Author: Andre Coleman

Marital satisfaction also called marital quality is defined as the happiness and satisfaction one feels about their relationship with their spouse, as well as how well one feels their spouse fulfills their needs (Booth, Johnson, and Granger, 2005; Peleg, 2008). Marital satisfaction is the subject of much sociological research. Most of this research has focused on how certain influences affect marital satisfaction. Current research examines how factors such as division of labor, income, and parenthood affect marital quality (Kluwer, Heesink, and Van De Vliert, 1997; Tichenor, 1999; Cox, Paley, Burchinal and Payne, 1999). Studies shows that many factors play a role in the happiness spouses feel about their relationships.

Much of the early research in this area focused on the traditional roles of husbands and wives. Because of recent trends such as the increase in dual-earner households and the fact that many women are making more money than their husbands, more recent studies focus on how gender role ideologies affect the marital relationship. Gender role ideology is how a person relates to family or marital roles that are usually linked to gender (Minnotte, Minnotte, Pederson, Mannon, and Kiger, 2010). Gender role ideologies are defined by Mickelson, Claffey, and Williams (2006) as spouses’ expectations of each other as well as of themselves within the context of the marital relationship. Mickelson et al. (2006) investigate the impact of egalitarian and traditional gender roles on marital satisfaction. Gender role ideology is shown to be a major influence on the levels of marital satisfaction reported by husbands and wives. Marital discord also influences marital satisfaction. Rogers (1999) defines marital discord as problems and conflict in the marital relationship. Communication and interaction between spouses can have a major impact on marital quality.

Does gender play a role in marital satisfaction? This article will examine previous research on the major factors that influence marital satisfaction, including gender role ideology, division of labor, income, children and parenthood, and communication and marital interaction beginning with the factors that correlate most with gender.

GENDER ROLE IDEOLOGY

Gender role ideology is defined by Minnotte et al. (2010) as the identity one assigns him- or herself with regard to gender-linked marriage or family roles. The difference in expectations between egalitarian and traditional gender roles can have a major impact on marital satisfaction. Lower marriage satisfaction in women seems to be the result of traditional gender role expectations (Ng, Loy, Gudmunson, and Cheong, 2009). However, lower marriage satisfaction in men tends to be influenced by egalitarian gender role expectations (Ng et al. 2009). Traditional relationships can appear to be less conflicted than egalitarian ones, but this is likely the result of conflict avoidance in the traditional relationship (Kluwer et al. 1997). Egalitarian relationships may seem to observers to have more conflict, however, they also have more communication and conflict resolution, whereas traditional relationships foster lower marital satisfaction by evading conflict management (Kluwer et al. 1997).

Studies show that the gender role ideologies of husbands and wives play a significant role in their levels of marital quality. Men’s marital quality is higher when the husband and wife share the same role ideology and is lower when the ideologies differ (Minnotte et al. 2010). When work responsibilities interfere with family responsibilities, the quality of marriage and other familial relationships can deteriorate. Minnotte et al. (2010) explain that egalitarian wives’ marital satisfaction suffers with relation to work-to-family conflict (lower marital satisfaction is related to high work-to-family conflict). Work-to-family conflict is defined as conflict that occurs when family needs are negatively impacted by the demands of one’s work (Minnotte et al. 2010).

DIVISION OF LABOR

Division of labor continues to be a contentious issue between spouses. Saginak and Saginak (2005) define labor in the context of marriage and family as responsibilities of the home, including domestic, emotion and organizational work necessary to maintaining a family home. Dew and Wilcox (2011), Faulkner et al. (2005), and Ng et al. (2009) all report that a perception of inequitable distribution of household labor is directly related to marital dissatisfaction. In addition, Kluwer et al. (1997) report that just because a couple does not report household labor conflict doesn’t mean that it is not present in their relationship. In traditional marriages, wives frequently avoid division of labor conflict, however discontent they may be, according to Kluwer et al. (1997).

Evidence shows that instrumental support is crucial to marital satisfaction for egalitarian wives (Mickelson et al. 2006). However, the level of egalitarianism in men is negatively related to their marital satisfaction, probably because there is a higher expectation of household labor duties for egalitarian men compared to traditional men (Mickelson et al. 2006). This shows that in spite of egalitarian beliefs, many men still do not consider household labor their responsibility.

INCOME

The amount of money a woman makes doesn’t influence marital quality in the ways we may think. Tichenor (1999) finds that gender has more of an impact on marital satisfaction than status or income. In families where the wife earns more money than the husband, most women reject the power they may get from earning more money and create an image of their husband’s control of the family (Tichenor, 1999). These status-reversal relationships appear to seek the image of a conventional marriage (Tichenor, 1999). Tichenor’s (1999) research shows that most husbands prefer the label of provider and do not object to this manufactured image. Wives who earn more money than their husbands are still doing a majority of the housework while contributing a majority of the family income (Tichenor, 1999). This shows that housework is gendered and not influenced by wives’ income. Women cannot exchange money for housework by earning more money than their husbands (Tichenor, 1999).

Rogers (1999) reports that wives’ marital dissatisfaction significantly influences wives’ income. Marital discord can contribute to a woman’s decision to get a job, but husbands’ marital dissatisfaction has no influence over their wives’ income (Rogers, 1999). Interestingly, Faulkner, Davey, and Davey (2005) report that wives’ job loss creates less marital conflict and a higher level of marital satisfaction for them. However, the time their husbands spend working outside the home is negatively related to their marital happiness (Faulkner et al. 2005). When a wife is unhappy, she is more likely to get a job outside the home, but when an employed wife loses her job, it contributes to less conflict and more satisfaction in the marriage. This illustrates the tendency of many men to have traditional gender role expectations.

CHILDREN/PARENTHOOD

The effects of parenthood on marriage are also more complicated than expected. Cox et al. (1999) argue that having children creates a decrease in marital satisfaction, but that the severity of the decrease is significantly influenced by whether the pregnancy was planned or unplanned, the gender of the child, and the conflict managements skills of the couple prior to pregnancy. Levels of marital satisfaction have been shown to bottom out around the child’s first birthday, and then increase in small increments during the child’s second year of life (Cox et al. 1999). Planned pregnancies purported higher levels of marital satisfaction than unplanned pregnancies. Studies show that parents of male children report higher levels of marital satisfaction than parents of female children, although the difference was slight (Cox et al. 1999). Dew and Wilcox (2011) report that wives’ decrease in marital satisfaction shortly after childbirth was attributed to a decrease in time spent with their spouse as compared to prior to the birth of the child.

COMMUNICATION/MARITAL INTERACTION

Communication plays a vital role in marital quality. Disclosure is the sharing of information about the self including past information and future plans (Finkenauer, Engels, Branje, and Meeus, 2004). Disclosure is a key aspect of marital communication. Finkenauer et al. (2004) state that disclosure in horizontal familial relationships is positively related to relationship quality. Sharing between spouses can lead to more intimacy and feelings of closeness (Finkenauer et al. 2004). Loss of time spent together as a couple can contribute to low marital satisfaction (Dew and Wilcox, 2011). Spending time together can lead to more sharing and disclosure, and has been shown to lead to higher levels of marital satisfaction for husbands and wives (Finkenauer et al. 2004).

Interpersonal differentiation is also very important to personal relationships. Peleg (2008) defines interpersonal differentiation as the capacity for both intimacy and autonomy in relationships with others. Peleg (2008) argues that the differentiation of self is crucial to marital satisfaction. There is delicate balance of togetherness and separation that contributes to a healthy marriage (Peleg, 2008). More marital conflict is experienced by couples with low differentiation (Peleg, 2008). Peleg (2008) also states that low differentiation can result in negative feelings, which can negatively impact marriage satisfaction. These factors were equally significant for both men and women (Peleg, 2008).

