Author: Andre Coleman

In the research conducted by Samina Malik and Kathy Courtney the finding from Malik’s 2005 study was summarized. It was from his study that the wanted to investigate that to what extent does women empowerment was dependant on the gaining of higher education by women. In the research the importance of the prevailing culture and norms on women empowerment was also highlighted as they play a key role in preventing women from claiming the rights that they have been given by law which includes having equal rights to education.

As Pakistan is a developing country it has been rated s the nation with the widest gender gap and discrimination against women (UNICEF 2006). The united nations population information network gave the understanding that women empowerment has five major components, which include women sense of self-worth, their right to have and to determine choices, their right to have access to opportunities and resources, their right to have power to control their own lives, both within and outside the home, their ability to influence the direction of social changes to create a more social and economic order, nationally and internationally,(POPIN n.d)

However it has come to notice that overall the girls and women are at disadvantage and the movement to bring about any change in their position or their standard of living has failed. Forming a conclusion from the research it has been proven that the attainment of higher education in particular is accepted as a means for social change. The participation in education has many advantages for the women one of the most important one being economic independence.

As agreed upon by Iram, samiullah, tanveer, bedi-uz-zaman, shujaat and Ali women empowerment is a social phenomenon. Women in Pakistan are subject to very little participation in the economic sphere of life. Usually they are either underpaid or unpaid workers in the agricultural background. I their research the authors also subject that women empowerment can be measured based on their participation in politics. However the most important aspect being catered to in their study is the impact of male youth’s views on women empowerment. Since Pakistan is clearly a male dominated society and the views of the male segment plays either a supportive or opposing role towards women empowerment. It was concluded after the study that the prevailing view of women empowerment from the eyes of the male youth has different aspects of acceptance. Regarding ownership of property, vote casting and registration the response was fairly positive. It was also positive towards equal job opportunities, training program and membership of union and organization but political participation and participation in public protests and political campaigns was a negative. Overall however the attitude of youth towards women empowerment was considered a positive but the family practice of the positive attitude was very limited which may be due to the parent’s background and quality of education.

According to Malik hassaan the reason for women being neglected and lookdown upon may lie in some common factors which stem from the history of the country. The social norms and cultures and the menace of poverty have been put down on the shoulders of the women of this country since its birth. The idea proposed that economic development to actual take place in a nation requires the participation of the entire citizens of the nation by Malik is crucial to this country. The concept highlighted is the importance of poverty and government intervention in the developing worlds. The history bearded by the developing nation’s plays an important part also in another study relevant to this is by N’drit. Assie-Lumumba regarding the women and empowerment in Africa.

The idea being discussed by both the authors lie in the fact that the nations having participated in many international betterment and development programs and organizations the implementation of laws pro-women have been poor due to the history of poverty and culture prevailing in these nations. The insignificant intervention of the government and the lack of positive will towards this idea not only hinder the social well-being but also the e economic wellbeing of these developing nations. As Assie-lumumba explains the participation of women I higher education and universities are extremely low due to which any research conducted from these institutions don’t show the actual picture. Although the educational system has been taken from the west’s example, the persisting lack of participation by the female sector cannot be ignored. The reason for the lack of involvement doesn’t however lie solely with the historic practices but also by the recent practices which have stemmed out from the historic practices in essence strengthening them. The issue being that without access to primary and secondary education the female masses cannot have the opportunity to advance into higher education. The practice of not allowing equal opportunity at the initial levels of education is a major hindrance for the women of Africa. The other main issue discussed in the study relates to the lack of power to have time, equipment and finances being allocated to women in the African society. This also raises the gender gap and in essence reduces the ability of women to participate in education. The absence of proper policies and implementation of these policies thus result in the discriminatory policies regarding education and women in the African continent.

The idea that most of the conclusive research done in the developing countries result from the research conducted in the university setting, the absence of women form these institutions result in a lack of information and authentic research. The formation of policies also rest on the information collected therefore the lack of information subsequently result in improper and insufficient efforts being conducted in the way to women empowerment. Lumumba also rightly concludes based on assessment that the role of the researchers are highly crucial in the forward view of the continent and it is their responsibility to interrogate all analyze all the social sectors to finally come up with conclusions. Therefore educating the female masses of the nation is essential to not just economic wellbeing and eradication of poverty but also a healthier social standing of the nation.

The same standing is put forth by Malik Hassan in his research that poverty and economic sustainability of Pakistan rests on the shoulders of policy makers and researchers. There is a crucial need for proper research and data availability and a dire need of the policy makers, the government to shape up reforms and implement them in the most efficient and effective manner as without this the nation will not be able to move from the developing category to the developed.

The nuisance of poverty and the economic instability is directly related to the no participation of the entire nation towards there amputation. In his conclusion Malik also explains the importance of awareness amongst the citizens, capacity building of women, research and documentation on the achievements of women and advocacy for policy in political parties as essential and substantial requirements to overcome the structural obstacles and lack of awareness in the country. The importance of women participation in policy formulation and their representation at all levels of the government is necessary for the wellbeing and progress of Pakistan.

Women empowerment is defined as a change I the context of a women’s life that will enable her to lead a fulfilling human life, it being reflected both in external qualities and internal qualities (human development in south Asia (2000) as quoted by Mathew (2003). In the research by purusottam nayak and bidisha mahanta it is found that women of India, another developing nation, are relatively disempowered and given a lower status than their male counterparts. The existing of this gender gap exists basically with regards to education and employment. Different aspects of the study focused on different factors that were looked at by the researcher. These include women having the right to education and employment; domestic violence and say on spending their earnings; women’s exposure to media and heir involvement in politics. After a clear view it was concluded that women were subject to unequal treatment b the male dominating society. Dr suvarna sen and ishita mukherjee also in their study look at the prevailing trends of role of women in India and they also examine the employment levels, wages, literacy and school enrolment; their participation in politics and personal health issues. They also suggest from their study that women are being subject to socio-economic biases which in retrospect affect their status in society.

The most alarming find from both these studies show the acceptance of this unequal and bias treatment by the women in general. All these factors are either the result of government’s shift from raising actual awareness and or implementation of policies structured for women empowerment. The major role of higher education and employment is the conclusive factor in both the studies. It has been seen in Dr surarna sen and ishita mukherjee’s finding that rising of awareness and education are the only forums which may result in ability to combat these practices. The entire idea of is also supported by purusottam nayak and bidisha mahanta in their findings that access to education and employment are the only enabling factors to empowerment. However in similarity the studies also conclude that the hindrance towards this goal is mainly due to the lack of government support. The idea that government does not support encouragingly the institutions set to formulate policies regarding the betterment of the female population and also doesn’t take steps in helping in the implementation of these policies for proper coverage and benefits.

The idea of empowerment if not wholly supported by the mass of male population and the authoritarian of the country, cannot flourish and bloom. The presence of education plays a pivotal role for women in helping them realize and understand their rights and their rewards. Without which they may not be able to come out of the current situation and remain to believe themselves subjugate to domestic vigilance and gender bias.

Another study conducted by purusottam nayak and bidisha mahanta examines the impact of women empowerment in Assam. In this study as well the women empowerment quotient is judged on the basis of indicators such as education, employment, household decision making power, financial autonomy, and freedom of movement, exposure to media, political participation and experience of domestic violence. Assam is one of the states of India and the largest state in the region of North east India on basis of population. Although it is free from a lot of social evils like dowry, sati, female feticide and infanticides it is still ranked very low in the scale of female empowerment. There is a wide gender gap in the state which is even not found in other comparable states in India. the study concludes that the development of the state is being affected by the widening inequality in gender and that the development process is not gender neutral as women are subject to lower status as even when compared to the rest of the states in India. There does seem to be political involvement of the woman segment in the state however other than that the educational and employment status is very low. Also the access and reach over resources is very low as well.

Meetika Srivastava In her study gives a profound view on women empowerment. She begins by explaining the importance of women in the society and their pivotal role in shaping the nation’s future as mothers, teachers etc. she also very clearly signifies the women rights that are considered under the act of humanitarian law worldwide. The basic human right that woman is entitled to live in dignity and esteem. Have freedom of want and freedom from fear just as her male counterparts. The importance of this equality has been underscored by its inclusion as one of the Millennium Development Goals.

However she goes on to explain further that even though worldwide gender equality has been given an important stature it remains to a practically neglected avenue. Violence and discrimination is a very common practice however now economic discrimination has also joined in the list of inequalities which include health and education.

Despite a lot of controversy and a lot of this agenda being raised by the international organizations, women are still more likely to be ill, poor, illiterate and tortured than men. Another important factor for empowerment measurement is the control of their own fertility. This aspect is so crucial that it is considered sometimes, as the benchmark for empowerment as said in the study that, when a woman can plan her family, she can plan the rest of her life. Srivastava 2009

Ms Srivastava is on the right path when she concludes by her study that women empowerment is a strong factor towards development. She explains further that despite the said progress that is made the female segment of the society is the most neglected segment as yet. Especially with regards to basic health and education they seem to be suffering magnanimously. she goes on to close with the fact that no kind of social empowerment, legal empowerment or economic empowerment may be able to take place without focusing on women empowerment.

In his study of women empowerment in India, Mr. gagandeep kaur explains that the empowerment assumed to be prevalent in the society where women are known in literature and religious scrolls as “devis” or “shakti” is all a facade. It doesn’t exist and all the rights and privileges so called adhered to women in the Indian society are just on paper in ink and not in real life. He goes on to explain that the status of women cannot change by the mere idea of introducing the terms but it requires a complete change of metal setup which is deep rooted in not just the minds of the people but also of the woman herself. The biggest problem is that women are unaware of their own rights and what world of opportunities lies for them. Various efforts are being conducted by free lance NGO’s, media and welfare organizations, but what is most important is the involvement of the government he says.

Gary S Becker, William H J Hubbard and Kevin M Murphy follow on the research that they conducted regarding the worldwide boom in higher education with regard to women education. In their research they explain that there has been a high increase in the education of female and males around the globe. They d agree that citizen in developing nations and developed nations do get different share of education however according to new statistics there has been a substantial increase in both the world’s higher education trend. The most important factor that they have come to notice is that the research provides them with sufficient facts that the increase in higher education is due to women. In their research they provide a model of supply and demand in market for college educated workers. They also examine the effects of the costs of college education and difference in gender and also means and distribution of skills.

As defined by Ambassador, F. J, “Gender is a concept that refers to a system of roles and relationships between women and men that are determined, not by biology but by the social, political and economic context”. The socially determined differences between men and women are referred to as gender, whilst the biologically determined characteristics are referred to as sex. An important distinction between gender and sex is all that women and men do, and all that is expected of them, apart from their distinct sexual function (child bearing and breast feeding, provision of sperm, impregnation) which changes with time and varied social and cultural factors (Ambassador F. J. B, 2007).

As defined by Wikipedia on the other hand, “Discrimination is a sociological term referring to the treatment taken towards or against a person of a certain group in consideration based solely on class or category”. It refers to the actual behaviour portrayed by an individual, group of individuals or society towards another. And basically involves the denial of one group from opportunities and rights that are available to other groups. There are varied forms of discrimination, but any form of discrimination involves the exclusion of one group from the other Wikipedia, The free encyclopaedia, (http;//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination).

Determined patterns of behaviour such as rights, obligations, and prerogatives assigned to females and males in society are referred to as gender roles. They differ with time, place and from one society to another. Gender roles are constructed on the stereotype such as;

Men are better than women;

Men are cleverer than women;

Men’s works are more valuable than women’s work;

Women are weak and dependent;

Men are strong and independent;

Furthermore, as culture is dynamic and socioeconomic situation change over time, so gender patterns change with them. What women and men do can radically changed as a result of war, famine or disaster. Gender does not address people but issues, issues such as relationships, roles, characteristics, differences and social expectations (Ambassador F. J. B, 2007, Abram, S. 2002).

According to Ambassador F. J. B, (2007) “, Gender issues in development concerns division of labour, inequality in access to resources, inputs and benefits. The questions to be asked are: Is there parity? Is access open to all? Is it close to some? Gender inequality is a development problem which refers to relations of power (between rich and poor, between women and men) that prevents equitable development and the participation of all”. As a result, development moves at a slow pace, conflict, lack of interest, disunity, poor participation, opinion sharing becomes limited and there is a setback in society. The main concern about gender issues in development is the actions required to correct the imbalance between men and women. Gender issues are therefore not about women’s participation or women’s development per se. In the broader sense, they are about addressing imbalance in society. It is an important planning tool. The gender analysis of who does what or who controls what can assist planners in closing the gender gap since in planning the issue at stake is that of power relationship or power sharing (Ambassador F. J. B, 2007, Abram, S. 2002) .

According to Ambassador F. J. B, (2007), a gender perspective looks not at women alone but at the relationship between women and men and how societies are structure along gender lines.

It is concerned with:

Women’s involvement concerns, needs and aspirations as well as those for men;

The impact of policies, plans and projects on women, men and children;

Assessing to who the benefits accrue and in what ways, Financial and other qualitative and quantitative benefits may be assessed;

The whole process of gender planning.

According to Stuart Malkin, gender discrimination as the name implies, is a form of bias that is hurtful and to a great extent, it is as destructive as any other form of bias. In his Ezine article, Stuart Malkin stated that “women and men are not created equal; they each have their God given strengths, focused on their responsibilities for procreation and family viability “. These differences according to him are difficult to dismiss but are certainly not the cause for gender discrimination in the workplace in particular and society in general (http;//enzinearticle.com/?Gende-Bias-GenderDiscrimination-Gender-Equality&id=14755).

Discrimination on the other is defined by Wikipedia as a term generally used by sociologists to refer to “the treatment taken towards or against a person of a certain group in consideration based solely on class or category”. It refers to a behaviour pattern portrayed by one group which involves excluding or restricting other group members from opportunities available them. There are various forms of discrimination, but all forms a virtually speaking the same language of rejection or exclusion (Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia (http;//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination)

1.2 Statement of the problem.

Women form the largest single sector of the population in the United Kingdom but yet form the minority group in the attainment of leadership roles in the labour force. For decades, women across the board have been battling against inequality between men in a bid to bridge the labour force gap, and yet face some form of gender discrimination in the workplace that limit their challenge to attain higher level management roles. The perception about women’s recognition were based on stereotypical assumptions and prejudice such as; women’s achievement was to a great extent attributed to luck or effort rather than the ability to perform, men are cleaver than women; Men are strong and independent; Women are weak and dependent; and a vast majority of people had the notion that child bearing and house maintenance are predominantly a woman’s social roles and responsibilities. Such perceived assumptions resulted to the vast majority of competent women that have excellence potential to stagnate in job assignments that lack challenge. Moreover, unlike men, women over the years have limited legal, political and economic rights which largely increased their dependency on men for financial and other means of support (Lyness and Thomson, 1997).

However, with the advent of equal employment opportunity legislations and the formation of the Gender and career Development-UK, and the Equal Opportunity Commissions to enforce and implement these legislations in practice and promote equal opportunity, women’s rights are now protected by law against any form of discrimination in the work place that tend to limit or restrict their aspirations and career advancement opportunities as well as enabling them to overcome prejudice.

Even though women to a certain extent have experienced a positive change in their social status due to employment equality legislations and law enforcement, there is certainty among women as well as the ethnic minority that discrimination and inequality still exist in some form. A good number of women and ethnic minority group face artificial barriers in establishments that deter them from making the best use of their knowledge, skills and abilities to ascend the career lather. Unlike men, there is considerable number of occupations or positions that appeared impossible for women to attain. Therefore, the vast majority of women in the UK labour force are represented in middle and low managerial positions with less decision making, whilst senior level management and important decision making positions are held by men. It is because of this gender gap and imbalance in society that has brought the idea to investigate about the eminent barriers that prevent women from career advancement.

1.3 The Purpose of the Study

This research study is an attempt to examine the part gender discrimination play in career development; a case study of maternity returners in the UK legal Profession. Therefore in this research study, career development in maternity returners is being evaluated and compared with the career development in men.

From the aspect of career development in maternity returners in the UK legal profession especially in the area of promotion, the present literature suggests an incomplete attempt to identify and resolve the barriers women face in career development in the workplace. Therefore, this research study is an attempt to bridge those gaps in the present literature regarding the obstacles (barriers) women especially maternity returners experience within the UK legal profession.

Successful identification and examination of these barriers will form a unique benchmark for recommendation in order to create a viable society that is discrimination free and thus create a frame work for career development of maternity returners in the UK legal profession. Research studies conducted by Killham et al (2005) concluded that present day organisations recognise the importance of developing women leaders for the twenty first century (Killhan, Hookah, and McCarty, 2005). O’Neill (2005) highlighted that for any organisation to thrive and succeed in the future depends largely on their success in helping women leaders succeed.

