, paper, cloth, rope); paint; detergent; varnish; oil; medicine; and building materials. Almost any product that can be made from wood, cotton, or petroleum (including plastics) can be made from hemp.

Every year the United States government spends billions of dollars to fund the war on drugs, which is conducted mainly by the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). More specifically, the extremely well funded Domestic Cannabis Eradication/Suppression Program (DCESP) is the portion of the DEA that specifically deals with the enforcement of cannabis laws. In the last 25 years, the enforcement of cannabis prohibition has grown stricter. Despite this, marijuana production in the U.S. has increased ten-fold since 1982 (Crop Report 17). Along with this increased production and DEA enforcement, the cost of the war on marijuana has increased greatly in the last few decades.

For example, in 2002 roughly 730,000 people were arrested for state marijuana charges meaning they did not possess enough to get charged federally. The total criminal justice cost of these marijuana arrests was about $7.6 billion, which equates to roughly $10,400 per arrest (NORML 131). The legalization of marijuana would eliminate the need for all these arrests which would result in an economic boost, not to mention save the money required to incarcerate someone for said offense.

In addition to reducing the amount of money spent keeping marijuana illegal, the legalization of marijuana would free up much needed space in our already overcrowded jails. U.S. citizens account for about 5% of the world’s population, yet U.S. prison inmates account for 25% of the world’s prisoners (Eitzen 368). By eliminating the need for marijuana related arrests, a great burden would be lifted off of our police force. Our police would be able to focus their energy on the real criminals in our nation as opposed to wasting money charging citizens with minor marijuana offenses. Most importantly, the legalization of marijuana would eliminate all of the crime involved with marijuana such as sale, possession, paraphernalia, and cultivation.A

The Author of Social Problems, Stanley Eitzen explains the concept behind why the legalization of marijuana would do so:A “organized crime, which now acquires most of its income from providing illegal goods and services, would no longer be able to hide its investments and profits. Thus, laws against victimless crimes are indirectly responsible for maintaining organized crime” (Social Problems 352).A

By making marijuana legal, it makes it impossible for criminals to conduct crimes involving marijuana. However, the prohibitive laws regarding marijuana provide organized criminals with one of their most lucrative source of income: the sale of illegal marijuana. Legislation against marijuana does not eliminate the demand for it amongst society either. Due to marijuana being illegal, the price of marijuana is much higher than what it would be if legal. This unintended result of the prohibitive laws against marijuana has caused a slight increase in crime revolved around the purchase of the herb. New crimes are being committed to produce money so that users can afford the high prices; though not as severe as a crime directly related to the sale and cultivation of marijuana, any crime eliminated because of legalization helps. The eradication of crime associated with marijuana and the corresponding money earned as a result will only become possible through the regulation and production of marijuana by the U.S. government. These would not be the only benefits legalization would have to offer either; the government could generate substantial contributions to the economy through the taxation and sale of marijuana within our borders. Ultimately, the war on marijuana has failed. Marijuana use and production continue to increase from year to year despite the increased efforts against marijuana. New regulatory policies need to be researched and tried if the government ever wants to have control over one of theA biggest issues in the war on drugs.

ECONOMIC BENEFITS

Today marijuana is the number one cash crop in America, generating over $35 billion in dirty money each year (Crop Report 14). That is $18 billion more than second most generated crop corn. Although the prices of marijuana would decline if legalized, the government could still make enormous amounts of money through the taxation, production and sale of marijuana. Marijuana is the fourth most widely used psychoactive drug in the U.S., following caffeine, nicotine and alcohol (Eitzen 385). Caffeine, nicotine and alcohol, are all legal, regulated by the government and all contribute greatly to our economy. Why not do so with cannabis? Tobacco addiction resulting from cigarette smoking kills more Americans than alcohol, cocaine, crack, heroin, homicide, suicide, fires, car accidents, and AIDS combined (Eitzen 389). Yet the government encourages and regulates the sale of cigarettes, this is because the tobacco industry is a major contributor to the U.S. economy. Roughly $158 billion are generated each year by the tobacco industry (Eitzen 389). Aside from the sale of cigarettes, tobacco companies spent $21.2 million professional lobbying firms in 2003, which amounts to more than $127,000 for every day Congress was in session (Eitzen 390). Government intervention in the theoretical cannabis industry could produce monetary gains similar to that of the tobacco industry through essentially the same means. Alcohol, the third most used drug in America, is another example of how government regulation of a drug can be successful. Each year, the government makes billions off of the regulation and sale of alcohol. In addition to the revenues that could be generated through the sale of marijuana, the government could institute a marijuana tax, which would only increase revenues.

POLITICAL ASPECT

In California On November 2, 2010, Proposition 19 failed at the polls. If it passed, marijuana would have been decriminalized, and the government would have been allowed to regulate and penalize marijuana use and distribution to generate additional revenue (Viswanthan 1). Small groups have risen throughout the United States, primarily in California, advocating for marijuana legalization. One of the most well known groups and California’s largest medical group, the California Medical Association, has also endorsed the legalization of marijuana. But if a similar proposition is proposed, President Barack Obama will not support it. In a press conference in Colombia, Obama said he would engage in a debate regarding legalizing drugs, but elaborated that his administration will not support any bill to legalize them (2). With elections approaching, his stance from 4 years ago has shifted greatly.

PresidentialA GOPA candidate Mitt Romney has explicitly expressed his dissension around medicinal marijuana in his campaign. After hearing from an individual with muscular dystrophy about his need for medicinal marijuana to survive, Romney repeated fervently that he was not in favor of legalizing medicinal marijuana. The young man with the degenerative illness expressed his worries to the candidate and showed genuine concern for his survival. Five different doctors had recommended the use of medicinal marijuana for this patient, yet the federal government continues to impose fear by prosecuting those who use and prescribe such treatment. Romney continued to ignore his pleas and ended the conversation by walking away from the wheelchair-bound man (CNN).

Potential third party candidates such as Ron Paul and Gary Johnson have voiced their support concerning the legalization of marijuana, and have clearly made it known that if they are elected, they will take measures to legalize the drug nationwide (Viswanthan 2). During his 30 years in the House of Representatives, Paul has authored and co-authored multiple marijuana-friendly bills. He’s proposed laws toA decriminalize marijuana, permit industrial hemp farming, and constitutionally delegate to states how to enforce extant medical marijuana (Camia 1).A

For those who favor the legalization of marijuana, the ideology revolving around the subject is conveyed perfectly byA Thomas Szasz, a libertarian,A

“I favor free trade in drugs for the same reason the Founding Fathers favored free trade in ideas. In an open society, it is none of the government’s business what idea a man puts into his mind; likewise, it should be none of the government’s business what drug he puts into his body” (74).

Though the federal government did not adopt this ideology, there are other valid reasons that the legalization and regulation of marijuana in the U.S. would provide our nation with significant benefits. The taxation and sale of marijuana alone would provide immense economic contributions. The ending of the war against marijuana would save billions of dollars spent each year hunting down and incarcerating marijuana offenders. The potential that marijuana has to offer as a medicine are all possible results of the legalization of marijuana in the United States.

OPPOSING VIEWS

Scientific studies may have conflicting results, but overall they link smoking marijuana to heart and lung disease, throat cancer, and a decreased memory capacity. Making marijuana legal would increase the number of people being affected by these diseases. Others point to the staggering amount of drugs that have been seized coming into the United States. They point to how drug use is strongly linked to criminal activity, and predict that legalizing marijuana would lead to an increase in violence and crime (Two Sides of the Conflict Anti-Marijuana).

The federal government, which overall is working to keep marijuana illegal, agrees that there is no real benefit to legalizing marijuana. Gil Kerlikowske, director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy wrote “As a former police chief, I recognize we are not going to arrest our way out of the problem. We also recognize that legalizing marijuana would not provide the answer to any of the health, social, youth education, criminal justice, and community quality of life challenges associated with drug use.”(Gane-McCalla)

SOLUTIONS

One of the main reasons that cannabis has not been legalized in the U.S. is the perceived danger that smoking it presents to its user; the perception that getting high is harmful. Yes, smoking cannabis is bad for you, but smoking anything is bad for you. Most of the negative health effects that cannabis users experience are a result of the act of inhaling smoke into their lungs, not the actual THC present. Cannabis can be consumed in ways that do not involve combustion, such as edibles or the use of a vaporizer. Through healthier consumption, marijuana can be used medically to relieve certain patients of pain and other ailments as well as serve as a basis for newer, more effective cannabinoid drug development. The legalization of marijuana would help capitalize on the medicinal benefits that THC and otherA cannabinoidsA present in marijuana have to offer. Though large amounts of THC have been found to disrupt short-term memory and impair motor skills, THC has also been proven to help relieve symptoms of many common health problems (Joy 51).

In particular, medical marijuana has had the most significant effect on patients suffering from symptoms such as chronic pain, nausea, appetite loss, muscle spasms, insomnia, and glaucoma (Joy 51). There are plenty of legally prescribed drugs that are often used to treat symptoms like those mentioned above; however many of them can be expensive, cause undesirable side effects, and in several cases can become addictive.

For example, Xanax and Vicitin are two of the most widely distributed prescription painkillers on the market today despite their high cost and high risk of dependence. In addition, they are most frequently prescribed to patients experiencing symptoms that THC has been found to alleviate. Not to say that medical marijuana, or THC, will always be better than Xanax or Vicitin or any other prescription drug because there are extreme cases where medical marijuana would not suffice. However, medical marijuana would offer a cheap alternative to expensive prescription drugs without the negative side effects or risk of addiction. Despite popular belief, marijuana has not been proven to be physically addictive. Studies indicate that day-to-day marijuana users will develop a minor physiological addiction to the drug, but no evidence was present of a physical addiction one might face with cocaine, heroin or even caffeine abuse (Joy 92). This trait of THC is but another reason that the development of more advanced cannabinoid based drugs should be looked into if marijuana were legalized. The idea of synthetic THC or a pill form of THC is not a new one.