High marital locus of control (MLC) is associated with increased marital happiness (Myers and Booth, 1999). Locus of control is defined by Myers et al. (1999) as the level of control one feels over the conditions of their life. High MLC among spouses is directly correlated to lower reported marital instability and conflict (Myers and Booth, 1999). In other words, a perception of more control over marital activity equals increased perceived marital quality (Myers and Booth, 1999). Gender has not been shown to play a role in the MLC factor.

Another aspect of the level of marital satisfaction has to do with the increasing number of aging wives caring for their ill and/or aging husbands. Between impaired husbands and their care giving wives, reciprocity of emotional support is directly related to lower perceptions of burden and increased marital satisfaction in the wives (Wright and Aquilino, 1998). Although reciprocity levels depend on the impairment of the husbands, increased interaction leads to higher marital quality perception in care giving wives (Wright and Aquilino, 1998.)

CONCLUSION

There is no simple answer to whether gender influences marital satisfaction. Simply stating that one gender is happier in marriage than the other is oversimplifying the facts. Most literature on marital satisfaction focuses on the different factors that influence marital satisfaction such as gender role ideology, income, children and parenting, communication and marital interaction, and division of labor. Some research goes a step further to distinguish how each factor is affected by gender, and some does not.

There are so many angles from which to look at the quality of marriage that it would be next to impossible to isolate gender as the single most compelling issue in marital satisfaction. For example, a husband who has traditional gender role expectations is more likely to report higher marital satisfaction if his wife stays home with the children and does all the housework. However, if the wife does not share the traditional gender role expectations, she will be unhappy in the marriage, which will no doubt affect the husband’s satisfaction with the relationship. These multi-layered findings make it obvious that gender is not the most significant factor in determining marital satisfaction.

Differing gender role ideologies clearly influence marital satisfaction, as does each spouse’s expectations about their partner’s income. But husbands and wives are shown to have the same preferences when it comes to marital communication and disclosure. They also report almost identical patterns of marital satisfaction when it comes to the transition into parenthood. This illustrates how although influential, gender is not one of the most significant factors in marital satisfaction.

Future research on this topic could focus specifically on how gender alone directly affects marital satisfaction. Excluding other influential factors could mean isolating the specific ways gender affects marital satisfaction in a way that hasn’t been done before. This would be challenging, but finding a way to focus on gender would provide information that isn’t currently available.

This information can be useful to professionals who study the breakdown of marriage or to marriage counselors who are trying to help troubled couples salvage damaged relationships. It could also provide researchers with data that may predict the likelihood of success in future relationships.

Marital Counseling MarriageEffects of Pre Marital Counseling on the length of a Marriage

In today’s society so much emphasis is but on divorce and the rising rate of divorce, there seems to be little attention on what can be done before the marriage takes place to help prevent divorce. While some couples today participate in some form of premarital counseling most do not. Not realizing the benefits of premarital counseling and the effect it could possibly have on how long you marriage will last and the benefits it will have on helping you deal with married life why couples do not participate in it is still unknown.

Getting married without premarital counseling is like starting a business without knowing anything about the type of business you want to start. Premarital counseling or classes can reduce the risk of divorce by up to thirty percent (Khulman, 2007). Couples should realize that good, skilled based premarital counseling really can reduce the odds of divorce.

Premarital counseling is based on the reality that it is important to make sure that your relations is as strong as it can possibly be, after all only about half of the marriages that do last are marriages where the couple is truly happy. Research shows that here is a window of opportunity during the year before the wedding and about six months after when couples get the optimum benefit from premarital counseling (Stanley, 273). Premarital counseling improved the strength of a marriage even with couples who think that they will

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not encounter any problems can greatly benefit from premarital counseling. According to Dr. Jason Carroll and Dr. William J. Doherty, couples who participate in premarital programs experience a 30% increase in marital success over those who do not participate (Carroll and Doherty, 105). An important purpose of premarital counseling is the help the couple determine their individual readiness for marriage.

It can also help couples become aware of the assets and liabilities of their relationship, which are important factors in deciding who and when to marry. As they evaluate these factors, couples have a chance to slow things down and think seriously about their relationship. In other words, premarital education allows couples to plan their marriage rather than just a wedding.

Data for this research will be collected on the following; Communication with each other, balancing job and family, handling finances, sexual relationship, lack of time spent together and handling other issues outside of the marriage.

Couples getting married today face many challenges and many do not have a strong support line. The typical marriages today consist of two working adults who are trying to raise a family. This requires that couples have the ability to communicate, resolve issues and stay married. The hypothesis

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that will be tested by this research paper is: couples who participate in premarital counseling are better able to resolve issues that arise in their marriage and stay married longer than those who do not receive premarital counseling. Premarital counseling can boost a couples capacity o handle different issues that arise in a marriage. Couples today need every advantage that they can get to stay married. Many couples’ expectations of marriage revolve around the belief that love will conquer all and will get them through rough times.

While love is important, it won’t be enough if couples don’t have the basic attitudes and skills they need for a successful marriage. Marriages that last require partners who respect one another, who have gained knowledge about what makes marriage work, and who have developed skills that will enhance the relationship.

The purpose of this study is to show that premarital counseling provides couples with the basic foundations that will enable them to solve marital issues that arise and stay married. Premarital counseling can send a message to couples that their marriage does matter, and it can help couples learn about their options if they need help later in their marriage.

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There is also proof that some couples with some types of premarital training can lower their risks for marital distress. Situations will always arise in a marriage that is not foreseen at the time the wedding takes place. Problems with in-laws, money and sex are blamed as carrying the greatest thereat to marriage (Top Three Threats to Your Marriage, 2004). There appears to be a lack of research into the effect that premarital counseling has on marriages.

While there are studies indicating the value of counseling for couples who are already married and seeking help for current issues in the marriage there are many more studies assessing the couple’s levels of satisfaction with their marriage. The author of What works in premarital counseling, reports that review of current “articles on program modes and theories conclude that although more has been written and more programs offered in the last decade there still has been fewer longitudinal outcome studies done” (Groom, 47).

This is evident on the web site for the Council for Relationships http://www.councilforrelationships.org/research. On this website the Council gives a list of articles that they published none of which address the issues and benefits of premarital counseling. Thus the need for this study is evident. Not only is there a huge lack of empirical evidence to prove of couples actually do benefit from premarital counseling, there is also a greater need to develop and

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test a premarital counseling theory that can be used in future research. Williams, Riley and Vandyke (1999) conducted a general empirical research study on the values of premarital counseling. In their research they surveyed more than 3,000 who have been married anywhere from one to eight years. The research concluded that support for the overall value of premarital counseling is great, but they did not closed define that value.

One of the draw backs of not have enough research on this topic is that there are no specific data instruments designed specifically to access the value of premarital counseling, it is necessary for an data instrument to be designed in order to obtain reliable and valid data. This lack of prior research leaves open the accessibility of several choices on how the data for this research can be collected.

For a study that would be more extensive in investigation and take on longitudinal characteristic the pre-test/post-test design would be more suitable. This is not a longitudinal study and a better research approach would be a review of the end result. This would be a comparing of the strength of marriages of couples who had premarital counseling to those who did not by using the survey method.