Although there appeared to be an increase in the proportion of women in the labour force according to Killham et al, 2005, an attempt to hire and retain this accelerating pool of talent requires the ability of organisations to identify and mitigate the potential threats women face in these establishments, and the ability of these establishments to meet the developmental needs of the said talent pool. A greater dexterity is achieved in every particular staff in establishments that target and successfully develop this increasing pool of talent, and hence achieve a comparative advantage over other establishments in attracting and retaining highly skilled and talented staff (killham, Hookhah, and McCarty, 2005).

Recent research with regards to the glass ceiling suggested that Gender discrimination in career development have negative implications in the development of society in general and organisations in particular (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_ceiling). Although issues surrounding gender discrimination has been a part of the UK government and organisational policies and are tackled with unique legislations within the frame work of developing future leaders, research targeting the barriers to career development of maternity returners in the UK legal profession are yet to be examined and addressed. The findings from the investigation of the barriers to career development of maternity returners in the UK legal profession will serve to mitigate the rising problems of women stagnating in lower managerial positions (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_ceiling).

The gap in the research related to across gender relationships, which is typical of an organisation such as the UK legal profession where the vast majority of the senior positions are held by males, prompted the need to examine the specific limitations that deter women (maternity returners) from attaining senior positions as their male counterpart. The study seeks to fill some of the major gaps in the present literature by providing a frame work that addresses the barriers to career development in women, especially maternity returners.

1.4 Significance of the study

The significance of this research study can be viewed based on the following reasons;

There is a minute fraction of women in leadership positions that can be looked upon as role models.

The conduct of this research study is to assist the UK legal profession in achieving better organisational performance through the reduction or otherwise elimination of gender discrimination barriers in order to enable women attain their desired objectives.

Women to a great extent are playing a vital and diverse role within the UK legal profession.

1.5 Objectives of the study

The ultimate objective of the present study is to investigate the likelihood of women to gain promotion on return from maternity.

The immediate objectives are as follows;

To examine the frequency of promotion;

To examine potential barriers to development;

To examine the utility of gender based initiatives;

To examine justice perception.

To evaluate the quality of work ;

To examine the skills and qualifications acquired;

To examine the length of service;

To examine employee development and gender discrimination;

1.6 Justification of the Study

1.6.1 Lost Productivity: In an establishment where gender discrimination is prevalent, there is every tendency for competent employees with excellent potential to remain in-situ in non-challenging job positions. This to a great extent can lead to lost productivity and will result to the employee seeking for another job elsewhere. This to a great extent can lead to lost productivity and will result to the employee seeking for another job elsewhere. In most cases, the most competent employees are denied of adequate training, not considered for promotions and are denied of raises based on gender. The employees that face this type of discrimination often become dissatisfied and hence in most cases result in lost productivity. On a daily bases, employees who feel they are less appreciated or inadequately compensated will not give their best to the job but may rather spend paid work time on unrelated job activities like gossiping with co-workers about labour practices that seem unfair or job hunting, to name but a few. When employees feel they are been discriminated against at work, and are unable to find an immediate positive remedy, can increase their anxiety, increase dependence or result to substance abuse and cause depression. Company sick leave increase as a result, and can cause work to be limited and hence result to lost productivity (Julia, F, 2010).

1.6.2 Trained Personnel Leave: If trained and competent personnel do not see growth opportunities, they will eventually leave the company, thereby creating a void or gap that needs to be filled. Though employees are replaceable, it requires time and money to train one. Moreover, it requires a great deal of time to enable a new employee to develop a level of efficiency or productivity that is equal to that held by a previous experienced employee. By having to spend this additional time and money to train and develop new employees’ means lost production and increased work hours, and hence the profit potential of the company is reduced (Julia, F, 2010).

1.6.3 Decreased Profits: Lawsuits, public chiding and sanctions may arise as a result of discrimination at workplace. Dealing with issues surrounding these lawsuits and sanctions may lead to a considerable drain in company resources. These drained resources are sometimes more than just monetary. Attending hearing sessions and working on negotiations may require experienced personnel which tend to take expertise away from the company leaving the gap either void or less qualified personnel may need to tentatively fill the gap and hence production is at stake. The company can lose customer confidence if lawsuits become public knowledge. There is every tendency that customers may result to taking their business elsewhere and highly qualified personnel may seek for jobs elsewhere. This will ultimately cause the company to lose potential profits (Julia, F, 2010).

1.6.4 Lack of Team Work: Gender discrimination can cause employees to have a different perception about the job and hence working together as a team becomes ineffective in the workplace. This is more so when an employee realises that there are differences (parity) in compensation with his co-employee who has less responsibility, and yet received a better compensation because of gender. When asked to work together on a team project, the employee being discriminated against may not give his or her best. As a result, the individual’s expertise and abilities are lost (Julia, F, 2010).

1.7 Research Questions.

3. LITERATURE REVIEW

The focus of this research study is an attempt to examine what part does gender discrimination play in career development? A case study of maternity returners’ in the United Kingdom legal profession. The literature in this research is focused entirely on two broad categories; viz-a-viz gender discrimination and career development; and how gender discrimination affect potential career attainment of employees in establishments in particular and society in general.

Women across the board are been discriminated at various fronts. Even though a lot has been done to bridge the gap on gender discrimination through Government legislation and organisational policies, there is yet more to be investigated and resolved in order to achieve the desired impact in development. Gender Discrimination in career development and attainment of leadership roles is a major concern facing women in organisations in the United Kingdom; and is the principal factor that causes women over the years to lag behind in the advancement to higher levels in most organizations ( ).

A lot of research has been done on gender discrimination and the effect it has on the development of society. These include a comparative study conducted by the gender and career development-UK 2005/6, and the glass ceiling effect that examined the issue of gender and carer development and examine the continuing restrictions or limitations to achieving equality of opportunity in career development in the United Kingdom. This was a labour force survey conducted by the National Office for statistics (Labour force Survey Table 19 http://www.statistics.gov.uk). This is reflected on the data illustrated in table 1. The data suggests that female employees are less likely to gain managerial positions due to reasons yet undiscovered which this case study is attempting to investigate.

The data (on segregation and mobility) below is taken from the Labour Force Survey published by the National Office for Statistics.

Table 1. All in employment by socio-economic classification (%)

Total

Higher Managerial

Lower Managerial

Intermediate

Small employer and own business

Lower supervisory

Semi-routine

Routine

All

28,812

14.4

28.5

12.3

9.9

10.7

14.3

10

Male

15,524

18.8

24.7

6.2

13.6

14.2

10.5

12.2

Female

13,288

9.3

32.9

19.4

5.5

6.7

18.8

7.4

Source: Labour Force Survey Table 19 http://www.statistics.gov.uk/ (Extracted,

Table 2. Part time and temporary workers by socio-economic classification.

Total

Higher Managerial %

Lower Managerial %

Intermediate %

Small employer and own business %

Lower supervisory %

Semi-routine %

Routine %

All

7,324

5.9

21.9

17.3

9.1

6.1

26.7

13

Male

1,996

10

19.3

7.1

19

6.1

21.2

17.3

Female

5,655

4.9

22.5

19.7

6.7

6.1

28.1

12

Source: NOS Table 21 http://www.statistics.gov.uk/

The Gender and career development -UK is working with employers and professional institutes to tackle the structured barriers that tend to deter women from working in certain SET profession.

The focus of recent research has been on the glass ceiling effect that impedes the career development of women in the attainment of leadership roles. “The situation is referred to as ‘ceiling’ as there is a limitation blocking upward advancement, and ‘glass’ (transparent) because the limitation is not immediately apparent and is normally an unwritten and an unofficial policy”. The current research study is an attempt to examine the part that gender discrimination play in career development; a case study of maternity returners in the legal profession (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_ceiling).

However, a comprehensive research conducted by Kathrine et al (1979) discovered that in principle there appeared a clear path of promotion, but in reality women seem to face impeding factors that limit or retard their career development path. Most women in the labour force cultivated this concept of career development limiting factors, and refused to penetrate and progress beyond these limits. Some authors refer to this situation as the “glass ceilin”. It is called “Ceiling” because there appeared to be a limitation or barrier blocking career advancement, and “glass” (transparent) because the barrier is not immediately apparent and is normally and unwritten and unofficial policy. To a greater extent, this apparent barrier continues to exist in an invisible nature; and is mainly targeted at women in a bid to prevent them from acquiring jobs at the top level. Since it is unlawful to discriminate by any means such as this, organisations’ tend to avoid outlining job specifications based on gender discrimination on job adverts as Equal Employment Opportunity laws deter organisations from discriminating as thus. However, establishments exercise career development discriminatory barriers in a form invisible to the target group and would not accept responsibility if suspected of such act of discrimination. In many cases, establishments tend to use indirect form of gender discriminations to justify their actions.

This limiting barrier of glass ceiling deters a considerable number of women from reaching and securing potentially lucrative and prestigious jobs in the labour force. This apparent and invisible barrier to a greater extent instills the concept of women feeling inferior, unworthy and lacks the confidence to aspire and secure positions of high ranks. The author further noted that this invisible barrier gives women the feeling that their bosses do not take them seriously by all means or do not see them as potential candidates for jobs of greater responsibility (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_ceiling).

However, Carly Fiorina proclaimed that there is nothing that appears like a glass ceiling that prevents women from reaching the top upon becoming Chief Executive Officer and chairwoman of the board of HP. Upon completion of her tenure in office, she called her earlier statement a “dumb thing to say”. In an article written by Rebecca Traister (The truth about Carly, 2009), gave the idea behind Carly’s statement (dumb thing to say) meaning that “women shouldn’t fixate on an invisible barrier that’s going to get their way, they should focus on possibilities”. (http://www.salon.com/life/feature/2006/10/19/carly_fiorina).

As the name implies,” glass ceiling” is a term that many schools of thought used to describe the perceived barrier to career development (advancement) in most employment establishments and government parastatals due to gender or sex discrimination.

The Glass Ceiling Commission in the United States, a government-funded group, provided significant findings regarding the persistence in gender discrimination in the industrial sector and service company employment. The commission presented a statistical analysis in the above mentioned sector employment status. As cited by the commission “Over half of all Master’s degrees are now awarded to women, yet 95% of senior-level managers, of the top fortune 1000 industrial and 500 service companies are men.” In that light the commission recommended a reverse discrimination in a bid to end this form of discrimination. The recommendations strictly reflect hiring and promotional decisions and must not be based on gender perspectives but rather on qualification and experience of employees (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_ceiling).

In another development, the United Nations presented a comprehensive literature in 2006 on account of women and the “glass ceiling”. Significant findings from the said research study suggested that the rate at which women around the Globe attain leadership and decision making position remains far too slow, and the fortunate ones underwent a deal of struggle to penetrate and break through the “glass ceiling”. As cited by Rachel Mayanja (Special Adviser to the Secretary-General on Gender Issues), ” The past ten years have seen the fastest growth in the number of women in parliaments, yet even at this rate, parity between women and men in parliaments will not be reached until 2040. ” (http://www.un.org/women.watch/daw/csw/50sess.htm), (http://www.un.org/women.watch/feature/iwd/2006/press releaseIWD8march.pdf).

Ruderman et al provided an insight on how existing promotional norms can be investigated and challenged within organisations. His findings presented a comprehensive case analysis of decisions regarding promotion in an organisation. This research study depicted cases where there were some variations in the pattern of promotions of men and women. As cited by Ruderman et al, “one key difference was when decision makers spoke about promotions of men they often (75% of cases) mentioned a high level of comfort with the candidate. For women the key issue was ‘continuity’ where the person promoted should already have an intimate knowledge of part of the new job”. According to Ruderman et al, managers seem to have some amount of hesitation in promoting women as they require them to demonstrate personal strength, and being able to prove themselves extensively before a promotion is made. Men on the other hand are less likely to have their promotion accounted for in terms of familiarity with job responsibilities.

Conger, S. (2002) provided a justifiable argument for the formation of a career development culture as a means (among others) of addressing disproportionate numbers of women and other target groups at lower levels. The development of an organisation depends greatly on its career development culture as it helps in addressing the key organisational aspects of productivity, competitiveness, affirmative action, and succession planning. It gives employees the ability to redefine their talents to realize the full potential of their jobs. This can be achieved by supervision and appraisal, and organizing a system of mentorship. A managed career development culture can be rewardfull to the employee in particular and the establishment in general. Moreover, Conger’s argument offers the means to accomplish the reasons why both management and workers want a career development culture. In another development, Conger developed five strategies which employees need to recognise, create and follow as career opportunities which are beyond the scope of this research (Conger, S. 2002).

According to Eagly et al (2007), there are a host of limiting factors that stop or prevent women from advancing to or aspiring for senior level positions which include domestic obligations and child caring, disparity in pay and resistance to women’s leadership, and suggestions were offered to organisations on account of career development in women (advancing women into higher-level roles). Establishments that handle and manage work and work related (employee family) issues well, and do not discriminate against pregnant or potentially pregnant employees, have a greater tendency to attract and retain the talented staff and at the same time enabling them especially the female staff to reach their full potential and hence greater dexterity in every particular employee is attained. As a result, a high degree of return to work rate for women after maternity leave is expected.

According to McMaster, F (2005), the rate of returns (benefits) from developing women returners into leadership roles is significant. This was an approach taken by IBM Asia Pacific in relation to workplace flexibility.

A statistical analysis drawn by the Australian Bureau of statistics, suggested that an estimated number of 118 Australians return to paid work when their child is aged 6 months or even younger. In a bid to work in accordance with National Health and Medical Research Council recommendations of exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months and World Health Organisation recommendations for ongoing breastfeeding to two years and beyond, workplace support is crucial (http://www.breastfeeding.asn.au/bfinfo/mfwp.html).

As cited by Creagh et al (1998), three case studies were drawn from Sweden, Italy and the UK regarding flexible work practices. In their research, they were able to explore the advantages and disadvantages for both employers and employees. The research analysis suggested that flexible work practices can yield positive outcome if the required basic steps are followed.

According to Sheridan et al (2000), a Human Resource Management model was developed and intended to be used to bridge the gap between employer and employee needs with regards to workplace flexibility. The model is intended to develop a process of change that reflects flexible work arrangements that is of mutual benefits to both employers and employees. Long term benefits can be achieved by the organisation when the full potential of the employees is realised.

Kottke et al presented a paper that highlighted four key underlying processes for intervention to overcome the barriers women face in career development. These include; Social cognitions, threat potential, justice perceptions, and how to utilise gender based initiatives.This findings suggest that an understanding of how social cognitions, perceptions of fairness, threat, and utility can individually and collectively impact the success or failure of programs to advance women, organizational leaders can develop and implement informed practices that are embraced by all members of the organization and which, consequently, further the advancement of all organizational members.These processes must be considered, followed and managed as part of the development, implementation and evaluation of initiatives targeting women’s career development in a bid to achieve the desired goal.

Francis et al (2002) developed a paper in the construction industry that highlighted issues surrounding workers families that is equally relevant and applicable to other works of life. The paper outlined the need for the use of non-traditional management methods to cater for the increased number of women in the work force. Legal requirements and organisational performance were the reasons presented to justify why organisations should care about workers families. A number of initiatives that organisations in general can adopt and implement are then identified and described.

According to Davey et al (1994), a research study was conducted that involved in depth interview of 16 women as well as completed and analysed questionnaires of a further 160 women who had taken maternity leave from one institution over an 8 year period. The results obtained from analysis, offered an insight into who returns to work, what provisions and opportunities that encourage women to return and the benefits to the organization in providing these provisions.

According to a research study conducted in Australia regarding circumstances surrounding pregnancy discrimination at work and progress to formal redress, 318 cases were explored of alleged workplace pregnancy discrimination which were reported to a community advocacy organisation

In traditional way, the women are act as the housewives in their family. But in today’s world, most of the women are surged into the work places that are 60 percent of women provide the income to the family (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2004). With this, there have two structures of family such as one-career family and two-career family.

TOPIC SENTENCE 1

Most of the people nowadays have multiple roles and responsibilities including work and family. There has some similar and differences of the roles as a parent and as a child as well as the roles of husbands and wives in two-career families and one-career families. Besides the roles, there has responsibilities of parents in one-career families and two-career families to concern the children’s feeling..

SUPPORTING DETAIL

1. The roles of the parents in two-career families and one-career families for their children.

No matter in two-career families and one-career families, the role of the women is still the same that they having the character as a mother and the role of men are as a father to their children in the family (Sinha, 1993).

Besides that, the parents in both one-career family and two-career family should have the positive role model in an active manner for their children. The parents should have the certain skill to build their children’s behavior (Lopez, 2004).

For example, the parents need to have proper behavior with their children and make sure always doing the right things when with the children (Burke, 1997).

2. The roles between husbands and wives in two-career families and one-career families.

In the past or in one-career family, the role of the husband is always the main financial provider and having more influence over the family (Franklin, 1998).

The wife in one-career family is to be the homemaker. Her roles will always to take care all of the housework according to the needs of the family (Franklin, 1998).

For example, the role of the wife is take charge in all the housework including cook for husband and children, cleaning, laundry, help to prepare the things need by husband and so on (Edwards, 2011).