Scientists developed Marinol, the only cannabinoid approved for marketing in the U.S., was introduced in 1985. Although Marinol was not a huge success and is rarely used today, it did lead to the discovery of the neuroprotective qualitiesA cannabinoidsA possess. Janet Joy, author of Marijuana and Medicine: Assessing the Science Base, explains neuroprotection: “One of the most prominent new applications ofA cannabinoidsA is for ‘neuroprotection,’ the rescue of neurons from cell death associated with trauma, ischemia, and neurological diseases” (202). This quality ofA cannabinoidsA could prove to be valuable in the development of medicines designed to slow the deterioration of the brain, such as certain types of brain damage and other illnesses causing brain damage. If the use of medical marijuana were legal, people would be provided with a cheaper, and if consumed properly, sometimes healthier alternative to certain ailments they may be experiencing. Along with the numerous medical uses marijuana already has to offer, the legalization of marijuana would enable scientists to develop state of the art medicines involvingA cannabinoids.A Investigators are currently studying the anti-cancer properties of cannabinoids.A A growing body of preclinical and clinical data concludes that cannabinoids can reduce the spread of specific cancer cells via apoptosis (programmed cell death) and by the inhibition of angiogenesis (the formation of new blood vessels).A Arguably, these latter trends represent far broader and more significant applications for cannabinoid therapeutics than researchers could have imagined some thirty or even twenty years ago (par.A 4) . If cannabis were to be decriminalized, an entirely new domain of medicinal research could possibly be unlocked.A The medicinal properties of marijuana including the transient as well as therapeutic relief to a broad list of clinical conditions could be further researched and bestowed upon society.A Allen F.A St.A Pierre states in his articleA About Marijuana: Modern research suggests that cannabis is a valuable aid in the treatment of a wide range of clinical applications.A These include pain relief – particularly of neuropathic pain (pain from nerve damage) – nausea, spasticity, glaucoma, and movement disorders. Marijuana is also a powerful appetite stimulant specifically for patients suffering from HIV, the AIDS wasting syndrome, or dementia.A Emerging research suggests that marijuana’s medicinal properties may protect the body against some types of malignant tumors and are neuroprotective.A (par.A 10)

DISCUSSION

There are laws in place making it illegal for anyone under the age of eighteen (in most states) to purchase Nicotine products, and twenty one to purchase alcohol products. Thoughts are that at eighteen/twenty one, one is old enough to have been properly educated and understand what it is they are doing when they purchase these products. Why can’t we do this with the legalization of marijuana?

A Maybe we should look to European countries for the answer to marijuana legality. Many have made their laws less strict or repealed them entirely, which were fashioned after laws made here in the United States, in favor of the legalization of marijuana. Commander Brain Paddock in a neighborhood of London called Brixton ran a small experiment. Over a six month period, he instructed his officers to warn those caught with small amounts of marijuana rather than arrest them. At the end of those six months, Scotland Yard issued a report that stated more than 2500 hours of manpower was saved by giving warnings (Katz). Not making arrests meant not spending valuable time transporting prisoners and filling out paper work, not to mention court time and costs saved prosecuting those arrested. That time could then be spent on investigating and enforcing other more serious criminal activities.

Marijuana use is legal or otherwise overlooked, in many European areas such as Holland. In an article called Europe Loosens It’s Pot Laws, written for Rolling Stone Magazine, Gregory Katz wrote that Senior Drug Policy Advisor to the Dutch Minister of Health, Bob Krizer, has said marijuana consumption in Holland has been consistently lower over the past twenty-five years than it has in the United States. During those same twenty-five years, the United States had been waging the “War on Drugs,” while Holland had been embracing a more liberal policy. Mr. Krizer also states that their rate of harder drug addicts is largely lower than many other countries that have stricter drug policies (Katz). If true, this goes a long way towards proving education is a much better way to get a message across than making laws and arresting people.

CONCLUSION

Marijuana has the potential to be one of the most useful substances in the world. Even though cannabis prevails as possibly one of the most useful plants on the face of the Earth, it still remains illegal in the United States. With countless uses, whether they be industrial, medical, or economical, it is hard to believe that marijuana still remains a regulated and prohibited substance. It seems as if this harmless flower is considered illegal for no other reason than to be considered illegal. Cannabis is a possible nationwide head start towards the economy’s stability and withholds the potential to assist in the addressing of some of the United States’ most pressing issues.A The decriminalization of cannabis has the potential to become one of the greatest economical advances in the history of the United States of America. If people took action and the government legalized it today, we will immediately see benefits from this decision. People suffering from illnesses ranging from manic depression to Multiple Sclerosis would be able to experience relief. The government could make billions of dollars off of the taxes it could impose on its sale, and its implementation into the industrial world would create thousands of new jobs for the economy. Also, because of its role in paper making, the rain forests of South America can be saved from their current fate of extinction. No recorded deaths have ever occurred as a result of marijuana use, it is not physically addictive like alcohol or tobacco, and most doctors will agree it is safer to use than those substances. A quote by Abraham Lincoln describes the situation perfectly. “Prohibition…goes beyond the bounds of reason in that it attempts to control a man’s appetite by legislation and makes a crime out of things that are not crimes. A prohibition law strikes a blow at the very principles upon which our government was founded.” Marijuana being illegal has no validity at all. Due to all the positive aspects of marijuana it should be legalized in the United States.A

Language, gender and society are three complex and closely interwoven terms that I will attempt to explore in this chapter. The question of whether language reflects or shapes the social life and consequently gender relationships and expectations is a central one which I will also attempt to tackle. In other words, is it language which transmits gender thoughts, beliefs and actions? Or, conversely, does language determine men and women’s relationships and behavior? Is it possible to define language as a naA?ve mirror translating the social and cultural reality? Or it is the norms, traditions and values that introduce a basis for the creation of any language? Does society define women and men’s language, choices and action?

Or it is simply the interaction between language and society which gives birth to gender stereotypes and sexist language? The answer to these questions will help us understand how men and women’s space, speech, perspectives and choices are both determined and reflected by language.

There are so many questions that I would like to answer and examine in this chapter, but will not be able to answer them all. Instead, I will try to highlight some important notions related to the subject. For example how do the socio-cultural factors interact with language in order to determine men and women’s relationships in society? Why and how is gender deemed to be an important and powerful component in social interaction? How does its influence go beyond people’s thoughts, attitudes and beliefs? How can society explain the learning and maintenance of gender?

How is gender negotiated in language and across cultures? How does the social construction of society shape women and men’s personalities in terms of social roles, expectations, language choice, traditional beliefs and so on?

The aim of my work will basically be to explore the importance of both language and society in determining and reinforcing female and male differences in speech (form and content), beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. The emphasis will be on how gender is negotiated and represented in language and society, and how the linguistic form may reflect and shape the social and cultural conditions under which women and men live.

Language, a product of society, is considered to play a significant role in human interaction; “the human being, language and society are an interwoven texture.” (Bennouiss, 2001:20). Accordingly, society is conceived to be the mold which shapes people through determining not only their behavior, but also their identity.

Society controls individuals through gendered practices, which are defined as a social process “created and renegotiated in interpersonal relationships and encouraged and maintained through social interaction” (Weatherall, 2002: 85). Therefore, gender is considered to be social because it connotes “all the complex attributes ascribed by culture (s) to human females and males” (Lott & Maluso, 1993: 99). One may conclude from the two quotes that gender is used by society as a basis or a support to the socialization of both females and males, and is also maintained by social and cultural forces.

Gender issues and stereotypes seem to be universal. They are heavily rooted in history and through the social and cultural life, which has a strong influence in defining the individual’s identity, behavior, role and occupation. All societies consist of men and women who use language in the interaction of everyday life, and develop ideas and thoughts about how women and men should think and act in relation to social norms.

Therefore, it is believed that gender is socially constructed and is reinforced by cultural forces; however, gender contents may differ across cultures. Beall (1993: 131-132) argues that across cultures, “one’s biological sex does not necessarily imply that one will engage in certain activities or that people will believe that one possesses certain attributes”. She goes on to say that “some cultures perceive more than one gender, and cultures vary in their beliefs about the nature of males and females” (1993: 134).

This means that cultures are rich and curiously different from each other. Women’s beliefs and actions in Morocco are different from women’s thoughts and behavior in England, even if sometimes it seems that British women are not so different from the Moroccan unveiled women in physical appearance. However, there are many variations concerning their ways of thinking and acting. In the Muslim society, boys are given more independence and freedom, and are expected to achieve or occupy different roles and positions. The difference between the two sexes in terms of appearance, behavior, role, and occupation is very much strengthened and encouraged by the traditions, the customs and the habits of the Moroccan society, whereas in the British context, norms and traditions are transgressed, and modern ideologies present men and women as equals in all life spheres.

Besides, the authority or dominance of one gender over another is not practiced openly anymore. In other words, “the strength and activity differences between the male and female stereotypes are greater in socioeconomically less developed countries than in more developed countries”. It also tends to be greater in “countries where literacy is low and the percentage of women attending the university is low” (Best & Williams, 1993: 227) although in many cases, the education people receive in school and universities does not mean that they are not influenced by gender stereotypes.

In short, there is a lot to be said about the universality of gender prejudice. Class, education, religion and geography all play a part in determining subtle differences and peculiarities, some of which this work aims at revealing.

First, some claims:

1) Men interrupt women more than vice versa.

2) Women are more communicative than men.

3) Men do not give verbal recognition of the contributions in the conversation made by women.

4) Men curse more than women.

5) Women gossip more than men.

6) Women talk more with one another than men do.

7) Men speak more comfortably in public than women.

Gender and sex

Sex: a biological condition, i.e. defined as a set of physical characteristics

Gender: a social construct (within the fields of cultural and gender studies, and the social sciences)

“Today a return to separate single-sex schools may hasten the revival of separate gender roles”

– Wendy Kaminer, in The Atlantic Monthly (1998)

General usage of the term gender began in the late 1960s and 1970s, increasingly appearing in the professional literature of the social sciences.