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Sampling was done using the random approach. Data for this research was collect from 45 couples via survey. There were 15 couples married more than ten years who did not receive premarital counseling, 15 couples who are divorced which were a mix of couples who did and did not receive premarital counseling and 15 couples married more than ten years who did receive premarital counseling. The couples were contacted in mid October about the research paper and all were eager and willing to participate.

All of the original couples contacted were able to participate. The couples were give a questionnaire that consisted of two sections used to access relative background information and marital satisfaction. The first section contained demographic questions regarding their age, number of children, number of years married/divorced, number of children, and if they had received any premarital counseling.

The second section consisted of questions how satisfied or dissatisfied the couple was with their marriage, communication issues, conflict resolution, and decision making. For the second section of the questionnaire the questions were based on yes or no, number in order of importance and give a brief explanation.

Research has shown the relationships between some of these factors in the areas communication and conflict solving, communication and self esteem, role absorption and self esteem, and role absorption and communication. The hypothesis was proved because the couples who received premarital counseling prior o marriage were able to use tools that they learned in counseling to work through their issues, the couples who were still married with no premarital counseling answers showed that they really did not understand their partner and were probably stilled married because that was the way they were raised.

The couples who are now divorced, but received premarital counseling seemed to have benefited from premarital counseling but for one reason or another still decided to get a divorce. Based on the number of couples used among those who received counseling the divorce rate was low. The divorce rate for those who was on their first marriage with not premarital counseling the rate was about 25 percent.

Among the couples who received premarital counseling the rate was much lower. While there are many variables that could be assessed that would change the results the overall study supports the hypothesis that couples who receive premarital counseling are able to better deal with marital issues and do stay married longer. The only ethical issues that I could see arising from this study would be where and how the couple would decide to receive their counseling. Some could prefer counseling in a religious setting based on their background which could be more detailed or in a group setting with other couples and the depth of the counseling.

Works Cited

Carroll, J. S. & Doherty, W. J. (2003). Evaluating the effectiveness of premarital prevention programs: A meta-analytic review of outcome research. Family Relations, 52, 105-118

Groom, Joan (2001). What works in premarital counseling? Journal of Pastoral counseling, 36, p. 47.

Khulman, Greg.2007. Is pre marital counseling for you? Retrieved December 3, 2007 from http://www.wedalert.com/content/articles/premarital_counseling.asp

Top Three Threats to Your Marriage. (2007). DrPhil.com. Retrieved December 3, 2007 from http://www.drphil.com/.

Williams, Lee, Riley, Lisa, Van Dyke, David. (1999 July-September). An empirical approach to designing marriage preparation programs. American Journal of Family Therapy, 27(3), p 271

Stanley, S. M. (2001). Making a case for premarital education. Family Relations, 50, 272-280.

Marine animals have been held captive for hundreds of years and for a variety of reasons. As humans began to investigate the fascinating world below the ocean’s surface, animal captivity became an everyday occurrence. Some animals have been captured as a means of research so scientists, as well as the public, can observe and learn more about them (“Marine Mammals in Captivity”). However, marine animals have also been exhibited simply for amusement and profit (“Do Marine Mammals Belong in Captivity in the 21st Century?”). Throughout history, humans have abused their relative power over marine creatures by capturing and detaining them. This cruel and unjust captivity commences with the act of capture and continues by diminishing marine animals’ quality of life.

The crime of captivity begins as early as marine mammal capture. In the past, animal capture was a violent and traumatic process. Over the years, it has become progressively less malicious. However, the animals still suffer. Hunters herd the animals into shallow waters and proceed to entrap them in nets and slings (“Do Marine Mammals Belong in Captivity in the 21st Century?”). Captures can include high-speed chases intended to exhaust the animals, which makes them easier to catch. Some fisherman will actually ride the animals until they are completely worn out (“The Case Against Marine Mammals in Captivity”). In Japan, fisherman are hired by captivity agencies to herd entire pods of dolphins so that the best and most promising mammals can be selected, while the remaining dolphins are slaughtered (“Global Ocean – Marine Mammal Anti-Captivity Officer”). In another instance, over 200 dolphins were driven into a fishing port, where they crashed into boats and each other. After becoming tangled in the chaos of nets, boats, and animals, many dolphins died of drowning (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons”). Although the government works to regulate the individuals and organizations that capture marine animals, even the gentlest capture causes unforeseeable consequences.

Marine animals such as dolphins travel in groups and while it may seem like taking only one or two of the animals would cause no harm, it is extremely detrimental to the group as a whole. Whales, specifically orcas, are the largest animals held in captivity (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons”). While orcas remain with their mothers for life in the wild, hunters often separate mother and child. Dolphins swim together in “pods,” a family unit that consists of an adult dolphin and her offspring. These families are torn apart by captivity. Even if not all of the animals are captured, the free animals are left without a crucial member of their community. Some dolphins die simply from the stress of losing a family member or watching their companions being captured (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons”). One study found that the mortality rate for bottlenose dolphins increased six-fold immediately after a capture (“The Case Against Marine Mammals in Captivity). The negative affects of animal capture are undeniable proof that holding marine animals captive is an unnatural and immoral act.

Even after the vicious and traumatic capture, marine animals continue to suffer in captivity. Although many trainers work to ensure that animal habitats are suitable for the animals they house, no man made structure can replace the natural habitat and ecosystem of the ocean. In addition, these artificial environments pose many risks to the animals they accommodate. First, the water of the tank can cause serious health risks. Many aquariums and marine parks pump water in directly from the ocean. However, this water is filtered and chlorine is added while micro and macro marine life is removed (“Killer Whales in Captivity”). This treatment creates harsh water full of chemicals, which can irritate the skin of marine mammals. Although the chemicals are used to purify the water, bacteria are still present and the animals’ skin cannot tolerate the alien bacteria. Some dolphins go blind (French), while others animals suffer from skin diseases (“Marine Mammals in Captivity”). In other cases, orcas experience dorsal fin collapse. This occurs because the whales do not have the support of a large body of water, such as the ocean, and gravity pulls the tall appendage downward (“Marine Mammals in Captivity”).

The issues are not limited to physical conditions. Being held in captivity actually affects the mental functions and capacity of marine creatures. Animals such as whales and dolphins utilize echolocation while living in the ocean. In this wide and varied body of water, these animals are constantly alert and exercising their brains. However, in a dull environment such as a small aquarium, these animals have no use for their highly evolved talent (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons). Instead, they are forced to swim in circles without exercising the functions of their brain. For orcas, which are extremely sensitive to sound, the outside noises of water pumps and cheering crowds harm their hearing (“Killer Whales in Captivity”). Some studies show that dolphin brains shrink a frightening 42% while in captivity (“The Life of a Dolphin in Captivity”), and some dolphins have been driven insane by the constant reverberations of their own sonar waves that hit nothing but blank walls (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons”).

Not only are marine animals’ brain functions halted, they also become socially and emotionally upset while in captivity. As mentioned earlier, dolphins and orcas are negatively affected by the separation of pods. Despite being social creatures that tend to have long term companionships, these mammals are separated from their families and isolated on their own when they are held captive. (“The Case Against Marine Mammals in Captivity”). The issues are furthered by trainers’ treatment of the animals. For example, trainers will separate the acutely social dolphins when they misbehave, forcing them into isolation (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons”). The torture continues in the feeding. In a technique called the “Pavlovian regime,” trainers starve dolphins so that they will perform. Food is only administered as a reward to the dolphin for successful completion of tricks. Trainers effectively teach the dolphins that food is not a natural right of existence, but is instead only attained through submission and performance (“The Life of a Dolphin in Captivity”). It’s also important to consider the food given to the animals – instead of live, freshly caught, natural marine organisms, captured marine animals are fed frozen fish and vitamin supplements (“Killer Whales in Captivity”). This unnatural diet hurts the metabolism of these creatures and hinders their instinctual predatory behavior.

