Author: Andre Coleman

David Matza’s work is often is said to have offered a necessary counteraction to the postulates of the subcultural theory (Young: 1974). In 1957 David Matza and Gersham Sykes presented a radically new theory of deviant behaviour in their seminal work entitled, Techniques of Neutralisation: A Theory of Delinquency and again collaborated in 1961. The dialogue was significantly extended by Matza in his subsequent works, Delinquency and Drift (1964) and Becoming Deviant (1969). This paper will provide a description and evaluation of Matza’s theories. It will then proffer a brief discussion on why Matza’s writings on crime presents a shift from traditional subcultural theories.

Matza’s work shows a rethink about deviants and how they process and rationalize their crime. He questions the notion that deviants are inherently opposed to societal norms and codes of conduct, and that their actions signify a rejection of the rule of law. He maintains that delinquent values do not necessarily follow a consistent continuum, and therefore to say that delinquency and deviants reject the rule of law is erroneous. He uses the examples of teenage delinquents to demonstrate that while many teenagers commit delinquent acts, many do not offend within a delinquent space or a delinquent subculture. He argues that many times they can immediately return to continuous actions which demonstrate affinity with “normalcy”. In these instances, Matza argues that instead of being in opposition to the rule of law, some acts of delinquency represent a loosening or distance from more positively favoured and consensus value systems to an adoption of what he terms “subterranean” values.

Matza and Sykes (1961) differentiated between subterranean values and formal or mainstream values to highlight this point. Matza identifies formal values as those which demonstrate deferred gratification, can be predictable, respect bureaucratic processes, not aggressive, and conforms to the normal routine. They also have an introspective characteristic which refrains from euphoria, plans meticulously, shows reservation and restraint, and is non-impulsive. Conversely, subterranean values are identified as: relishing short term hedonism and excitement, always seeking change and alternatives, impulsive, very sociable and carefree, and is not afraid to display to aggression. Within this framework, Matza defends his argument by stating that deviants who accept subterranean values usually accentuate these characteristics for short term personal gains, or during leisure periods.

Taylor et al (1973) suggests that Matza’s work (1964) represents an attempt to avoid distorting the motivations of the delinquent and to present a naturalistic analysis of deviant behaviour. Matza contends that theories which strive to label some deviants and establish sub-cultures of deviance, overstate the levels of delinquency and are a result of positivistic influences which attempt to find psycho-social reasons for non-conformity. He articulates that it is flawed to assume delinquent subcultures are zealously embraced by deviants, furthermore, he points out that this intermittent interaction with subterranean values is normal because these values are replicated many times throughout society, albeit most times in controlled environments. He argues that traditional positivistic models of deviance, depict an “antagonistic disjunction between deviant or subterranean values of larger society” (Taylor et al: 1973) which is simply not true. Instead he argues that deviants use techniques of neutralization as excuses for committing delinquent acts.

Matza identified five techniques of neutralization employed by deviants to rationalize their non-conformity: (1) Denial of responsibility , wherein, the offender deflects blame with language such as “it was not my fault” or “it wasn’t really me who did it”. The deviant attributes their actions to the flaws of the wider substructure or environment. (2) Denial of injury, where the delinquent defends their actions on the grounds that it did not cause harm to anyone and substitutes moralistic condemnation on their actions with more favorable terminologies. For example, vandalism would be seen as “just mischief”. (3) Denial of a victim, where they place the victim as the offender in language such as “they had it coming” or “it didn’t affect them”. (4) Appeal to higher loyalties, where the delinquent places himself as torn between two groups with a need to commit the act in the interest of one group. A typical example can be found with foreign national women who do transnational drug couriering, who mostly say they do it because of the economic needs of their children. (5) Condemnation of the condemners, where the offender deflects focus from their actions to chastise the motives of those who condemn the offending act. Those who condemn are usually classified by the deviant as hypocrites.

Matza’s (1964) Drift Theory attempts to situate the deviant in a less deterministic space than positivistic influenced theories allow. He suggested that persistent delinquent behaviour can be explained by a convergence of subterranean values and formal ones, in the absence of stabilizing forces which reinforce the more moralistic formal values. The slow movement from formal and introspective values to more permanent subterranean characteristics is called a “drift”. In their period of drift, Matza contends that delinquents utilise the neutralizing techniques previously discussed, to weaken society’s grasp on their value system. He is however, not without his critics, who point out that Matza underplay offending behaviour and neglects to use his theory as a lens for more violent forms of delinquency (Newburn: 2007).

Matza’s reasoning presents a shift from traditional subcultural theory which is more deterministic in its labelling and examination of deviants. Subculture theory contends that there are dominant cultures and deviant subcultures and they situate the deviant within the latter, because of their non-conformity. Subcultural theory romanticize the dominant culture as always existing within a positive moral space. It sees delinquency as a complete opposition to mainstream values and culture. Matza, on the other hand, advocates that delinquents do place value on mainstream cultures, but may refrain from displaying or voicing such views because they fear rejection from peers. He contends that subterranean values exist alongside those of the so-called dominant culture. This argument was partly sanctioned by Wolfgang and Ferracuti (1967) who proffered the example of the male who is compelled to violence to defend the honour of his mother, wife or children. While, this male is predisposed to accepting the dominant culture, his naturalistic tendency to defend in such situations, point to the co-existence of subterranean, even within mainstream cultures.

References

Matza, D. (1969) Becoming Deviant. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Matza, D. (1964) Delinquency and Drift. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Matza, D., Sykes, G. (1961) Juvenile Delinquency and Subterranean Values. American Sociological Review Vol. 26, 713-719.

Newburn, T. (2007) Criminology. Cullompton: Willan.

Sykes, G., Matza, D. (1957) Techniques of Neutralization: A Theory of Delinquency. American Sociological Review, Vol. 22, 664-670.

Taylor, I., Walton, P. & Young, J. (1973) The New Criminology: For a Social Theory of Deviance. London: Routledge.

Wolfgang, M., Ferracuti, F. (1967) The Subculture of Violence. London: Travistock Publishers.

Young, J. (1974) New Directions in Subcultural Theory. In, John Rex (ed) Approaches to Sociology: An Introduction to Major Trends in British Sociology. London: RKP.

1

The Clownfish belongs to the family Pomacentridae, with many species, many belonging to the genus Amphiprion while one belongs to the Premnas genus (Godwin 1994 p 556). The fish has many colors which depend on the species. A symbiotic relationship exists between the fish and the sea anemone that offers protection to the fish due to its stinging nature. On the other hand, the fish protects the sea anemone from harm that could be caused by hard undigested particles through feeding on them. The fish spawn on the sea anemone. A fully grown dominant female may grow to a total length of 11/2 feet, while the small adult Clownfish may be as small as 4 inches. The fish thrive in the warm waters of the tropics (Maddern 1990 p 36). They are mainly found in the salty waters of the Indian Ocean and the Pacific. The excretion from the fish is a major source of nourishment for the sea anemone that absorbs the nutrients emanating from fecal matter. More over, the movements of the Clownfish in the water surrounding the sea anemone, especially when fanning the eggs are significant for water circulation, which is significant for the distribution of nutrients for the nourishment of the sea anemone (Drury 2008 p 63).

The Clownfish is covered by a mucus coating around its body which as Wittenrich et al. (2007 p 93) observed are derived from sugars, which is one of the factors that prevents the stinging reaction of the sea anemone as the nematocysts are triggered by the presence of protein based substances in the surrounding. The fish dwell in one sea anemone as a group, which means that several sea anemones will host different groups of fish (Godwin 1994 p 561). In other words one sea anemone is the territory of one small group of fish. Clownfish is one of the aquatic organisms whose sex remains a subject of controversy. It is generally known that the fish is capable of switching its sex. This essay is a critique of the Clownfish mating process and gender changes that occur, as well as an exploration of the different species.

Gender Changes

The ability to switch sex is one of the aspects that make the fish unique especially the fact that this can happen to any adult fish. Kuwamora & Nakashima (1998 p 126) observe that during hatching, the fish are usually one sex, i. e, all males. The dominant male that becomes larger than all the rest during adult stage develops in to a female. None other develops in to a female so long as the dominant female is alive. The fish that follows in terms of size becomes the dominant male, while the rest remain small inactive males (Godwin 1994 p 558). These phenomena lead to the questions as to why only one of them develops in to a female and assumes the normal role female fish. Questions also arise as to why the second largest male does not undergo the same process. However, these changes point at dominance as the major determinant of the sex change.

The males that remain are usually inactive and remain at the bottom of the hierarchy that is headed by the dominant female followed by the dominant male. Another interesting phenomenon is in case the dominant female dies. The dominant male undergoes a sex reversal and assumes the role of the dominant female, which starts reproducing. The death of the dominant female leads to a rearrangement of the hierarchy since the largest male in the juvenile group develops in to the dominant male and begins mating. Godwin (1994 p 558) observe that the need to fill the gap left by the reproducing female triggers the degeneration of the male organs and the development of the ovaries from the female ovary cells that remain dormant when the fish is male. This is an indication that even if the Clownfish are hatched with the male sex, there are certain dormant ovarian cells that remain standby until when need arises. There seems to be an interconnection between the physiology of the fish and the social aspects of the group. The social gap created by the death of the female is filled by the mating male; leaving another gap whereby there lacks a dominant male, which on the other hand has to be filled by a male from a lower group of males in the hierarchy.

Each group of Clownfish inhabiting a particular sea anemone has got its own hierarchy, and they do not mix. This is an indication of the social bond that exists within the groups whose stability is maintained by all members (Kuwamora & Nakashima 1998 p 128). It means that if the reproducing female is alive and functional, no other male regardless of the size can develop in to a female. On the other hand, no fish in the lower group can change sex to become the dominant male while one already exists. In a way, one may infer that it is due to loyalty of the lower groups to the dominant male and female that they do not change their sex or grow to a large size to outdo the fish in the upper level of the hierarchy. This is because they have the capacity to become larger and change their sex, but they do not. Maddern (1990 p 36) notes that each fish has to ensure that its body mass remain lower by a quarter of the average weight of the dominant fish, or else it may be ejected out of the group. This has enabled the fish to avoid any impending conflicts that may arise between the dominant group and the lower group. However, the initial vigor of development from the larvae stage determines whether the larvae will develop in to one of the dominant fish in the group. The ones that develop at a high rate have a high chance of becoming dominant.