The term helps in distinguishing those aspects of life that were more easily attributed or understood to be of social rather than biological origin (see e.g., Unger & Crawford, 1992).

Linguistic origins of Gender

According to Aristotle, the Greek philosopher Protagoras used the terms masculine, feminine, and neuter to classify nouns, introducing the concept of grammatical gender.

Many languages specify Gender (and gender agreement)

(1) Greek

o andras i gyneka to pedhi

the.masc. man the.fem. woman the.ntr. child

(2) German

der man die Frau das Kind

the.masc. man the.fem. woman the.ntr. child

(3) French

l(e) homme la femme

the.masc. man the.fem. woman

?† Indoeuropean had gender distinction; Swahili has 16 gender distinctions. And many others don’t! (e.g. English, Astronesian languages)

But gender appears on pronouns:

(1) He left.

(2) She left.

(3) It left. (what types of things does “it” refer to?)

Gender correlates with other perceptual (and possibly grammatical) categories like humanness, agentivity, and animacy.

In this paper I talked about the discrimination in the labor market and how it is specified in the market of Croatia. Discrimination in the labor market is much easier to define than to identify. There is no information about when the discrimination in the labor market in history. History has recorded some certain phenomena that could be characterized as the first rudiments of discrimination in the labor market. Croatia is a country which is heading to be a member of the European Union and it has tasks and regulations that need to be fulfilled. One of these is the elimination or preventing of discrimination in the labor market. In this paper I have discussed about the major issues and how the Croatian government handled it.

Introduction

Equality of treatment can be expressed arithmetically, which means that each worker is in proportion with equal conditions. The principle of equality and non-discrimination is determined by the moral values aˆ‹aˆ‹and social policies, which were adopted by the legislature or judiciary. The value of the corpus of the founding principle of equality and non-discrimination variable as a function of the potential conflicts that may arise between the selected values, and other values aˆ‹aˆ‹that can be decided by policymakers or judges in their judgments, which in turn is a function of the social movement.

The concept of equality and non-discrimination supposed to ban all discrimination, separation, or preference in employment regardless on the basis of unequal treatment. The most common places for discrimination that are mentioned in the regulations are: race, color, sex, religion, political opinion, nationality, social origin, while the other basics, such as age, disability, family commitments, personal life, place of birth, sexual orientation, marital status, motherhood, physical and mental health status, medical history, physical appearance, membership in the union organization, etc., may be added after consultation of workers’ and employers. The doctrine of equal treatment and non-discrimination in employment has found its way into numerous international regulations and is recognized as a law in many national constitutions. In Europe the modern labor law occurs with the advent of industrialization in which the relationship between labors law typical is the male worker. The time in which a woman is for the first time more equal in the labor market entrants with the time of recognition of the right for women to vote in the early twentieth century (Machado, Jose A. F. and Jose Mata, 2005). [1] Employers within their prerogative used the freedom to discriminate against workers based on just sex, pregnancy and maternity. Given the dating of activities were undertaken for the subject of equalization of women with men in the job market is considered that the issue of gender discrimination in employment and occupation is the oldest, most comprehensive and most elaborated part of European labor law which was used in the design and development of a number of important principles and strategies as What is the principle of proportionality in terms of indirect discrimination, the principle of effectiveness, transparency principle, the principle of effective judicial protection, etc. The new legal regulation that was presented 1999 regarding discrimination in employment, but on other grounds other than sex, is largely based on the concepts and techniques developed for the legal right of discrimination based on sex.

Literature review

Discrimination is a distinction. Equality of all people is one of the basic human rights of non-discrimination requirements. Modern law protects privileged principle of non-discrimination policy that prohibits interference or damage to individuals or groups because of their race, nationality, religion, disability, social or marital status.

One of the fundamental principles in any civilized society is the principle of equality, which confirms the view that all people are equal in rights and equal worth, dignified treatment, regardless of their mutual differences on the basis of innate or acquired personal characteristics. Therefore, any treatment of individuals that because of these differences made aˆ‹aˆ‹his exclusion and / or limitation, and it is in this way that endangers or prevents the realization of social rights or giving him precedence over other persons excluding and / or limiting the time the latter in exercising their social rights constitute discrimination, which is also a violation of the dignity of the person. The principle of equality of opportunity and treatment is an integral part of the right to work in a broader sense. Discrimination in the workplace and related work occurs very frequently and is difficult to control because the interest behind is the world’s capital due to gain economic benefits.

Labor market discrimination

Wage discrimination occurs when certain races, minorities and women receive the same job for lower wages than majority of workers. Therefore, the difference in wage rate is not due to differences in productivity, but in the characteristics of workers. This type of discrimination in the labor market can be very subtle and it is very difficult to detect. Discrimination in employment occurs when the majority of the unemployed are concentrated among minority groups, thus discriminating against minority groups of different races; religions, etc. Discrimination of human capital occurs if the education and training of certain races or minorities invest less money than in the education and training of the majority race.

This is, unfortunately, a circular process. In fact, many of the unemployed who are not members of the dominant race are poor because of their lack of education, and considering that the poor cannot finance education. Discrimination towards professions or businesses, if there, is limited or prohibited access to minority groups of workers preferred or better paying jobs, so they are focused on the poorer or lower paying occupations. It is important to note that the wage discrimination, discrimination in employment and discrimination by occupation called a post market or direct discrimination, as reflected by the entry into the labor market. Discrimination of human capital is called the pre-market or indirect discrimination, because it happens before entering the labor market (Baumol Blinder, 1994). [2]

Workers should regularly invest a part of their personal income in various forms of education and training, to help them in the future to bring more income. If workers adhere to that principle, the market rewards them in the future with a higher wage. Nowadays, more and more employers invest in continuous training and education of its employees. Workers with more work experience have higher wages. More work experience also brings many other advantages. Thus, we conclude that the difference in wage rate may not be entirely the result of discrimination, but partly influenced by the non-discriminatory factors. All the studies that have tried to distinguish the differences in wages, which are the result of measurable characteristics than the differences are the result of discrimination. Three quarters of half the gap between the wages of men and women, blacks and whites, can be explained by differences in education and work experience. (Nestic, 2010). [3] That leaves the possibility that a quarter to a half of this gap can be explained with immeasurable discrimination and other sources.

Measures of anti-discrimination policies

Western countries attach great importance to discrimination in the labor market, and it was always the center of interest and researches. First of all, discrimination in the labor market affects the distribution of reduced national income. Since it reduces the fundamental macroeconomic variables, it is of interest, not only in economics but also in politics. All these governments of the developed countries of the West, after the Second World War, practiced a few ways to prevent discrimination in the labor market.

Improving education and training of workers discriminated groups conducted in qualitative and quantitative dimensions, in order to prevent this form of pre-market or indirect discrimination. Specifically, a group of workers who do not have adequate education and employment are placed in a worse position. Application of appropriate monetary and fiscal policy is necessary in order to achieve a coherent labor market, because it allows curbing discrimination. The third measure is the only direct measure of anti-discrimination policy. It is a well-established law that prohibits employment practices. So, back in 1963 the United States adopted the Law on Equal Rights. According to this law, men and women who perform equal work, and have the same abilities and responsibilities in similar conditions, should receive equal wages. Civil Rights Act of 1964 is the basis underlying the overall anti-discrimination policy of the USA. This law does not take into account only the wages, but prohibits all forms of discrimination in employment for example, with regard to occupations, etc. (Pastore, Francesco and Alina Verashchagina, 2007). [4]

Finally, it should be mentioned the concept of values, which occurs in the 1980s. The whole concept is based on the theory that jobs with comparable values aˆ‹aˆ‹should be paid equally, and all the opposite of that would be discrimination. The concept of comparable value claims that wages should be based on what the job is worth. The method is applied for evaluation and scoring performance. Major difficulties in the application of this concept are: Different characteristics represent a different value for each employer; the use of credits in order to predict the value of employees is baseless and the application of this concept would lead to an increase in the number of industrial workers in some occupations.

This concept argues that companies uses, i.e. equalization of wages for jobs that have comparable overall performance could stop the decades of discrimination and eliminate the wage gap between women and men.

Open Croatian legislation

The labor market is an essential segment of the social and economic system that has to experience radical reforms in order to fully comply with the labor legislation of the Western countries, especially the EU labor legislation. In the Republic of Croatia in the early 1990s was designed a new legal framework of labor relations. The adoption of the Law of work, for the modern Croatia, received a general regulation of labor relations, who responded with the requirements established by the labor market supply and demand. This law is somewhat harmonized system of industrial relations in Croatia with those that exist in the EU. Croatian labor legislation is based, with the adoption of international standards, on the achievement of constitutional social rights, primarily the right to work, and the autonomy of the social partners to regulate their relations. Labor law is systematically defined as the basic minimum rights in employment. The last amendments have implemented detailed compliance with EU labor legislation. Partly reflect the tendency of modernization and democratization of labor relations. As such, we can observe the expansion of non-discrimination in employment (specifically in terms of wages), in particular the prohibition of harassment and sexual harassment in the workplace, and the introduction of procedures to protect the dignity of workers (Igor Grabovac, Marija AbramoviA‡, Gordana KomlenoviA‡, Jadranka MustajbegoviA‡, 2011) [5] . The Act governs the whole matter in a new way of non-discrimination of persons seeking employment and for employees. It will in the future affect the advancement of women in the labor market because they are more often exposed to discrimination.

The act is prohibiting direct and indirect discrimination against persons seeking employment or employed person (employee, officer or other employee) on the basis of race, sex, sexual orientation, age, color, family responsibilities, marital status, property, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, social status, birth, membership or non-membership in a political party, membership or non-membership in the union, and physical or mental impairments.

The Act defines direct and indirect discrimination. Direct discrimination is any action based on any of the grounds referred whereby a person is seeking employment and worker puts or has been treated or could be put in a worse position than another in a comparable situation. Indirect discrimination happens when an apparently neutral provision, criterion or practice, a person seeking employment and workers due to its specific characteristics, status, orientation, beliefs or value systems that form the basis for the prohibition of discrimination referred to put at a disadvantage in relation to other people.