In two-career family, they will have equal role between the husband and wife. Both of them have job and are the financial provider to their family (Gerson, 2002).

According to the research, both of them need commit to combine their professional and family roles that to integrate and balance between the works or family roles together such as having dinner time together with family, avoid working on weekends so that can interact well between the husband and wife and also can interact well with the kids or other family members (Brett, 2008).

3. The parents in both one-career families and two-career families have responsibilities of concern and caring to their children feeling.

Both career families have the responsibility to take good care on their children. Yet, since the wife or wives play an important role of the homemaker in the single-career families, the concerns and responsibility that the single-career families pay are more than two-career families. They take note or guide the needs and wants of children. (Franklin, 1998).

For sure, parents are enabled to give an advice and concern on the development and natural changes of the children. (Christophersen, 2003)

In two-career families, it will cause the relationship between parents and children getting worse and worse and the parents may not able to understand what their children actually think of. So, the working parents need to have more concern to their children’s mind. (Biagioli, 2003)

As the result, parents can give fully support and have an idea on what is going on, emotionally, physically on their children. (Burke, 1997)

TOPIC SENTENCE 2

There has some similar and different pressure by men and women as well as the children in one-career family and two-career family.

SUPPORTING DETAILS

1. The pressures suffered by men in one-career family and two-career family.

Most of the stress suffering by the men is not from their family life but is from their job. (Anitei, 2008)

The men in one-career family will more stressful than the men in two-career family because they are the main financial provider in the family. (Jane, 1996, 1999)

Jane (1996, 1999) founds that the men in one-career family are more easy to feel depressed than men in two-career family that they have less worry about the income when they have another income to rely on.

2. There is some similar and different stress by the women in the one-career family and two-career family.

Due to the research, the women will involve more in the housekeeping and child care (Steil, 1999).

In traditional or one-career family, the characteristic of the woman is being the housewives and the women in one-career family are facing the same stress with two-career family as they need to worry about their children’s behavior such as they having relationship stress with their children as they need to make sure has well relationship with their children so that can understand what their need and so on. (Scott, 2009)

Although the women in one-career family and two-career family having the same stress, but the women in two-career family have more stress as they need to cope with the work pressure and they still needs to show the care and concern to their children and need to help more in family organization after they work (Zimmerman, Haddock, Current and Ziemba, 2003).

3. There has some stress suffered by the children in both one-career families and two-career families.

The children must have their own stress no matter they are in one-career family or two-career family. The stress suffered by the children can come from many aspects such as bullying, family conflict, changes in school, child care arrangement and so on. (Hack, 2001)

According to Hack (2001), the children have good relationship with parents that have well communication with their parents can have the discussion to release their stress.

In the psychology way, children in two-career family will become treason due to lack of communication, especially during the time of puberty. It may lead their children prone in addition to drugs, alcoholic drinks, rebellion, and other issues that are related (Roesch, 2004 ).

TOPIC SENTENCE 3

Unlike the single-career families, the development and empowerment of women in two career families are getting more important in this society.

SUPPORTING DETAIL

1. Men or women are no longer considered to be the sole ‘economic provider’ for the family.

Those women are becoming an increasingly important component in this society. (M. sue O’Dorisio and Thomas M. O’Dorisio, 2003)

Women are finished the certain degree level has greater chances to exploit their potential in different fields and continue their learning process and practice in the workplace. (Hakim, 2011)

Women are no longer in traditional way which means they got the power in combining the work and house aspect. (Roesch, 2004)

As the result of they are dependent enough, and got the strong opinion in their mind, sometime they might argue with their husband because of the dissension and the decision-making issues may be occurred. (Anderson, 1993)

2. Women in the two-career families have their own financial aspect. Yet, it might cause the conflict occurs.

Women in the two-career families are able to lighten the burden on the family than the single-career families do not. (Anathbandhu, 2009)

Wives may have no time to look after their husband upon they return after stressful and tiring day in their work. As well as, the wives cannot give a fully support to the husbands when they return since the wives have their own career. (Biagioli, 2003)

It will cause the unhappiness and dissatisfaction of marital if the conflict is fostering, or the communication and sharing of activities may not moderate spouses’ feeling. (Anathbandhu, 2009)

Causing conflict between families, particularly, if the wife is earning more, and if she enabled to have more progress in her career. (Winkle, 1998)

3. in the 20th century, many of the women no longer to be a mom or housewives. The home-oriented women still stay in the traditional way but the ability and capability of career-oriented women in the two-career family already enlarged.

Both career-oriented women and home-oriented women are act as the homemaker, but the roles of the women in these two career families are different. Since the career-oriented women embark on the professional field, they feel more respected at home and say their spouses are more helpful. (Evans, 2010)

Career-oriented women are more satisfied with the opportunities available to develop their skills, the level of respect they receive at work, and their manager’s support in meeting demands from family and home. (Quast, 2011)

Career-oriented women felt healthy, that their life was in balance and that their work fulfilled a higher purpose than “just making money”. However, they still need to face the bias in their career. (Quast, 2011)

The women of the two-career families live the same kind of hectic lifestyle than the home-oriented women do not. The career-oriented women are running two lives-one at home and one at work. They want to be good wives and mothers, but they also want to bring in a second income to help their households get by. (Sweat, 2008)

CONCLUSION

One-career families have the advantage in terms of the quality time, which can take time to focus on the connection and communication with the children. Yet, two-career families have greater advantages that parents can lighten the burden of the house expenses. Also, two-career families can have a better life instead of one-career families. However, the most important aspect is to be support each other and also focuses on the interaction, relationship and concern between parents and children.

In traditional way, the women are act as the housewives in their family. But in today’s world, most of the women are surged into the work places that are 60 percent of women provide the income to the family (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2004). With this, there have two structures of family such as one-career family and two-career family. It will have some similar and differences aspect in the one-career families and two-career families such as the roles and responsibilities of the parents, the stresses faced by the family members and also the different empowerment of women in one-career families and two-career families.

The first compare of contrast between one-career families and two career families is most of the people nowadays have multiple roles and responsibilities including work and family. There has some similar and differences of the roles as a parent and as a child as well as the roles of husbands and wives in two-career families and one-career families. Besides that, there has responsibilities of parents in one-career families and two-career families to concern the children’s’ feeling..First, there have similarities and differences between the roles of parents for their children in two-career families and one-career families. No matter in two-career families and one-career families, the role of the women is still the same that they having the character as a mother and the role of men are as a father to their children in the family (Sinha, 1993). Besides that, the parents in both one-career family and two-career family should have the positive role model in an active manner for their children. The parents should have the certain skill to build their children’s behavior (Lopez, 2004). For example, the parents need to have proper behavior with their children and make sure always doing the right things when with the children (Burke, 1997).

The next role is there have some same and different roles between husbands and wives in one-career families and two-career families. In the past or in one-career family, the role of the husband is always the main financial provider and having more influence over the family (Franklin, 1998). The wife in one-career family is to be the homemaker. Her roles will always to take care all of the housework according to the needs of the family (Franklin, 1998). For example, the role of the wife is take charge in all the housework including cook for husband and children, cleaning, laundry, help to prepare the things need by husband and so on (Edwards, 2011). In two-career family, they will have equal role between the husband and wife. Both of them have job and are the financial provider to their family (Gerson, 2002). According to the research, both of them need commit to combine their professional and family roles that to integrate and balance between the works or family roles together such as having dinner time together with family, avoid working on weekends so that can interact well between the husband and wife and also can interact well with the kids or other family members (Brett, 2008).

Besides the roles, the parents in both one-career families and two-career families have responsibilities of concern and caring to their children feeling. Both career families have the responsibility to take good care on their children. Yet, since the wife or wives play an important role of the homemaker in the single-career families, the concerns and responsibility that the single-career families pay are more than two-career families. They take note or guide the needs and wants of children. (Franklin, 1998).For sure, parents are enabled to give an advice and concern on the development and natural changes of the children (Christophersen, 2003). In two-career families, it will cause the relationship between parents and children getting worse and worse and the parents may not able to understand what their children actually think of. So, the working parents need to have more concern to their children’s mind. (Biagioli, 2003). As the result, parents can give fully support and have an idea on what is going on, emotionally, physically on their children (Burke, 1997).

The next compare and contrast between one-career families and two career families is there has some similar and different pressure by men and women as well as the children in one-career family and two-career family. First, the pressures suffered by men in one-career family and two-career family. Most of the stress suffering by the men is not from their family life but is from their job (Anitei, 2008). The men in one-career family will more stressful than the men in two-career family because they are the main financial provider in the family (Jane, 1996, 1999). Jane (1996, 1999) founds that the men in one-career family are more easy to feel depressed than men in two-career family that they have less worry about the income when they have another income to rely on.

After mentioned the pressures suffered by men, there has some similar and different stress by the women in the one-career family and two-career family. Due to the research, the women will involve more in the housekeeping and child care (Steil, 1999). In traditional or one-career family, the characteristic of the woman is being the housewives and the women in one-career family are facing the same stress with two-career family as they need to worry about their children’s behavior such as they having relationship stress with their children as they need to make sure has well relationship with their children so that can understand what their need and so on (Scott, 2009). Although the women in one-career family and two-career family having the same stress, but the women in two-career family have more stress as they need to cope with the work pressure and they still needs to show the care and concern to their children and need to help more in family organization after they work (Zimmerman, Haddock, Current and Ziemba, 2003).

Both of the parents in one-career families and two-career families have stresses in their daily life, working and so on. Besides parents have stresses, there also has some stresses suffered by the children in both one-career families and two-career families. The children must have their own stress no matter they are in one-career family or two-career family. The stress suffered by the children can come from many aspects such as bullying, family conflict, changes in school, child care arrangement and so on (Hack, 2001). According to Hack (2001), the children have good relationship with parents that have well communication with their parents can have the discussion to release their stress. In the psychology way, children in two-career family will become treason due to lack of communication, especially during the time of puberty. It may lead their children prone in addition to drugs, alcoholic drinks, rebellion, and other issues that are related (Roesch, 2004).

Unlike the single-career families, the development and empowerment of women in two career families are getting more important in this society. Men or women are no longer considered to be the sole ‘economic provider’ for the family. Those women are becoming an increasingly important component in this society (M. sue O’Dorisio and Thomas M. O’Dorisio, 2003). Women are finished the certain degree level has greater chances to exploit their potential in different fields and continue their learning process and practice in the workplace (Hakim, 2011). Also, women are no longer in traditional way which means they got the power in combining the work and house aspect (Roesch, 2004). As the result of they are dependent enough, and got the strong opinion in their mind, sometime they might argue with their husband because of the dissension and the decision-making issues may be occurred (Anderson, 1993).

On the other hand, women in the two-career families have their own financial aspect. Yet, it might cause the conflict occurs and affect the marital status. Women in the two-career families are able to lighten the burden on the family than the single-career families do not (Anathbandhu, 2009). Because of their hectic life, wives may have no time to look after their husband upon they return after stressful and tiring day in their work. As well as, the wives cannot give a fully support to the husbands when they return since the wives have their own career (Biagioli, 2003). It will cause the unhappiness and dissatisfaction of marital if the conflict is fostering, or the communication and sharing of activities may not moderate spouses’ feeling (Anathbandhu, 2009). It will also cause conflict between families, particularly, if the wife is earning more, and if she enabled to have more progress in her career (Winkle, 1998).

In the 20th century, many of the women are no longer to be a mom or housewives. The home-oriented women still stay in the traditional way but the ability and capability of career-oriented women in the two-career family already magnified. Both career-oriented women and home-oriented women are act as the homemaker, but the roles of the women in these two career families are different. Since the career-oriented women embark on the professional field, they feel more respected at home and say their spouses are more helpful (Evans, 2010). Also, career-oriented women are more satisfied with the opportunities available to develop their skills, the level of respect they receive at work, and their manager’s support in meeting demands from family and home (Quast, 2011). Moreover, career-oriented women felt healthy, that their life was in balance and that their work fulfilled a higher purpose than “just making money”. However, they still need to face the bias in their career (Quast, 2011).The women of the two-career families live the same kind of hectic lifestyle than the home-oriented women do not. The career-oriented women are running two lives-one at home and one at work. They want to be good wives and mothers, but they also want to bring in a second income to help their households get by. (Sweat, 2008)

In the conclusion, one-career families have the advantage in terms of the quality time, which can take time to focus on the connection and communication with the children. Yet, two-career families have greater advantages that parents can lighten the burden of the house expenses. Also, two-career families can have a better life instead of one-career families. However, the most important aspect is to be support each other and also focuses on the interaction, relationship and concern between parents and children.

The word chav is defined in the oxford dictionary as: “a young lower-class person typified by brash and loutish behaviour and the wearing of designer clothes.” It is described as an informal derogatory word in British slang. The website, www.urbandictionary.com, which is known for its definitions of British slang words, rather than define the word chav, depicts the image of a 12 year old boy wearing an imitation tracksuit whilst smoking a cigarette and simultaneously showing off his jewellery. The website describes young boy’s attitude as arrogant walking around “as if he is 8 feet tall and mouthing off to strangers that walk by. This website does a great job of posing a truthful image of what a chav is deemed to be.

The importance of cultural criminology lies within understanding human social behaviour through the recognition of cultural factors which enables theorists to view behaviour as dynamic rather than determined giving rise to different views on transgressive behaviour. The actions of the youth considered to be chavs on a daily basis can be deemed as part of their lifestyle, which has subsequently lead to the increase in the term chav subculture. The word subculture is used to describe a culture with qualities that differentiates them from a larger culture, for example the chav culture within British culture. The qualities that this chav subculture observes that differentiates are; a different fashion sense predominantly tracksuits and baseball caps; the wearing of lots of ‘bling’ which is generally gold jewellery whether fake or real; and general loitering (hanging out) in public places such as street corners, town centres.

Cultural criminology aims at looking at crime in the context of its culture. It aims to show the relationship between media culture, youth culture and crimes. It is the idea that the reason for committing an offence due to the thrill received. This may be due to excessive boredom meaning offenders have to resort to crime as their only source of pleasure. Cultural criminologists argue that offenders are influenced by media, and are in the mindset of that is the way to behave. In the context of the chav phenomenon they would argue that the chav phenomenon has occurred through choice, primarily for youngsters to fit in with their surroundings. An example of this can be seen through chav fashion and style. The Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies describes style as a means of resolving structural contradictions; however cultural criminologists, such as Martin, take this a step further and describe style as a way of connecting an individual to society. By following the fashion trends, and wearing designer gear, regardless of its legitimacy it is an attempt by chavs to connect with society. Fashion may be seen as a form of exclusivity, with the elite wearing exclusive designer labels; an art form with an agenda of keeping the non-elite at a distance. I believe that the subversive use of Burberry wear by chavs is undeniably an attempt by chavs at connecting with society; by separating themselves from normal fashion and creating their own rebellious trends.

Taking into account Bennett’s notions of lifestyle, I would argue that the choices taken by the working class youth are an effort to attain an identity, to be realised and accepted in a community in which they believed they are ostracised. This conclusion was also drawn by the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies who believe the chav phenomenon can be “a reaction to analogous transformations in working-class identity, community and culture, now taking place in the context of consumer capitalism.”

Chavs tend to socialise or loiter in places which are public such as town centres, street corners due to boredom. The only form of entertainment available to them is shouting abuse at passers. This deviance is conceived as the ‘thrill of transgression’ and ‘self-transcendence’ as ‘a way of overcoming the conventionality and mundanity typically associated with the banal routines and practicalities of everyday regular life. I believe the reason chavs walking around flaunting their designer gear a bid receive attention that isn’t obtained elsewhere.

The word ‘chav’ is connected to communities that have suffered social deprivation. Lawler takes this a step further and describes them as “the poor and dispossessed.” Furthermore, Cohen and Ainley describe chavs as a “post-industrial youth underclass”. However I do not believe the words chav and underclass are entirely synonymous. I fear “underclass” is the word that has confused caused arguments regarding class prejudice. Skegg notes that “terms such as social exclusion and the underclass have been cynically promoted and utilized by successive British Governments and policy makers, and have rapidly taken the place of terms such as working class.” It is this point that illustrates the fact that despite post 1980s studies of culture that showed a decline in the analysis of social class; class distinctions have not disappeared rather they have been replaced. As the recognition of class inequalities has been buried so have class identities making the work on social class appear out of place. However the fact that the economic polarisation reached its pinnacle in the 1980s meant that the working class became the new ‘underclass’. This is echoed by Sayer who deems that the term working class has become one of embarrassment and shame after a decline into the issues of class equality.

Moran asserts that the ‘chav’ phenomenon surfaced as part of the 1980s turn towards neo-liberal thinking and enterprise culture. Moran claims society was perceived as groups comprising distinguished tastes and lifestyles, which further became known as ‘yuppies’, ‘toffs’, ‘boffins’ and ‘chavs’. Despite various research about the declining importance of class, the creation of such groups has lead to stereotyping resulting in new classes. One way of distinguishing the lower classes is their crass and flashy style illustrated in the clothes they wear, the jewellery they wear and the music they listen to.