Dolphins that live in captivity are forced to swim in circles in six-foot deep tanks that stretch twenty-four inches by twenty-for inches (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons”). This lack of space literally suffocates the dolphins, who swim up to 100 miles each day in the wild. Finally, it’s important to consider the behavior of freed marine animals. Dolphins and whales alike spend their days diving hundreds of meters, swimming hundreds of miles, and roaming freely about the ocean (“Marine Mammals in Captivity”). Unlike seals and sea lions, dolphins and whales rarely come up to the shore to perch and can stay underwater up to thirty minutes. The confinement of a tank forces a creature that previously spent 80-90% of its time underwater into a creature that is constantly above the water (“Marine Mammals in Captivity”).

Some would argue that marine animal captivity has positive benefits for animals. For example, if a marine animal is held captive, humans are able to study and observe the animal, which in turn allows for a greater understanding of the species. This understanding allows humans to actually go out and assist the marine animals in the future. However, a marine animal held in captivity actually holds little educational value. These animals are forced to act differently than they do in the wild. Because they are confined to cages and tanks, they cannot roam and live as they would in the vast ocean. This means that when scientists observe an animal in a tank, he or she is not seeing the way the animal really acts, lives or behaves, but instead it’s contrived adaptations to life in a tank (“The Case Against Marine Mammals in Captivity”). Others argue that holding marine animals in captivity saves them from the harsher environments in the wild and protects them from predators and pollution. However, this argument is incorrect. It is impossible for humans to judge what environment is too harsh for any particular animal. Marine animals have survived and evolved for thousands of years without human salvation or interaction and humans must allow this natural cycle to continue. In the wild, unhindered by human meddling, the evolutionary cycle will continue as it should and as is natural. Some species may become extinct or evolve into even more complex animals – this is not a negative progression but is instead the circle of life (“The Case Against Marine Mammals in Captivity”). While dolphins in their natural habitat can live to their forties and fifties, dolphins in aquariums and tanks often die before they reach twenty (“Marine Mammals in Captivity”). Over the years, nearly 4,000 sea lions, seals, and dolphins have died in captivity, and more than half of these deaths are human related. This includes things such as swallowing coins, dying of heat stroke, and swimming in contaminated water (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons”). Although they claim to increase the longevity of marine animals’ lives, those who capture marine animals end up hurting them and, in the long run, harming the natural flow of life.

It’s certain that important information can be gained from marine animal captivity. However, holding wild animals hostage is immoral and unnecessary. Although humans are capable of capturing marine animals, this prevents them from existing in their natural habitat and only serves to hurt the species. To help stop captivity, it’s important not to visit captive marine mammals in zoos or parks (“Marine Animal Exhibits: Chlorinated Prisons”). Also, instead of holding the animals hostage under the guise of saving them from even harsher natural environments, society should work to be environmentally conscious and preserve the animals’ natural habitats, allowing them to live without the pollution of human waste. Holding marine animals in captivity is unequivocally wrong. No matter the claims of salvation and education, animal captivity is exploitation of animals.

This is a system of random sampling. This sampling method is less time-consuming and easier to perform. In order to do this, researchers should choose random population, then in the sampling frame or starting point for research on a regular basis. This strategy can be used to do research with Maori population. For example, if you want to taste 8 Maori children from a group of 120 people, then you must be 120 divided by 8 (120/8). The answer is 15, so every 15 children select a random starting point between 1-15. This strategy is relatively easy, However, researchers should always consider the type of population, they are dealing with. For the above example, I used the Maori population, as my theme. Therefore, I have to remember that they are guided by Kaupapa gross profit. Means that they receive an internal, ideas and knowledge to develop the use of the Maori language. So it is important to be working with them, be very careful and understand.

2.Tikanga

This is a program or Maori to interact with other people, the daily guidelines to follow. Basically, on the basis of Tikanga, life experiences and learning handed over from generation to generation. It is based on logic and common sense view of the world associated with Maori. Now, the strategy in this example, it is important for researchers to understand Maori Kaupapa have a great impact on how the behavior or performance of the Maori. Maori Kaupapa conceptualization of “knowledge” has been rooted in the oral tradition and based on special REO Maori or Maori language. This is the only language can access the conceptualization and inner spirit, this body of knowledge. Tikanga is the right way to do things or guidelines around what is ‘right’. It can also be described as rules, methods, approaches, customs, habits, rights, powers and control (Pell, 1988).

The Tikanga concept is the most special between tribes (tribal), and HAPU (sub-tribe) is unchanged, as they approach may be different. For example, the manner in which a greetings of HAPU and welcome visitors from other. However, we will ensure that they perform their duties manakitanga (hospitality) custody and care of their visitors. Researchers and Maori communities must respect the people and their culture.

3.Quota

In this sampling, the sample selected by the interviewer, he has given quotas to fill from the specified sub-group of the population.

For example, the interviewer may tell sample 100 Maori women, aged between 45 to 60 people belonging to four different community groups. 25%, as a quota sample, the total population will be equally represented. Here, the selection of the sample of the non-random. Any had this experience, in the street tried to interview people know It is very tempting to ask those who seem most helpful, so it is not the most representative samples, but very useful. This is the strategy. However, this is a must to take into account Maori as their framework is based on communication Kaupapa Maori researchers. They are always based on what they know is best for them to interact with people and their culture. They may provide information about them can help users study, but it is always based on Kaupapa Maori.

Results 2

Implementation of the strategy in accordance with kaupapa Maori 2.1Sampling

1.Incidental

The first sampling strategy, I will realize, with sampling or the opportunities sampling observation accidentally discovered the potential clinical significance has been defined as independent of participants in the study and the purpose of this study or variable. Means that, in the course of the study, from the participants, can be very necessary research found that a disease or abnormal. For example, when the investigation team Maori children most dominant health problems in the community, is a rare case, such as heart fever. I should know the results can not be representative of the Maori child population in that place, because of fever, heart just a random sample. Now, I must adhere to their so-called ATA or grow to respect me as a researcher, including the principle of the relationship between their parents and children to study. Such work, will establish a relationship of mutual trust and respect.

2.Quota

Another sampling strategy, I can use the representative data will be taken from a set quota sampling. For example, in one study, I would like to meet with 200 women in the community ages 40 to 60-year-old family culture. I want to remember, I need to stick to the age limit. 200 women on behalf of the data and the 40-60 years age group brackets. It is always a good way to come into contact with this group of women, women in their culture, their identity must be recognized, because they have different roles to carry out. The research work should be in accordance with the Kaupapa Maori. We must take into account the Tikanga Maori or customary practice, moral, cultural behavior, pay attention to the issues and Maori obligations, especially in this age group. Order to make our gross profit within the context of browser and operating properly, and the judgments and decisions in this space.

3.Area

The third sampling strategy will be the area sampling is based on geographic area or place, which is a special form of cluster sampling, in which the sample. For example, if I had to make a certain amount of gross profit community health research, then I should choose a specific area, based on the secondary cluster, then this will be a field of study. Doing research, I have to consider the mana, or spiritual essence, is in the land, natural and man-made objects and human. All of which are contained in an area, because of the Maori due respect, their magic, they believe that the Whakapapa or relationship. Sense, everything in an area The Whakapapa return a specific God, including trees, animals and humans. Whenua / Maori land and the center of the place identity, by all means, must be respected.