Discrimination and the position of women in employment

Throughout history, it has become clear that women were more frequently employed in those areas where they were not willing to hire. It is evident that women are employed in the areas and sectors of the economy that are technologically backward, with low productivity, low incomes and often harsh environment. Significant progress in this area does not even have the newer, more modern and democratic era. It is often said that the newly developed technologies provide greater employment opportunities for women. Data suggest that in those economically developed areas, women’s employment reaches or even surpasses some European countries. The constant development of the economy gradually changes the division of labor by sex and so formally opens wider opportunities for women’s employment. But there is the issue of the extent to which women can take advantage of it, because their employment is dependent on their qualification, education, professionalism and other structures.

Despite the progress being made in terms of equal employment of women, women’s employment flows have not developed satisfactorily. Women are still not able to integrate into an equal economic sphere. Women are mostly employed in those sectors and activities where the male workforce is leaving space for employment. So women are not employed in lighter and better paying jobs. One of the causes of declining female employment is lower qualification and occupational structure of the employed women. Specifically, women still on average have lower vocational education than men. (Lovorka KuA?an, 2011) [6] . The propulsive industries and women are present in very small numbers. When women tend to come to a job, they agree to such requirements in hiring and employment that they are currently offering, which means that they agree to lower income, less favorable conditions of work, less possibility for greater professional development and advancement, etc. The fact that there are male and female occupations is not necessary to prove.

Even today, in a modern and democratic society, it is still present traditionally male and traditionally female occupations. In traditionally male jobs are sought mainly male perpetrators, thereby almost completely abolishes the right and the ability of women to possibly try to hire some of these occupations. This is especially stressed on the need for workers vocational education where the requirements for workers of a particular gender are still present in a relatively large number of professions. At the level of higher education, they are much less pronounced. Thus, for example, carpenters, smiths, machinists, car mechanics, painters, electricians, etc. look almost exclusively by men.

Requirements for female perpetrators are particularly accentuated to typists, nurses, secretaries and preschool teachers. Certainly the most feminized of all industries is the textile industry. The problem of economic inequality of women in Croatia has deep roots in the patriarchal, socialist and communist legacy and the disastrous consequences of the war in all economic sectors. After the war in Croatia, the political and economic scene is dominated by male. The position of women in Croatia in recent years has developed at a considerable distance from the main European and global trends focused on equality and equal opportunities in the daily life of women and men. Labor law is prohibiting discrimination based on gender, stipulating equal pay between women and men, as well as the special protection of working mothers and pregnant women. A significant barrier to women in employment is the lack of a sufficient number of institutions and services that care for children of preschool age.

The high cost of these services is forcing many women to stay at home and look after the children, but to work. This is particularly a problem in the smaller towns and rural areas. Negligence government on this issue once again is reflecting the general attitude that is created in the society as a whole, which includes the opinion that the woman belongs in the home. In that way, the state strengthens the unequal treatment of women and men. Both concern the choice of occupation, and the opportunities to work in their chosen profession. Faced with the high costs of child care, many families with limited financial resources simply cannot afford to have children of women who work outside the home. This stifles the economic independence of women and diminishes their influence in society in general.

Though the educational status of women is increasing, they are still a minority in the parliament, the government and ministries. Although women are well represented in the state administration, practically they are not in leadership positions. Finally, the high prevalence of the gray market in Croatia requires special attention. According to some sources, the number of labor engaged in this way is extremely high. It is likely that this sector provides employment opportunities for a greater number of women than men. The informal nature of this sector significantly reduces the level of safety to all, especially women. It is known that in the case of pregnancy, women simply remain without her job. So far, the state has not taken hardly any concrete steps to further investigate these violations of labor law in this sector, or try to appropriate measures to protect and expand this sector.

European policy of equal opportunities

The most significant issue related to discrimination against women in employment is certainly a question of frequent absences due to family roles of women. As for the absences, the statistics prove that women suffer less of absent for it and that most of their absences is related to children. The problem of post-natal leave and sick leave, especially later due to illness of the child, it is also the cause of the negative attitudes of employers towards hiring women. Founding family for many years for a woman means removal from work, and training and experience become obsolete over time. This is often an obstacle in terms of promotion and career development in general.

Conversely, a full professional engagement means often abandonment of family life and constant vacillation between family and work. Thus, the woman is placed against wall or-or-choices: either family or career. As far as men are concerned, they successfully juggle both these spheres of life, because the vast majority of private and family responsibilities traditionally left to the woman. In other words, the question is whether a woman can successfully balance between professional and private commitments. (MatkoviA‡ Teo, 2008) [7] . During the second half of the twentieth century, there has been much progress made and a huge step forward with regard to the release of women from subordinate positions in the private life of the labor market.

Antidiscrimination laws are measures for the protection of maternity (pregnancy, lactation), along with the implementation of positive action to promote women in the working world, have led to an entirely different position of women in society-to their economic independence and the “new” balance of power between women and men in society in general. However, still most of the activities are related to the private sphere of woman’s life. Still the biggest challenge remains creating the social conditions that helped successfully align interdependent domains of professional, family and private life. It is evident that the future emphasis should be put on the joint participation of women and men in family and business life. In Europe, many companies have long implemented family-friendly programs. Such programs take into account the monthly, weekly or daily needs of their employees and act flexibly with their needs related to the private sphere of life.

Conclusion

We can conclude that the difference in wage rate may not be entirely the result of discrimination, but on her partly influenced by the non-discriminatory factors. Croatian labor legislation Labor Act and amendments to the Labor Law governs the whole matter in a new way the prohibition of discrimination against persons seeking employment or already employed workers. The Croatian legislation was first introduced norms of harassment and sexual harassment, and represents new legal norms on the protection of workers’ dignity. The road to the EU has not been completed and it will continue in our labor laws incorporate those regulations adopted by the EU in the period up to our entry into it. The common trait of all European labor legislation is that the situation at the beginning of the 21st century is much more favorable to women than the past few decades, especially with respect to the position of women in employment.

To start off, the San culture is the kind of people that share food with the other families in their culture, the women, and the men work their butts off going out everyday hunting or even planting and growing crops like: berries, nuts, and fruits the women do most of the work. All the men do is go out and hunt for meat and all that adds up to 20% of the work and the other 80% belongs to the hard work the women put in to taking care of their culture. Another thing that I want to say about the San culture is, the San culture is known as (“Bushmen”) of the Kalahari Desert, and they

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get better grades have lived in that region for thousands of years.

There are a couple of more things I want to talk to you about this San culture is, after they get all of their work done the rest of the time is spent in leisurely pursuits: visiting, playing, sleeping, and just enjoying each other’s company. Not only do families pool the day’s production, but the entire camp, residents and visitors alike, shares equally in the total quantity of food available. The evening meal of any one family is made up of portions of food from each of the other families in the band. Foodstuffs are distributed raw or are prepared by the collectors and then distributed.

The three examples of how the kinship system of the San culture impacts the way this culture behaves is: Generalized Reciprocity, Negative Reciprocity, Balanced Reciprocity and first the Generalized Reciprocity impacts the way they behave is, a form of exchange in which there is no expectation for the immediate return of an item in exchange for something else; in the long… Kinship of the San Tribe

Kinship of the San Tribe

Kinship of the San Tribe

The San tribe of South Africa has an amazing story. Their way of life and the ability to survive in the desert speaks volumes to their kinship system. They are a people that have built their entire life on the ability to survive on what the land provides and the families they create. The following summary of the San will comprise of who the San are and the ties that bind them together. How does an indigenous tribe with limited resources live in the desert?

The San, or also known as the Bushmen, are a small yet mobile foraging band that resides in the Kalahari Desert in South Africa (Nowak&Laird, 2010, p. 3.1). As foragers the San hunt for their food, whether it is berries, nuts, or meat. The women of the San spend their time taking care of their children and searching for food. The men of the San spend their time hunting either individually or in groups. Because the San is a

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get better grades foraging band this means they are required to move from place to place in order to find food when resources become scarce. However, they aren’t always hunting for food. The San find it very important to take time out of their day to spend visiting with family and friends. Family is very important to the San as will be described later in this summary. In addition to family, water is just as important as family. Because of the desert environment in which they live, it requires them to be aware of their resources and call upon other San tribes if assistance is needed. When resources are scarce, that’s where the San’s kinship structure comes in to play.

The San’s kinship system is structured is considered bilateral. Nowak and Laird (2010) describe bilateral descent as “the kinship connections through both the mother and the father are equally important” (p. 3.7). In the United States, a bilateral descent system exists. Individuals are related to both parents equally. Foragers,… San Tribe

The San Tribe

When compared to our society, the San people have similar value systems. The San are the oldest inhabitants of Southern Africa, where they have lived for thousands of years. The term San is commonly used to refer to a diverse group of hunter-gatherers living in Southern Africa who share historical and linguistic connections. “Some foragers have lived in their present location for thousands of years, such as the San in southwest Africa” (Nowak and Laird, 2010, p. 3.2). The San were also referred to as Bushmen, but this term has since been abandoned as it is considered derogatory.

Here are three examples of how the San are like many American societies. Like many American families, the San people have no true leader. Leadership among the San is kept for those who have lived within that group for a long time, who have achieved a respectable age, and

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get better grades good character. In many American families this is also true. The eldest person is treated with the most respect and families often try to discuss their problems together in order to keep peace in the family. The San also believe there is one powerful God. In our circles this belief is also true. They also respect the dead; we pay our respects to the dead as well by the various small things we do. We pull our vehicles over during a funeral procession, we do not walk on anyone’s grave, we lower flags for dead dignitaries, and we have large lists of things that we consider respect for the dead.

Lastly, the San have religious aspirations. We also share this trait. There have a person they hold in high regards as we would a priest of preacher. They call their holy man a Shaman or medicine man. The San are big on having strong family ties and bonds. Let’s look at how the family is thought to work or structure itself.