News media has been one of the prime means through which the chav depiction has been composed and constituted. An example is an article titled “Sites to check out if you chav what it takesaˆ¦” which appeared in the Edinburgh Evening News 2004, in which writer Gina Davidson declares: “And we will know them by their dress . . . and trail of fag ends, sparkling white trainers, baggy tracksuit trousers, branded sports top, gold-hooped earrings, sovvy rings and the ubiquitous Burberry baseball cap”. In essence, writers such as this label and define the new underclass known as chavs. She writes, “Call them what you will, identifying them is easy.” In addition to this statement, she continues in a defaming manner by stating that the girls wear too much gold plated jewellery that they will end up putting H Samuel out of business. She labels them as the dole-scroungers, petty criminals, football hooligans and teenage pram-pushers. Davidson’s description demonstrates how the chav label has become an umbrella which encompass a string of older stereotypes of the white working classes.

However the media distinguishes the fact that the chav image possesses a characteristic that makes it unique from previous images of the underclass; the attention paid to the exaggerated use of consumer goods, examples of which include cheap jewellery, branded sports gear and the excessive use of Burberry wear. This has been acknowledged by Hayward and Yar who argue that the “chav phenomenon reiterates the discursive creation of the underclass, while simultaneously reconfiguring it within the space of commodity consumption.”

Through descriptive illustration of chavs, the news media has created a profile, and a person who fits the profile or is similar to the profile will be characterized as a chav. The media has created a class from which people may be pigeonholed purely based on their foreground; with no regard whatsoever as to their background.

Furthermore, theoretical writers such as Lawler , Skeggs and Tyler have laid emphasis on the fact that the portrayals of the ‘chav’ plastered with a sense of disgust which leads to attempts of distinctions by the middle class who are insecure about being tarnished with the same brush as the lower class. An illustration of this antipathy is shown in a quote from a website regarding chavs:

“I am so glad I have money and am not forced to live in local authority housing. This image just makes me realise how lucky I am to be an educated, cultured member of the middle classes.”

This disregard for the background along with the sense disgust created by the media towards this new underclass is what separates the middle/upper class with the chav underclass. I commend Billig’s critique that these unhelpful media accounts of chavs have an underlying intent “to produce a disgust which is not simply reactive but is constitutive of social class.” The expression of disgust within media portrayals of chavs must be seen as conscious and not unintentional. The chav figure has produced a boom of condescending scorn aimed at the lower classes by not only the upper class but the middle class as well.

I would argue that from the view of cultural criminologists, it is this ostracisation that breeds the chav culture and influences the youth to act in such way that contravenes the conventional norm exhibited by society. These transgressions are what gives these chavs their identity. Modern studies on youth frequently put emphasis the notion that class has become less important in shaping young people’s futures has become a powerful argument in sociological writing on youth. But it is this notion of class itself that shapes the youth to pick a culture to follow. The chav culture is just new option that adds to the list of other youth cultures such as Goth, Emo and Urban.

Taking the viewpoint of conventional criminologists, when analysing the new underclass they would take into account the fact that chavs predominantly come from neighbourhoods that exhibit community disorganisation and physical deterioration. The neighbourhoods in which chavs grow up are generally estates which are mainly owned by the local authority or areas or rented housing. These areas are high in proportion of single parent families. These areas also exhibit socio-economic deprivation. The parents of the youths in these areas are largely unemployed, a study for the Centre of Social Justice shows that between 1981 and 2006 the proportion of social housing tenants of working age in full-time employment halved from 67% to 34%. Parents also tend to have histories of drug or alcohol abuse and backgrounds relating to criminality. Families living in these areas tend to lack good relationships between children and their parents with the parents lacking good parental skills resulting in dysfunctional families with high tendency of family breakdown. In turn the children of the parents have as a result of poor parenting and social upbringing been left with no or little social skills or work ethic and may be impossible to educate. These youths display a number of individual factors such as hyperactivity, impulsive reactions, mental and/or physical health problems and a low self esteem. It leaves these youths with poor academic performances in their schools, due to constant time wasting through disruptive and aggressive behaviour. Their lack of discipline and organisation can lead to poor attendance in schools and early leaving.

Edwin H. Sutherland put forward the notion of differential association which asserts that criminal behaviour is learned through interaction, it emerges when a person is exposed to “more social message favouring conduct than pro-social messages.” He argues that criminal behaviour is an expression of general needs and values the same as non criminal behaviour. If we remove the criminal factor from this theory, it can be applied in the context of chavs; the reason for their behaviour such as loitering or the reason they conform to a dress code is because chavs would like to express themselves just as the upper classes do. They too feel the need to follow a fashion, trend or culture just as much as everyone else.

Another theory that can be applied to the chav phenomenon is the theory of anomie and strain developed by Robert K. Merton. This theory when applied to the chav phenomenon would suggest that chavs divulge in transgressive behaviour as a result of culture and the structure of society itself. He echoes the fact that all of society shares the same values and goals. The theory asserts the reason for chav behaviour is due to a retreat from social norms as a consequence of unequal social opportunities causing the youth to drop into deviant subcultures. Taking this theory a step further we could interpret the culture of chavs a rebellion, which aims to seek new goals, such as creating a new identity or culture solely to differentiate themselves from those who distance themselves from chavs due to ignorance.

Furthermore, the theory of delinquent subculture could be applied, developed by Albert K. Cohen. He believes that the reason for delinquent behaviour was an uprising against the middle class society’s perception of what society should be. He states the delinquent subculture, “takes its norms from the larger culture, but turns them upside down. The delinquent’s conduct is right by the standards of his subculture precisely because it is wrong by the norms of the larger culture.”

In essence, I believe that the chav phenomenon as subculture has come about due to circumstance as well as choice. I believe that the choice to adhere to this subculture made by the youth does not come solely by free will, but is based upon the circumstances and factors that surround these youth, leading them to conform to a culture. This would lead me to say that the view taken by cultural criminologists that chav culture is a choice or a rebellion would not be true if taken out of the context of the argument put forward by conventional criminologist. I do not believe that chav label solely depicts someone following a culture. We have seen in the media, people who have come from chav like backgrounds are still regarded as chavs such as Jade Goody and Coleen Rooney. Although no longer displaying chav-wear, the fact that they come from chav backgrounds has permanently branded them as chavs with Jade Goody being regarded as the ultimate chav. The fact that the she moved out of the deprived living conditions she once resided in the label has stuck with her despite her moving into a middle class society. I believe this has lead to a social labelling and almost social prejudice against people who come from areas populated with chavs.

What people fail to see the is what is hidden behind veil known as chav , the real social underlying problems that have lead the youth to make those choices to follow this culture. Jade goody, labelled the ultimate chav, was ridiculed for her lack of general knowledge on national television, but a closer look at her background reveals that her upbringing was one of hardship and difficulty. She was brought up in an environment full of crime and violence, with her father was a chronic drug addict and her mother a thief, it was not an rearing full of values and ideals.

Tyler and Bennet claim in their article on celebrity chavs that “Media portrayals of these celebrities employ con- notations of the undeserving poor aˆ¦ in order to generate accounts of the undeserving celebrity.”

In reality I believe there is more to the chav phenomenon than just a culture, it has been introduced into society as a class; a class that you are born into and cannot leave. A class that has been produced as a by product of the decline of class and fashioned to produce fluid identities and to compensate for the change in political strategies. A class that the youth choose to be in purely because they fit in no other class.

Question 1

The researcher says that “[i]ntense observations in the classroom and playground area were completed … [and] detailed observations were conducted in … lessons”(p.184). What can you infer about the things she observed and the methods she used to record her observations?

“Qualitative research is an effort to understand situations in their uniqueness as part of a particular context and the interactions there.” (Merriam, 2009:14)

An “ethnographer participates, overtly or covertly, in people’s daily lives for an extended period of time, watching what happens, listening to what is said, asking questions; in fact collecting whatever data are available to throw light on the issues with which he or she is concerned.” (Flick 2005:146)

The author, Lisa Russell is a young female ethnographer entering the research field for the first time. This paper is a description of “The implications of investigating student resistance and the importance of how the researchers; personal dispositions influence the research process are discussed.” (Russell, 2005:181)

The research was conducted in three culturally diverse schools of Birmingham and Sydney and the information was gathered through observations and interviews. Students in the age bracket of 14-16 years were identified for observation, especially the ones finding the “experience difficult either academically or emotionally” (Watts, 2001; Russell, 2005:184)

According to Esterberg, ethnography is “intensively studying a specific social group by observing the group in its natural setting” (Esterberg, 2002:8). Sometimes ethnography and participant observation are used interchangeably. But to its contrary, ethnography “requires a participation observation style of fieldwork. Participant observation thus can most usefully be seen as a means of producing ethnographies rather than as synonymously with ethnography.” (Thorpe & Holt, 2008:100)

Russell being new to the field entered her research ground with no “ideal, logical step-by-step approach” (Russell, 2005:182). She used her relative inexperience to her advantage.

She started her research by observing students in various classes and free time. She observed them in their favorite and least favorite modules, covering one of the most popular aspects of student resistance. Once the trust between them grew, she advanced to spending time with them in their own comfort zones, which gave her more of an insight to their personal lives. This way she managed to get valuable information concerning their behavior and problems.

There were instances when she witnessed highly disruptive behavior of students, like that of “a male student kick and bash a school vendor machine during break-time” (Russell, 2005:193) but blinded herself to the situation. At the same time, there were occasions when she found herself caught in uncomfortable circumstances like the time she landed up in the deputy’s office as she was with students who got late for class.

Names like the “follower” and “leech” suggest that during the initial stages Russell was not accepted by the students as she shadowed them all around. But gradually she managed to gain one of the most vital aspects of the study – ‘trust’. “Ethnographers are viewed differently as a relationship is built up and trust developed.” (Cassell & Symon 2004:316).

I feel her main tool for recording data was a daily logbook, but filling the same in front of her research subjects could make them very suspicious and inquisitive. Although as her relationship with the students strengthened, she allowed “the researched the chance to see what was being written about them” (Russell, 2005:187).This she did to gain feedback and more importantly trust.

To conclude, I feel the main aspect she focused throughout was to develop a trustworthy relationship with the students. This she did over a gradual period as she observed and learned from them.

Question 2

The author is a “young ethnographer researching teenagers” (p.193). What difference does our knowledge of her age and personal details make to the account?

“Qualitative research is a form of interpretative inquiry in which researchers make an interpretation of what they see, hear and understand. Their interpretation cannot be separated from their own backgrounds, history, contexts, and prior understandings.” (Creswell, 2009:176)

The author, Lisa Russell is “a young, novice, female, white, northern English ethnographer” (Russell, 2005:181). Her “smallness in height and build influenced how students and teachers interacted with [her].” (Russell, 2005:182)

Russell used a very reflexive approach towards her research and took into consideration how different aspects of her personal disposition affected her entire study. “Researchers’ reflections on their actions and observations in the field, their impressions, irritations, feelings and so on, become data in their own right, forming part of the interpretation,” (Flick, 2005:6)

I feel her age -“23-24 at the time of field work” (Russell, 2005:182) and youthful nature helped her immensely in developing a trustworthy bond with the students. The students opened up to her about their grievances which they might not have done with someone older and more experienced. The researcher’s ability to build relationships and develop rapport with subjects is crucial.” (Thorpe & Holt, 2008:151)

Her repetitive emphasis on her age and naivety throughout the paper shows that these facets of her personal disposition helped her to engage in discussions and activities with the teenaged students, which if she was older wouldn’t have been able to do. Her closeness to their age made it simpler for both herself and the students to be able to relate to each other. Although, at the same time it was difficult for her to develop a similar bond with the teachers and she felt exceptionally uncomfortable in staffroom discussions. In my opinion, she put in a lot of effort and time into understanding the point of view of the students and didn’t do the same with the teachers. But as she graduated to the third school her “heightened confidence and greater experience’ (Russell, 2005:188) made it easier for her to relate to and interact with the teachers.

This paper also brings into account the “being there” quality. “Good ethnography is about communicating the impression of having truly “been there,” of having had “close-in contact with far-out lives” while at the same time making the reader feel he or she has been there too.” (Bate, 1997:1163) In the context of Russell’s paper the way she elucidates her experience and subsequently her problems, make it very easy for us to believe and understand her observations. I as a student believed that the intense description about her personal characteristics played a significant role in helping me comprehend her entire research.

I also inferred that as an amateur, she mentioned her young and novice personality keeping in mind that even if her study was not up to the mark it would have been excusable.

“I held a degree of emotional attachment towards some students given the significant time I had spent with them and the nature and detail of their lives they had shared with me.” (Russell, 2005:196) This confession of hers illustrates that she let herself get emotionally involved with the students. Students also, at times would seek for “support and guidance” (from her or consider Russell “as a shoulder to cry on” (Russell, 2005:196). Since this was her first ever ethnography leaving the field and detaching herself from her research subjects, became difficult.

Russell’s reflexive approach and personal disposition especially her age influenced and widened her scope for the study. This nature of the report helped her retain authenticity throughout the paper.

Question 3

Russell claims that her “ethnographic research investigates the complex and sometimes contradictory culture(s) of student resistance to schooling (Wills, 1977)” (p. 181). How is this claim supported in the paper?

According to Russell “This study examines the significance and relationship between class, gender and ethnicity in the construction of resistance. It aims to understand how the wider societal and cultural environment influences the working of a school and the behaviour of the actors within it.” (Russell, 2005:182)

Student resistance is often perceived as explicit rejection of formal education. It is a deliberate yet hesitant activity of students arising due to social, cultural, emotional and academic concerns. “According John Dewey’s comment that teaching and learning are much like selling and buying: ‘One might as well say he has sold when no one has bought, as to say that he has taught when no one has learned'(Dewey, 1910,p.29)” (Provenzo, ed. 2006)

The students selected for the research “ranged from truancy issues and students’ negative attitude towards school and learning to low self-esteem concerns.”(Russell, 2005:184). Taking the instance of a student who “had an alcoholic mother and [was struggling] to cope with her domestic responsibilities” (Russell, 2005:185) shows that how a family related problem can hamper a persons education and make her unenthusiastic about school.

In my opinion this supplement is a conflicting account. As mentioned clearly in the paper it aims at providing an insight to student resistance to schooling, where as there is not much mentioned about the same. According to my inference, it explores the experience and problems faced by the researcher, Lisa Russell during the course of her research. She at the same time concentrates on describing the methodologies used for observations and to gather information.

On the other hand, she made the study interesting for readers to read by providing examples to support her content. “Ethnography is art, science and craft rolled into one. As artists we seek to capture experiences in images and representations which symbolize reality; in this regard, expression is more important than precision.” (Bate, 1997:1153)

This repository statement, ‘expression is more important than precision’ holds true in this study. I as a student found the report very engrossing because of the way she articulated her encounters with her research subjects. Some which put her into awkward situations ‘while trying to gain trust from disruptive students’ made the account appealing. A few others were when she “witnessed students truant, thieve, damage school property, take illegal substances and even [asked her] to participate.” (Russell, 2005:193)

Russell subconsciously seemed to be bias towards the students. “Bias may be viewed as unavoidable as researchers often hold sympathy for some groups over the others.” (Russell, 2005:190) Since this study was centered around students she preferred to take their side predominantly, intending to gain further insight into student resistance.

I personally would have preferred to know more about the teachers since they played an equally important role in the research. She could have discussed the teachers’ reaction to some of the above instances in detail.

In conclusion I believe this paper constitutes more about Russell’s experiential data and personal disposition than on its primary topic of student resistance.

Reconsidering Work-Life Balance

Debates: Challenging Limited Understandings of the ‘Life’ Component in the Context of Ethnic Minority Women’s Experiences

Nicolina Kamenou

Question 1

The author appears to have had difficulties recruiting interviewees (see especially p.s102). Why, for example, might an organization withdraw “from the study claiming “restructuring was in progress”? (p.102)

“Work-life balance means that individuals have ‘successfully’ segmented or integrated ‘life’ and work so as to achieve a satisfying quality of life, overall satisfaction and less strain or stress around juggling conflicting role demands.” (Blyton et al., 2006:2)

“The work-life balance equation” (Kamenou, 2008:S99) is a vast concept covering a number of aspects ranging from career, ambition, family, pleasure and culture. Suitable prioritising between the same helps to accomplish one’s goal in life.

This article is centred “on ethnic minority women’s experiences of managing their work and personal lives.” (Kamenou, 2008:S99). The author, Nicolina Kamenou, collected the data via semi structured, in depth interviews primarily with ethnic minority females. The perception of ethnic minority men, white women and white men was also taken for comparison. “The broader study aimed to investigate best practice on the equality issues but also to examine whether the reality matched the rhetoric of equality of opportunity within organizations by exploring employees’ perceptions and experiences.” (Kamenou, 2008:S102). The author evidently faced difficulties in recruiting interviewees, since only three out of the twenty organisations approached “responded positively to the invitation” (Kamenou, 2008:S102). Further to this, one of them withdrew claiming ‘restructuring was in progress’.