The behavior of the fish generates interest to research on the reasons behind the unique behavior. One wonders why the social aspect of the group is largely connected to their physiology. More over, how the fish regulate their size to maintain a lower body mass than the dominant fish is an important issue that needs further research. It is important to understand how they are able to determine the amount of feeds and aggressiveness that helps in the maintenance of a small size, which can only be changed when there arises a vacant position created by the death of one of the dominant fish. In order for the fish to qualify for change of sex, they have to be mature, which Tullock (1998 p 54) argues should be more than one year of age and the environment needs to be favorable for the change of sex. The environment that determines the success of the fish in changing sex is that within the social group. A favorable environment means that there has to be an opportunity for the fish to join the dominant group. Without the absence of the female, no change of sex can occur. On the other hand, there can be a dominant female but the group may lack a dominant male, necessitating the movement of one of the fish in the lower groups to the dominant group. Maddern (1990 p 33) further notes that even if two male clownfish were put together under controlled conditions, one of them that is more dominant than the other has to become the female, while the other becomes the mating male.

On the other hand, Tullock (1998 p 67) further observes that a lone crown fish will develop in to a female if allowed to develop to a full grown fish. One can therefore infer that development in to a female is dependent of other larger and fast growing fish that are likely do dominate the group. However, this applies for the smaller fish since if one small fish is allowed to grow on its own in the absence of other fish; it develops in to a female. This means that all the Clownfish are bound to become females if there are no other fish to compete with for dominance (Kuwamora & Nakashima 1998 p 128).

Mating amongst the Clownfish

Mating in the Clownfish is usually ceremonial, which leads to spawning of eggs and fertilization. The fish engage in courtship prior to spawning. The behavior of the males changes to aggressiveness, which rises as the male approaches the actual mating. Wittenrich et al. (2007 p 95) observes that the male usually turns its aggressiveness towards the substrate beneath the water. On the other hand, the female joins in there after, leaving both sexes charging towards the substrate. This is the period that is regarded as courtship (Wilkerson 2003 p 66). This aggressive behavior continues until the final days prior to mating when it becomes more intense. They even become aggressive towards other fish that come close to the mating area. The courtship, as Godwin (1994 p 551) observe is usually brief and involves certain pretentious behavior of the female to attract the male and vise versa. The sea anemone plays a significant role during mating and spawning of eggs. Both fish take part in the clearance of debris and any other solid particles that may interfere with the eggs. The female later lays the eggs on the selected side of the sea anemone. They usually find the softest substrate that is favorable for the delicate eggs.

The fish usually pinch one of the tentacles of the sea anemone, which makes it retract as a reaction to the nip. The tentacle settles at the selected spawning area by the female. Before laying the eggs, the female makes certain that it is the most appropriate area to spawn by making some trials that are simi1ar to laying eggs but not real. The actual laying of eggs usually comes later after ensuring that the environment is favorable. Maddern (1990 p 39) observed that the eggs are usually sticky in nature, and that they can not float on water. They stick on the substrate and the male swims closely behind as the female lays the eggs. After completing spawning of eggs for a period of 2 hours, the male is usually ready to shed the sperms to fertilize them. The fertilized eggs remain stuck on the soft substrate, where both fish offer protection against intruders who might cause harm. With the exhaustion from spawning, the female gets to feeding while the male is left to shield the eggs from attack. Hoff (1996 p 86) observes that the male is usually highly aggressive in defending the nest. More over, the male is also involved in aerating the eggs through flapping its fins. It also selects and eats the infected eggs that may not have a chance to survive.

Any matter that falls on the eggs is removed by the male. In other words, the male is usually very active through out mating and after the eggs have been laid to the time that the larvae will be hatched. The female can shed up to more than 2000 eggs in one spawning season. However, the number of eggs usually depends on the size of the reproducing female. The larger the female the more the eggs it can produce (Tullock 1998 p 63). This could also be another reason as to why the large males are the ones that change in to dominant females. The mating area is also a determinant of the survival of the eggs and the strength of the fry.

Wilkerson (2003 p 68) observes that it is important for the aquaculture of Clown fish to be practiced carefully to avoid mixing the species in one area whereby they are likely to stress each other. Different species are unlikely to survive together since they will constantly fight injuring each other, which is likely to make them unable to lay eggs. In controlled conditions, the presence of a sea anemone makes the environment more like the natural environment, which facilitates spawning. The fish under go the normal process of mating, laying eggs and taking care of them as they would do in the wild. However, this would require an extra task of raising the sea anemone and maintaining it while on the other hand maintaining the fish. It may be a costly venture to undertake in aquaculture.

However, it is not mandatory to have the sea anemone for the Clownfish to mate and spawn in controlled conditions. The fish can also spawn in rocks whose ruggedness offers hiding places. However, the same characteristic as in the wild whereby the fish cleans the substrate on the surfaces where the eggs are laid occurs during mating under controlled conditions. Hoff (1996 p 89) observes that the mature and ready to mate Clownfish usually tend to scrub rocks with the mouth as well as fins, in a similar way as the way they clean the substrate to have a clean ground for laying eggs. The eggs get stuck to the eggs where they get fertilized by the male that swims after the female. The fish that are satisfied with the artificial environment, i. e. that which is almost similar to the natural environment are likely to lay more healthy eggs (Wilkerson 2003 p 66).

Species of Clownfish

There are many fish species of Clownfish which differ mainly in color as well as in many other aspects such as the structure of the fins. For example, the Amphiprion percula is one of the species of Clownfish that has a characteristic extended level band at the central point of its body. The fish is also referred to as the anemone fish, which has a distinct orange color. It also possesses some black marks as well as white strips on the fins. The structure of the dorsal fin is one of the distinguishable characteristics as it possesses 10 spines (Maddern 1990 p 61). The species is known to reproduce through out the year since it inhabits the warmer regions that are favorab3le for breeding. The fish live in groups of 6, including the dormant males. The hierarchy of the group is that of the typical Clownfish, and it exhibits all the other characteristics of the Clownfish such as change of sex.

The Amphiprion clarkii is also one of the hardy Clown fishes that are highly resistant to diseases. They come in diverse colors such as yellow, white, grey and brown. These colors are also diverse on the fins and the tail, while it is missing in others. The fish are recommended for aquariums due to their hardiness as they do not need specialized care. Amphiprion ocellaris is also one of the species with distinct characteristics such as black stripes on the fins as well as an elongated dorsal fin (Tullock 1998 p 65). Premnas biaculeatus has a reddish color on their body which tends to be more inclined towards brown in some fish within the species. They have white strips along their spine. These colors are distinct from most of the other fish species. Amphiprion frenatus is a species in which juveniles tend to be dark red and black as they develop in to adults. Amphiprion sandarcinos, Amphiprion perideraion, Amphiprion frenatus and Amphiprion melanopus are also among the many species of Clownfish that can be differentiated especially through the color of their bodies (Wittenrich et al 2007 p 95).

Conclusion

Clownfish is one of the hardy fish species that inhabit the warm areas of sea, such as the Indian Ocean as well as the Pacific Ocean. They belong to the genus Amphiprion, and are greatly colored, which makes them good for ornamental aquaculture. In the wild, the fish usually live in groups that demonstrate a hierarchical association. The highest in the hierarchy is usually the reproducing female, which are the dominant and the largest fish in a group. The fish have a rare behavior of changing sex depending on need. The larvae are usually male, but they are capable of developing in to females. Only the dominant and largest male develops in to a female, while the second largest male in the group develops in to the mating males. The only time that there can be a change in the hierarchical structure is when the female is eliminated from the group through death, leading the mating male to become the female and the larger male in the lower level of the hierarchy to become the mating male (Drury 2008 p 63).

The mating of the Clownfish takes place without complications. The sea anemone is highly supportive to the existence of the Clownfish. It offers protection through its poisonous stings to the predators. The Clownfish is not taken as a predator by the sea anemone because of the mucus covering on its body that comprises of sugars. The relationship between the sea anemone and the Clownfish is usually symbiotic, whereby each derives some advantage from the other. There are many species of Clown fish that can be distinguished through their body color as well as the body structure. However, they exhibit a similar behavior (Maddern 1990 p 41).

The transformation of masculine and feminine roles overtime is due to society, genetics, and families. Gender roles stand for the attitudes, behaviours, values, that cultures define as proper for males and females. A change in masculine and feminine roles has altered the perception of relationships in the 21st century. Masculinity and femininity determine the quality of relationships. According to Thornton, Axinn, and Xie the change of perception in gender roles in relationships is due factors such as the level of education, lifetime earnings, religious beliefs, and family history. Thornton, Axinn, and Xie observe that there are emerging cases where couples prefer cohabitation to legalised marriages based on their personal experiences, circumstances attitudes and family history (Thornton, Axinn, and Xie 36). Masculinity and femininity are socially determined components of gender. They define behaviours and characteristics observable in either male or female beings. Many times masculinity is associated with maleness while femininity is associated with femaleness

Masculinity and femininity being a component of gender is a complex issue. According to Lippa, the concepts surrounding the subject of masculinity and femininity transform over time. Some of the factors responsible for these changes include family influences, biological influences, social influences, cultural influences, peer influences and individual feelings and influences. There is proving that parental socialization of boys and girls in interaction with biological predispositions defines how boys and girls interact with their peers. These interactions determine the femininity or masculinity characteristics that children adopt during their development (Lippa 187). There has been a transformation in the social perceptions of what it means to be feminine. Traditionally femininity entails being nice, submissive, unengaged and reliance. Masculinity and femininity determine the interaction among peers. Masculinity and femininity has also been associated with personal interest. According to psychologists individuals who exhibit masculine characteristics tend to show interest in mechanical and scientific subjects whereas individuals exhibiting feminine characteristics enjoy cultural and art related subjects (Lippa 44).

Lippa argued that there are arguments that femininity is considered good for men and masculinity is considered good for women. This concept stands to explain the evolving nature of masculinity and femininity into instrumental traits and expressive traits. Instrumental traits include independence, dominance, assertiveness, and leadership abilities whereas expressive traits include sympathy, warmth, sensitivity and compassion. The instrumental traits define masculinity whereas the expressive traits define femininity. The instrumental traits explain why there are women who take up huge roles like taking care of the family, pursuing competitive such as managerial positions and politics. Individuals with expressive traits are considered feminine (Lippa 45). Men who possess expressive traits tend conform to feminine roles. Men who possess expressive traits taking up careers that are considered feminine such as nursing, teaching, and art related careers. Men with expressive traits have no problem raising taking care of the family while their women work to provide for the family.

Roughgarden states that culture and society are responsible for imposing on individuals the appropriate way of expressing their sexual identity. According to Roughgarden masculinity and femininity defines appearance, and behaviour humans. Roughgarden states that masculinity and femininity determines how an organism carious out a sexual role. Biologically masculinity and femininity differentiates the the characteristics possessed by males and females. However, Roughgarden points out the cross gender manifestation and behaviour is acceptable (Roughgarden 28). Roughgarden states that masculinity defines the physical appearance of male species as well as their behaviours. Roughgardens idea of cross gender manifestation suggests that if a female possesses male characteristics it is acceptable to refer to her as a masculine female. On the other hand, if a male possesses feminine characteristics it is acceptable to refer to him as a feminine male. The idea of cross-gender challenges the biological definition of gender based on male and female gametes (29).