Most foraging societies consist of a nuclear family setting. When looking how a… The San Tribe

The San Tribe

One of the best-known hunting and gathering communities in the modern world are the San (“Bushmen”) of the Kalahari Desert. The San have been living in this region for thousands of years. Their diets are composed primarily of nuts, fruit, melons, and berries gathered by the women. The women are the primary gatherers and are responsible for contributing nearly 80 percent of the San diet. Men, the hunters, provide the remaining 20 percent of the diet in the form of meat. Even though they live in one of the most marginal environments in the world, the San search for food only two or three days a week. Women can collect enough food in one day to feed their families for a full week, while men hunt two or three days a week. The rest of the time is spent in leisurely pursuits: visiting, playing, sleeping, and just enjoying each other’s company. (Lee,

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get better grades 1979) The San use Generalized Reciprocity, sharing what they have with other people in their band. Each San is not an island unto himself or herself, each is part of a collective. The group pools the resources that are brought into the camp so that everyone receives an equitable share. They do not do this out of nobility of soul or because they are made of better stuff than we are, they do it because it works for them and it enhances their survival. Without this core of sharing, life for the San would be harder and infinitely less pleasant. The San have rights to waterholes, and if others need to use them, they must obtain permission from the group holding the rights. Among the San, the “owner” of a hunted animal is not the hunter who killed the animal but rather the owner of the arrow or spear. The San migrate based on water availability and their shelters are built quickly, typically in one day, and are made from materials found locally and available to anyone. Among the San, the oldest woman in a… San Tribe

San Tribe

San Tribe

The San tribe of South Africa has an astonishing story. Their way of life and the aptitude to survive in the desert endowers wonders to their kinship system. They are a people that have built their entire life on the ability to live on what the land provides and the families they design. The following synopsis of the San will include who the San are and the ties that bind them together. How does a native tribe with scarce resources live in the desert?

The San, or also known as the Bushmen, are a small yet mobile foraging band that resides in the Kalahari Desert in South Africa (Nowak & Laird, 2010, p. 3.1). As foragers the San search for their food, whether it is berries, nuts, or meat. The women of the San devote their time taking care of their children and exploring for food. The men of the San devote their time hunting either individually or in groups. Because the San is a foraging band

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get better grades this means that it’s necessary for them to move from place to place in order to find food when sources become limited. However, they are not continuously hunting for food. The San find it very significant to take time out of their day to spend visiting with family and friends. Kinfolk are very important to the San as will be described later in this synopsis. In addition to family, water is just as significant as family. Because of the desert environment in which they live, it makes them to be aware of their resources and call upon other San tribes if help is needed. When resources are scarce, that’s where the San’s kinship binding comes to the surface.

The San’s kinship system is considered bilateral. Nowak and Laird (2010) describe bilateral descent as “the kinship connections through both the mother and the father are equally important” (p. 3.7). In the United States, a bilateral descent system do exists. Individuals are related to both parents alike. Foragers, like the San,…

Kinship System of the San People

Kinship of the San Bushmen

The San or “Bushmen” people as they are sometimes called are a foraging group. Most foraging societies consist of a nuclear family setting. When looking how a family is laid out you must pay attention to descent. Descent is the passage of kinship though the parent-child links and the joining of the people into groups. There are two patterns for identifying descent: unilateral and bilateral. When looking at unilateral descent the relationships are followed through the mother and the father. The descent within the bilateral relationship is just as important. Most of all the foraging bands have bilateral descent. A San tribe member can find a blood relative in every tribe that he/she visits. This type of kinship is important if the family is low on resources, they can relocate, find family, and survive until they are once again able to thrive on their own.

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get better grades To have a family member in every band that you travel to, a marriage has had to occur. Marriage between the men and women between the bands helps strengthen the social links. Once again these types of family ties are a survival tool for the bands desolate times. When a man is to consider marriage in the San tribe he must first make sure that the woman he is considering to marry does not have the same name as a parent or sibling. Marrying of a second cousin or closer is also prohibited. By doing this the tribe insures that there is no incest helping create future generations of children that can marry without the high chance of incest. With these rules in place it limits the number of women that can be married though out the region. Women would gather, and men hunted using poison arrows and spears in laborious days-long excursions. Children had no duties besides to play, and leisure was very important to the Bushmen. They spent large amounts of time with conversation, joking around, music, and sacred dances…. The San Kinship System

KINSHIP OF THE SAN PEOPLE 1

KINSHIP OF THE SAN PEOPLE 2

KINSHIP OF THE SAN PEOPLE

The San people are indigenous cultures that are referred to as the Bushmen they live and have lived in the deserts of the Kalahari for many thousands of years. The San people are foraging band of families that gather and hunt for their livelihood traditionally “women are responsible for eighty percent of the food gathering which consists of nuts, fruits, melons and berries while the men are responsible for twenty percent of the meat” Nowak, B. & Laird, P (2010).

The family structure of the San people is one of kinship in which could include many family member such as uncles, aunts, cousins, brothers, sisters, maternal, paternal grandparent and their parents. It is a band of families that work together as a group

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get better grades to provide food for all family members if another person killed a big animal they will share it with another family who wasn’t as fortunate in hunting that day this is their way of life. This kinship reinforces the importance of family and keeps them close thus providing safety and comfort for all involved.

The numbers of the San people can include over 30 members in their group or village; families can live in other parts of neighboring camps are usually interconnected by kinship and marriage: a brother and sister can live with spouses in one camp and in troubled times when food and their basic necessities are scare they have the option to move to another camp and live with their in-laws this type of family connections is referred to as a bilateral kinship. In bilateral kinship one cannot marry another family member who consists of second cousins or even people whom share the same name as her or his parents.

KINSHIP OF THE SAN PEOPLE 3

The kinship of the family is very important to them the children…

The Sans Kinship System

The Sans 1

The San 2

The San Kinship System

The San are foragers who reside in the Kalahari Desert in Africa. The San people have survived and flourished here for thousands of years. In a foraging culture the people live in mobile groups called Bands (Nowak & Laird, 2010). Typically, they move every few weeks to location were food and water is thriving. In foraging cultures continuous movement and the sharing of food and water are part of what builds kinship ties. These kinship ties build a greater sense of obligation to each other (Nowak & Laird, 2010). I will explore a general reciprocal kinship system between the San people. I will provide three examples of this kinship system to display how it affects the San culture.

General Reciprocal Exchange

The San people live in a reciprocal economic system. This is defined as a mutual exchange

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get better grades of goods and services which occurs between members of a kinship group (Nowak & Laird, 2010). To be more specific the San people live in a generalized reciprocity. A generalized reciprocity is a form of exchange where there are no expectations for an immediate return of an item in exchange for something else (Nowak & Laird, 2010).

Sharing of Food and Water

One example of generalized reciprocal culture lived by the San is their sharing and pooling together of food gathered for the day with all members of the Band. This sharing helps to ensure the survival of the camp. For example, a hunter’s family will not go hungry if he is unable to make a kill. Another hunter who was successful will provide equal shares of his kill with all members of the camp. This generalized reciprocity is

The San 3

based on family and kin relationships (Nowak & Laird, 2010). Typically, the neighbor they are sharing with is a parent, parent-in-law, or sibling.

When thinking about how the San people…

The San Kinship System

Introduction

The San are foragers who reside in the Kalahari Desert in Africa. The San people have survived and flourished here for thousands of years. In a foraging culture the people live in mobile groups called Bands (Nowak & Laird, 2010). Typically, they move every few weeks to location were food and water is thriving. In foraging cultures continuous move

Sin Kinship System

ment and the sharing of food and water are part of what builds kinship ties. These kinship ties build a greater sense of obligation to each other (Nowak & Laird, 2010). I will explore a general reciprocal kinship system between the San people. I will provide three examples of this kinship system to display how it affects the San culture.

General Reciprocal Exchange

The San people live in a reciprocal economic system. This is defined as a mutual ex change of goods and services which occurs between

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get better grades members of a kinship group (Nowak & Laird, 2010). To be more specific the San people live in a generalized reciprocity. A generalized reciprocity is a form of exchange where there are no expectations for an immediate return of an item in exchange for something else (Nowak & Laird, 2010).

Sharing of Food and Water

One example of generalized reciprocal culture lived by the San is their sharing and pooling together of food gathered for the day with all members of the Band. This sharing helps to ensure the survival of the camp. For example, a hunter’s family will not go hungry if he is unable to make a kill. Another hunter who was successful will provide equal shares of his kill with all members of the camp. This generalized reciprocity is based on family and kin relationships (Nowak & Laird, 2010). Typically, the neighbor they are sharing with is a parent, parent-in-law, or sibling.

Environment

When thinking about how the San people… The men and the women work together to make their…

Kinship System

Cultural Thinking Paper: Kinship Organization

Kinship remains at the core of social relations, but marriage customs and other kin-related rules change to deal with new relationships in terms of property, denser population, and conflict. People are related to each other as sharing a common ancestor or as in-laws. The way people are related, determines how they behave towards each other. In general there are two basic patterns for calculating descents: unilineal and bilateral. San kinship system is based on bilateral descent. In bilateral descents, the kinship connections through both the mother and the father are equally important. Because of this kinship relationship, a San will find a relative in every band he or she visits. If a family is facing shortage where they live, the can go to another band’s territory and find kin, a place to stay, and access to water. San society

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get better grades is groups of people whom love each others company.