The basic strategy for in depth interviews should be in three stages – “prepare, contact, and follow up (MacDougall & Fudge, 2001). These stages include preparing for the research by describing and constructing a sample, negotiating with the key people or organisations personally, and providing feedback and maintaining relationship with the participants. Initially I feel a loop hole in the recruitment procedure could have led to rejection from many of the organisations contacted. Besides this there could be many reasons for it.

This study is mostly based on topics such as ethnicity, culture, religion, racism and sexism which are very sensitive in nature. One of the main reasons for companies to withdraw from the research could have been to avoid any controversy. They would not want to risk their reputation and find themselves involved in any problematic situation as a consequence of the research.

The firm which withdrew claiming ‘ restructuring was in progress’ was a financial organisation. This shows that the management could have been worried about the company’s inside information since such a research could have revealed confidential data to the market and its competitors and thus affected its integrity. The company possibly had something to hide. On the other hand if a company is confident, a research is a good way of gaining credibility and even one of the cheaper ways of getting feedback from its employees.

I also feel, stating the real names of the participating organisations could have been avoided. Kamenou should have used pseudonyms instead as confidentiality is a significant factor of researches. “Confidentiality must be assured as the primary safeguard against unwanted exposure. All personal data ought to be secured or concealed and made public only behind a shield of anonymity.” (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000:139). Kamenou could have most definitely got a better response from the companies initially contacted, had she offered to keep the names anonymous.

In my opinion, the sensitive character of the study and the matter of confidentiality, were the main reasons which lead to the difficulties faced by the researcher while recruiting interviewees. I also believe, that a better response could have been achieved had the interviewees been assured about the authenticity of the information being published. Regarding the financial company no conclusion can be drawn as we have no proof against them.

Question 2

Would you expect differences between the people in organizations where formal access had been been granted and the ” ‘independent’ group … identified through personal networking”? (p. s102) If so, what might these differences be?

In this article, Kamenou focuses on “the specificities in the experiences of ethnic minority women, incorporating other groups’ experiences where necessary, with regard to balancing their work and personal life” (Kamenou 2008:S107). For this purpose both males and females from different cultural backgrounds were selected to be interviewed. The researcher recruited these interviewees formally from organizations. An independent group of participants was also identified through personal networking across a range of various public, private and voluntary organizations. All the participants varied in their occupations. The researcher derived information from a number of job profiles, to name a few there were nurses, managers, lawyers and psychologists.

The researcher conducted semi structured, in-depth interviews. The main goal of these interviews was “to explore a topic more openly and to allow interviewees to express their opinions and ideas in their own words.” (Esterberg, 2002:86). The researcher must have certainly got different responses from the formally approached people and the independent group.

Since the exact procedure of recruiting the interviewees has not been mentioned, I feel that the participants of the organizations where formal access was granted may not have been given a choice. Thus, they may not have voluntarily agreed and would have been least interested in the research. They would have restrained from giving out information concerning their organization with the fear of it reaching higher authorities and thus loosing their jobs. At the same time their response could have been manipulated by the employers to gain publicity.

On the other hand, the independent group were people selected through personal networking and thus their cooperation was completely voluntary. We can refer to it as snowball sampling. This basically means when existing research subjects refer future subjects from among their acquaintances to help widen the information base. Such participants would have been interested and involved in the interview. They would have been more forthcoming with their response. Since these participants were being interviewed without any pressure form an organization, they would have been more willing and open about discussing their personal experiences. The only problem in such sampling is that of bias. The researcher could have recruited these participants according to her own convenience. She might have selected them with the point of view of extracting maximum information.

In my opinion, the independent group would have been more fascinating and appropriate to interview since they would have provided with more intense and authentic information than the formal access participants. “A key reason for including the ‘independent’ group was to add richness to the data by looking at minority women’s work and career experiences in a variety of sectors and occupations.” (Kamenou, 2008:S103)

On the whole, the author managed to acquire a wide range of experiences and data from both types of participants. Thus, this gave us a deep understanding of the problems faced by ethnic minority women while balancing work with other responsibilities in life.

Question 3

From reading the paper, what do we know about the author? How might the identity of the author have made a difference to the research?

This paper is an example of feminist research approach. In such a study “the goals are to establish collaborative and nonexploitative relationships, to place the researcher within the study so as to avoid objectification, and to conduct research that is transformative. It is a complex area of inquiry with numerous frameworks (e.g., male oriented, white feminist oriented, able-bodied female oriented) and difficult issues (e.g., the absence and invisibility of women, who can be “knowers”)” (Creswell, 2007:26)

Of the various forms of qualitative research, ethnography is the most common one used by females. A researcher’s personal disposition plays a very significant role in a research, especially when done by a female. Reflexivity also has a big impact on such studies and makes the output of the same extremely relatable.

In this paper, Nicolina Kamenou, “explores minority women’s perceptions of the reciprocal relationship of career demands and other aspects of their lives, such as family and community expectations and responsibilities” (Kamenou, 2008:S99). The author’s method in this research is not reflexive at all. At no point in the study does she reveal any personal information regarding herself. There is no mention of the influence her personality has on the study nor of the interpretations she derived from the same.

In my opinion, if the author had made revelations about her personal details, the research would have been more engaging. Even though this article gives a rich insight into the work life equation, it does not elaborate on the author’s experience and relationship with her research subjects. It would have been appealing to know her age and cultural background because these seem to be the two most important factors which could have influenced the research. She has left the reader’s guessing her identity.

If the author was associated with the ethnic minority group, she could have given an account of her experiences and hence added some personal touch to the research. But at the same time, if she had adopted a reflexive approach, she would have left the readers questioning her objectivity towards the research. We as readers would have assumed that she was bias towards her subjects and thus she would need to justify herself to us.

In my view, Nicolina Kamenou’s approach towards her research was very different as compared to Lisa Russell’s. Russell’s adopted a very reflexive approach and described in detail the impact her personal disposition had on her subjects, interpretation and conclusion of the research. She does not keep the readers guessing her identity and gives away a considerable amount of personal information which helps us as learners relate to her. On the other hand, Kamenou’s approach is far from being reflexive in nature. The readers gain no knowledge about her personal characteristics and the impact of the same on her research.

In conclusion, Lisa Russell’s study gave an excellent account of the author’s personal impact on the entire research, where as it didn’t focus much on the information she derived from it. On the other hand, Nicolina Kamenou’s research offered a rich insight to her topic of discussion, while it didn’t enlighten us with her thoughts towards the study. Overall, the papers gave me a good understanding of two contradicting accounts in the vast field of qualitative research methods.

References:
Bate, S.P. (1997) Whatever happened to organisational anthropology? A review of the field of organisational ethnography and anthropological studies, Human Relations, 50 (9): 1147-1175
Blyton, P., Blundson, B., Reed, K., & Dastmalchian, A. (2006) Work-Life Integration: International Perspectives on the Balancing of Multiple Roles, 1st ed. New York: PALGRAVE MACMILLIAN
Cassell, C. & Symon, G. (2004) Essential Guide to Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research, Thousand Oaks: SAGE
Creswell, J.W., (2007) Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design : Choosing Among Five Approaches,2nd ed. Thousand Oaks: SAGE
Creswell, J.W. (2009) Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches,3rd ed. Thousand Oaks: SAGE
Denzin, N.K. & Lincoln, Y.S. (2000) Handbook of Qualitative Research 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks: SAGE
MacDougall, C. & Fudge, E. (2001) Qualitative Health Research: Planning and Recruiting the Sample for the Focus Groups and In-Depth Interviews [Online], 11(117)

Available at:

[Accessed 16 November 2009]

Esterberg, K. G. (2002), Qualitative Methods In Social Research, New York : The McGraw-Hill Companies
Flick, U., (2005) An Introduction to Qualitative Research, 2nd ed. London : SAGE
Kamenou, N. (2008) Reconsidering Work-Life Balance Debates: Challenging Limited Understandings of the ‘Life’ Component in the Context of Ethnic Minority Women’s Experiences. British Journal Of Management, Vol. 19 s99-s109
Merriam, S. B., (2009) Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation 2nd ed. San Francisco: Joosey Bass
Provenzo Jr, E.F., ed., 2006. Forthcoming in the Encyclopedia of the Social and Cultural Foundations of Education [online]

Available at : http://danbutin.org/Resistance%20-%20Encyclopedia%20entry.pdf

[Accessed 18 November 2009]

Russell, L. (2005) It’s a question of trust: balancing the relationship between students and teachers in ethnographic fieldwork. Qualitative Research Vol. 5 (2) 181-199
Thorpe, R. & Holt, R. (2008) The Sage Dictionary of Qualitative Management Research. London: Sage

Given a number of laws governing workplace discrimination such as Civil rights Act of 1964 and Equal pay Act of 1963, Racial & Gender discrimination still exist in working places. Racial & Gender discrimination is the act of treating people differently of different races, colour, national origin, gender, religion or sexual orientation. Gender discrimination is a severe and persistent problem, especially in developing Countries.

The main objective of outlining racial or gender discrimination at work place is for people at work, to have a conducive working environment where there is no harassment of the other sex or race simply because one is of different colour or sex. A conducive working environment leads to a positive output of the work and hence the growth of the nation as well in all aspects of economy.

2.0 GENDER DISCRIMINATION AT WORK

Source: Civil right Act of 1964, & Equal Pay Act of 1963, (Pub. L. 88-38) (EPA)

Gender discrimination as stated earlier can be defined as an act of treating differently the opposite sex (oppress) simply because he or she belong to that sex. It is a tradition that when gender discrimination is addressed it means the complete exclusion of females from the employment or as the exclusion of females from white-collar jobs.

There have been several cases of unequal payment in the working areas (Salary or Wages) between men and women. It has been found that women are paid less comp aired to men given the same task offered to be performed by both men and women in the work place.

The discrimination of women with pregnancy at work, pregnant women normally have maternity leave now it has been a routine that that when women are on maternity leave they would not be paid at all. This case occurs in the private sectors mostly but International Labour Organisation ILO has set rules which govern the employers not to discriminate their employees.

2.1 TYPES OF GENDER DISCRIMINATION

Disparate treatment is clear-cut discrimination. Intentional act of discrimination.

Disparate Impact is where some type of company policy excluded a certain individuals from the job or from promotions.Unintentional discrimination

LAWS RELATED TO GENDER DISCRIMINATION AT WORK

Title VII of the Civil Right of Act 1964

Protect individual from discrimination based upon sex. It is Illegal for an employment to discriminate against individual because of their sex in hiring, firing, and other terms of condition.

The law covers all private employers, state and local government, and education institution that employ 15 or more individuals.

Title VII Equal Pay Act.

Illegal to discriminate on the basis of sex in the payment of wages or benefits.

Example salary, overtime, bonus, stock option, life insurance, vacation and holiday pay.

Affirmative Action

Equal opportunity for women and minorities. This policy was implemented by Civil Rights Act 1964.

Made to overcome the past societal discrimination of allocating resource to the specific group like minorities and women.

Fair Pay Act 2001

Strengthen the equal pay act

To amend the Fair Labour Standards Act of 1938 to prohibit discrimination in the payment of wages on account of sex, race, or national origin, and for other purposes.

3.0 RACIAL DISCRIMINATION AT WORK

Racial discrimination can also be defined as an act of treating differently the opposite race simply because he or she belong to a different national origin, religion or colour.

Racial discrimination at work occurs when there are mixed races in a working place. The ruling race will oppress the other race simply because it belongs to that race.

Source: Civil right Act of 1964, Equal Pay Act of 1963, (Pub. L. 88-38) (EPA) & United Nations High commissioner for Human Rights, Geneva Switzerland. 1996-2000.

4.0 CAUSES OF RACIAL & GENDER DISCRIMINATION AT WORK

Source: United Nations High commissioner for Human Rights, Geneva Switzerland. 1996-2000

It is still not clear why racial or gender discrimination arises at work because the state of discrimination is more of a feeling created which cannot be seen but rather felt after one group expressing different feeling towards another group. The following are the reasons which can lead to racial or gender discrimination at work:

Fear of sharing power with other groups of people. One group doesnt want to share the powers with other group this can lead to racial or gender discrimination.

Superiority complex and Ignorance of other cultures, religions, and values, one simply feel is superior to the other group.

Historic patterns of prejudice, discrimination, and racism. Colonialism, historic hostilities, and the slave trade contribute to modern racism a good example is when Britain colonised Africa, to this day there is still an ideology of the white men and black men which is already a racial discrimination and here it mostly affects the black people. The historic pattern of that woman are to stay at home and take care of children also leads to a resistance in acceptance of women working in todays life hence leads to gender discrimination.

Xenophobia, the fear of people who are different this can be in terms of colour, for example the white coloured people fear the black coloured people . Deep fear can express itself in racially motivated violence

Religious tensions between certain religions, employees with same goals may not want to get along with each other due to historic differences. For instance, its a common stand in history that Hindus and Muslims have had a long running conflict since ages.

5.0 EFFECTS OF RACIAL OR GENDER DISCRIMINATION.
ECONOMICAL EFFECTS OF RACIAL & GENDER DISCRIMINATION

Source: Becker, Gary S., 1971, The Economics of Discrimination & Blackden, C. Mark, and Chitra Bhanu, 1999, Gender, Growth, and Poverty Reduction: Special Program of Assistance for Africa,? World Bank Technical Paper No. 428, World Bank

Unemployment rate in a country will increase or rather arise, because a lot of the employees who experience racial or gender discrimination will leave work this applies to those who had been enrolled in the job already but for those seeking the jobs and face racial and gender discrimination are unable to acquire jobs due discrimination that they are facing hence leading to an increase of unemployed in a nation.

Productivity at work will decline due to uncondusive working environments that are created in the working areas due to racial and gender discrimination. Or rather due to the decline in employment that is people leaving their jobs can lead to low productivity at work.

Gross Domestic Product will decline, due to decrease in productivity at work, the general level of products at the nation level will decline as well since production has seized due to racial or gender discrimination.

Per capita income of the people in the nation will decline as well, this is the average income level of the citizen who are with jobs. This is used to measure the wealth of the population and also compare countries wealth. Due to racial and gender discrimination the countries per capita income will decline as well since quite a number of people are jobless.

Living standards of the people will also decline since the per capita income of the people has declined as well.

5.2 SOCIAL EFFECTS OF RACIAL & GENDER DISCRIMINATION

Source: Blackden, C. Mark, and Chitra Bhanu, 1999, Gender, Growth, and Poverty Reduction: Special Program of Assistance for Africa,? World Bank Technical Paper No. 428, World Bank

Psychological effects, people exposed to gender or racial discrimination at work will experience psychological problems such as stress which could lower the productivity of the work.

Occurrence of violence, the group being oppressed if could fight back the group oppressing them and hence instability of the country or at work place.

6.0 REMEDIES OR SOLUTIONS OF RACIAL OR GENDER DISCRIMINATION

source: United Nations High commissioner for Human Rights, Geneva Switzerland. 1996-2000

Racial and gender discrimination is a complex ideology as it exist in expressional feelings which are sometimes hard to prove but again this ideology differences should be removed at the work areas and any place where they exist as its adverse effects could cost a lot in the future long run. The following are ways on how to reduce or eliminate racial or gender discrimination at working places:

Implementation of laws internationally and at the government level. Such as the Civil Right Act 1964, Equal pay Act of 1963 and other laws implemented by ILO and other NGOs which are now implemented worldwide.

To educate the children as they grow on the effects of discrimination this will also help remove the ideology of superiority complex in peoples head and hence people would respects other groups colour, sex, nationality and religion.

People persistent in practising racial and gender discrimination should be taken to court and be dealt with in an appropriate manner following the rules and regulations of the laws created

Development of comprehensive job training programs which will enable employees to work with any type of group regardless of their colour, nationality, sex, language or religion.

There should be a respect of peoples religions no matter how much one is into his or her religion they should accept the other peoples religion and respect it and stop being extremists.

Transparency at work areas, job vacancies should be made open and even the interviews should be open as in not oppress other groups this means cameras should be used in interviews this could help stop racial and gender discrimination at work.

To eradicate any gender stereotyping issues and promotes gender equality.

7.0 COMPARISON OF RACIAL AND GENDER DISCRIMINATION BETWEEN COUNTRIES

The rate of gender discrimination is still high in the developing countries especially Africans countries. There are traditions and norms which favour men than the women but again this still do exist in Muslim countries.

Racial discrimination is a historical influence since the age of slavery; this exists in developed countries where the difference of colour exists. A good example is the black Americans and the White Americans.

gender discrimination

Source: http://filipspagnoli.wordpress.com/2008/05/09/human-rights-facts-10/.

equal salary gender gap

Source: http://filipspagnoli.wordpress.com/2008/05/09/human-rights-facts-10/

8.0 CONCLUSION

This seminar paper shows an evidence of the narrowing of economy of a nation due to racial and gender discrimination at work place. The actions of this type of discrimination impede economic growth in a greater depth as stated earlier on.