Bennetts looks at feminism in the traditional marriages where the role of a woman in the relationship was child rearing and taking care of household duties. The man on the other hand provided for the financial needs in the family. According to Bennetts, giving up ones career ambitions for motherhood is a feminine mistake. Bennetts explains that economic dependency is bound to hurt or destroy the relationship (Bennetts132). Bennetts explains that relationships suffer immeasurably in the event of a divorce, a spouse’s retrenchment, illness, or widowhood especially when one party was dependent on another. It is evident that there is an evolving social phenomenon of masculine and feminine roles in relationships. The transformation disregards the traditional concepts of gender roles and adopts an egalitarian structure to explain masculine and feminine roles in modern relationships.

Roughgarden considers the responsibility of masculinity and femininity in facilitating gender sex roles. Roughgarden mention that social selection theory explains the success of sexual interaction among and between sexes. Roughgarden states that an effective social interaction depends on sexual play among or between sexes. According to Roughgarden behaviours such as promiscuity, cheating, competition, are all part of social selection. It is evident that cases of separation, divorce form part of social selection.

Lippa explains that parents serve as role models to their children. According to Thornton, Axinn, and Xie children tend to marry early if their parents married early. It is evident that children cohabit if their parents at some point did cohabit (Thornton, Axinn and Xie 55). These observations point out the transformation of the western marriage. The rise in divorce cases, acceptance sexual minority group all point to the transformation in the society that explain the change in masculine and feminine roles in relationships. For example, the divorce cases result in a rise of single parent family structures where we have a single mother who takes up the feminine as well as the masculine role in the family. The woman becomes a caregiver, decision maker and financial provider in the family. On the other hand, if we have the father taking up the full custody of the children the father assumes a feminine role of being the caregiver, nurturer and at the same time, he retains his masculine role.

Cultural models in the 21st century are transforming and homosexuality has gained acceptance in different societies. The gay, Lesbian, bisexual and transgender groups have societal support as well as federal protection that protects them from any form of harm. Desjardins considers same-sex marriage in the United States. According to Desjardins, the acceptance of same-sex marriage in the United States is evident from the wide support the issue has received from the public and politic figures. Desjardin states that there are states, for example, Maine where sex marriage is constitutionally accepted (Desjardins “Snowe supports same-sex marriage”). Lippa explains that the traditionally the feminine role in relationships involves the nurturing activities. Lippa considers masculine and feminine roles in homosexual relationships. According to Lippa, research shows that gay men exhibit feminine characteristics than heterosexual men. On the other hand, it is evident that lesbian women show masculine characteristics when compared to heterosexual women (Lippa 41). According to Lippa, parents and the society are responsible for teaching children on gender roles and behaviours.

Goldberg, Smith and Maureen state that same-sex marriages tend to shift the perception of masculine and feminine roles in relationships. According to Roughgarden, the existence of same sex relationships deviates from cultural conformation of gender relationships. However, Roughgarden mentions over 300 cases homosexual behaviours existent among animals. Roughgarden explains that competition in the animal kingdom explains the rise in cases of homosexual characteristics. It is due o such finding that we note that society has widened its definition of sexual orientation. According to Roughgarden the western society, acknowledge bisexualism, homosexuality and transgendering as normal sexual orientation. The acknowledgement of other forms of sexual orientation has led to the redefinition of masculine and feminine role in relationships. In some cases, men take up feminine roles and women take up masculine roles. In same sex marriages, adopting children to raise a family is a way of experiencing a normal life (Goldberg, Smith and Maureen 814).

Research studies indicate that gay, lesbian; transgender, and bisexual parents adopt children to experience normal relationships like heterosexual families. Studies also show the same sex parents, for example, gay fathers’ exhibit better nurturing qualities than heterosexual fathers do. The same sex marriages provide good example of egalitarian family structures. Goldberg, Smith, and Maureen explains that same sex parents’ value equality and both parents work together, share responsibilities for the benefit of the family (Goldberg, Smith and Maureen 815).

Lippa explains that there are women who take up masculine roles in modern relationships, for example, the case of single mothers, widowed women, lesbian and transgender relationships. In other cases, involving heterosexuals, lesbians, gay, transgender, and bisexuals’ egalitarianism plays a significant role in the definition of the masculine and feminine roles in the relationship. In such an arrangement, there is an equitable division of roles involving house chores, child rearing and income generation. Children learn marriage, social, and education values from their parents. Thornton, Axinn and Xie explain that studies confirm children learn and adopt values from the family, school and society (Thornton, Axinn, and Xie105). Children who grow up in a family where parents adopt egalitarianism as a means of raising their families will end up raising their families in the same structure.

Bennetts explains that children who have both their parents working benefit from having a secured future in terms of finance and career (Bennetts 98). Bennetts criticises the decision of professional women to give up their careers for their traditional roles as nurturers, home keepers. According to Bennetts, women who give up their careers for the family end up suffering. On the other hand making a career come back is a greater challenge they face later in their lives (Bennetts 102). Traditional marriage set-ups required women to submit to their husbands wishes. However, this has changed with the empowerment of women society now produces women who have a better education, women who compete with men for top paying positions, and women participating in influential activities such as politics. Feminine roles change when women decide to pursue their career. Studies show that women who pursue careers have less time for relationships and families. Those who manage to raise families struggle to balance their careers and being there for the family (Bennetts 125). Although the family benefits from financial security, the mother faces health complications resulting from stress especially if her husband is unsupportive in the provision of primary care giving.

Research shows that women who take up masculine roles like providing for their families influence their family structures. Women who dedicate their time to build on their careers influence the size of their families. Bennet states that it is impossible for a woman to take care of a large family and at the same time pursue a successful career. According to Bennetts, women opt to sacrifice their careers to raise a family (Bennet 32). On the other hand, the role of fathers in the modern families has changed. The masculine role of aggressiveness has evolved to a compassionate and nurturing role. This is evident especially in same sex marriages involving gay adopting parents. In modern families, fathers desire to spend more time with their families. There is the evidence where fathers alter their work schedules to make them flexible in order to create time for their families. Another example of a change in masculine role is depicted in the media where we get examples of male resistance to job relocations this is to avoid separation of fathers from their families. It is common to families where the mother is the breadwinner and the father takes up the role of taking care of the home and rearing the children.

Roughgarden offers a different perspective on the matter of family size form an evolutionary standpoint. According to Roughgarden, the female determines the family size depending on the parental investment she expects to provide. In this case, the female does not consider the male investment. This view deviates for the traditional view where a controlling male determined the family size. Roughgarden explains that a cooperative solution provides a reasonable means of determining family size (Roughgarden 119). A cooperative solution seeks to establish mutual trust among individuals in relations rather that display the masculine qualities of the controlling male. Modern families determine family sizes depending on a mutual understanding between the persons in the relationship. The mutual understanding evident in determination of family size proves the change in masculine and feminine roles in relationships.

When women take up their positions in the work force, their children suffer. The masculine and feminine role of imparting social qualities upon their children is interrupted. It is important for women to perform their role of providing continuous affection and nurturing children at their early stage of development (Lippa 124). However, the women’s fight for equality has rather reversed this role. Children in modern families tend to be left in the care of baby sitters. Lippa explains that parental rearing is important for children to understand socialisation and the differences regarding masculinity and femininity (Lippa 124). The absence of parents during the initial stages of socialisation the children can suffer from mental distress.

Since 2010, there has been a rise of men’s right movements in regions around Europe and the United States. These movements seek to advocate for the rights of fathers, and support the changing masculine roles in relationships. According to research studies, the women have outnumbered men in high paying jobs; it is evident that in the modern family set ups a large number of men are taking up the feminine roles. Women in modern relationships have become assertive and a significant number of men exhibit feminine characteristics. Goldberg, Smith, and Maureen mention cases of transgender who struggle to express their identity. Transgender male or female who get into marital relationships without confirming their identity suffer from the stress of struggling to lead a normal life in their secretive life. Disclosing ones identity enables once to take up the roles that conform to their identity (820).

It is impossible to ignore the societal transformations that play a big role in transforming relationships. The concept that same sexuality destroys a couple’s role in breeding it is evident that same sex sexual orientation promotes friendship. Although sociologist consider homosexuality as a complex social behaviour they view that homosexuality, heterosexuality, transgendering and bisexuality represent diverse forms of human interaction. The modern family set ups provides a perfect example of the changing masculine and feminine roles. However, it is important to note that the masculine and feminine roles both play a significant role in the growth and development of children. Therefore, even with the changing roles it is important for families to maintain their roles as role models for their children. This prevents cases of mental instability that may arise when parents priorities their careers instead of their children’s needs. Goldberg, Smith and Maureen mention some positive parenting qualities that GLTB exhibit society can embrace this and learn on how to merge their masculine and feminine roles to benefit the family.

Classical political economy was a concept that dominated social thought within the nineteenth century; the development of such a period constituted a decisive stage within the attempt to understand the economic framework that essentially became relied upon for defining the basis of society. However Marx considered that the basis of the political economy ignored the prevalent relationship between elements of human alienation and exploitation that he argued derived from the inequalities caused by the condition of the capitalist political economy. When considering this further, Marx therefore relied upon an essential critique of the political economy in light of not only the previously mentioned relationship but similarly numerous other influential dynamics within the economy, as a consequence Marx continued to establish his critique of the economic system throughout his works in an attempt to ascertain true communism as a positive expression for the basis of society.

The main concern when considering classical political economy is the regard of society as being a composition of various classes that functioned on the basis of economic purpose. Marx however recognised that in reality the theories surrounding classical political economy were unable to understand the significance of the economic purpose of the working class and the experienced struggle that consequently rooted itself within society. Marx therefore argued that the failure of classical political economy to separate human nature from the superficial construct of the economic class system possessed a dominant influence upon the ignorance of the proletarian class and the consequent focus upon the bourgeois class prevalent within society. Marx witnessed the inhumanity and irrationality surrounding human life and criticised it profusely in that the accepted capitalist economic system prevalent at the time considered it to be a natural occurrence with the progression of the economic system. As a consequence, Marx posited a class struggle between the proletarian and bourgeois economic classes, a struggle inherent and therefore inevitable within the capitalist, industrial society. With the increasing development of capitalism, class struggles became generalised across the economic system, Marx’s critique consequently deemed class struggle as originating in the process of production and he therefore continued to argue that the conflict prevalent derives from the class antagonism of labour power.