San live in the most marginal environments in the world. Hunters and gathers such as the San, who live in the desert, migrate based on water availability. San have many hours of free time for leisure activities, including socializing with their kin and friends. San is a very generous society; evening meals are shared among all families. Generosity maintains kin and social relationships while providing a safety net. Each San does not have an island unto him or herself, each is part of a collective. Because the San is apart of a band and are very generous you would think they share with no problem, in fact the often gripe about sharing. Without the core of sharing, life for the San would be harder and infinitely less pleasant. The way our cultures kinship system works is based on the way one is raised. One may have been raise to only give to you relatives and friends if the were to receive something back, on the other hand, one may have been raised…

Kinship System of the San People

Kinship of the San Bushmen

The San or “Bushmen” people as they are sometimes called are a foraging group. Most foraging societies consist of a nuclear family setting. When looking how a family is laid out you must pay attention to descent. Descent is the passage of kinship though the parent-child links and the joining of the people into groups. There are two patterns for identifying descent: unilateral and bilateral. When looking at unilateral descent the relationships are followed through the mother and the father. The descent within the bilateral relationship is just as important. Most of all the foraging bands have bilateral descent. A San tribe member can find a blood relative in every tribe that he/she visits. This type of kinship is important if the family is low on resources, they can relocate, find family, and survive until they are once again able to thrive on their own.

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get better grades To have a family member in every band that you travel to, a marriage has had to occur. Marriage between the men and women between the bands helps strengthen the social links. Once again these types of family ties are a survival tool for the bands desolate times. When a man is to consider marriage in the San tribe he must first make sure that the woman he is considering to marry does not have the same name as a parent or sibling. Marrying of a second cousin or closer is also prohibited. By doing this the tribe insures that there is no incest helping create future generations of children that can marry without the high chance of incest. With these rules in place it limits the number of women that can be married though out the region. Women would gather, and men hunted using poison arrows and spears in laborious days-long excursions. Children had no duties besides to play, and leisure was very important to the Bushmen. They spent large amounts of time with conversation, joking around, music, and sacred dances….

Impact of the Kinship System on San Culture

Impact of the Kinship System on San Culture

ANT 101: Introduction to Cultural Anthropology

August 21, 2011

Impact of the Kinship System on San Culture

In this paper I will describe the kinship system of the San (Bushmen) and how it impacts their lives. First I will give a brief description of their culture. Then I will provide three examples of how the kinship system impacts the way the culture behaves. Following each of these examples I will discuss how this aspect of the kinship system compares with American society and also how it may impact behaviors in my life. Finally I will summarize the paper’s key points. Let us begin by learning a little about the San.

The San live in the Kalahari Desert of South Africa which is one of the most inhospitable regions of the world. They survive on hunting wild game and also gathering roots and tubers. They are considered to be one of the oldest cultures in the world. The culture is expected to be over a

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get better grades hundred thousand years old. Only until the last two thousand years have the San began living in the inhospitable desert. They have gradually been pushed here by modernization and farmers that have taken their old, more fertile lands (Tishkoff, 2009). I will now provide some examples of their kinship system and how it relates to Americans today.

Generalized reciprocity plays a huge role in the San Culture. They do a very good job of making sure that everyone in the camp has equal amounts of food. This includes both family and visitors alike. The evening meal of any one family is made up of portions of food from each of the other families in the band. Food can be distributed either raw or will be prepared by whoever has collected the food and then it will be distributed. There is a constant flow of nuts, berries, roots and melons from one family to another. This will continue until everyone has an equal amount of food (Nowak & Laird, 2010). This continuous movement of goods between families… Kinship of the San

Throughout the southern land of Africa live the native Bushmen also known as the San. According to the National Geographic video on The Bushmen, the San are recognized as one of the oldest cultural societies that still remain active. One of the strongest qualities epitomized by the society is their cohesive support system they operate in order to survive on a daily basis. As indicated by our text, the San are a foraging culture, meaning they generate only enough food and resources to consume for a day or two; lessening the amount of surplus and need for storage. The San believe in maintaining strong unions within their nuclear families and often joining with related nuclear families to assemble their bands. These bands look to each other for support within their community while harvesting, gathering, and operating daily duties within the community. Since the San are considered a band society, they are habitually on the move in search of new grounds to cultivate and develop. But regardless of where

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get better grades they move and who joins them, the San continue to stay linked with family that is near or far.

Since the San believe in strong bonds with related kin, the choices made in their communities are decisions made as a group. Their preference for leaders comes from within their kinships. The San delegate a leader from inside their band as their informal headman or woman. San people look to their own people to find that one person who can help lead them in times of decision-making. San kinships look to elderly members to be their leaders. They use their age as a sign of “experience and knowledge”. There is no formal or political organization of leadership, but instead they choose a member who is well respected, has lots of charisma, and has been “experienced” through age. Since both genders are equally respected within their culture for their contributions, the headman or woman can be a male or female. This leader is the person they look to when in search of new territory or…

I Chose the San

In this paper I have chosen to write about the San. I will be telling you about many different things that I have read in this the beginning of our studies in anthropology. I will cover kinship as it relates to the San tribe, and how it impacts their lives. I will make a comparison in how current day culture and kinship differs from theirs also how kinship today impacts our daily living.

Residing in South West Africa the San are foragers. The San are considered to be “one of the best-known hunting and gathering communities in the modern world” (Nowak & Laird, 2010); they are also known as the “San (Bushmen) of the Kalahari Desert” (Nowak & Laird, 2010). The San are a foraging band of families, they live off of what they can either hunt or gather from their surroundings this is part of the reason that they move every so often as not to put a strain on the environment also to be

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get better grades able to provide for them self. “women are responsible for eighty percent of the food gathering which consists of nuts, fruits, melons and berries while the men are responsible for twenty percent of the meat” (Nowak & Laird, 2010).

The type of kinship that the San follow starts as nuclear and can go as far as the extended family. This seems to make the idea of general reciprocal exchange easier to deal with. The San live in an economic system of general reciprocal exchange. In the text generalized reciprocity is defined as “a form of exchange where there are no expectations for an immediate return of an item in exchange for something else” (Nowak & Laird, 2010). The members of the San would hunt and gather food and share the wealth with everyone in the band, making sure that everyone can eat even if they were unable to contribute, Sharing of this kind helps strengthen ties.

Although the killing of Stephen Lawrence in 1993 was one of the few racist murders in British history to result in extensive media coverage, a public investigation and a change in the law, the reporting of black crime in the United Kingdom has remained subject to distortion and moral panic, especially in the conservative tabloid press. Since Lawrence and his family were portrayed as aspiring members of the middle class, the media in general did not really regard him as part of black culture at all, at least as the media has defined it over the last thirty years: guns, drugs, gangs, street crime, poverty and school drop outs (McLaughlin and Murji, 2001, p 263). Therefore, despite much sound and fury, there is no evidence that Lawrences murder and its aftermath led to fundamental change in the systematic racism of the British media, and other institutions such as the police and education system. Nor is there evidence that the racist ideology that is used towards blacks, immigrants, Muslims and asylum-seekers has disappeared as a resultfar from it.

This dissertation will consider the definition of racism as socially and historically constructed, and part of the institutions and ideology of society, and then examine how it has applied to the treatment blacks and other ethnic minorities in the UK since the 1940s, focusing on the Lawrence case and its aftermath. Finally, it will consider whether racism in the media has gradually been transferred to other targets in the wake of the attacks of September 11, 2001 and July 2005, with less emphasis on street crime, gangs, drugs and the crack wars of the 1970s-90s. This does not mean that young black males are no longer the target of racist stereotyping in the media, since as late as 2007 even a committee of the House of Commons agreed that they still were, only that racist impulses and ideologies seem to go through phases in which certain targets receive more attention than others (House of Commons, 2007)

CHAPTER 1.1: WHY THIS TOPIC IS INTERESTING TO ME

This topic first came to my attention several months ago during the summer, when it seemed that everyday young people were being killed by young males carrying knives. At the time the newspapers that covered these stories made it seem that it was only young black males that carried knives and the problem that the police had to deal with was not that of a few individuals who were carrying and using knives but that of a wider more prevalent issue with black culture.

At the time of reading these stories I found it quite strange that over time the underlying story seemed to be the same but the details had changed. For example, I remember not too long ago, it was young black males that were most likely to mug you, it was young black males dealing drugs on estates and young black males being involved in gang shooting (McLaughlin and Murji,2001, p 265). These acts seemed to, in my opinion come in waves. Due to reports like these, the general public is of the assumption that young black males are very dangerous individuals and should be feared (McLaughlin and Murji, 2001, p 265). I wanted to find out whether the newspapers and the media in general were justified in their approach on reporting black crime or whether they are scare-mongering for the sake of sales.

CHAPTER 1.2: AIMS

As stated above, the main aim of this dissertation would be to see if in fact the general media are in fact correct in the way in which they report crime or do they fuel public panic, and in turn fuel racism. I would like to find out whether the media is helping or hindering the general publics understanding of black people. Also, I hope that my research will enable me to answer questions on the way media is used and misused. In addition to that, I would like to find out whether the events that took place that lend to Stephen Lawrences murder was a turning point in the way that journalist conduct their articles and if after the Macpherson report has anything changed. Lastly I would like to find out if I am right in my assumption that the way in which the media (especially the tabloid press) have place black people on the back burner for the time being, and are concentrating on other ethnic minorities, such as Asian etc.

CHAPTER1.3: POSTMODERNIST THEORY ON RACISM

The term postmodernism is generally over used, as just about everything has a postmodern twist to it. For example the term postmodern can be used to describe music, art, architecture, film etc, but as well as all these, it is a sociological school of thought. According to Giddens postmodernism is the belief that society is no longer governed by history or progress. Postmodern society is highly pluralistic and diverse, with no grand narrative guiding its development (Giddens, 2006, p1029).

According to the postmodernist Ramon Flecha, racism is described as describes a condition wherein racial and ethnic differences become incommensurable and subjects fail to address the important issue of inequality in the face of difference (Gillborn and Ladson-Billings, 2004, p123). When one takes a closer look at history, one will realize that there is a major paradox in European imperialism. As colonisers, one of their goals was to disseminate their culture in their colonies. However, Singh believes that European cultural imperialism was dedicated to denying the colonised subject any identity other than one which that renders him/her a non-person (Singh, 2006, p 7). This cultural invasion happens when the invaders impose their own beliefs and views on another group and make them inferior by suppressing their creativity and expression (Freire, 1970, p 151). Colonisers have propagated their culture among their colonies but many of them still emphasized the importance of drawing a line between them and their colony. They regard their culture as superior to that of their colonies.