It is to the nations interests to eradicate racial and gender discrimination at any cost as for it future distraction could bring a downfall of a nation since its the economy of the country in particular which faces this kind of discrimination.

Leadership is the action of leading a group of people or an organization, or the ability to do this Oxford Dictionary. A person exerts influence over other people, which inspires, motivates and directs their activities to help achieve common performance goals (Yukl, 1989 as cited in George & Jones, 2006). The person who exerts such influence is a leader. With the influence they exert, effective leaders help groups and organisations to achieve a goal.

Effective leadership also increases an organisation’s ability to meet all the contemporary challenges such as obtain a competitive advantage, the need to promote acceptable ethical behaviour and is essential to manage a diverse workforce fairly and impartially. As a result, this will raise the organisations’ chances of success (George & Jones, 2006).

Nowadays due to the exceptionally challenging era, leadership can be very demanding because of the pace of change, the illusion of control and the high expectations of followers (Arnold & Rendall, 2010).A leader can adopt his own personal qualities, behaviours styles and decisions to develop his own leadership style (Arnold & Rendall, 2010).

Early leader-focused approaches to leadership have 2 main features: “a description of the leader in terms of their characteristics and/or behaviour” and “the investigation and analysis and of the characteristics and or behaviours of what makes a ‘good leaders’ regardless of what they lead” (Arnold & Rendall, 2010).

Early leadership was more focused on finding the best characteristics that makes a person a leader or effective leader. Early work such as the work of House and Baetz (1979) came up with what characteristics that leaders tend to have at a higher degree than non-leaders. These characteristics include intelligence, dominance/need for power, self-confidence and knowledge of the task. (House & Baetz , 1979). Bass (1990) also included other personality traits such as good adjustment, emotional balance and high integrity which were found to be common traits amongst leaders. (Bass, 1990) This early research did yield some interesting results but researchers did not find a constant profile of characteristics which are common to all leaders however personality and intelligence seem to be fundamental for persons to emerge as leaders and ultimately be effective leaders (Arnold & Rendall, 2010).

The Big Five Personality Traits

People have certain characteristics which are constant to them throughout their life which can influence “how they think, feel and behave both on and off the job” (George & Jones, 2006). These characteristic are called personality traits. These traits make you act, feel and think in certain ways which makes every individual unique. It is very important that these traits are understood since every person’s personality influences their behaviour and their approach to managing people and resources (George & Jones, 2006).

An individual’s personality is composed of five general traits or characteristics, these being extraversion, negative affectivity, agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness to experience (Digman, 1990). Each personality trait is viewed as a continuum along which every individual falls. A person can fall on the high end part or on the low end part or else somewhere in between. A person’s approach to management can be described in how people are like at the high and low ends of each continuum which is an easy way to understand how these trait affect a person’s approach (George & Jones, 2006).

The effectiveness of each trait is determined by a complex interaction between the nature of the job or organisation in which they are working and the characteristics of the person. Furthermore, some personality traits might be effective in one situation but can decrease the effectiveness in another situation. (George & Jones, 2006)

There are other personality traits in addition to the big five that describe people’s personalities. These are specifically important for understanding managerial effectiveness. Some examples are self-esteem, locus of control and need for achievement.

Research by Fred E. Fiedler acknowledged that effective leadership depends on the characteristics of the leader and of the situation. Fiedler came up with the Contingency theory of leadership. He explains why a manager or leader may be capable in one situation and incapable in another. It also suggests which kinds of managers or leaders are more effective in different situations (George & Jones, 2006). He argued that leaders have rather stable personal characteristic, leading to a characteristic behavioural style. In his theory, Fiedler assumed that how much a leader is person-oriented depends on the leader’s perception of their least preferred co-worker. He concluded that “task-oriented leaders are best in very favourable and unfavourable situations and those person-oriented leaders are best in moderately favourable or moderately unfavourable situations” (Arnold & Rendall, 2010).

Desired and acceptable leadership characteristics may vary across organisational context. Sociability, need for power and need for achievement are considerably relevant characteristics which are consistent across different organisations and organisational cultures. (House & Baetz , 1979). House and Baetz (1979) came up with two insights which are generally accepted by persons studying leadership: if certain characteristics are to have an impact on others and their performance, these personal characteristics need to be observable in the leader and that leader characteristics and behaviours depend on the different type of task (House & Baetz , 1979).

Recent studies have pointed out the effects of personal and situational factors on the development of an individual as a leader. Amongst these personal factors are personality traits and gender (Jacobowitz & Pratch, 1996).One of the most distinct and difficult to change characteristics is gender. Leadership roles are typically described in stereotypically masculine terms. This could mean that women have a slight disadvantage over men in being selected for leadership roles and when selected it is difficult for them to be seen as good leaders.

Leadership roles are typically predominated by men but in recent years women in leadership positions have increased considerably (Corrigall, Konrad, Lieb, & Ritchie JR, 2000). This has prompted a lot of researchers to explore the relationship between gender and leadership. While the number of women in management positions has increased, there are still very few women who hold high level executive positions (Corrigall, Konrad, Lieb, & Ritchie JR, 2000). It is believed that women tend to prefer jobs who offer a reward rather than high pay and advancement, which might be the explanation of their failure to attain more jobs at the top level positions (George & Jones, 2006).

The styles of male and female leaders may influenced by the gender-based expectations. Individuals establish certain expectations for their own and others’ behaviour which is based on their own beliefs about what the appropriate behaviour of male and females should be like. (Eagly, 1987) Women are stereotypically described as nurturing, supportive and concerned with interpersonal relations whilst men are viewed as being directive and focused on task accomplishment (George & Jones, 2006) These stereotypes suggest that women can be more relationship oriented as managers and are more considerable in their behaviour. Men are seen as more directed towards task-orientation and engage in more initiating-structure behaviours (George & Jones, 2006).

People have become accustomed to the styles that men have since men have long held these roles. As a result, there is more focus on women in the discussion of the impact of gender on leadership (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001). There is little agreement about how women actually lead even though there is this greater focus on women in research. Feminists’ writings have given great importance to differences and similarities between leadership styles in males and females. (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001).

A number of researchers state that there is a difference between women and men having a leadership position, whilst others say that there is no difference. Eagly and Johnson (1990) state that male and female managers having a leadership position, tend to behave in similar ways. Men do not engage in more initiating structure than women and women do not engage in more consideration than men (Eagly & Johnson, 1990). Writers of trade books, have argued that thre is a difference in leadership behaviour between males and females. They tend to see women as being less hierarchical, more cooperative and ollaborative and more oriented to enhancing others’ self worth (Book, 2000). On the contrary, social scientists say that there is no or minimal difference iin female and male organizational leaders. (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001).

Job Attribute Preference

Research has show that job attribute preference may direct a male or female manager to a different set of jobs, career paths and emplyers due to the existence of sex difference (Beutell & Brenner, 1986). Job attributes have been divided into two categories: intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Job aspects that fulfil material or social needs are termed intrinsic factors and job aspects that fullfil higher needs such as growth, esteem and self expression are termed intrinsic factors. (Pinder, 1998)

Research on sex differences and similarities in job attribute preferences has been enriched by two distinct theoretical persecpetives: the gender ideology perspective and the structuralist persepective. Different personality characteristics and different sets of ativities for women and man are dictated by gendered societal norms in existence is the view of the gender ideology perspective. The structuralist perspectives argues that women have poorer quality jobs than men on average because of the segregation and discrimination in the labor market. (Corrigall, Konrad, Lieb, & Ritchie JR, 2000). Both of the perspectives conclude that job attribute preferences for men and women are different by they assign casualty to different underlying mecchanisms. They both predict that there will be a change in the pattern of sex differnces in job attribute preferences over time, however they conclude that the patterns of change will be somewhat different.

Gender Ideology

Gender ideology may be described as “socially-constructed script that prescribes different characteristics, values, attitudes, behaviors and activities for women and men” (West & Zimmerman , 1991)Gender ideology is composed of gender roles and gender stereotypes. Gender roles are “sets of norms presribing the behaiors and activities appropriate for each sex” (Best & Williams, 1990). Gender roles differ by cultures but in Western industrialised societies attribute the role of income provider for the family to the men and the role of homemaker to the women.

Gender stereotypes are different personality characateristics which are expected from men and women. Characterisitcs such as nurturing, affiliation and passivity were associated with the females whilst characteristics such as autonomy, aggression, dominance and achievement were ascribed more to males (Best & Williams, 1990).People tend to conform to gender expectations to avoid the disapproval from others.

If people’s choice ofwork would reflect gender ideology, then men should consider responsibility, autonomy earnings, advancement, prestige, recognition and challenge to be more important than women do. Whilst women should value more job security, good coworkers, a good supervisor, physical work environment, helping others, growth/development opportunities, opportunities to use one’s abillities, variety, task significance a feeling of accomplishment and good hours to be more important than men do. In this study conducted by Corrigall, Konrad, Lieb and Ritchie, it was found that men attached more importance to earnings and responsibility than women did. This reflects the idea that men take on the role of provider and that they need to demonstrate success and status reflecting the ideas of gender roles and stereotypes towards men. On the other hand women attached greater importance to all mentioned attributes which show that women take the role of homemaker and to demonstarte nuturing and expressiveness. The findings relate to the gender roles typically attributed to women. (Corrigall, Konrad, Lieb, & Ritchie JR, 2000)

Leadership styles of males and females

The styles of males and females can be described in terms of the stereotypes of masculinity and femminity. Studies of people’s stereotypes about men and women show that the popular beliefs about male and female behaviour can be compiled, following Bakan (1966), in terms of two dimensions, the agentic and the communal attributes. (Jacobowitz & Pratch, 1996)

Agentic characteristics define primarily an assertive, controlling and confident tendency. These characteristics are typically ascribed to more strongly to men than to women. Agentic behaviours, in employment settings might include “speaking assertively, competing for attention, influencing others, initiating activity directed to assigned taks and making problem-focused suggestions” (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001).

Women are more ascribed to communal characteristics. This is because communal characteristics describe primarily a concern with the welfare of other people. Examples of communal characteristics in employment settings are “speaking tentatively, not drawing attention to oneself, accepting others’ direction, supporting others and contributing to the solution of relational and interpersonal problems” (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001).

Leader roles and gender roles

Female leaders can adopt leadership styles that differe from those of men because they need to accommodate their behaviour to the occasioanlly conflicting demands of the female gender role and their role as a leader. There are different implications for the behaviour of male and female leaders due to gender roles. This is not only because male and female roles have different content but there is a discrepancy perceivers associate with women as having communal qualties and successful leaders are perceived as having agentic qualities. Since agentic properties are more associated to men, people tend to believe that men are better at being leaders than females. (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001)

Eagly and Karau(2001) argued that apparent difference between the typical leader roles and the female gender tends to ccreate prejudice towards female leaders. It takes two forms: ” (a)less favorable evaluation of women’s (than men’s) potential leadership because leadership ability is more stereotypic of men than women and (b)less favorable evaluation of the actual leadership behavior of women than men because agentic behaviour is perceived as less desirable in women than men.”

In the first prejudice, women’s characteristics and the resulting female-stereotypic qualities are different from what is expected and desired in leaders. This is a result from the descriptive norms of gender roles. The second prejudice arises from prescriptive norms of gender roles namely the beliefs of how women ough to behave. Women leaders can be negatively assessed for fullfilling the agentic requirements of leader roles and thus failing to comply with the communal characteristics, even though they may be praised for their fulfillment of the leader role. (Eagly & Karau, 2001)

On the other hand, Sherpe (2000) states that after years of analyzing what makes leaders more effective, management gurus now know how to maximise the chances of getting a great executive. Their answer is to hire a women. The idea was first introduce by the writers feminist trade books on management and is now making tis way into the popular culture. (Carli & Eagly, 2003)

However in Malta, women have the highest rate of female inactivity 65.2% compared to other E.U. countries 35.7%. (Spiteri, 2012). Nevertheless, there was an increase in the rate of employement for woman which now stands at 62%,which has gone up from 55% in 1997 (Almunia, Andor, Barnier , Reding, Rehn, & Tajani, 2012). Many women continue to face a glass ceiling, holding them backe in achieving a higher level in their work place. Men dominate company boards: 86.3% of board members and 96.8% of the boardroom chairs, whilst women make up 13.7% and 3.2% respectively. (Almunia, Andor, Barnier , Reding, Rehn, & Tajani, 2012). Women in Malta represent only 3% of board members which is well below the EU average of 13.7% (Spiteri, 2012).

On the other hand, there is a higher pecentage (22.7%) of Maltese women who are achieving higher levels of tertiary education than men(14.6%), even though when compared to other E.U. countries it is still very low (37.2% women and 30% men) (Spiteri, 2012). The National Statistics Office in collaboration with the National Council of women in Malta carried out a survey on the “Perceived Obstacles to the participation of women in Decision-making Positions” (2007). The rsult of this survey states that many women in malta are not advancing in their work to obtain top post because of 3 main difficulties: difficulties in reconciling long hours of work and family responsabilities, very little use of childcare facilities and lack of spouse/partner suport (National Statistics Office, 2007).

Maltese Governments have always put measures in place to promote gender equality through various legislations and regulations. The constitution of Malta guarantees equaltiy between women and men. It gives protection against discrimination on various grounds including sex. Additionally, there is Article 45(11) swhich provides for “special measures aimed at accelerating de facto equality between males and females” (Spiteri, 2012). In 1991 Malta also approved the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW).

Even though these measures have been in place for a few years now, there is still a general idea that men are seen as being more siutable at having a decision-making job. There are also a number of structural and cultural barriers which are preventing Maltese women from achieving further in their job. Such barriers include jobs without opportunities of promotion or training, practices that favour men for promotions, lack of employment laws and lack of sharing of household/childcare responsibilities by fathers. There is also a considerably big barrier being the attitudes and perceptions towards gendered roles in Malta. (Spiteri, 2012).

In this study, I am going to focus on the perceptions that University students have towards leaders. Whether they tend to prefer male or female leaders and on what is their decision based on. Also, I am going to study what University Students think about the effectiveness of males and females in different work settings and what is the reasoning behind the idea.

What is ontology? Why is it important for the social scientist to know about it?

Speaking out of modest personal experience as a political science graduate, the issue of ontology as well as epistemology (and the consequent choices social sciences scientists make) has been always in an arena of confusion for most social sciences graduates. Students, all over the world, feel alienated and often misguided regarding the nature of these terms and thus are often relatively late in determining their stands in this crucially important and inescapable subject. Furthermore, a simple investigation of typical course offerings of social sciences degrees around the globe exposes a general lack of methodology courses at the undergraduate level. This issue adds to the general confusion of students on the issue. Often, not until students move to postgraduate level when they are adequately trained in methodology of research and consecutively become able to develop understanding of ontology and epistemology. Furlong and Marsh (2002) explain the issue brilliantly when they say: “At First these issues (ontological and epistemological positions) seem difficult but our major point is that they are not issues that can be avoided. They are like a skin not a sweater: they cannot be put on and taken off whenever the researcher sees fit.” (Furlong and Mars, 2002, p.17). In this essay, we try to provide a general overview of ontology and shed light on its importance.

What is ontology?

If one is to define Ontology in Social sciences, it is important to step back to the philosophical origin. In philosophy, ontology is widely defined as a major branch of metaphysics, the study of the nature of reality. Encyclopaedia Britannica (2009) defines Ontology as the “philosophical study of being” and what generally prescribes to reality. Aristotle first called ontology “first philosophy”, and later the Latin term “ontologia” appeared after being invented by the German philosopher Lorhardus.

Furlong, and Marsh (2002) explain ontology a “theory for being”, in other terms the main question of whether exists a reality that is autonomous from our understanding. To elaborate this idea in social sciences context, they give the example of gender identity and John Gray’s book “ Men are from Mars and Women are from Venus”. The book argues that men and woman are fundemantaly different from each other and asserts that if it would be better if both would recognize this difference. That argument subscribes to a foundationalist (essentialist) ontological stand. On the other hand Furlond and Marsh (2002) assert that feminists would fiercly attack such a view as they link differences between men and women are “socially constructed”. This stand asserts an anti-foundationalist (constructivist) ontological position.

Foundationalism and anti-foundationalism represent the two main ontological positions taken by scientists, and to understand ontology one should explain those main ontological positions.

Importance
Epistemological consequences

The debate of who comes first, and the importance of Ontology in social research:

Needless to say, a social researcher’s ontology can be understood as their view of social world. This have a consequence on choosing the ways the researcher will do his research, the methods, used, and theories put forth. Nevertheless by saying this we avoid hinting that ontology precedes or follows epistemology, an issue of debate among social scientists.