As a consequence of the class struggle the proletarian economic class were inevitably forced to sell their labour to achieve capital to survive and as a consequence Marx criticised that the capitalists had every intention of exploiting the labourers for maximum effectiveness within the production process, “Capital is dead labor, which, vampire-like, lives only by sucking living labor, and lives the more, the more labor it sucks.” (Marx: 1990: 257). To theorise how the aforementioned exploitation became the routine within classical political economy Marx criticised how capitalism employed a standard, recognised framework by which the bourgeois minority monopolised the labouring majority in order to gain the most efficient means of production. When considering the previous criticisms of exploitation the influence upon human nature must also be recognised; it can be philosophised that Marx recognised that humans are fundamentally natural producers as he defined labour as “man’s self-confirming essence” (Marx: 1833) and Marx therefore implemented a critique towards the evident distortion capitalism roots within human nature. It could be argued that the evident exploitation alienates the labourer from not only the act of production but similarly distances them from the products of their labour and as a consequence it has been argued that the alienation present becomes a process in which humanity progressively transforms into a stranger in a world created by labour (Swingewood: 2000).

Furthermore, Marx continued to route his critique of the classical political economy within the establishment and understanding of the capitalist division of labour and its consequent exploitation and oppression of the proletarian economic class. Marx recognised that the division of labour within the economy succeeded in the efficient formation of profit and value and essentially agreed with Smith in that labour was the only real resource that constituted a productive economy yet his fundamental criticism was based upon the consequent exploitation of the labourer and their constant struggle within the economic system. Marx recognised within Smith’s understanding of the political economy that he initially instigated an analysis of the capitalist mode of production. However, Marx continued to characterise that Smith in fact pays no concern to the operation of the inner foundations of the economic system and instead criticises Smith for merely recognising the immediate external and superficial extraction of the benefits resulting from the successful implementation of the capitalist mode of production. When considering Smith’s perspective further it becomes immediately evident that he accepted the proletarian struggle deriving from the economic division of labour as inconsequential and therefore argued that the exploitation was in fact the most successful method of capitalist production, consequently it could be argued that Smith degraded labourers to an abstract commodity within the production process as opposed to a living being. Furthermore, Marx criticised that Smith accepted that the desirability of the high productivity rate within his theory of the division of labour outweighed the evident exploitative costs, “Political economy regards the proletarian like a horse, he must receive enough to enable him to work. It does not consider him, during the time when he is not working, as a human being” (Marx: 1969), the consequent exploitation of the value of the labourers contribution represented a qualitative increase in productivity within the production process and therefore an increase in profit for the bourgeois economic class regardless of the abhorrent conditions under which labourers are forced to work. It is therefore apparent as to Marx’s justification behind his critique; Marx argued that Smith’s dominantly capitalist perspective failed to initially recognise and therefore appreciate the standard of conditions that the proletarian labourers are forced to accept as adequate.

Within the prevalence of the capitalist mode of production it can be considered that another fundamental element concerning the political economy is the recognition of the influence that the division of labour possesses upon the economic system. As a consequence of this, Ricardo proposed the Labour Theory of Value in an attempt to further understand the influence of labour value upon capitalist production techniques. The aforementioned theory proposes that the recognised value of goods is directly proportional to the extent of labour required throughout production. However, it is argued that Marx criticised that Ricardo’s thesis was essentially incomplete when considering the capitalist political economy as it disregards the exploitive nature of the income distribution between the bourgeois and the proletariat economic classes. Marx continued to criticise the capitalist mode of production as he connotes that the exchange value of goods was in fact deserved by the worker as opposed to the autocratic rule of the capitalist, however, as a consequence Marx proposed the concept of surplus value as a critique of the capitalist political economy. For Marx, the dominant increase in productivity resulted from the competitive and exploitive nature of the capitalist’s strife to obtain the maximum surplus value, or profit, possible from goods; it could therefore be argued that the surplus value obtained derives from the essentially unpaid labour appropriated by the capitalists within political economy.

When considering the presentation of the aforementioned critique philosophised by Marx, his attempt to provide a solution for the criticisms of the political economy must also be examined. It could be argued that throughout his entire critique his desire to ascertain a sense of true communism within society evidently underpinned his justification behind his arguments. Marx essentially fought for the recognition of labour as an important factor within the capitalist production process; he proposed that through the implementation of true communism society could achieve and withhold a beneficial economic system “Communism deprives no man of the ability to appropriate the fruits of his labour. The only thing it deprives him of is the ability to enslave others by means of such appropriations.” (Marx: 2002) Marx continued to portray how communism would in turn regard the importance of the whole of society as opposed to the bourgeois minority. He consequently urged for the removal of the inequalities he continually criticised throughout the political economy and continued to justify such criticisms through arguing that the complete abolition of private property would equate to the removal of inequalities and eventually the elimination of the class struggle. Furthermore, it must be recognised that the political economy was premised upon the notion of private property and material ownership and when considering this further Marx argued that private property wasn’t an explanation captured within the essence of human nature but rather a superficially constructed consequence of the political economies regard for the stratification of the economic class system. Ultimately, Marx argued for the free expression of everyone within society and the consequent desirability that rooted itself within his argument for communism as it was reliant upon the recognition of human freedom within the production process.

In conclusion it is evident that the basis for Marx’s critique of political economy is reliant upon the implications of the negative relationship established between the abstract regard of labour and the consequent human alienation present within the capitalist economic structure. Such critique continued through to his perspective of Smith and Ricardo and the apparent recognition Marx felt toward the evident disregard for the proletarian economic class. Ultimately it has been argued that Marx’s desire for true communism, particularly when concerning the freedom of human nature, has established that the dominant criticism throughout the evaluation of classical political economy is the concept of the exploitive nature of the capitalist mode of production and the implications for inequalities that are established within society as a consequence of such a struggle.

Marx put forward by the nature of the dialectical materialism to society by developing the understanding of the historical process and explaining the methodological structure of the formula being used.

Marxist historical materialism is the application of science to historical development. The main thesis of historical materialism can be summarized in one sentence: “People are not aware of the things that determine the presence, on the contrary, which determines their consciousness, are social beings.” (Marx, Preface to the Critique of Political Economy)

Karl Marx and historical materialism

Marx, dialectic the nature of the structure of a definite law, as determined after this law, the social-historical structures and processes in the understanding of a tend to the here and materialist approach in accordance with the shape they started the system’s historical materialism called can be reported. In the most general sense, to give a description of historical materialist development, so development of the law and evidence to demonstrate that a proper theory of historical materialism can also create content.

Marx said:

“Plus-paid labor and receive the special economic forms drawn directly from the manufacturers directly arising from the production itself and he left it as a defining influence, manage, and manage those relationships will determine. But, on this, the economic community arising from the entire process of production itself, so that at the same time has put his personal political style. The entire social structure and with it the sovereignty and dependency relationships of political format, in short, it fits the specific form of government the innermost secret, confidential basis reveal anything, anytime, production conditions, those with direct manufacturer relationships between is-it always Naturally, at some stage in the development of work methods and thus fits into its social productivity is a relationship. “

What is the meaning of communism?

Communism on social organization and a theoretical system based on common ownership of means of production is a political movement.

Primitive Communism

In Western thought the idea of communism, Marx and Engels were formed long ago. Communism in the property before the ancient Greeks already lived in complete harmony of society, humanity’s “golden age” there used to be associated with a myth. Some of the works of Plato and other ancient theorists to state a kind of communal life in defense of communism indicates. Many of the early Christian sect (and as stated in Acts, especially in the early Church), pre-Columbian indigenous tribes in America communism were applied in the form of communal living and common ownership.

In the early stages of society people do not enter the factory, would not normally consume what they produce themselves and cannot work for the weekend, they need food, clothing, etc… Be ready to accept other people for a team award with colored paper and fancy disk. This behavior is quite amazing to come to our remote ancestors. Since we had previously adopted many features of modern society, too. These claims have not heard what the socialist: “People are greedy and are bound to be usurped. Socialism cannot be reached, because you cannot change human nature. “

Primitive hunting and gathering was the foundation of society. Single division, all-natural biological reasons, women also responsible for much of the burden of young children from, was the division of labor between women and men. While the men hunted, women gathered vegetables and fruits were.

Anarchist Communism

Anarchist Communism 14 century and a desire born of a rejection is arm communist anarchism. The authority is rejected. Indeed, theorists, anarchists Proudhon in 1851 “in neither the church nor the state in what is now, what in neither the earth nor the monetary authority should be in,” he said freedom is the desired.

Marx’s scientific socialism contradicts with anarchist ideas. Giuseppe Fanelli, founder of anarchism in Spain, with 1 participating in international Bakunin, “the world parity, and the federation of communes have become freely organized collective ownership of production and labor union organizing itself has to perform,” he says. Indeed, people at the start of the International Workers were divided into two. Proudhon, Marx, another one of these two currents, especially the Geneva (1866) and Lausanne (1867) fought in Congress. 1. in the next Congress fell from international anarchists. According to leading anarchists will be reviewed again should be propaganda. Starting from this idea, the Italian anarchists, they propose to use violence in 1877: “socialist orientation to the principles put forward by the action of the uprising, the most effective propaganda tool.

Overview of the nation to communism

aa‚¬A“From their inception in eighteenth century France, modern police forces in Europe have been involved in political policing. For example, they collected and exchanges information on persons and movements that were considered to be a threat to the established political order. After Napoleonic era, the German states not only established a central political police bureau but also founded, first in Mainz (1819-28) and later in Frankfurt (1833-48), a secret central commission for the exchange and analysis of information. The revolutionary events that took place in 1848 all over Germany brought about, in 1851, a new initiative to reinforce secret interstate co-operation in political policing: the German Polizeiverein (Police association),with its seat in Leipzig. This co-operation involved regular conferences and the exchange of weekly reports. They focused on all sorts of issues with respect to the maintenance of the established political order: illegal meeting of workers, the spread of rebellious pamphlets, the expulsion of dangerous writers etc. However most energy was devoted to the fight against Communism, in the broadest sense of most influential collaborators of the Polizeiverein aa‚¬” C.Wermuth, the police director of Hanover, and W.Stieberg, his equivalent in Berlin-published an extensive report on the communist conspiracies of the nineteenth century. This contained many details concerning the Communist movement in Germany, Austria and other Europe states.

Such information was not only collected by the many informers that Stieber and others secretly controlled, but also delivered by various police authorizes. Some, like the head of the Belgian political police bureau, were virtually extra-ordinary members of the association, participating in conferences and receiving regular bulletins. Others, like the Commissioner established close contact with the Polizeiverein. On the eve of the 1851 Great Exhibition in London, Commissioner Mayne invited the German states, France and Belgium to send officers to London in order to co-ordinate repressive measures against dangerous foreign criminals. Most of those sent belonged to the political policing sections, as London was seen as a hotbed of continental revolutionaries.aa‚¬? (httpHYPERLINK “http://arno.uvt.nl/show.cgi?fid=57599”://arno.uvt.nl/show.cgi?fid=57599 , http://www.kozonline.org/kitap_brosur/amentu6.htm)

What is the meaning of capitalism?