2.2 The implementation of the sampling strategy in accordance with local iwi and HAPU, the requirements, three examples:

With sampling strategy, also has a similar function in the sampling process, the ability or experience of those who must consider things. This allows researchers more reliable, goal-oriented as follows Tikanga or to carry out the necessary research protocols and practices. In addition, Tika or research a well-designed structure, so as to promote the smooth flow of research. During sampling with local Tangata Whenua or land should consult Iwi or if they HAPU to. This is to give them due respect, because they are considered to be a higher authority. This sampling target young people, because I use the students in a school as an example. Maori culture from the colonial period has changed a lot, including Maori or TE Roe, it has become essential for Maori schools teach it, to save the language labyrinth.

Sampling in the second quota sampling strategy, therefore, the use of examples, I is the women’s group (40-60 years old) can be considered as Tangata Whenua. These groups of individuals in Maori society, especially Whanau with specific functions. They are looked up to as an example to their children. Most of the cultural values aˆ‹aˆ‹and principles from them and their work as well as with the HAPU or Iwi. In addition, they are part of it.

Work together with the regional sampling strategy, still Tangata Whenua with HAPU or Ivica. Do research and Maori communities should at least bring transformation or change their ways, it does not bypass or refute their cultural practices or beliefs, the most important is that it should always be in accordance with the Kaupapa Maori. This method must include the study of the causes, the methods used, its direction and the impact may occur later.

Results 3

3.1 countries and regions in hauora colonization

For the national level, a colonial influence to the Maori hauora will reduce the mortality due to the introduction of next medical methods to improve national health programs and social welfare system. The other is the result of economic changes in New Zealand finished goods, rather than purely agricultural commodity production. Cause people to eat processed foods is preferred because it may contain preservatives or unhealthy ingredients that may harm people’s health. In addition to the regional level, colonization, increase the fertility rate increase in the population of Maori women, resulting in the potential of the probability of the disease is also increasing. Discrimination exists, but also because some doctors have proven to be unlikely advocate for Maori patients with preventive measures, they like the non-Maori Maori, when it comes to surgical referral regional level. This leads not only physical problems, but the psychological feeling of discrimination. In general, colonization has made them lose their land, their strength, language, status, and most special is their culture. In short, they have lost their identity.

Between the regional level, Australian Aborigines, the colonization of the threat to their lives, because they have lost their land and their resources. With the arrival of the colonists coming from different diseases. It is difficult for them because they do not have their own land and food sources, and sick at the same time. These make it easier for them. For the national level, which is they lost the language, although it is not a complete loss, because they still speak their mother tongue at home. The introduction of Western language or in English, some dangerous, until their mother tongue. However, in later years, Australian Aborigines like health, other aspects are not completely influenced by Western culture. Until now, even with the efforts of the Government to change their way of life or culture and westernization. They still retain their culture, especially those who work with their health care system. Monotherapy, they still use the traditional method of treatment, they firmly believe that witchcraft or magic and supernatural intervention.

3.2

Gross profit

1.Customs

Colonial the Tikanga involved brought a change in their customs and traditional Maori. The the Maori collective ownership of land and the means of production or the state of the theory and practice preferences have changed, their social structure is disrupted. Some people think that the Native Land Act, established in 1865, aimed at undermining this principle of collectivism, the land of the Maori settlement purposes. This leads to the loss of land ownership, forcing Maori to migrate to urban areas In addition to the In addition, marriage and Maori Maori as the necessity of a civilized people, the concept of legal adoption disrupted the context of the family group.

The introduction of Christianity, the very heart of tikanga Maori attacks by denying the validity of Maori origin of the universe. Papatuanuku and Ranginui continue to recognize the significance of gross profit (in Maori mythology of the original couple Rangi and Papa (or Ranginui Papatuanuku) appear in a creation myth to explain the origin of the world in some South Island dialects, Rangi is called Raki wine or rakinui), it has been argued Maori creation story has been deeply influenced by Christian.

Gross profit was informed that the be changed internal colonialism value of some of the usual customs and beliefs. Tohunga inhibition assay deterioration in 1907 banned traditional healers. The Act also opposed to gross profit and Maori knowledge legitimacy healing, the link between the environment, the arts, spiritual and temporal. Some Maori did not contact with the marae, they are only limited knowledge the the Whakapapa traditional mA?tauranga gross profit / gross profit knowledge (core). In addition, the loss of language, culture and traditions gave way to the rise of alcoholism and crime.

2.Lifestyle

Their way of life has changed. Prior to this, the Maori depends on the agricultural fishing and hunting as food. However, with the production of food in the exposure of the urban area, their preferences change, the cause of many lifestyle diseases such as diabetes and obesity. Movement, which is an important part of a healthy lifestyle, has also been given priority by the majority of the Maori population. Them to adopt Western lifestyles, including sugar, salt and other processed foods, they are not used to the food we eat.

3. Language

The English civilization Maori population, especially the children, they forcibly sent to the school to accept the introduction of education. With special REO Maori (Maori language) is prohibited, penalties for people who speak. In education as a tool to kill Maori which in the end is truly effective. Most Maori forget their mother tongue and turned to English.

Influence of the spirit

Loss of Maori traditions and beliefs, which greatly affect their spiritual level. Maori, who are willing to stay in their homes, only a few figures are only reserved Maori culture and tradition. Suppression Tohunga Act passed in 1907 to ban traditional treatment methods, Maori do result in the loss or lack of knowledge of traditional treatment. In addition, some of the Caucasian missionaries spread of disease attributed to a lack of confidence in Maori believe. In addition, changes in lifestyle, modern life, socio-economic status, population affect the spirit of the traditional approach.

Psychological effects

Colonial Maori mental problems have attracted a lot. The loss of ancestral lands, racism or discrimination they experienced hatred on their part, away from the home or family groups and suppress special REO gross profit increased from Caucasians. They indulge yourself alcoholism, drug abuse and gambling, and create more social problems and psychiatric hospitalization rates. Diagnosis of schizophrenia rate is 2-3 times higher than non-Maori. In addition, the prison containing Maori suffer high rates of mental disorders.

Physical effects

100 years, residents and visitors have brought measles, influenza and tuberculosis, extract the population. The land war accelerated this trend, and low morale. The 1918 influenza pandemic take a further great charges, and report the Maori newspaper lying dead in the streets. Maori generally live in poor housing conditions, conducive to infection, rarely have the opportunity or the trust in the European medical. Their native healers (tohungas) had been suppressed by law. Matters has improved, but is still relatively healthy gross profit in poor condition. Maori women, cervical cancer hospitalization rate is 3-4 times higher than non-Maori. Maori men and 71.6 Maori life expectancy for women is 67.2 years, than non-Maori males and females 75.3 and 80.6. The factors contribute relative poverty, poor diet and high smoking rates, the higher Maori women than men.

Native Americans

1.Customs

Colonial Native Americans brought many changes to their lives, especially in their practices on their overall. Their culture is compromised. Tasks are described in, and actively encourage locals converted to Christianity. Most groups have some form of ancestor worship, this forced change of religion to change their cultural identity. The law prohibits certain rituals, forcing the child to the European education system, tied for the whole group of land is useless, and can not maintain them. Its purpose is to deny their own cultural identity, which has the same effect wipe.