According to Bares and Jekins (2007) learning of ontology (and epistemology) helps “differentiate and choose between competing theories and analytical traditions” Additionally they assert that many introductory texts to Ontology and Epistemology seems to sponsor a directional relationship that asserts that ontology precedes epistemology in social research. In their opinion this hinders the learning process as discretely favours certain theoretical choices. They further assert that ontology (and epistemology) are important in ontology. (2009). In Encyclop?dia Britannica. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from Encyclop?dia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/429409/ontology

A Skin not a Sweater: Ontology and Epistemology in Political Science

Furlong, Paul and Marsh, David (2002) A Skin not a Sweater: Ontology and Epistemology in Political Science. In: Theory and Methods in Political Science. Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 17-41. ISBN 0-333-94856-4

The St Matthews day centre is located in Ballyfermot, Dublin 10. The centre opens from Monday to Friday, from 9 to 5 pm and the catchment is located within the Ballyfemot, Inchicore and Palmerstown. The centre runs different programs including activities for older people. Two members of staff work at the centre including volunteers who come to do activities with older people. As far as the St Mathew’s Resource Centre catchment is concerned, as earlier mentioned it is located within the Ballyfermot and Chapelizoid partnership area which are located approximately 4 miles (6.4km) to the west of Dublin’s city centre. According to TSA Consultancy (2009, p.3), the two areas’ population is approximately 23 870 with Chapelizoid hiving an older age profile of 18% .of the over 60s (TSA Consultancy (2009, p.4). It is stated that, ‘out of the 2875 people that avail different services, 644 are older people Ballyfermot and Chapelizoid (TSA Consultancy 2009, p.3). This clearly shows that there is significant number of older people who need social engagement so as to increase their quality of life.

‘People are living longer lives and this rapidly changing demographic demands a restoration of social infrastructure, services provided for older people & more importantly, a shift in our attitude towards age'(Lankin 2012). Connolly (2012) pointed out that older people are important sources of volunteering which means they play very important roles such as grandparents, carers and advisors just to name a few and some people do not intend to see it that way.

Aims and objectives:

The aim of this study is to investigate impacts of older people engagement in Community day care centre activities focusing on the case of the St Matthews Community Day Care Centre, in Ballyfermot, Dublin 10.

In line with above stated aim, the objectives of this study are to find out what activities are being carried out in the St Matthews Centre.

Another objective is to examine what National and International policies have been put forward to encourage old people social interactions.

Also the study sets out to examine how older people participate in these activities and what are the benefits of this participation to their quality of life?

Research Question

What are the Impacts of Older People’s Engagements in the activities of the St Matthews Day Care centre?

Rationale reasons

This research study has been undertaken because of my interests in older people’s welfare as a result of my working experience with senior citizens when I volunteered to work with them at the Blackthorn Day Care Centre in the summer of 2011. During these sessions I was able to witness firs hand the problems which senior citizens face when not socialising through activities and the differences that engaging in activities made in the lives of the older people who were attending this centre. I thus realised that this particular area of study is worth researching because when the older people are forced to give up particular roles for example work this should be replaced with creative activities that can increase their social connectedness and this knowledge will build on and add to the existing knowledge and policies on creative activities with older people.

Chapter 2
Literature Review
Introduction

Review will focus on literature around older people. The research will examine policy around social inclusion and participation of older people in different day centre organised activities. The research will also explore recently published literature on older people’s participation and the benefits of participation. The aim of this research is to explore the nature of activities for older people provided by a Community Day Centre. The review will focus on literature around older people, activities and community day centres. It will examine policy around participation of older people in different activities and social inclusion. Recently published literature, perception of and research around older people will also be examined.

Older people were selected because in Ireland as in other countries many elderly person live in their own homes rather than institutions and policy developers has adapted the principal of enabling them to live in their own homes for as long as possible (Gallagher 2010, p.307). Older people were identified as the target group because Age and Opportunity (2012) concluded within its findings that quality of life increases for older people with greater social integration and by providing opportunities to get involved. According to the Age and Opportunity (2012) ‘Loneliness has become a problem for a significant minority of older people, with 11% of over 65s having been found to have minimal social contacts and a limited social network’. Older people from 65 years and over were chosen because they are determined by leaving the labour market (Walker 1999 cited in MaCann James 2009, p.35). Review will focus on literature around older people, activities and community day centres. It will examine policy around participation of older people in different activities and social inclusion. Recently published literature, perception of and research around older people will also be examined.

(Ronald Aday’s 2003 report cited in Miltiades et al n.d) on identifying important linkages between successful aging and day centre participation states that an important goal of senior centres is to provide a social environment conducive to the development of a social support system. He went on to say that ‘such social support system will reduce loneliness and depression, and enhance life satisfaction’ (Ronald Aday’s 2003 report cited in Miltiades et al n.d.). ‘People do not often ask themselves questions like: ‘What kind of old do they want to be?’, ‘what facilities would they like to have access to as they get older?’ and “how do they expect to be treated by the rest of society?” and so on (Larkin 2012). He stated that often people including him often ignore or avoid such kind of questions and assume they will see when they get there.

According to Miltides et al, (n.d.) it is projected that by year 2035 over fifty percent of Western Europe’s population will be over the age of 65 years.

2.1. Definition of Concepts
Ageing: What is old?

According to Phillips et al (2006, p. 9) mostly the definition of age seems to differs across cultures.

For example; ‘old age in Bosinia is not linked to chronological age or how someone looks or physical appearance: it is ‘loss of power’ for the people from Bosinia (Vincent, 2003, p. 15 cited in Phillips at al 2006, p. 9) and they will be referring to both physical and social strength’.

‘Old age is determined by leaving the labour market at 65 thereby a person is entering old age’ (Walker 1999 cited in MaCann James 2009, p.35). It is increasingly acknowledged that the older persons are a mixture of age group from the age of 65 and upwards which results in young elderly being fit, active and live independently (Gallagher 2010, p.307).

‘For the psychologist Erick Erickson (1986), old age or ‘later life’ involves the stage of ‘integrity versus despair’ (MaCann James et al 2009, p. 36). This is where a person tries to experience a sense of wholeness and acceptance of their life and the choices they have made. She pointed out that people’s definition of ‘old age’ tends to be closely related to their own age and is almost never below it (MaCann James e al 2009, p. 36). According to (Rowe and Khan 1987 cited in MaCann James et al 2009, p. 37) successful ageing is characterised by active involvement in life and living, high cognitive and physical functioning and being free of disability and disease.

2.2. Community Day Centre.

The main objectives of community day centres as set out in ‘The Years Ahead’ report (Department of health 1988 cited in Share and Lalor 2010, p. 312) were to provide services such as midday meals, a bath, physiotherapy, promote social contact among older people and prevent loneliness. Another aim was to relief family carers particularly those who have to go to work. The other important objective was to provide social stimulation in a safe environment.

‘Because all communities are unique, older people in each community will have unique needs and their community centres should provide unique services to meet their needs’ (Miltides et al, n.d. p. 17). In a research carried out by Miltides et al, (n.d. p.17) has shown that the definition for community centres has remained consistent since 1979, with the same concept still being vital on the development of programs and services. They offer a variety of programs to serve many needs of older people adults. These may include health programs, meals, recreation, socializing and financial assistance. Today community centres follow the beliefs of activity theory model of participation and this means that social and physical activities are expected to be rewarding among older adults (Miltiades et al n.d.). (O’Shea and Connolly 2003 cited in MaCann James et al 2009, p. 37) noted that ‘The healthy Programme’, can play a major role in this regard by acting as a important resource to support voluntary groups in achieving best practice in the operation of health ageing projects.

In Ireland there are different types of community day care services for the elderly. They are classified as: day care centre, day centre, social club and dementia -specific day care, according to a report by the National Council on Ageing and Older People on the development of day services (Haslet 2003 cited in Share and Lalor 2009, p. 31).

Day Care Centre

Day care centres provide a mixed model of care which means they provide a range of medical, therapeutic and social services, such as nursing, physiotherapy, bathing and chiropody (Gallagher 2009, p. 312). This is important particularly for older people who need continual care and minimum mobility (Gallagher 2009, p. 313). The people who work in these centres are mainly health care professionals who provide support on independent living and to give respite care. Most referrals are done by the public health nurse. For this reason this research will focus principally on community day centres whose activities are basically social services instead of involving the medical model of care.

Day Centres

(Gallagher cited in Share and Lalor, 2009, p.173) points out that these centres are mainly grant aided by HSE. They are managed locally by voluntary or parish groups. The main focus is on the provision of social and recreational activities as well as provision of meals. However, as Haslet ( Haslett 2003 cited in Share and Lalor 2009, p.173) points out while these centres’ activities were initially for social services, due to inadequacy of the provision of day care centres with the mixed model of care within communities, the HSE has encouraged the incorporation of some of the day care centre activities into the day centres with the inclusion of services for ( For example the inclusion of services for physiotherapy, medical services and chiropody. Thus the Social/Day Centres are now providing increasing levels of services in the areas of personal care, paramedical treatment and even nursing’. Consequently Day Centres and Social Clubs have expanded due to the shortage of Day Care Centres. Haslett (2003cited in Share and Lalor 2009 p.175) observed that that day centres are hugely beneficial to many different categories of older people. She went on to say ‘the social capital gain achieved through mutual support, co-operation, empathy and trust is huge and very real (Haslett 2003 cited in Share and Lalor 2009, p. 167). This means that the network of caring that the older person gets from other members of the parish committee, volunteers, drivers, managers, care staff etc is hugely beneficial to them in many ways in the long term.

Some old people’s activities can be recreational and some are physical activities that the older people can undertake to increase their physical strength, flexibility and endurance for example walking, stretching cycling, and activities that may involve camping as a group (Chobharkar 2011). There are also social activities that involve just being in company of other people and they are normally done for pleasure (Dogra 2011).

Older people’s minds can be kept sharp and alert by game activities because it involves social interaction, a very inexpensive form of entertainment and at the same time delaying or reducing the risk of age related dementia (Hurley 2013). She also pointed out that, that ‘at any age playing games is healthy for the mind and body and because games can keep the brain active’ (Hurley 2013). Studies have shown that playing games could help prevent Alzheimer’s disease and dementia, so playing games could actually allow older person to live longer (Woolman 2013).

Other activities that are fostered in the centre are Arts and Crafts. Art and craft extends far beyond the creation of an object for many older people. Research has shown that many older people who live alone find making crafts an enjoyable activity and at the same time it helps them to be active as it involves using their hands, for example moulding clay. It also them helps to exercise their hands and fingers.

Benefits of activities

The relations between overall activity level and psychological well-being have been found to be significantly positive for example Markides and Martin 1979 cited in Warr et al 2004, p.173) and (Jahoda 1958 cited in Warr et al p.173) point out that, “an activity is often accompanied by the successful achievement of personal goals; goal setting and goal-achievement which are essential aspects of good mental health, self-validation and a sense of competence”. Another example observed by, (Holahan 1988 cited in Warr et al p.173) “states that goals have an indirect effect on older people’s psychological well-being through their behavioural expression in activity”. This study shows that activities are almost all positive and they tend to yield the rewarding outcomes to which they are directed, with potentially positive contributions to psychological well-being of older people.

This research study is anchored on the activity theory of ageing, which was developed by the symbolic interactionists (Coon and Mitterer 2010, p. 141). The theory states that ‘a decrease in social interaction that occurs with age is the result of a withdrawal of society from ageing people and most older people do not want this withdrawal'(Coon and Mitterer 2010, p. 141). Therefore, according to this theory, older people who are aging optimally stay active and resist shrinkage in their social world. They maintain activities of middle-age as long as possible and then find substitutes for work.

Activity theory is the idea that a high level of activity enhances personal satisfaction in old age and various activities help build social identity (Coon and Mitterer 2010, p. 141).

As (MaCann James 2009, p.37) explains, older people have identified two main features of aging in literature. These are, rest and relief formal working life, and the fact that governments can provide Research has shown that financial and other forms of state assistance to the old. She thus defined active ageing as ‘a process of optimising opportunities for physical, mental and social wellbeing throughout life in order to extend health life expectancy, quality of life and productivity in older age’.

Loneliness.

‘Loneliness is defined as ‘the negatively perceived difference between the relationships one has and the relationships one would like to have’ (Fokkema and Knipscheer 2007, p. 497). That is personal standards regarding relationships, ‘it is not so much a matter of the number of relationships, or a lack thereof, but rather a lack of quality in the relationships people have’ (Ibid.). However in this case the loneliness is based on social loneliness which is also related ‘to deficient social integration, a lack of contact with people with whom one shares certain common traits, such as friends’ (ibid) As far as loneliness is concerned Fokkema and Knipscheer (2007, p.503) observe that the use of internet by older people can “help in reducing loneliness by improving aˆ¦[the lives of older people who participate in this activity]aˆ¦ by improving their social life and distracting them from their loneliness experience.

Lonelines otherwise known as disengagement reduces satisfaction and meaning in older people’s lives. The participation and involvement of the older people in the different activities give them the opportunity to interact with other people. The activities are provided by the different sectors to include the formal support networks such as the church, the local government unit, and the civil society organizations; and the informal support networks such as their family, relatives, friends and neighbours.

‘Once retired from your full-time day job at the age of 55 or 60, you might think it would be great to lie around for the whole day watching TV or listening to your favourite songs. But one week from your retirement you will realize that it’s not as much fun as you thought. Being a human you are a social animal, and you will crave to be doing something out there with friends or family instead of sitting around alone at home’ Chobharkar (2011)

Balle, (2012) states that in most cases, getting an elderly person to be involved in some type of activity can help improve both quality of life and mental functioning. The increasing share of older people in the population is a fact and a challenge to social and health care services and creative activities (Coon and Mitterer 2010, p. 141). Longer life expectancy will produce a unprecedented increase in the percentage of the population older than 65 and the ‘boom’ is expected to start about now and peak by 2030 to 2050 (Taeuber 1993 cited in Coon and Mitterer 2010, p. 141).

Quality of Life increases with more social engagement

According to Age Opportunity (2012) loneliness has become an important problem for a significant minority of older people with 11% of over 65s having been found to have minimal social contacts and a limited social network. Studies have shown that quality of life increases with greater social integration and by providing opportunities to get involved the issue of loneliness among older people could be resolved.

Ageing population in Ireland.

In Ireland as in other countries many older persons live in their own homes rather than living in institutions. In 2012 the population of the 65 and over age group was 535,393, an increase of 14 percent from 467,926 in 2006(Central Statistical Office 2012). (Larkin 2012) points out that people do not often ask themselves questions like: ‘What kind of old do they want to be?’, ‘what facilities would they like to have access to as they get older?’ and “how do they expect to be treated by the rest of society?” and so on.

Often people ignore or avoid these questions and assume they will see when they get there. Dominic Campbell, Artistic Director of Bealtaine asserts that, by 2035 over 50% of the population of Western Europe will be over the age of 65? (Lankin, 2012). ‘People are living longer lives and this rapidly changing demographic demands a remodelling of social infrastructure, the services we provide for older people and more importantly, a shift in our attitude towards age'(Lankin 2012). Connolly (2012) points to the fact that older people are an important source of volunteering which means they play vital roles such as grandparents, carers, mentors just to name a few and society tends not to see the significant value of these senior citizens. There is the need to to engage them to fulfil good quality of life and be valued.

Irish Policy/Legislation/Regulation Framework

As Connolly (2012) observes, policy makers view ageing as problematic because of the associated financial burden that the state has to undertake in order to keep these pensioners going Connolly (2012) further points out that, while these challenges exits new approaches are needed to address the realities because there are also significant benefits to be gained from older people (Connolly 2012).

The National Action Plan for Social Inclusion 2007 – 2016 published in February 2007 and states that “community care services are essential to enable older people to maintain their health and wellbeing, in order to live active, full independent lives, at home for as long as possible” (Barry 2010). This is relevant to the state because when older people are supported to participate in activities it gives them a feeling of control over their lives as well as that feeling of control contribute to mental and physical well-being. However, this policy framework provides criteria for eligibility and this hinders some retirees to engage in these activities.

A more recent national policy document entitled ‘Towards 2016’, the 10-year framework, sets out a vision for older people and is agreed by the social partners that set out a national plan for 2006-2015. One of the high-level goals it sets out is as follows: ‘Every older person would be encouraged and supported to participate to the greatest extent possible in social and civic life’ (Department of the Taoiseach, 2006, p. 60 cited in Age Opportunity 2012).

‘The National Action Plan for Social Inclusion 2007 – 2016’ published in February 2007 and states that “community care services are essential to enable older people to maintain their health and wellbeing, in order to live active, full independent lives, at home for as long as possible” (Barry 2010). Older people are supported to participate in activities as it gives them a feeling of control over their lives as well as that feeling of control contribute to mental and physical well-being. It clearly shows the principle of enabling older persons to live in their homes for as long as possible is central in Irish welfare policy. There are a number of services that provide meals on wheels, home help and other form of adult day care to facilitate this.

Positive intervention to engage older people’s social activities

(Novak 2006, p. 20) pointed out that intergenerational programmes in schools are good because they reduce discrimination, negative attitude towards aging and social contact between the older and the young people (Novak 2006, p. 20).