Capitalism, private ownership of means of production owned and operated by a section-weighted, investment, distribution, income, production and prices of goods and services of social and economic system of market economy is determined.

This system is usually created by individuals or groups or corporate entities for labor, land, production means and has the right to be able to make money trading. Practice of the capitalist economy in Europe 16 and 19 century, has become among the corporate, but some characteristics can be found in the first period, the traders during the Middle Ages, the early forms of capitalism have emerged. Since the end of feudalism and capitalism in the Western world is dominated system, the whole world was spread from Europe.

According to Marx, communism and capitalism and why communism is better?

Communism, in a manner different from the capitalist system of society is a system for predicting the organization. Accordingly, the communist stage is reached, according to all the people of the community will contribute to the enrichment capability, according to the requirements of this wealth will receive shares. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels communism developed by social class according to this theory and states will disappear, rather than private property will remain public property. (MARX and ENGELS)

The rapid development of capitalism during the Industrial Revolution, which form an important part of society and the growing number of workers living and working conditions were very bad. Men, women and child workers are run for long hours in unbearable conditions and very low running costs. Poverty, hunger, malnutrition and diseases caused by working conditions that affect large masses of the 19th century, the existing system of socialism as a counter-current of thought emerged (SOCIALISM).

In this theory, communism is the final stage. First, class and state, family, religious institutions such as the existence of a working-class power in the period envisaged. This phase is called the period of socialism. Over time, the realization of socialism all over the world, national borders, class and the state will disappear, material wealth is distributed according to the needs of the people would place under communism.

Marxism literary theory and the new criticism theory are among many wide schools of theory with historical importance. These theories differ in their methods and conclusions as well as their text. Different theories complement and supplement each other in their goals, methods, conclusions and text. The present day literary theory dates back in the 1960s. Literary theory was at its highest peak in popularity in some of the leading universities in America such as John Hopkins and Yale. It is from these universities that the influence of literary theory started spreading and by 1980s it was being taught almost everywhere. During this time, literary theory was supposed to be an academically cutting-edge, and as a result the majority of university literature departments wanted to teach and learn theory and integrate it into their curricula.

The goal of Marxist literary theories is to represent class conflict as well as to reinforce class distinctions through literature. Marxist theorists frequently champion writers who are sympathetic to the working classes and those whose works challenge the economic equalities in capitalist societies. In maintaining the spirit of Marxism, literary theories developing from the Marxist paradigm have sought Modern ways of understanding the relationship between literature and economic production as well as cultural production. Literary theory has drawn a lot of influence from the Marxism analyzes society.

New Critics in their works usually include inherent moral dimension, and occasionally a religious dimension. For instance, New Critic may read a poem by Thomas Eliot for its level of honesty in expression of torment and contradiction of a serious exploration of belief in the present world. On the other hand Marxist critic might see New critics’ point of view as ideological instead of critical. They would argue that critical distance should be kept from the poet’s religious standpoint for the poem to be understood. New criticism theories look at literary works in the view of what is written and not upon the authors’ goals or biographical issues. In contrast, the Marxists emphasize themes of class conflict.

Marxist literary criticism

Marxist literary criticism is used to describe literary criticism influenced by the philosophy of Marxism. Twentieth century leading proponents of Marxist theory are also literary critics. They include, George Lukacs, Terry Eagleton, and Raymond Williams. Marxist theory has different goals. One of its simplest goals is literary assessment of the political “inclination” of a literary work, hence determining whether its literary form is progressive.

According to Marxists legal systems, religious beliefs, and cultural frameworks are determined by social and economic conditions. Therefore Art should represent these conditions truthfully and also seek to better them. The popularity of Marxist aesthetics has reduced in nowadays consumerist society; however it continues to pose responsible questions.

Marxist basis of evaluation is hard to establish although it is one of the vigorous and varied 20th century school of aesthetics. Marxist theory has not been able to explain how the political, artistic, and legal superstructure of a nation reflects in its economic constitution. Assumptions from its generalizations have been stunningly inaccurate. For instance the hypotheses with which Marxism explained the rise in living standards of capitalist working class; the Russian-Chinese conflict revolution in Russia; and the uprisings in Berlin. The fact that Marxism fails intellectually is a prove that it has weaknesses in literary criticism.

Despite Marxist critism theories having weaknesses it is a good thing that it allows intellectual freedom. Sometimes the authors writing may have been influenced in some way by the state. For instance, the communist world was totally different from what writers were allowed to show. This means that the literary work of time could not be analyzed by simply looking at the author’s goal as it is proposed by new criticism. Reading the literary work very closely and particularly the language used by the author would help to analyze the work more critically. In this case Marxism is very crucial because what people read that is what they practice.

Some contemporary Marxists such Terry Eagleton have tried to rehabilitate or revise marx. She recognizes the fact that literary work like that of Shakespeare create value because by reading them we are made to think and get something out of them thus getting some values from them. This supplements new criticism theory that looks at the moral and sometimes the religious dimensions such as honesty.

Georg Lukacs contribution

In his contribution towards Marxism and literature, Georg Lukacs, maintained that the text contained in classic realist writings in describing events of ordinary occurrence and social conditions give a vivid picture of the entireness of a society and its evolution. He argues that the literature of naturalism shows the contradictions that exist in societies and within the individual in the context of a dialectical unit. He acknowledged the fact that realist novels present a partial image of a society. However, he also supported the idea that the value of a novel lies in its description of the nature of a society in a historic period. He also argued that any literary work does not reflect individual phenomena in isolation as modernist text depicts, but should be the whole process of life found in realism. However, Lukas was opposed by Bertolt Brecht, who argued that society is dynamic and hence reality also changes. This is why Bertolt maintained that modes of representation should change accordingly. The methods and goals of representation are always changing in the quest to describe present-day realities.

Raymond Williams contribution

According to Williams, any literature potraying an ever changing culture has the counter-hegemonic and dominant ideology. Therefore Marxist criticism leaning towards William’s theories considers literature as an important vehicle for ideology.

Williams’ believed that where there was no common culture, a cultural and literary tradition is founded on selections made in the present and shaped by value decisions and power interests. This way he deconstructed the idea that truth is integral in a literary tradition. This contribution complements the new criticism theory that seeks to understand moral dimension of every literary text.

He also suggested the term “structure of feeling” for analysis of literature. Even though she acknowledges that the term cannot be equated to an ideology since it lacks specificity of class and it is not universal; the term gives the dimension of experience more emphasis. Structure of feeling supplements new criticism theory since it emphasizes the experience dimension. This means that the text is not subjected to critical interpretations but instead the primacy of the text is upheld.

New criticism

New Criticism as a school of thought of literary interpretation stresses the significance of studying texts as comprehensive works of art in themselves. They argued for upholding primacy of text other than analysis based on context. According to proponents of this theory literary texts are usually comprehensive in and of themselves. They elevate the purpose of criticism in academics such as in the maintenance of language and poetry at the same time helping their development. Criticism is very important as it forms an inherent part of social development. Majority of new criticism studies see the theory as one that focuses on close reading of structure, theme, technicalities and the message contained in the literary works.

New criticism supplements the Marxism criticism theory in its objective. Marxism theory interprets every literary work on the basis of how it responds to social inequalities. Social development is therefore an inherent part of the Marxism theory. New criticism also gives some focus to social development though indirectly. New criticism theory expects that by focussing on criticism at the academic level, the same will trickle down to the society at large and hence leading to social development.

Unreasonable assumptions of Marxism and new criticism

One of the assumptions of the New Critics is that biographical and historical information is not important in the study of a literary text. This assumption restricts the reader so much and is often seen as excessively authoritarian. Historical and biographical information is necessary as it can create an experience dimension that can pass some values to the reader. In so doing social development occurs. Marxism emphasizes the use of historical and biographical information in analyzing literary works. Marxism assumes that a literary work is a reflection of the society that produces it. This assumption is not always true. Some literary works may have had some external influenced thus depicting a society in a way that people wants to see it and thus may not be a true reflection of the society. Since new criticism does not emphasis the historical and biographical information of text, but instead on close reading of structure, theme, technicalities and the message contained in the literary works, it complements the Marxism assumption. Therefore the blend of both Marxism and new criticism can complement each other as mentioned above.

Humanism

Marxism does not put emphasis on the use of Marx ideology of class conflict for academics but instead for social development. Therefore proponents of Marxism criticism theory believe it is most useful in the humanist world outside the academy. As discussed earlier, the new criticism is so much focussed on academics and not the society. It is so restrictive to the reader and does not use biographical and historical information in analysis of a literary work. On the other hand, Marxism can be referred as being humanistic. It is humanistic because it empathizes with the victims of social inequalities. Marxism therefore seeks to analyse literary works using the Marx ideology of class conflict. The Marxists hope that by analyzing literary works using class conflict ideology, the reader will be able to recognize the inequalities existing in the society and thus can find ways of overcoming them and bring about an equal society.

According to Patricia Waugh humanism is not only found in Marxism but rather in all theories. She sees theories as a means by which one can exercise crucial capacities of being human. One can reflect or be rational about life through a theory and in the process one can stand back to make second order judgements about the world and our behaviour in it.

In conclusion, Marxism criticism theory and New Criticism are different in many ways. These differences are what complements and supplements each other. For instance, since New Criticism does not emphasize on the use of historical and biographical information in analyzing literary works, Marxism complements it. On the other hand, New Criticism supplements Marxism’s structure of feeling by emphasizing moral dimension in the analysis of literary works. Raymond Williams a proponent of Marxism acknowledge values such as truth as integral to the literary tradition.

For this sociology essay I shall be researching and comparing three social perspective theories on crime, Marxism, Functionalism, and Feminism. I will be attempting to write how the three theories compare and conflict with each other.

Marxist perspective on crime

Karl Heinrich Marx was born the 5th of May 1818 Trier Germany to a comfortable middle class family. A historian, social scientist, revolutionary and philosopher, Karl Marx, was and still is considered the most important socialist thinker that emerged from the 19th century. Karl Marx during his lifetime was for the most part ignored by scholars. But since his death in 1883, Marx’s political, social and economic ideas quickly gained acceptance in the socialist movement.

Although Karl Marx never wrote at length about crime, he did argue the laws made by the ruling class were mostly put in place to keep the working class under control. Karl Marx had the idea that most people were not even aware they were being exploited. Marxism recognises for a society to function properly, social order is necessary. They state that in all societies apart from communist societies the ruling class always gains far more than any other class.

Haralambos & Holborn (2004) in discussing Marxist perspectives on deviance states that: the ruling class passes laws that benefits ruling-class interests. Therefore making sure the power stays in ruling class hands so they have a constant control over lower classes. (P353).