2.Lifestyle

For the United States, such as American Indians and Alaska Natives, colonization has brought them enormous changes. Colonial them in the early years, the Europeans have brought them many new diseases, such as measles, smallpox, trachoma, cholera, influenza, sexually transmitted diseases. This leads to epidemics and deteriorating health. Their old way to get food, water buffalo hunt and forage disappeared. Their nutritional and health compromise, they do farm work, but unfortunately, less food, making them more vulnerable to hunger and disease. Their way of life, these changes are not conducive to them, because they do not use it, their own bodies are not immune to the diseases brought by the colonizers. White Americans access to health care progress, problems encountered by these Native Americans, such as the lack of hospitals or facilities to treat their disease. This is just in the Indian Health Service, they are able to benefit from this facility.

3. Language

After the war in India in the late 19th century, the United States established the Native American boarding school, boarding school experience often proved traumatic to Native American children, they were forbidden to speak their own native language. To the mid-20th century European conquest and solve many languages aˆ‹aˆ‹of the United States in the Western Hemisphere, perhaps two-thirds have died or are dying out, but others are thriving. Native language researchers are now discovered and investigated. In today’s era, most Native Americans can not say that their mother tongue. Instead, they speak English, English to communicate with each other. Loss of the language lost identity and culture, and make them drunk the colonists introduced, contributing to health problems like alcohol and other lifestyle.

Influence of the spirit

In addition to these health problems, the colonial rule caused them to lose their land and culture. In spirit, they were forced to convert to Christianity, and leave their Ancestor Worship. . Eagle feather law (Section 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations Part 22) stipulates that only individuals certified Native American ancestry enrolled in a federally recognized tribe legally authorized to obtain eagle feathers for religious or spiritual law does not allow Native American Eagle feathers to non-Native Americans.

Psychological effects

In the 19th century, in the case of boarding schools have been documented sexual abuse, physical abuse and emotional abuse. Native American introduction of guns, alcohol and drugs caused their psychological problems. . Native American land, language, culture, abuse, killing and torture of loss, they end up with psychological problems, alcoholism, suicide, inter-generational genocide, stress disorder postraumatic, internal oppression. These, drug abuse, especially alcohol abuse, the most obvious crisis has been health disorders, and depression is emerging as a leading concern. The two diseases are often distant and reserved, widespread poverty, despair, and two generations of trauma, including the historic consequences by the federal government tried to force assimilation tribal isolation.

Physical effects

As mentioned earlier, the Native Americans never like any European diseases. This is only the arrival of the colonists, they were able to experience the disease, such as measles, chickenpox. Since these are the new system is very low, increase the body’s immune system and lead to death. In addition, alcohol and drug abuse, poor health.

3.3 of contemporary problems affecting gross profit

1, the establishment of a national indigenous protest movements and organizations

The protest was aimed at broadening the fight against racism and oppression of the Maori. Verbal attacks, physical attacks and unfair treatment by a health care professional, at work or purchase or rent a home, but some cases, lead to the development of this protest group. Maori is almost 10 times more likely to experience discrimination in three or more settings than their European counterparts. They are poor or fair self-rated health, mental health, and cardiovascular disease than Europeans more likely to report. As the strike and the class struggle, TE Hokioi and the Maori organizations human rights (MOORH,) came into being. The fundamental cleavage in society for TE Hokioi, between labor and capital, is seen as symptoms of class rule and the internal contradictions of the capitalist system and racism. Whether it is the TE Hokioi MOORH the accepted Maori autonomy, bicultural harmonious society as a means of treaties injustices of the past redemption. These two groups is the most effective strategy to address racism and inequality Maori that the pan-racial struggle along class lines. women’s liberation movement of http://archive.indymedia.org.nz/article/69608/text-maori-oppression, a form of protest aimed at Maori society, and women’s participation.

2.Tribal national or federal requirements

One of the most important issues Maori and the New Zealand government on land issues. Many years ago, the Native Land Act in 1862, the individual purchase of Maori land be allowed, even to the point value of the land is much smaller than it should be the local court was established in 1865, trying to get rid of community land ownership or individualism, the Maori land will be sold more easily some Maori trying to stop the sale of the land, but without success. lot of struggle for many years in 1975, the establishment of the Waitangi Tribunal of Waitangi Law Treaty have been waiting to see these Maori dissatisfaction, leading to government ?ˆˆa”?a?S?ˆˆa”?a?S days, the treaty has become the the protest focus of Maori land, the Waitangi Tribunal has become a focus on trying to resolve land claims by the government gross profit people.

Eventually led to many changes in lifestyle and culture, impact their general haoura in the loss of land by the Maori and urbanization.

3.Access participation rates and achievement across the development activities

The impact of colonization between some Maori is a restriction of their rights, as well as the destruction of the culture and discrimination. These things limit their privileges, any non-Maori in New Zealand. However, the government is trying through the introduction of English as a means of communication between the Maori life changes, they do so at school. Children are not allowed to speak the Maori dialect or Te REO gross profit. This is done to better improve the integration between Maori and non-Maori children. In a way, which makes them an active participant in the community, because the English language to promote a better understanding between them. Language plays an important role in the communication between people, which leads to better access to all society, including education, employment and life as a whole. This is a positive step for the government, although it was not in favor of Maori culture.

Contemporary issues affecting Native American

1.Cultural diversity

Native American cultural differences too. They speak different languages, they have their own way of life. Some tribes, some do not. Engaged in war, however, such as Apache’s particularly worried about the Hopi pacifist. Most societies dominated by men, but the Iroquois women to choose their leaders. Rely on fishing and hunting as a food source, but others prefer to root crops.

2.State and federal government regulations

It has been a fight for land between the Native Americans and the federal government. Native Americans dating back to 1800, their land was ceded to the federal government, in return they can continue to keep the commitment on the land, and adhere to their trust. Countries become loose, failed to fulfill this promise.

3.Health and education

Civil rights disproportionate to reduce capital than India’s key health services and education and the rest of the population to a study conducted by the U.S. Committee. This makes the Native Americans are angry, and that the government is not honest with them, on the contrary, they believe that integrity is a sacred value.

Results 4

4.1 colonization of indigenous peoples hauora including:

Education

Gross profit educational change over time. Before the coming of Europeans in New Zealand, Maori children’s education is shared by the family and community. They have learned from their grandparents and parents, language and behavior standards. Europe’s arrival has brought far-reaching changes in the social life of the Maori. In order to meet the needs of the new culture, revolutionized the education system becomes necessary. First to accept the challenge to set up schools object as soon as possible the native Christian missionaries. Many Maori children to participate in the Mission School.

This is a long way of fighting for Maori. Maori community development the Kura kaupapa wharekurawanangakohanga the REO movement, a significant contribution to education in New Zealand, it is a fact. Maori Kaupapa education has led to a greater degree of Maori participation in education at all levels. In addition, if the Te Kotahitanga program has been developed to reduce inequality decades, Maori students teaching and relieve teachers and Maori students’ performance and participation. However, this program is not yet widely and recent statistics show that too many schools are still unable to provide high-quality education Maori children. Has become an increasingly important determinant of the past 20 years education, employment and occupational status. Now, university education gives 62% of earnings lifelong privileges. Three wA?nangaTEWA?nangaORaukawa TEWA?nangaOAwanuiA?rangi and TeWA?nanga O Aotearoa, has played a key role in the Maori control and Maori culture medium tertiary education and

The ladder Maori tertiary education for students. However, the failure of the school system fair Gross profit Gross profit transferred to achieve their educational costs. Life cycle costs, access to education is too high, the average gross profit.