It is this difference where postmodernist beliefs of racism are founded upon. In Murphy and Choi, it is defined as a myriad of practices that are designed to subjugate a large segment of the population (Murphy and Choi, 1997, p3). In postmodernist belief, differences are recognized just as long as each racial group acts according to their race. Postmodernism racism puts more emphasis on the segregation rather than the hierarchy. With respect to the racism that existed fifty or a hundred years ago, postmodern racism recognizes multiculturalism and diversity. Old theories on racism were centred more on hierarchy and which race was more superior to the other. But times of crisis and uncertainty over the course of social and economic change have often proved to be the periods in which new racist ideas and movements have emerged and provided basis for social mobilisation and exclusion (Solomos and Back, 1996, p 211). So therefore over the past 50 years it is clear to see that anytime there was an incident of economic, social or health related down turns, ethnic minorities have been have been thrust into the limelight, in a way that could be described as negative. In the 70s and 80s it was black men who were a social menace, then in the 90s refugees from the former Yugoslavia were blamed for the lack of public housing and any subsequent rises in welfare benefits. Now in the 00s, with the west waging a war against terror people of Asian descent are now referred to as terrorist.

However, postmodern racism is not any different from the old racist beliefs. According to Leonardo, postmodern racism simply assumes the guise of tolerance only to be usurped by relativism, a proliferation of differences rather than a levelling of power relations (Leonardo, 2009, p216). It was stated earlier that times of crisis have prompted racist ideas to change but they have only changed in theory. Reality states that they have essentially remained the same, crimes motivated by racist beliefs have proven that up to the present, racial supremacy still lingers in peoples minds.

Lawrences murder is one of the few racially-motivated crimes that have been publicized. But it required a careful effort from the media to publicize his death. His economic background, for instance, was taken into consideration. Other black victims of racially-motivated crimes, for instance, do not receive sufficient publicity because the journalists thought that their image as a vagrant would not illicit a sympathetic response from the public (McLaughlin and Murji, 2001, p 276). Stephen Lawrence was the opposite because he came from a middle class family and his family was not, as stereotypes would say, the typical black family everyone feared.

The discrepancy between the medias treatment of Stephen Lawrence and Duwayne Brooks respective murders will easily reveal how media still holds racist beliefs. Moreover, it goes to show that media is sensitive to the fact that the general populace is still governed by old racist beliefs that there are certain races that are superior to the other. Postmodern racism, then, does not completely hold true and it may only be a sugar-coated version of the old-fashioned 19th century racism.

CHAPTER 1.4: STRUCTURE

Firstly I will be looking in to the methodology that is to be used in this dissertation as well as any ethically issues that may arise from doing research and writing up my dissertation. In chapter 3, I will be looking at the background history of black people in the United Kingdom and the media. In chapter 4, I will be looking in depth at the Stephen Lawrence case and asking whether Lawrence was a turning point in media reporting and the publics perception of young black males in general. I will then be covering in chapter 4.1, when the media circus surrounding Lawrence died down whether the media returned to their old ways of racially biased reporting or did the Macpherson report make a difference in the institution that in the media world. Finally in chapter 5, I will conclude and make any recommendations that are fitting. After this the references will follow.

CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY

This dissertation is a library based dissertation so therefore it uses secondary research as I feel primary research would not be suitable for this dissertation. I will be concentrating on collecting all my information from books, journals and publications that focusing on media reporting of the Stephen Lawrence case, history of black people in the UK and post Stephen Lawrence.

CHAPTER 2.1: ETHICAL ISSUES

Racism is a delicate issue and if the research is not conducted properly, the outcome could possibly be dangerous to all parties involved in the research, whether they are a minority ethnic group or not. It is therefore important that I must be sensitive towards the needs and safety of those who would likely to be involve in the study (Babbie, 2008, p 440). As this essay will be library based researched I must make sure that whilst conducting the research and evaluating my findings, I am as transparent as possible. I must also make sure that throughout the research and evaluation process I am aware of the studys objectivities and other significant details, therefore reducing any clear bias, which in turn would allow my work to be clear and objective. Also, I must make sure that whenever I quote anything it must be written in context and that I dont plagiarise. To make sure this doesnt happen I will make sure that all my references are correctly stated. And finally I will make sure that if during my research I find articles that disagree with any statements I have made are noted not ignored.

CHAPTER 3: RACISM IN GREAT BRITAIN:
THE MEDIA AND BLACK BRITISH HISTORY

For the British media, especially the conservative, mass market tabloids, blacks have been defined by images of black crime for decades, especially as the economy began to decline in the 1970s as unemployment, poverty and social pathology increased in the declining industrial cities. If black crime has always been defined as a social problem in the media, racist attacks by whites against minorities almost never was before the Stephen Lawrence Family Campaign (McLaughlin and Murji, 2001, p 263). From a purely capitalist view as well, crime reports are among the most headline-catching of news commodities and media everywhere in the world follow the somewhat cynical principle of if it bleeds, it leads. Crime journalists almost invariably take their cue from the police as experts on the subject and also depend of police contacts for their very livelihoods, providing them a routine and predictable source of newsworthy stories. Naturally, crime journalists never want to alienate that source and end up left out in the cold, for the economics of the news business is a particularly raw, competitive form of capitalism (McLaughlin and Murji, 2001, p 264). Van Dijk studied 2,755 headlines in the British press in 1985-86 from The Times, The Guardian, Daily Telegraph, Mail and Sun, and found that except for The Guardian, almost all the reporting about blacks and other minorities was seldom positive, occasionally neutral, and often negative (Van Dijk, 1991, p52).

After the major shift in both fictional and news coverage of crime in the 1960s and 1970s, there were increasing complaints from the elderly, minorities and young people in general about how they were depicted. Elderly citizens were shown as muggable and disempowered, while the young and minorities felt like they were continually portrayed as dangerous youth, potential perpetrators of crime, and thus welcomed films and news stories with a civil rights focus and the questioning of police authority. On the other hand, young women were more aware of their possible victim status, particularly their vulnerability to male violence, and so welcomed coverage of such crimes, which had been mostly ignored before the 1960s (Reiner et al, 2000, p 120). In general, the cultural shift of the 1960s and 1970s has not been reversed in films and news accounts in the more conservative era of the 1980s and 1990s: there is still far more depiction of sex, drugs, violence, corrupt and tarnished authority figures than before 1965, and also an increasing tendency toward more anarchic and nihilistic violence or a Hobbesian war of all against all, mixed occasionally with more reactionary and nostalgic themes. Overall, the post-1960s media and film culture has remained less deferential and more de-subordinate and demystified than it was before 1965 (Reiner et al:, 2000, p121-22).

For decades the British media portrayed Britain as a white society with a minority and immigration problem. Accordingly, the coloured population is seen as some kind of aberration, a problem, or just an oddity. One of the most popular BBC television programmes in 1958-78 was The Black and White Minstrel Show, supposedly set in the Deep South of the U.S., featuring actors blacked up. As late as 1998, only 2% of journalists in England and Wales were Arab, Asian or black even though these minorities made up 5.26% of the population, and the media often remained blind to ethnic minorities (Wilson et al, 2003, p 21). According to the British Social Attitudes Survey of 2003, 31% of white admitted to being racist, about the same percentage as 1987, and many people also practised aversion racism in which they believed intellectually in equality but at the same time felt aversion toward minorities with negative stereotypes, and thus avoided interaction with them if possible (Crisp and Turner, 2007, p 162-65).

In the media, blacks became synonymous with drugs, gangs and street crime, and misleading police statistics asserted that young black males were the majority of street criminals, generally unemployed and on welfare. Equally untrue in the standard media portrayal, their victims were often white, female and elderly (McLaughlin and Murji:, 2001, p265). Abercrombie and Warde agree that a conception of the black community as particularly crime-prone took hold in the 1970s in press treatments of attacks on and thefts from, innocent people in the streets. In 1983 The Sun actually ran a headline Black Crime Shock and stated falsely that blacks carried twice as many muggings as white sin London last year (Webster, 2006, p 32). In general, the media conveyed the image that the attackers were predominantly black and the victims predominantly white, no matter that there was no evidence for this. Just the opposite, the British Crime Survey of 1988 and 1992 showed conclusively that ethnic minorities are much more likely, in fact, to be the victims of crime than white people, and these crimes are under-reported because it is believed the police will not be interested and will not follow up a complaint. According to a 1981 Home Office report, victimization rates for Asians were 50 times, and for blacks 36 times, higher than for white people, but the media treated this information like it did not exist and almost never reported the extent and seriousness of racially motivated attacks on black communities (McLaughlin and Murji, 2001, p 268-69). Nevertheless, into the 1990s, young black males continued to be profiled and targeted for stop and search policing, especially in high crime areas. Studies of police attitudes found that they generally regarded blacks as trouble-makers, drug dealers, robbers and nothing else (Abercrombie and Warde, 2000, p258-59).

This moral panic against crime in the streets was also fuelled by Conservative politicians, particularly in the Winter of Discontent against the Labour government in 1979. In the Thatcher years, the Tories presided over an era of high unemployment and increasing poverty at the bottom end of the social scale, and knew that they could divert attention by promoting a law and order discourse that put the blame on the most socially and economically depressed sections of the community (Holohan, 2005, p 104). In Britain, as in the U.S. and many other countries from the 1970s to the 1990s, conservative and right-wing populist ideologies reflected a broadly right-wing consensus which, in many news channels (especially the tabloid press)justified as encapsulating the British way of life. This law and order consensus supported more police, more prisons and a tougher criminal justice system, particularly in response to the youth and minority rebellions of the 1960s and 1970s–and indeed, as part of a white backlash against these (Jewkes 2004, p58). For over twenty years, conservative populist punitiveness represented the main attitude of the British government to crime, poverty and the social problems associated with them, and there was no major opposition to imprisoning larger numbers of youth and younger ages, to prosecuting them as adults, more curfews, prohibition of unauthorized gatherings of young people, as well as harsher measures against immigrants, protesters, demonstrators, the homeless and young unemployed, particularly if any of the above were from minority groups. Newspapers like The Sun and Daily Mail have always had a vigorous intolerance towards anyone of anything that transgresses an essentially conservative agenda (Jewkes, 2004, p 59). Socially, economically and culturally, this era was a throwback to the late-Victorian period at the end of the 19th Century.