Marxists have the idea that Capitalist societies emphasise individual gain and the need to win at all costs. They feel greed explains crimes for financial gain. Marxists think the frustrations felt by dehumanising the lower classes can explain the crimes against the individual persons. They think crime in part is the creation of unequal power and inequality, and that it is a natural response to living in poverty. They feel crime is often the result of the ruling class offering the lower classes of society, demeaning work that gives little or no sense of creativity.

Although Marxists agree that crime is widespread within all social classes they argue deprived criminals are given harsher sentences than wealthy criminals. Marxists are more likely to emphasise corporate and white collar crime, they note that crimes by the upper classes cost more, and have a greater economic toll on society than lower class crimes. Marxists believe laws are approved to benefit the desires of the ruling class, they say people have unequal access to the law. Powerful people with money can hire a good lawyer this can change the odds of being found guilty or not guilty. Therefore for a Marxist, punishment for a crime could depend and vary with the social status of the criminal.

A man named William Chambliss was concerned in the fact of why certain things are made illegal and others are not, he also wondered who decided what issues are made law, and why the unequal distribution of wealth wasn’t illegal, William Chambliss also thought the ruling class controlled this power, and it was the ruling class who prevented certain issues from ever being discussed.

Dutchman Willem Adriaan Bonger 1876-1940: The 1st Marxist Criminologist wrote that all individuals in capitalist societies are infected by egoism because they are alienated from authentic social relationships with their fellow human beings, and all are thus prone to crime. He thought the root cause of crime was the capitalist mode of production and poverty was the major cause of crime, but the effects of poverty can be traced to the family structure and on parental inability to properly supervise their children. Willem Bonger supported the view that the roots of crime lay in the exploitative and alienating conditions of capitalism. The social sentiments that concerned him were altruism (an active concern for the well being of others) and egoism (a concern only for one’s own selfish interests). Willem Adriaan Bonger took his own life in 1940 rather than summiting to the Nazis. Willem Bonger (1969) Criminality and Economic Conditions.

In general Marxists believe the law is created by the ruling class, and only acts that grow out of working class life are defined as criminal. They state everyone breaks the law, but biased law enforcement means it is mainly the working class who get caught. “Marxism is the only theory that examines the crimes of the powerful”.

Haralambos & Holborn (2004): Marxists have been criticized in the past for thinking that a Communist system maybe the answer to eradicating crime, when in fact Switzerland, a capitalist society has a very low rate of crime. Feminists argue Marxists ignore the role of patriarchy whilst putting far too much emphasis on class inequality. (p355).

Functionalism perspective on crime

Haralambos & Holborn (2004): Functionalists believe that deviance and crime starts with society as a whole. Functionalism looks into society for the source of crime and deviance rather than looking to the individual itself. Functionalism is frequently thought of as the exact opposite to Marxism. Functionalists give emphasis to the positive way crime can affect a social system. Functionalism stems from Emile Durkheim. He believed that crime was to be expected in all societies. (p253).

Emile Durkheim was born on April the 15th, 1858 at Epinal, Vosges, in Lorraine, France. Durkheim is considered by most the father of sociology. He is credited for making sociology a science. During Durkheim’s lifetime he published a number of sociological studies on subjects like suicide, religion and other aspects of society as well as giving a number of lectures. Emile Durkheim (2002).

Haralambos & Holborn (2004): All Functionalists have the opinion that control mechanisms like courts and police are a necessity to keep crime and deviance in control and protect social order. However many functionalists argue a certain amount of deviance can have positive functions in society, they feel crime can even provide maintenance and the well being of a society. In Emile Durkheim’s book “The Rules of Sociological Method” (1938) crime is argued to be inevitable, and a normal part of social life. Emile Durkheim had the notion that crime was present throughout all types of society. He also felt the crime rate would be higher in more highly developed industrialized countries. Durkheim believed that if there was a perfect society of saints, occupied by perfect individuals, a society where no murder or robbery occurred, deviance would still be present because behaviour standards would be set that high the smallest slip would be considered a serious offence. Durkheim felt society would stagnate without deviance. (253).

A man named Robert Merton produced a detailed functionalist theory to explain criminal behaviour. Merton stated that all societies set goals to attain, Merton believed that if there was a sensible chance you could reach these goals then society would function, but he felt that if these goals were unobtainable then a situation of anomie occurs (anything goes). Robert Merton stated that there are five anomic responses where individuals cannot achieve Societies goals.

1, Conformity: where individuals struggle for success through accepted channels.

2, Innovation: people will accept society has goals but will reject the socially accepted means, for example organized crime.

3, Ritualism: where people accept the socially approved way, but no longer believe they can achieve success, for example people who stick to the rules no matter what.

4, Retreatism: people who have lost sight of societies goals for example drug users.

5, Rebellion: people who have adopted new goals, and different ways to achieve them, for example revolutionaries, cults. Sociology in Focus: Paul Taylor (1997)

In general Functionalist’s believe crime can play a positive role in society, they feel societies need to produce crime to set the limits of behaviour to show society what will, and won’t be tolerated. Functionalist’s state the working class are more criminal because they have fewer bonds with social institutions and therefore have less to lose. They think of society as a living organism with each function like institutions, organizations, and other mechanisms working together. J.Tattersall: (2010).

Functionalist theory has been criticized for ignoring the crimes of the higher social classes, for seeing crime and deviance as a product of society and social background (deterministic), and for ignoring the fact that many young people often choose to be deviant and they often grow out of this behaviour.

“Functionalism is the only theory that sees crime as having a positive function”.

Feminist perspective on crime

Feminist criminology thinks that crime must be viewed from all perspectives in order to understand and obtain the most complete picture of crime. Feminists see society as male-dominated (patriarchal). Feminists see men benefiting at the women’s expense. Feminists also argue that most social institutions, including the state and its policies, help to maintain women’s subordinate position and the unequal gender division of labour in the family.

According to the Feminist school of criminology, major theories in crime have been developed by male subjects, and they focus on male victimization. They feel that facts about crime tend to be focused on the gender of the criminal and not the crime itself. “Feminism is the only theory that examines gender differences when explaining crime”.

Professor Frances Heidenson (1989) criticises the male dominance of sociology she feels that most academics are male, and therefore criminology reflects male views and interests, she also stated that that most traditional theorists are gender blind, and therefore fail to explain how their theories can be applied to females. J. Tattersall (2010)

Haralambos and Holborn (2004): Otto Pollack (1950) claimed to have recognized certain crimes are usually committed by woman, he thought nearly all shoplifting and criminal abortions were carried out by woman, he also argued that many unreported crimes were committed by female servants. He noted many police, magistrates, and other law officials tended to be men. This could therefore make them chivalrous and lenient towards female offender’s, he thought because of this woman appear in statistics less. Pollack also stated that females are particularly good at hiding their crimes because of their genetic makeup. He stated that woman learn to mislead men during sex and can use this to fake interest and sexual pleasure. (pp. 382-383).

Haralambos and Holborn (2004): Pollack has been brutally criticized for some of these statements, Steven Jones (2001) points out that Pollack gives no real support that servants commit many crimes against employers, or that woman are better at hiding crimes then men. Heidensohn points out that Pollack has an unsubstantiated stereo typical image of woman and he is unwilling to point male crime to a biological predisposition to aggression and violence. (p384).

Heidensohn believed that there was double standards in the justice system and that the justice system was loaded against women and not for them, she thought that the justice system is more likely to punish women when they deviate from the norms of female sexuality. It has been suggested that women are being sentenced in terms of being mothers, wives, and daughters rather than examining the seriousness of their crime. It seems that lighter sentences are given to females who meet the traditional roles, whilst women who don’t fit these roles are given stronger punishments. J Tattersall (2010): (p5).

Feminists can be criticised for being ideological and prejudiced, by focussing on patriarchy they ignore the fact that men are also used for domestic labour. They fail to notice women are becoming increasingly independent, and focus on gender ignoring other important social factors such as class and race.

Conclusion- All three theories are structural theories they look at groups in societies rather than the individual. Marxism and Feminism are both conflict theories they see some groups as being less equal than others, functionalist theory is the only theory that see’s crime in a positive nature.

Compare and contrast two theories of the change in the age of marriage in industrial societies.

There are several theories which attempt to explain the causes behind the changing ages of marriage in industrial societies. While no theory should be seen as all-encompassing or as universally applicable, many have made valuable contributions to the overall debate. The theories presented by Valeria Oppenheimer (1988, 1994, 1997) and David S. Loughran (2002) are two such examples of incisive works that have influenced the direction and scholarly thought on this topic.

Before delving into the particulars of these two scholars, it is important to point out some of the problems inherent in attempting to account for such a diverse and important phenomenon. Indeed, the concept of marriage is one that is often culturally contingent and one that can vary among demographic and religious groups. Also, it is important to examine the question of how modern values have contributed to contemporary patterns of marriage. As such, not all industrial societies can be understood as uniformly similar and that the change in age of marriage should also be thought of in terms of time, socioeconomic status, race, and ethnic group.

Oppenheimer’s ‘A Theory of Marriage Timing’ is deeply concerned with challenging the then popular and prevailing notion that women’s economic independence was the major factor in the “decline in gains to marriage… (and the) rise in delayed marriage” (1988). This notion, to Oppenheimer, is particularly problematic because it tends to “push people into one of two polar positions:” the growing independence of women could be seen as too high of a price to pay because of its negative impact on society or as an “unavoidable price for women’s liberation” (1988). Instead Oppenheimer, through a modified search-theoretic framework, argues that even if the gains to marriage are reduced through economic independence, the result can have minimal effect on marriage gains in general. The greater independence that women experience creates an environment where they neither are forced to settle or remain in an undesirable situation (1988, p.587).

Oppenheimer further discredits the “independence hypothesis” in ‘Women’s Employment and the Gain to Marriage: the Specialization and Trading Model” through a detailed analysis of the literature supporting this notion (1997). Assumptions made by theorists, particularly those held by Gary Becker, are critically examined by Oppenheimer. An important criticism the author makes deals with questioning the starting point of the “high correlation of the various time series trends” employed by supporters of the independence hypothesis (1997). If one pushes these time-series backwards (and does not have them dated in the 1950’s and 1960’s) it becomes clear that divorce rates were on the rise well before women’s employment started to grow (1997). Further, Oppenheimer attempts to clarify the difference (which she believes is often misunderstood) between the delay of marriage and nonmarriage. She cites important factors why individuals may want to delay marriage, such as economic factors or educational attainment (among others) without actually delaying the relative worth or desirability of marriage (1997).

In ‘Women’s Rising Employment and the Future of the Family in Industrial Societies’ Oppenheimer explains the change in marriage through the declining position of men in the labor market. Supported by strong evidence linking the connection between early marriage and strong labor markets, Oppenheimer illustrates how men who lack a stable career or career path become less desirable, thus prolonging the search for potential mates.