Urban migration

After World War II, the Maori people from the countryside to the cities in search of high-paying jobs, this happens tremendous changes. Changed in the 50 years between 1936 and 1986, the Maori population from 83% in rural areas more than 83% of the city, one of the fastest rate of urbanization in the world. As a result, many white people came to the first intimate contact with the Maori. The most urban migration in order to avoid land, poverty and lack of opportunities for young single gross profit. In the 1950s and 1960s, they fill the demand for low-skilled workers in the city. Maori identity has been destroyed by the process of urbanization. Many of the Maori people lost contact the original HAPU and iwi. The 2001 Census report, 20% of the Maori no longer know which tribe they come from. Many other Maori, who can tell your Ivica not say original HAPU. However, in many places, the institutions of family groups remain unchanged. Many of the city’s Maori retain their own homeland Ivica and HAPU, links, and some tribal marae in the city the center or taurahere Group (Urban). Some iwi and Maori organizations there are plans to re-city youth and tribes, whose ancestors.

Employment

The right to work based on the realization of other rights, including housing, education, and standard of living sufficient to maintain the health and welfare of the right has been well described in those insecure, insecurity, low control and poor health, low income employment opportunities. Redundancy and unemployment are associated with poor health results. Differences of the Maori job opportunities and working conditions by the impact of the economic and social policies of the 1980s and 1990s. Maori different positions in the labor market (ie, the two sides work or does not work or the type of occupation) accounted for a significant proportion of mortality in the 1980s and 1990s, the gap between Maori and non-Maori expanding. Maori unemployment rate has dropped to 7.6% in 2001, 13.0% in June 2007, but still three times higher than whites aged 15 and over (2.6%), the problem of youth unemployment is particularly high, with 21.4% gross profit of 15-19 June 2007 annual unemployment. This compares with 11.4% and 25.7% of Caucasians Pacific Youth.

Housing

Access to safe, reliable quality and good housing is an important determinant of health. Household crowding, poor living conditions, education, health and local services, access to unsecured term impact. Rent, an increase of approximately 45%, a significant difference, with high-quality housing, 2001 in Aotearoa / New Zealand.In Maori and non-Maori, Maori families (households Maori and one or more persons ) more than 50% in 1991 although the European family rental ratio increased from 28.9 in 1991 to 32.2 in 2001, this proportion is still lower than other ethnic groups, including Maori. In 2001, 31.7% of Maori owned or partly owned their own home. Types of compared with59.7% European, 38.8% Asian, 26.0% of the people of the Pacific, and 24.2% other ethnic discrimination in renting or buying a house is the most common of this Maori “unfair treatment “discrimination reported in 2002/03 New Zealand Health Survey. Housing discrimination was significantly associated with a higher risk of smoking and poor mental health (Harris, 2006).

Other Native American indigenous groups

Education

Improve the educational success may be a prerequisite for for many locals economic opportunities. Indigenous groups in the history of the highest dropout rate of any racial category, although these, too, different tribes. Boarding school dropout rate for children seem to be particularly high. In addition, from the University of local students to participate in a percentage of their limited drop-out rate usually has been very high. Native American youth to leave school has advanced reasons include: conflict with the norms and values aˆ‹aˆ‹of the education system, the lack of perception of the information and skills, the question of the effectiveness of the education given the high level of tribal members and even educated unemployment, lack of confidence in the intelligence, learning disabilities, without prejudice, stereotyping their own lack of ability or opportunity, the pursuit of education, maintenance of family and tribal connections, lack of conflict between the family or other social minority children seems to be generally accepted fewer positive feedback (for example, oral praise, smile) and negative feedback (such as interrupt; non-verbal signs of disdain) teachers than non-minority children. Poor education will lead to poor health, because they lack educational qualifications, work income is not enough, the purchase of medicines and food to maintain health. Lack of health knowledge associated with this, too.

Urban migration

Most Native Americans living in the western states, including California, Arizona, New Mexico, South Dakota, Alaska and Montana, in general, they are more likely than whites to live in rural areas. In the past few decades, the number of life on the reservation or trust land decreased significantly in 1970, less than half (45%) live in urban areas, compared with 61% today. Over the past century, this migration has occurred and is expected to continue, from a historical point of view, it reflects the federal government’s “demolition” of the effects of policies in the 1950s, although today it reflects the opportunities for employment, education and housing , which are often limited reservations search for homeless Native Americans, we interviewed several HCH’s proposal to retain the original starting some traumatic event may also be associated with mental illness or substance abuse as a precondition. However, regardless of motivation, migration back to the community and homes – an extremely important social support system – it is difficult to American Indians continued closure of the reservation system and into the city, and to provide health care have serious consequences.

Employment

According to recent statistics, Native American groups tend to experience unemployment rate three times as many white Americans. In addition, as Tinker and George W. Bush said that the actual number of unemployed people in the Native Am

Manuel Castells is a sociologist frequently associated with information society and communications research. In this essay I will be assessing his theory on “the network society”, and outlining any relevant criticisms. By looking at Castells’ upbringing and influences it becomes clear how he came to be concerned with the theory of the network society. He was raised in Barcelona and was politically active in the student anti-Franco movement; this political activism forced him to flee Spain for France. He finished his studies in Paris and moved on to the University of Paris achieving a doctorate in sociology. Having worked at both the University of Paris and the Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, he later moved to California as he was awarded two professorships at Berkeley. Castells’ move to California was highly relevant as he was located close to Silicon Valley, which was where the integrated circuit, microprocessor, microcomputer and many other key technologies, were developed mainly in the 80s. It has been the site of electronic innovation for over four decades, sustained by about a quarter of a million information technology workers. Influenced by the thought of Alain Touraine, Castells was a key developer in a variety of Marxist urban sociology that emphasises the role of social movements in the conflictive transformation of the city. Transcending Marxist structures in the early 80s, he concentrated upon the role of new technologies in the restructuring of an economy. His theory of the network society is highly relevant to us as we all belong to thousands of networks, be it a school, a university, a nationality or an occupation, and all networks require some form of coordination.

According to Castells, networks constitute the new social morphology of our societies. He believes there is a radical disconnectedness in contemporary society bringing about a greater sense of autonomy due to technology. Castells believes that “we are passing from the industrial age into the information age” (Castells, 2000, 5). He talks of how this historical change was brought about by the advent of new information technologies particularly those for communication and biological purposes. He noted how space and time are being transcended in social practises due to the ability to do everything from everywhere thanks to the capacity for ubiquitous perpetual contact in communication technologies. “A number of major social, technological, economic and cultural transformations came together to give rise to a new form of society” (Castells 2000, 17). Castells first mentioned the term “network society” in his book “The Rise of the Network Society: The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture” which was the first part of his Information Age trilogy. He claimed, “The definition in terms of a network society is a society where the key social structures and activities are organized around electronically processed information networks. So it’s not just about networks or social networks, because social networks have been very old forms of social organization, it’s about social networks which process and manage information and are using micro-electronic based technologies” (Castells, 1996, 34). Simply put a network society is a society whose social structure is made of networks powered by microelectronic based information and communication technologies. While he explains that networks are not a new form of social organization, they have become a key feature of social morphology, essentially they are new forms of old processes. He claims this is largely due to communication technologies, for example the internet or mobile telephones, which increase decentralization of operations and focusing of control which in turn increase the effectiveness of networks relative to hierarchical structures. “Communication networks are the patterns of contact that are created by flows of messages among communicators through time and space,” (Monge and Contractor, 2003, 39). “The Rise of the Network Society: The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture” gives an account of the economic and social dynamics of the new age of information. It demonstrates research done in USA, Asia, Latin America, and Europe. Castells talks of how the global economy is now characterized by the instantaneous flow and exchange of information, capital and cultural communication. These flows order and condition both consumption and production. The networks themselves reflect and create distinctive cultures. Both they and the information they carry are largely outside of national regulation. This means that society’s dependence on these new modes of informational flow can give enormous power to those in a position to control them to control us, “Networks have become the predominant organizat ional form of every domain of human activity” (Castells, 1996, 101).