A 1992 book Beneath the Surface: Racial Harassment described a detailed study of racism in the London borough of Waltham Forest in 1981-89. It found that racial harassment was a fact of life there, including verbal and physical abuse, graffiti and fire bombings of houses of ethnic minorities. In July 1981 a Pakistani woman and her three children died in one of these attacks when petrol was sprayed into their house and set alight. The police did not seem interested in any of these crimes, and were even suspicious of the minorities who reported them. In 1998, The Observer reported that little has changed in the years since and described how one Muslim man was regularly threatened with stones, guns, knives, fire-bombs and death threats over a seven-year period. In 1992-94 alone, there were at least 45 deaths in Britain from what are believed to be racially motivated attacks, but none of them received nearly the same publicity as the Lawrence case (Abercrombie and Warde, 2000, p 260-62). After the riots of 1980-81, Lord Scarmans report emphasized the role of racial discrimination and acknowledged that there was a problem of racially discriminatory policing, as was still the case twelve years later in the Lawrence case. After the report came out, the police gave off-the-record interviews to the effect that London was experiencing a dramatic increase in muggings (McLaughlin and Murji, 2001, p266).

Jamaican immigrants had begun to arrive in the UK in 1948, although even the Labour government of that era preferred white European immigrants if it could find them, even if they could not speak English and understood little about Britain. Indeed, government officials went out of their way to discourage immigration from Africa, Asia and the West Indies, which was not unusual at the time, given the whites-only immigration policies in Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the United States that had been in place for decadesand did not change in the U.S. until 1965. The British government even tried to divert a ship carrying 492 Jamaicans to East Africa in 1948. Given the shortage of white immigrants, Britain had no alternative except to obtain most of its cheap labour supply from its colonies, semi-colonies and former colonies in Asia, Africa and the West Indies, although with much bad will on both the governmental level and in (white) public opinion (Skelton, 1999).

Blacks had been in Britain long before this wave of immigration, of course, but it seems to have made little impact on historical memory or popular consciousness. Britain had slavery during the 17th and 18th Centuries at least until Lord Mansfield abolished it in 1772. To be sure, only 10-20,000 slaves had lived in the country during any given year compared to millions in Brazil, the United States and West Indies and the number of free blacks was never large (Segal, 1996). Prior to the post-1945 immigration, few whites in Britain would have ever encountered many blacks at home, except of course for American soldiers in World War II. At that time, however, many white Americans were actually surprised to find that the British press was generally sympathetic to blacks whenever racial conflicts, brawls and other incidents took place on British soil (Katznelson, 2001).

Jamaicans were the largest group to arrive in Britain from the West Indies during this unwelcome ingathering from the colonies. While the majority of White British were antagonistic to all those from the Caribbean, it can be said that the deepest resentment was toward the Jamaicans (Skelton, 1999, p 232). Initially, they settled in Lambeth, Brixton, Clapham and Camberwell in South London, which was considered ideal for blacks and other minorities since it had suffered extensive bomb damage and was full of vacant, old and dilapidated Victorian houses. In other worlds, it was an instant, ready-made ghetto. Black immigrants were crowded into these run-down houses, charged unreasonably high rents, and/or faced housing discrimination. They only got the jobs that British workers would not take and called slave labour or shit work, and often could not even get that. Like many such ghettos in the past, theft, fencing of stolen merchandise, prostitution and drug dealing were commonwith many shops offering illegal goods and services under the counter to supplement their incomes and others acting as fronts for gangs and organized crime. In short, like similar ghettos in the U.S. and many other countries, it had a large informal or underground economy which existed in tandem with the mainstream economy and societyalthough minority young people were mostly cut off and alienated from this (Sanders, 2000, p 33). Mainstream media reported the crime but not the historical, social and economic context of this ghetto society.

From the start, the police and media associated young Jamaican males with street crime, which became an idea so pervasive and powerful that soon everyone who saw a young Black man on the street was convinced they were about to be robbed (Skelton, 1999, p 232). In the 1970s, it was not uncommon to see young Black men being taken to the side of public pavements and being forced to empty their pockets by two of three police officers at a time (Skelton, 1999, p 233). Parliament passed sus laws that allowed the police to stop and frisk anyone acting in a suspicious manneran early example of racial profiling, and arresting and harassing suspects from crimes like shopping, walking or driving while Black. In the media, there were virtually no counter-representations of young, black men, while in the civil disturbances of the 1980s and 1990s it ran the most sensationalistic stories claiming that Britain was becoming a riot-torn society (Skelton, 1999, p 234) caused by an alien disease and angry young blacks who did not share the values of law-abiding society (Skelton, 1999, p 234). Certain geographical areas like Brixton in London, Toxteth in Liverpool and Handsworth in Birmingham were racialised in the media and always associated with danger, destruction and lawlessness (Skelton, 1999, p 234).

CHAPTER 4: THE STEPHEN LAWRENCE CASE: A TURNING POINT?

Identifying a sympathetic victim is a well-known strategy of civil rights movements, and one of the best known was Rosa Parks, whose arrest on December 1, 1955 for refusing to give up her seat to a white person on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama was the spark that lit the modern civil rights movement in the United Sates. E.D. Nixon, the head of the Alabama National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and chief organizer of the Montgomery Voters League had been looking for a test case against the segregation laws for quite some time. He knew that it would have to survive legal challenges all the way up to the United States Supreme Court, and for this purpose the right type of victim was essential (Hare, 2005). It was no accident when Rosa Parks, the secretary of the local NAACP and member of Martin Luther Kings church, was arrested as part of the long-planned test case. Jonnie Carr, head of the Montgomery Improvement Association for thirty years, had invited Parks to join the NAACP and the two women started a friendship that would last a lifetime (Hare, 2005, p 25). Carr, who would later challenge Montgomerys segregated school system I the courts and win the case in the Supreme Court, said that Parks was so quiet that you would never have believed she would get to the point of being arrested (hare,2005, p26), but she did. Once she was committed to this course, she did not look back, and was famous for her quiet courage and determination. She continually received death threats from the Ku Klux Klan during the bus boycott and the legal case, and had to move to Detroit, Michigan in 1957. Even so, she continued to work with Martin Luther King and the civil rights movement, helping to organize the March on Washington in 1963 and the election of John Conyers to Congressone of the first blacks elected in the 20th Century (Hare, 2005).

Other blacks had been arrested before Parks for refusing to give up their seats, but Nixon, Carr and the other organizers did not regard them as the right kind of victims to generate exactly the right kind of publicity they required, or to stand up to the ordeal that was certain to follow, including the very real possibility of death. On March 2 1955, fifteen-year old Claudette Colvin was arrested for refusing to give up her seat to a white person, and when she was convicted of disorderly conduct and resisting arrest, the young straight-A student burst into tears (Hare, 2005, p4). Eighteen-year old Mary Louise Smith was arrested on October 1, 1955 for refusing to give up her seat as well, but Nixon and his fellow organizers did not believe she was quite right for the campaign, either, because of her age and some issues in her background (Hare: 2005). In Rosa Parks, they found their ideal candidate: a mother, gainfully employed, regular churchgoer, mature and respectable, someone Martin Luther King could proclaim as one of the finest citizens: of Montgomery (Hare,2005,p 30). She could play the role of innocent victim of injustice very well, and be the wife and mother that a white audience could identify with, even though as a civil rights movement activist and organizer, she knew from the start that she was part of a legal test case and media campaign.

To be sure, Stephen Lawrence had never planned to become a victim in this way, but civil rights and anti-racism organizers in Britain knew that they could portray him and his family as respectable, middle class people who were really not so different from the white readership of the Daily Mail, and thus generate the type of media interest and political pressure that racist attacks and murders had almost never received in Britain beforeor since, for that matter.

Prior to 1997, the Mail had shown little interest in the Lawrence case and only the announcement of a public inquiry seemed to get its attention. On February 14, 1997, however, it ignored legal and ethical guidelines and controversially printed the names and photographs of the five white suspects, and pronounced them guilty of murder under the blazing headline If We Are Wrong Let Them Sue Us. From 1997-99 it published at least 530 stories on the murder and Macpherson investigation, which some cynics always regarded as a ploy to boost circulation or the result of Stephen Lawrences father Neville once having worked as a plasterer for Paul Dacre, the Mails editor. In an editorial on February 15, 1999, the paper explained that it had thought long and hard before publicly naming the five white men, but this was an extraordinary situation and demanded an extraordinary response (McLaughlin and Murji,2001,p 272-73). Many newspapers covered the Lawrence murder, but the Daily Mails high-profile campaignset the agenda for the terms of the public debate about whom and what was responsible for the murder. This was unusual and unexpected because never before had a racist murder been so graphically and repeatedly described and condemned by a right-wing newspaper in the United Kingdom (McLaughlin,2005,p 163).

In the Stephen Lawrence case, the standard media portrayal of blacks as lazy, criminal and violent was inverted in order to present the victim and his family as clean, drug-free hard-working, educated and middle class, while his five white killers were shown as members of the unemployed underclass, living on welfare in public housing. In this way, the media could uphold the standard narrative of race and class while making Lawrence an exception to the general rule: a good black and an innocent victim. This was not the case for the other young black man attacked with him at the same time, Duwayne Brooks, described as a sort of marginal character perhaps involved with gangs and drugs, unlike Stephen Lawrence, who aspired to become an architect and join the middle class. As for Brooks, journalists