Becker’s theory of marriage, which Oppenheimer connects with ideas presented by two of sociologists most notable figures (Parsons and Durkheim), maintains that “the major gain to marriage lies in the mutual dependence of spouses, arising out of their specialized functions—the woman in domestic production (and reproduction), the man in market work” (Oppeheimer 1997). As the economy grows and wages rise, women’s market work in turn also rises. For Becker, this means that the work women engage in becomes less specialized and more economically independent “leading, in turn, to a decline in the desirability of marrying or of staying married” (Oppenheimer 1997). Of particular concern to Oppenheimer is Becker’s argument that a ‘major gain’ to marriage is lost through women’s economic independence. Oppenheimer, however, calls into question several facets of Becker’s theory by arguing that families are adaptable and have placed both women and children in the workforce when it was demanded by particular economic conditions.

Oppenheimer stresses, through the employment of micro and marco level analyses, how the decline in male economic opportunity in the 1970s and 1980s served as an integral factor in reducing the supply of marriageable men. This parallels both Loughran’s and Easterlin’s (Birth and Fortune, 1987) arguments that individuals (both men and women) are more likely to be married in the areas in which higher proportions of men are ‘marriageable’ (for Loughran this notion hinges on wage inequality and for Easterlin it rests on the particulars of the birth cohort). Oppenheimer further deviates from many of her predecessors by stressing the relative importance uncertainty in career entry and path plays in the delay of marriage. Couples would thus spend a greater amount of time (the concept of delaying marriage as opposed to nonmarriage is again stressed) when searching for suitable (as defined by men and women with an established career path) partners.

Loughran, in “The Effect of Male Wage Inequality on Female Age at First Marriage” argues that “rising male wage inequality is responsible for a proportion of the decline in the age-specific propensity to marry between 1970 and 1990” (2002). The author, who also uses a search-theoretic framework, discusses how his hypothesis fits naturally into a model of female marital search (2002) and how it “reveals a negative correlation between male wage inequality and female propensity to marry.” That is, “if women search among a pool of men characterized by their wages, theory predicts growing male wage inequality will increase the duration of female marital search and, hence, age at first marriage” (2002). As similarly noted by Oppenheimer, Loughran agrees that modeling marriage behavior in this way shows that it is less of a ‘decline’ in marriage as it is of a ‘delay’. Loughran, in a similar vein as Oppenheimer, dispels alternative hypotheses such as rising female wages and employment and concludes that the rising male wage inequality increases the return to marital search, which in turn lengthens “search duration and decreas(es) age-specific propensities to marry” (2002).

When comparing the theories of Oppenheimer and Loughran, one can see that the latters economic analysis supports the formers on several key points. One of Loughrans hypotheses deals with describing how wage inequality (beginning in the early 1970s) meant greater variability in the economic suitability and stability of potential husbands thereby leading to greater rewards for women who extended and prolonged their marriage search. This notion supports Oppenheimers emphasis on taking the stress away from womens independence as the critical factor in changing age of marriage and instead placing it on the declining role of males in the marketplace.

Criticisms of these theories are bound to occur, as they fail to account for all of the intricacies associated with marriage trends. It is interesting to note the relative absence in the discussions presented by these authors of the importance of religion and its particular influence on marriage trends. When one considers the very nature of marriage, and the values and ideals it is naturally associated with, the idea of its close relationship with religious belief becomes easily noticeable. As such, it may be interesting in the future to examine these theories with respect to groups that have different levels of religiosity.

When considering both of these theories, it becomes clear that the economic opportunity of both men and women should be studied together if one is interested in discovering the reasons behind change in marriage age. While neither the growing wage inequality among young men nor the independence among young women is wholly responsible for the delay in marriage, they are both seen to be important contributors to the phenomena and overall debate. Oppenheimer, in particular, has proven to be influential in influencing the direction of the discourse by calling into question some of the key prevailing notions which have persisted throughout the past century.

References:

1.) Easterlin, R. A. (1987) Birth and Fortune: The impact of Numbers on Personal Welfare. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, second edition

2.) Oppenheimer, V.K. (1997) Women’s employment and the gain to marriage: the specialization and trading model. Annual Review of Sociology, 23, 431-453

3.) Oppenheimer, V.K. (1988) A theory of marriage timing. American Journal of Sociology, 94(3), 563-591

4.) Oppenheimer, V.K. (1994) Women’s rising employment and the future of the family in industrial societies. Population and Development Review, 20(2), 293-342

5.) Loughran, D.S. (2002). The effect of male wage inequality on female age at first marriage. Review of Economics and Statistics, 84(2), 237-250.

In India theres no bigger event in a very family than a marriage, significantly evoking each potential social obligation, kinship bond, ancient worth, burning sentiment, and economic resource. Within the composition and conducting of weddings, the advanced permutations of Indian social systems best show themselves.

Marriage is a closely related concept with that of the family. However, not every culture recognizes marriage in the same sense. Marriage in general terms is a legal and a social contract between two people. The process of becoming socially married begins with a public ceremony and ends with a death or divorce of either of the spouses.

Marriage is deemed essential for just about everybody in Indian society. For the individual, wedding is that the nice watershed in life, marking the transition to adulthood. Generally, this transition, like everything else in India, depends very little upon individual volition however instead happens as a results of the efforts of their folks. When one is born into a family while not the exercise of any personal alternative, thus is one given a relative with none personal preference concerned. Arranging a wedding may be an important responsibility for parents and different relatives of each bride and groom. Wedding alliances need some distribution of wealth similarly as building and restructuring social realignments, and, of course, end in the biological copy of families.

Especially in north India, a family seeks wedding alliances with individuals to whom it’s not related to blood relations. Wedding arrangements in north typically involve a way from family bonds. And in the Dravidian-speaking south, a family seeks to strengthen existing kin ties through wedding, ideally with blood relatives. Kinship nomenclature reflects this basic pattern. In the north, each kinship term clearly indicates whether or not the person cited may be a relative or associate relative; all blood relatives’ square measure verboten as wedding mates to someone or an individual’s kids. Within the south, there’s no clear-cut distinction between the family of birth and therefore the family of wedding. As a result of wedding within the south ordinarily involves a seamless exchange of daughters among a number of families, for the marriage all relatives square measure ultimately blood kin.

In the northern India, marriages are arranged outside the village, generally even outside of villages, with members of a similar caste. In a lot of the area, daughters must not be married into villages wherever daughters of the family or perhaps of the biological village have antecedently been given. In most of the region, brother-sister exchange marriages (marriages linking a brother and sister of 1 unit with the sister and brother of another) prohibited. The whole idea is on casting the wedding ties-wider, making new alliances by marriage making process of looking for suitable bride and groom.

In India, successful marriages are based upon love and liability, parental authority matters from the time raising children, teaching them value, providing them standards of living and helping to develop a strong character in their children, what they desire. As in India, usually females are brought up with respect to their parents, which becomes an important factor in choosing a husband for them and hence they are raised to trust and praise their parent’s decision under any circumstances, so under such society the liability of mate seeking becomes a responsibility of parents where they try to seek the ‘Best’ mate for their children.

But due to globalization and migration of people from their native town to other cities, it has made it slightly difficult in arranging the marriages, finding the perfect partner for one’s child which can be a challenging task at times. In such cases nowadays people use their social networks to locate potential brides and grooms of appropriate social and economic status. Increasingly, urban dwellers use classified matrimonial advertisements in newspapers, online etc. The advertisements usually announce religion, caste, class and educational qualifications, stress female beauty and male (and in the contemporary era, sometimes female) earning capacity.

Literature Review
‘The Relevance Of Matrimonial Advertisements For The Study Of Mate Selection In India’ by Cora Vreede-De Stuers

In this article, the author has studied the fact that how matrimonial advertisement in India have promoted the inaccuracy and exaggerated variables provided by those who use advertising a medium for match making. And as this facts and variables are exaggerated these ads are misleading those who seek for partners through these matrimonial columns. Author has also focused on how has the growing use of usual channels of matchmaking through the mediation of the traditional are in rise due to the those set of people who have to adjust to the anonymity of city life and the constant transfers of government servants. For that very reason this set of people is increasingly making use of matrimonial is as a modern adaptation of the traditional means. The author has drawn conclusion from the content analysis of his findings is that the majority of the advertisers conform completely to the prevailing value system of their status group like caste, class, profession implying that the adjustments of this group to changing situations are also reflected in the matrimonial.(CORA VREEDE-DE STUERSS,2013)

This analysis has been tested by investigations on attitudes of youth from similar social strata towards caste, marriage, family life, and the opposite sex, and in a way directly questioning the generation which matrimonial advertising is intended to benefit. This also raises a question on the fact that who inserts the matrimonial advertisements, parents or children, which determines the setting up of trends for matchmaking?

Gender stereotypes and normative heterosexuality in matrimonial ads from globalizing India by Sri Vidya Ramasubramaniana and Parul Jain, Department of Communication, Texas A&M University, College Station, USA; Department of Communication, Ohio State University, Columbus, USA

Contemporary Indian familial relations as reflected in matrimonial advertising, a deep gender divide exist where the socially expected roles are very different for husbands as compared to wives. Apparently, a social understanding and unstated consensus exists for what the ideal woman/man should be. In other words, there is a strong support for gender polarization in the characteristics of a desirable, ideal, life partner. The implications of these ideals for women and men of marriageable age are crucial for understanding the lack of diversity in the matrimonial ads indicates the potential for exclusion or marginalization of several groups of ‘non ideal’ people in the ‘marriage market.’ In order to be considered eligible in the marriage market, in line with impressions from management literature, those placing matrimonial ads seem to adhere to social norms relating to traditional gender-role expectations for both men and women. Significant difference between what males and females expect in terms of spousal personality traits. Females are expected to be ‘feminine’ by being caring, loving, nurturing, compassionate, and warm. Women, in turn, cater to these expectations by using these descriptors while announcing themselves in the marriage market. While the effortful, purposive framing of matrimonial ads is reflective of the gendered values of the communities that they serve, it is equally possible that matrimonial ads function as a space through which the complicated negotiations that lead to finding the ‘suitable’ partner begin. Further research using ethnographic methods is needed to find out the role that matrimonial ads play in facilitating (or hindering) familial communication in particular and in maintaining (or countering) gender stereotypes in society in general (Ramasubramaniam & Jain, 2008)

In the journal article ‘Love, Arranged Marriage, and the Indian Social Structure’ by Giri Raj Gupta

The author in his study has mentioned that there is growth in of “Conjugal Marriage” as against “romantic love” and love marriages occur in only less than one percent of the population. Arranged marriages are closely associated with “closed systems” wherein the hierarchies are very elaborate and more than one factor such as historical origins, ritual positions, occupational affiliations, and social distance determinants play significant roles in defining the in-group and the out-group, particularly in marital alliances. In such systems, group identity is defined by strong senses of values which are preserved and re-enforced by attributes which distinguish a group in rank and its interaction with others. Continuity and unity of the extended family is well-preserved since all the significant members of the family share the mate-selection decision make-up which involves several persons who are supposedly known to have experience and qualifications to find a better choice as against the free choice of the subject. This leads to lower age at marriage and, in turn, strengthens the pre- dominance of the family over the individual choice. As long as the social system is unable to develop a value system to promote individualism, economic security outside the family system, and a value system which advances the ideals of nuclear family, the individuals in such system continue to demand support from the family which, in turn, would lead to re-emphasizing the importance of arranged marriage. (Gupta, 1976)

PROBLEM STATEMENT

With the increasing technology and convergence of media, the marriage making process has reached to the stage where marriage is a commercial ceremony and tradition and is marketed in media with the help of matrimonial advertisements. Though there are new modern ways like matrimonial websites to seek mates online, but still there persists the traditional ideals like caste, profession, class, international exposure and the stereotyped physical features.