Conclusion

This literature has explored the various activities that already exist in different day care centres that have contributed to the quality of life for the older people in general. After all the research and studies, policies and strategies by all experts the uniqueness of this study will have significant for planning for structured centre activities that is diverse.

Chapter 3
The Research Methodology
Research methods

Qualitative research methods allow opportunities for subjective meaning to be clarified rather than getting exact answers to specific questions (Creswell 2003, p. 21). Engel and Schutt (2005, p. 41) point out that qualitative methods can refer to several research designs, for instance participant observation that involves gathering data by developing a relationship with the people while they do their normal activities. Intense interviews are those that involve open-ended unstructured questions in which the interviewer seeks in-depth information on the interviewee’s feelings, experiences and perception (Engel and Schutt 2005, p. 41).

Research design deals with how the researcher conceptualizes the entire research process. It is ‘the logical sequence that connects the empirical data to a study’s initial questions [leading] to its conclusions’ (Yin 1994, p.28).

This involves the particular research approach to be used as well as the research processes (Gibson and Brown 2009, p.48). This study is a single descriptive qualitative case study. According to Yin 2009 cited in Kiriakidis (2011, p. 69) ‘a case study is used to contribute to understand a group or an organisation’. In this sense the researcher will seek to answer some how and why questions in relation to one particular organisation. As (Baxter and Jack 2008 cited in Kiriakidis 2011, p 69) explain that ‘this type of case study is used to describe an intervention or phenomenon and the real-life context in which it occurred. Using qualitative research methods allows one to explore attitudes, behaviour and experience through interviews or focus groups in an attempt to get in-depth information from participants (Dawson 2009, p. 14).

This model of this inquiry as indicated above is a single descriptive qualitative case study. A ‘case’ is ‘a phenomenon of some sort occurring within a bounded context in this case it can be an individual, a professional role, group, an organization, a nation, a policy, a process, an incident or event of some sort’ (Yin 2009 cited in Kriakidis 2011, p. 69). It is a unit of analysis which gives the researcher the opportunity to ‘investigate and understand the case in depth, in its natural setting, recognizing its complexity and context’ and allows for a holistic and detailed analysis of the case which other research methods ignore (Punch 1998, p.153). As Creswell (1998 p.153) explains, a qualitative case study is a ‘bounded system’, It is bounded by space and time (Creswell 1998, p.37).

The Context

In the context of this study which focuses on older people’s engagements in community day care centre activities, the case study is St Matthews Community Day Care Centre which is situated in Ballyfermot in Dublin 10. The context is the engagement of old people in activities organised by the centre. The centre is a Family Resource Centre for the community of Ballyfermot. The researcher chose this centre because there is relatively little data available that can tell us how important these organised centre activities are to the health and well-being of the older adult or senior citizens growing population.

In relation to this research, a semi – structure interview method will be used allowing; (1)why they decide to attend the centre and (2) expectation of activities to act as guiding topic but with the discussion directed by the participants. Much research in relation to older people tends to focus more on the expert opinion of what is considered to be quality of life rather than gaining the views of an ordinary person (Bond and Corner, 2004, p. 42). Therefore interviews within qualitative method will allow for the contribution of older persons’ opinion. The researcher will use a participatory research method.

Data Collection Tools

The data collection tools that will be used in this study will include: documents, use of technology, interviews and observations and the internet. Data collection from documents includes the use of both primary and secondary sources of information. The primary sources that have been used in this research include government reports on aging and community facilities for the old. The secondary sources include: books, especially on senior citizens academic research articles as well as internet sources. These sources of information are within the public domain and can be easily explored. But care has been taken to select appropriate content that deals with the study thesis because internet data often contains some content that is not of direct relevance to the specific research question or questions.

Technology: In addition to documentation, the researcher has used audio technology for voice recordings during interviews to gather the necessary information.

Other sources from which data has been collected for this study include interviews and observations. As Stake (2005, p.453) holds, ‘the qualitative case researcher seeks to know what is happening in ordinary organisational settings. Although in the course of the inquiry process the researcher will attempt to reduce the gap between the researcher and the participants. It is obvious that researcher will remain the seeker of knowledge in the inquiry process and the participants the holders of the knowledge that the researcher is seeking to acquire.

Thus the interview and observation methods are also necessary for this study because the reality or knowledge which the researcher cannot see will be obtained by interviewing and observing the older people (participants) from the natural settings in which these social activities are occurring. The use of interviews in the course of this study will enable me to gain greater insight from the key actors or players in St Matthews Day Care Centre. That is the Old People and the Centre staff who are involved in developing the activities which these old people are engaged in. These interviews will enable me to have a closer picture of what is going on within the centre. The interviews it is hoped will be able to produce a picture of how the old people are participating? What are the types of activities they are engaged in? How do they feel about their engagements in these activities? In this light I have used semi – structure interview questions to method will be used allowing; what is their experience in attending the Day care centre? Why they decide to attend the centre? These interviews will thus allow for the contribution of older persons’ opinions in relation to their engagements in the centre activities.

Information for the study will also be collected through observations. Observation is a method of collecting research information whereby the researcher immerses his or herself into ‘the research ‘setting’ so that [he or she] can experience and observe first hand, a range of dimensions in and of that setting’ (Mason, 2002, p.84). As Mason (2002 p.84) holds, observation has many features. ‘It can be ‘social interactions, behaviour, relationships or events; it can be spatial locational, or temporal and its frame can be experiential, emotional and bodily dimensions’. The use of observation will be necessary in this study because it will allow the researcher to witness first hand, how the old people in St Matthews interact in the various activities within the centre.

Other Data Collection and analysis tools

This research will also use other research methods like quantitative method to collect data where necessary. Such methods will be used to complement evidence collected from other qualitative methods. However, this research is principally a qualitative case study.

The analysis in this research will involve transcribing and discussing interview texts as well as connecting the contexts with explanations and interpretations that give a clear picture of what is happening in the St Matthews day Care centre in relation to the activities organised and the importance of these activities to the participants. This will involve naturalistic descriptions, interpretations, explanations, narratives and analysis of the information collected. It will involve a detailed description and explanation of the case which involves what (Stake 2005, p.450 cited Gibson and Brown 2009, p.8) call ‘a thick description’ which means providing details that outline the details of the context of people’s actions and practices so that they become intelligible in their own terms'(Gertz, 1976 cited in Gibson and Brown, 2009, p.8).

Access

Access to participants was pursued by contacting and meeting the Manager of the Ballyfermot/Chapelizoid Partneship. She further referred me to the manager of St Mathew Family Resource Centre where they run activities for the elderly. The researcher chose to observe the participants by becoming part of the group organisation to

Occupational Culture Police

Title question: What do you know about the occupational culture(s) of the police? Why is it important?

Introduction

As Reiner states, “the idea of ‘police occupational culture’ or ‘cop culture’ has been a source of academic interest and debate since research into policing began in earnest in the 1960s”. The following consideration of the title question concerning the meaning and importance of the police occupational culture is advanced through identification and the development of a number of themes which are inter-related:

a definition of the phrase occupational culture (both as a free standing term of art as well as its relationship to the concept of organizational culture)
how a distinct occupational culture and various sub-cultures are fostered generally in police services;
the further fundamental relationship between police occupational cultures and the public interest in effective law enforcement

At this point I would like to state that the issues discussed below are not tied exclusively to the occupational culture of UK policing, although the majority of the references utilised throughout and noted in Bibliography are derived from these sources. The observations advanced here are stated as broadly applicable to all jurisdictions in the Anglo-American legal tradition, where police services are a societal institution regulated through and accountable to civilian authority. Similarly, the discussion of the issues raised here presumes a familiarity with current issues concerning culture associated with policing.

Definitions

‘Culture’ is a term that is itself amenable to a number of definitions. In its widest formulation, culture may be defined as ‘…the total of the inherited ideas, beliefs, values and knowledge which constitute the shared basis of action’. Moreover, it encompasses ‘taken-for-granted’ emotionally charged beliefs guiding behaviour, and cultural forms, which are the overt expressions of those beliefs. As a concept, culture connotes both precepts and boundaries that are broadly held by its entire membership. Therefore, adherence to a police culture is an ‘all or nothing’ proposition.

Police occupational culture is comprised of several constituent parts and each is essential to an understanding of the whole. The first such component is that of the ‘cop culture’ mentality. This point highlights the fact that the occupational culture of police is directly connected to the actions and ethics of street or other front line serving officers.

Yet, it is contended that the occupational culture of policing is not disconnected or detached from the organizational culture; this is the framework within which policing is mandated and conducted in all societies. Worth mentioning is the fact that commentators such as McIvor regard the two cultures as distinct; the conclusions advanced in the course of the present analysis are in part the product of a view that organizational and occupational cultures are considerably inter-related.

The occupational cultures of police as exclusively reflective of the ‘front line’ mentality of police officers is too limited an approach. If organisational police culture may be defined as the actual front line behaviour that will be condoned by management, the relationship between police hierarchy and the police themselves is that of formal / informal, where conduct acceptable to the organisation is not permitted so much as it is condoned.

Reiner noted that to gain a deeper understanding of how police operations are conducted, one must understand the policing culture (the values, norms, perspectives, and craft rules that inform their conduct). In addition, Reiner observed that police services possess one unique property, namely that within the services the level of officer discretion increases as one moves down the hierarchy, with the greatest discretion existing on the front line.

This understanding leads inevitably to the related characterization of police culture as the product of various codes, some mandated (i.e. by legislation or organisational practice) and others driven informally by the culture. Of critical importance to understanding the resilience of occupational cultures in policing is an appreciation that police cultures do not necessarily bear a significant relationship to public expectations concerning effective law enforcement. Police cultures exist organically, with the culture sustained as much by its structure as by any external influences.

How police occupational cultures thrive

It is contended that at the heart of police occupational cultures is the conflict of ‘us versus them’ that is played out on a multitude of levels within modern society. Not withstanding the popularity of government initiatives broadly labeled as ‘community policing’, the police have long adopted a world view that identifies a number of potential opponents to cultural practices and conduct that encourage the ‘us versus them’ mentality, such as the general public (both as ‘on the street’ adversaries and in the manifestation of negative opinions about policing), organized criminal elements, the police hierarchy (union versus management) and other police officers within a service with contrary notions of policing.

Inevitably, these various points of conflict produce a number of cultural outcomes for the police that may be distilled to a single product – police solidarity. In each of the four general areas noted here, loyalty to one’s fellow officers is the adhesive that maintains the strength of the occupational culture. Police solidarity is what Skolnick feels contributes to the idea of a culture created by officers, which demands they cover each other on the streets and perhaps even during an internal investigation. As a police officer stated: “We’re a tight-knit community. We’ve got to stand by each other because we are getting it from all angles. We get it from outside, the general public, we get it from solicitors, from QC’s, we get it from our own bosses”.

It is a simple conclusion to be drawn from the police officers world view of ‘us versus them’ that police officers will unavoidably experience a sense of isolation from the public they have sworn to serve. When the additional element of cynicism concerning the police role within the justice system as a marginalized one (in the sense of accused persons being acquitted as a result of the function of the law to defeat legitimate police action), feelings of solidarity within the service are accentuated.

Police solidarity as a reciprocal outcome of the organisational and social environments where the police function was effectively summarized by Goldsmith as an equation:

“In an environment perceived as hostile and unpredictable the police culture offers its members reassurance that the other officers will pull their weight in police work, that they will defend, back up and assist their colleagues when confronted with external threats and that they will maintain secrecy in the face of external investigations. In return for loyalty and solidarity members of the police culture enjoy considerable individual autonomy to get on with the job.”

The cultural foundation of solidarity leads to the following progression when considering the outcomes, both positive and negative in terms of the public interest in effective policing: solidarity; esprit de corps; the ‘thin blue line’, a mentality that the police are the only effective means to preserve public order; the ‘code of silence’, where loyalty to a fellow officer has a greater value than the public interest in the investigation of police practices or suspected misconduct; active steps taken to defeat any investigation of suspected police misconduct.

The ‘us versus them’ characterization of police attitudes at the root of occupational culture can also be considered from the vantage point of the insider / outsider framework. This method of cultural assessment also permits the police ‘outsider’ to be defined in a variety of ways, each of which reinforces the primacy given to the principle of solidarity among officers within policing cultures. Depending upon the circumstances of the relationship being examined, an ‘outsider’ to a police culture may be defined by race, gender, masculinity (distinct from gender; the machismo traditionally associated with effective policing) and preferred social activities (e.g. police related events).

It is submitted that any one or more of these circumstances may operate as an obstacle to the ‘outsider’ achieving solidarity within the subject culture. One prominent concern noted by both academic and public commentators is the bullying and intimidation of non conformers within police ranks as a product of occupational solidarity.

A prominent example is the 2003 UK government report ‘Diversity Matters’. The Report advocated changes to the organisational and occupational cultures of modern UK policing through an encouragement of police services to accept and appreciate officers from different backgrounds, skills, attitudes and experiences.

The views expressed in the report were tempered by a recognition of the need for a “…working environment free from any unfair practice, bullying, prejudice and discrimination, in order to underpin [officer]… retention and to enable them to develop to their full potential.” Barracking, teasing and ridicule are accepted as cultural norms that flow naturally from occupational solidarity.

Solidarity is therefore the ultimate two edged police cultural sword. It is a stimulus to police action, officer safety and a general sense of confidence within the occupational culture; it is a barrier to the transparent governance of police, as the element of secrecy in how the police govern themselves encourages a sense of autonomy from the very public to which the police swear their allegiance.

Police subcultures are also an outcome of difference between serving officers, where the difference is not driven out of the service by exclusion, but where the difference creates a cultural microcosm within the police itself. Examples abound where the officers are required to work in close quarters, such as undercover operatives, where the officers are in continual contact with a lifestyle that is counter to that of accepted society.

The archetypal ‘rogue cop’, who either violates the law to achieve either ultimately positive law enforcement objective, or alternatively who engages in criminal activity while in police service, is such a figure. As was noted in the course of the Lawrence inquiry report,“…the culture of the police and some procedures in the criminal justice system actually make it totally improbable that all police officers will behave as the system lays down that they should.”

As an aside, if the depictions of police culture in modern UK television drama were a barometre, one might conclude that the public broadly accepts police misconduct so long as the end achieved is in the public interest. From the robust detective Frost to the more intellectual investigative approaches depicted in productions such ‘Inspector Morse’ and ‘Prime Suspect’, where the occupational culture demands that an organisational rule be ignored or actively disobeyed to achieve justice (often justice as the protagonist defines it), such conduct is desirable.

It is in this context that a further occupational culture must be mentioned. Not only does policing encourage the development of distinct cultures from within, there are equally distinct cultures that are devoted to observing and characterising police behaviour. As was observed by Sklansky with regard to the American policing occupational cultures,

“…for over half a century, police reform in the United States has been guided by a broadly shared set of assumptions about the nature of the police subculture and its central importance in shaping the behavior of the police. Those assumptions—that police officers think alike; that they are paranoid, insular, and intolerant; that they intransigently oppose change; that they must be rigidly controlled from the outside, or at least from the top—themselves constitute a schema [mental constructs that sort and organize human experience]”.

Sklansky’s assertion adds another dimension to the consideration of occupational culture. Not only is there a need to define the nature and extent of the culture, there must also be a concerted effort to assess the perspective of the observer or commentator.

Occupational cultures and the public interest in effective law enforcement

The most obvious negative outcome with respect to police conduct when examined from an occupational cultural perspective is the public perception that the police either (a) cannot investigate themselves in an objective fashion where wrongdoing is suspected (b) the result of such internal investigations are inherently flawed and not credible.

The law enforcement landscape is littered with such issues. The numerous reports and White Papers commissioned by the UK government to address this issue have not eliminated public concerns. A prominent 2007 Canadian example of the clash between the evident irresistible force of public concern over an in-custody police shooting of a civilian, and the equally immovable object of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) internal investigation practices is a notable example.

The deceased had been arrested on a minor charge; while in custody and handcuffed he was shot in the head by the arresting officer. In the ensuing 15 month period between the event and the release of the internal RCMP investigative report, the subject officer was permitted a number of weeks to consult with his legal counsel prior to his making of any formal statement to investigators; the subject officer was supplied the questions to be posed in written form in advance.

There has been a significant public outcry in Canada to reform internal RCMP practices in this respect; the perception has been noted that even where a civilian person was killed in very troubling circumstances, the police will not turn in one of their own.

It is submitted that notwithstanding characterisations of modern policing as an agent for change, where community policing enhances public relations within the community and removes the implicit barriers between police and public, certain cultural elements can never be resolved. Police operations have an immediacy that demands action. For this reason policing must be a pragmatic enterprise, where the occupational culture facilitates the pursuit of pragmatic results over adherence to rules either legal or organisational.

Bibliography

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Reiner, R., (2000) The Politics of the Police, 3rd Edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press

Rigakos, G. (2002). The new Para police: risk markets and commodified social control. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

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