This study will help to understand the perception of people over marriages and in their decision making factors for choosing suitable bride/groom.

RATIONALE

According to the New York times, 1,200 to 1,500 matrimonial ads that appear across 3 or 4 pages of the biggest Indian newspapers, like The Times of India, the Hindustan Times and Dainik Jagran, are categorized by caste, religion and profession (well, in the case of doctors), and lately by the quality of being “cosmopolitan.” The newspapers charge by the space used (say, 3,200 rupees for 25 words). So this trend of matchmaking online is another way of courtship pattern which has evolved from the custom when father use to decide the bride without introducing each other before marriage. But the ideals like caste, class etc was having not even changed even after ages.

So this problem is extremely important as such trends especially affect our society by creating a wider gap between caste, class, profession and physical appearance. Perpetuation of patriarchal stereotypes and gender biases in the society through the matrimonial ads and the parameter used to seek mates online.

Objective/Hypothesis/Research Question

With the increasing technology and convergence of media, the marriage making process has reached the stage where marriage is marketed in media, with the help of matrimonial advertisements. Though there is new modern way been used to seek mates online, but till there persists the traditional ideals like caste, profession, class, international exposure and the stereotyped physical features.

How have online matrimonial websites have altered the bride/groom seeking while still retaining traditional ideals of marriage?

The purpose of this study is to understand the mindset of people who seeks for bride/groom online.

Methodology

The principal aim of this dissertation is to examine and analyze the way which the ideals like class, caste, physical appearances , status, qualifications is used as a parameter in match making process. Also the study is centered on analyzing the role played by the parents in decision making process of finding the perfect mate for their kids through online matrimonial sites. The methodology used will track two matrimonial websites, namely, Bharatmatrimony.com, how relevant and important these parameter are important in seeking bride and groom

To realize the priority that parents of the prospective bride place on these parameters.

Focus group interviews

Interviews of the marriage brokers

Theories to analyze and study the rationale of such match making and to study the wider impact of such practices.

Social Identity Theory:

This theory addresses the ways in which people perceive and categorize themselves. According to social identity theory, individuals form self-conceptions that are based on two parts: 1) personal or self identity, and 2) collective identity. Personal or self identity refers to our unique, personal qualities such as our beliefs, our abilities and skills, etc. The collective self includes all the qualities that arise from being part of a society, culture, family, groups, clubs, etc. For example, you may identify yourself as a protestant, male, football player, who is very popular with people at school.

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY

Festinger’s (1957) cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we have an inner drive to hold all our attitudes and beliefs in harmony and avoid disharmony (or dissonance). Cognitive dissonance refers to a situation involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs or behaviors. This produces a feeling of discomfort leading to an alteration in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors to reduce the discomfort and restore balance etc. For example, when people smoke (behavior) and they know that smoking causes cancer (cognition). Attitudes may change because of factors within the person. An important factor here is the principle of cognitive consistency, the focus of Festinger’s (1957) theory of cognitive dissonance. This theory starts from the idea that we seek consistency in our beliefs and attitudes in any situation where two cognitions are inconsistent.

Research Design
Triangulation

Interview: Personal interviews of Marriage broker and marriage owner sites

Focus group: 6-8 people in group

(The focus group will comprise of Parents who are seeking for bride/groom, prospective bride and groom and marriage brokers. Through these focus group interviews we will help us to known the rationale behind their perception, of people choosing the suitable match based on the parameter like caste, class, profession and appearance. With the help of the comments from the bride/groom we can get the perception and rationale of the prospective brides/groom about their selection. Along with these, the input from the marriage broker, we can get an idea about marriage market and

The purpose of this study is to examine whether a relationship exists between marital status and African American mothers’ self-esteem and if it is mediated by family income. Over the past several decades there has been a substantial increase in the rates of single motherhood, especially for African American women. Ever since the 1940s the number of single mothers has doubled in number (Tucker & Mitchell-Kernan 1995). This high rate of single parent households could be attributed to the ethnic, racial and social class differences. A change in the norms and values about family formation may also be occurring. Women with previous experience with men who are unwilling to take responsibility for the care of their child may find it more desirable to raise their children alone without the fathers’ help. However, not having the financial and emotional support a husband can provide may lead to a negative emotional state which has lasting effects on a woman’s self-esteem. Research on this topic portrayed that the support of a nuclear family is important but that financial stability overrides social norms to impact self-esteem.

But does self-esteem really matter? The answer, studies show, is yes. Self-esteem was studied because it is an important component to an individual’s mental health. Having a healthy mindset is a valuable aid to mothers. Mothers with high self-esteem tend to cope with stressful situations better and are more optimistic as compared to low self-esteem mothers. A limitation of the study is that the effects of marital status and family income on the self-esteem of African American mothers have not been adequately researched as compared to that of their European American counterparts (Hope, Power, & Rodgers 1999). More research is necessary to come up with defined answers to this question of whether it is family income or marital status that affects the self-esteem of African American single mothers.

It is a fact that married mothers have higher psychological health than unmarried mothers (Diener, Gohm, Suh, & Oishi 2000). Married mothers deal better with stressful situations compared to single mothers, and this is not due to different levels of psychological health before marriage. We can see clear differences in psychological health of mothers based on marital status. This is true for a study of African American mothers which found that if they have their first child when they were still unmarried it led to high depression, regardless of socioeconomic status and age of the mother (Kalil & Kunz 2002). Being married provides a support system as well as additional financial support, which single mothers lack.

The suggestion that husbands offer mothers more than simply financial support can be clearly depicted with married couples (Popenoe, 2004). This outlook, that husbands provide more than just financial support, predicts that even with relatively equal income, married mothers will have higher self-esteem than unmarried mothers. However, this assumption has been criticized for ignoring the adaptive qualities of nontraditional family structures that have formed over the past decades especially those of African American families (Dickerson, 1995). So, even if family income accounts for some of these effects, this model predicts that marital status will affect the self-esteem of African American mothers regardless of their financial incomes.

The cultural equivalent perspective suggests that like any other unmarried mothers, African American mothers are at risk of psychological problems, but the effects are mainly related to the clear differences in family income between married and unmarried mothers. For example, in 2004, 28% of single-mother families in America lived below the poverty line compared to only 5% of married families (DeNavas, 2005). Therefore, one can conclude that marriage is vital because it keeps families financially stable. This mindset argues that family income leads to the effects others attribute to marital status. In one study of 156 African American women who lacked adequate family income, it showed that their financial burdens gradually led to higher depression and lower self-esteem. Some had to seek medication to suppress these effects. Ultimately these studies suggested that it is mainly financial resources that impact mental health, and marital status has a far smaller effect.

The cultural variant perspective suggests that African American households do not follow the structures and cultural norms of nuclear family units as ethnic majorities often do. They may be influenced by a different set of social issues attributed to their different cultural background than that of European American mothers. Marriage, regardless of financial resources may have a different meaning and significance to African American women. For example, Rank and Davis (1996) found that married African American mothers would rather be outside of marriage as compared to married European American women who preferred to raise their children in a nuclear family setting. Married European American women would rather live according to the social norm of society, which is the life style of a nuclear family. This allows for adequate income to live a comfortable life. Furthermore, the large extended family of African American mothers showed an option for seeking social support from avenues other than marriage. This different mentality about marriage may reduce the supposed negative psychological effects of being unmarried.

Studies indicated that most African American mothers are unmarried, and this has been the case for the past few decades. This has led to adjustment to single motherhood. These high rates of single parent families have led to less stigmatization in African American communities. This has in turn led to the perspective that suggests that marital status does not affect African American mothers’ self-esteem, regardless of family income. Unmarried African American mothers who successfully control their family income may partially mediate the effect of lower self-esteem, but it will not reduce the effects of marital status for low income African American mothers. This is because feelings of security and financial support that a marriage partner offers are still unavailable to single mothers. Moreover for lower income single mothers living in relatively dangerous urban environments, the probability that they or their children will be victims of violent crimes is a constant fear and source of high anxiety and stress. This stress and fear can build up over time to affect their self-esteem and overall mental health. Financial resources will undoubtedly allow the low income mothers to live in relatively safer neighborhoods, which may reduce the anxiety and safety concerns that many lower income African American mothers face.

The studies continue to reveal that higher income unmarried mothers have been found to have much higher self-esteem than lower income unmarried mothers. The stress and feelings of incompetence associated with low income can have vast effects on the psychological health of both women and men irrespective of their marital status (Cairney et al., 2003). The results of this study suggested that lower income unmarried African American mothers, who have the added responsibility of taking care of children without a husband, have to endure the effects of lack of adequate resources in the household. This can increase the burdens associated with raising children which can undoubtedly be significantly reduced with enough financial resources.

Being a higher income unmarried mother has its benefits. Those who have achieved social status based on their own accomplishments are more highly regarded and associated with higher self-esteem than obtaining high social status based on the accomplishments of others. The fact that these mothers are high income earners, in spite of having to raise children primarily by themselves, could boost their self-esteem and also their sense of accomplishment. This may be especially true for single African American women, because of the negative social barriers which they all too often have to face in their daily lives (Dickerson, 1995). This shows that marital status does not necessarily need to affect the self-esteem of an unmarried mother to the same extent that income does.

I found the findings of African American mother’s self-esteem unique compared to those of their European American counterparts. The relation between having a marriage partner and higher income did not result in higher self-esteem due to differences between an achieved and ascribed social status. High income married mothers had the same self-esteem as lower income married mothers and high income unmarried mothers. These findings may also be related to social variables if the income is based on the mother’s accomplishment, which may boost her self-esteem especially for unmarried mothers. Although there is no clear interaction between mothers’ self-esteem, marital status, and family income it is clear that for many of the married mothers with higher family incomes their financial situation may reflect mostly income from their spouse’s employment. This could explain why income does not have added self-esteem benefits for married mothers.

The effects of marriage vary from individual to individual. For most women including It is important to have a constant family income to reduce the negative effects of single parenthood for African American mothers.