To better understand Castells theory of a network society it is helpful to look back to his work of 1989, “The Informational City: Information Technology, Economic Restructuring, and the Urban Regional Process”. In this work he mentions the space of flows which plays a central role in his vision of the network society. Castells is an urban geographer, which is why his examination of space is central to his work. He describes the space of flows as a “high-level cultural abstraction of space and time with dynamic interactions to the digital age society” (Castells, 1989, 23). He wanted to “reconceptualise new forms of spatial arrangements under the new technological paradigm” (Castells, 1989, 146). He believed this was relevant in that it could be viewed as a new type of space that allowed distant, simultaneous, real-time interaction, unlike anything that has been around previously. So the space of flows plays a central role in Castells’ vision of the network society, it is a network of communications, defined by hubs where these networks intersect. Societies are not attached to a specific place but instead to the space of flows. He argues that “while organizations are located in places, the organizational logic is placeless, being fundamentally dependent on the space of flows that characterizes information networks” (Castells in NyA­ri, 2004, 23). This space of flows tests what Castells talks of as the space of places, which includes regional communities and nation states. It can be seen that “while the space of flows can be abstract in social, cultural, and historical terms, places are condensations of human history, culture and matter” (Castells, 1990, 14). In this way opposition to the space of flows of various networks manifests itself in the form of communities based around places. So while the space of flows consists of global circuits of information for example the internet, the space of places is dominated by decisions and has bounded territories or seemingly fixed localities. Barry Wellman draws on Castells ideas and believes technologies have shrunk everything; he talks of how communities have become global instead of local and are attached to technological not geographical links. Wellman says Castells observations have profound implications for what community means in contemporary society. Through these definitions Castells developed the notion of timeless time, which he saw as an index of social change. He believed time has become more complicated and sequences of life are becoming scrambled. Space and time are fundamental experiences of social life but are being transcended in social practise, for example users of “Skype” can speak to each other in any number of different countries at any one time and all communication is instant.

For Castells, networks have become the basic units of modern society and so the network society can be seen to be more than just the information society that was originally mentioned. Castells argues that it is not simply the technology that characterizes contemporary societies, but also cultural, economic and political aspects that when combined can create the network society, “Influences such as religion, cultural upbringing, political organizations, and social status all shape the network society” (Castells, 1990, 86). Societies can be shaped by these aspects in a variety of ways. According to Castells, power now lies in various networks, “the logic of the network is more powerful than the powers of the network” (Castells in Weber, 2002, 104). Many networks today, for example financial capital, have become global in scale. Networks can play a key role within businesses now, capital such as staff, consultants, and other businesses can be brought together to work on a specific project, and when it is finished they separate and are reallocated to a new task becoming connected to a new network. Although Castells is more concerned with the macro as opposed to the micro in society he admits it is important to assess the abilities of actors in the network whether it is a company, an individual, the government or any other organization. He determines participation in the network by the level to which the actor can contribute to the goals of that particular network. “This new environment requires skilled flexible workers: the organization man gives way to the flexible woman” (Castells, 2000, 12). This creates a binary process of inclusion and exclusion from these networks where by the individuals with little or nothing to offer their network, are excluded. An important aspect of the network society is the links between the networks of people. Isolated networks are weak and being connected is a type of power. Belonging to more than one network is always useful, however in the network society, because of the binary nature of exclusion, teamed with the fact that it is simpler to exclude, inclusion can be seen to give more power than it did previously. At the same time though electronic communication makes it much simpler to join a network, for example group emails or threads on social network sites, which can instead devalue inclusion.

Like most social theorists Castells has attracted various criticisms regarding aspects of his theory of the network society; for example his analysis of the role of information, production and the link between capitalism and informational labour. Many refute his claim that the present economic and social situation is a new age, but instead is simply an extension of industrial capitalism. Many feel there is a danger for Castells in focusing on the radical novelty of the post industrial society, and overlooking key continuities between it and past socio-economic formations. Dan Schiller argues that “the main economic drive in network societies is still the desire to gather private capital; the market imperatives of competition and co modification still dominate, and the social and economic inequalities characteristic of market economies tend to widen rather than close” (Schiller, 2000, 48). Both academics and critics such as Mitchell Kapor, founder of the Electronic Frontier Foundation have attempted to read Castells work but have given up due to its extensive data collection and lack of synthesis, “It may be profound, but it is certainly opaque” ( Kapor, Internet Galaxy, 2008 ). Professor Martin Kenney, a member of the faculty of Applied Behavioural Sciences at UC Davis who has studied the Information Age trilogy says, “When Castells does draw conclusions; they can be so aphoristic that their precise meaning can be elusive” (Kenney, Internet Galaxy, 2008).

Both Webster and Garnham have accused Castells of technological determinism. The theoretical problem Webster poses is the relative autonomy of the mode of development. The mode of development is spoken of as influencing social relations however isn’t determined by capitalism and Castells says it can survive it, “the new economy may well outlast the mode of production where it was born” (Castells, 2000, 11). Webster believes this implies that the mode of development continues on its own technological logic so “in key respects, is beyond the reach of politics” (Webster, 2004, 17), and therefore feels in spite of Castells’ assertions to the contrary, his theoretical basis is technologically determinist. Garnham’s criticism focuses on productivity. Castells states that the network society relies on increasing productivity which occurs due to information technology. Garnham says of this, “there is little evidence of such productivity increases” and goes on to state, “lack of a stable calculable relationship between the values of outputs lies behind the historical difficulties in co modifying information” (Garnham, 2004, 191). Garnham also states that productivity can be looked at in terms of consumption, investment and the relations of production. Both Garnham and Webster criticize the seemingly autonomous role of the mode of development, highlighting instead the importance in determining the role of the mode of production, “the informational mode of development is developed for and put at the service of a set of property relations and the goal of accumulation, not vice versa” (Garnham, 2004, 174). Webster and Garnham deliver convincing critiques of Castells’ theory of a network society. I believe the network society is more realistically a development of our industrial society as opposed to a completely new construct. Capitalism remains the economic basis for our society; the uprising of capitalism’s power in various networks is an event that was occurring during Marx’s original critique of our social system in the 19th century.

In an article written by Jack Fischer, Castells says he has been frustrated there has not been more criticism of his work on the network society. “What criticism there has been has referred to the relative difficulty of reading the work and of his adamant refusal to offer prescriptions” (Fischer, Manuel Castells Brave New World, 1999). Castells said on the matter, “As stunning as it sounds, I am not aware of any major criticism in published reviews, and I am aware of dozens of reviews in many countries. In fact, it is a little bit disappointing, since I am sure there are many weaknesses in the work, and I would like to debate it more” (Castells in Fischer, Manuel Castells Brave New World, 1999).

Manuel Castells theory of the network society is highly relevant in understanding contemporary forms of social interaction. “It permeates most societies in the world, in various cultural and institutional manifestations, as the industrial society characterized the social structure of both capitalism and statism for most of the twentieth century” (Castells, 2000, 22). His analysis of the technological, cultural, and institutional transformation of societies around the globe to network societies provides useful insights into a constantly changing world of communications. Castells hypothesises that there is little chance of social change within any given network. He says himself that the fundamental dilemma in the network society is “that political institutions are not the site of power any longer. The real power is the power of cultural codes, embedded in networks” (Castells 2000, 25). The idea of the network society makes us think about how much of our lives depend on these technologies, in an ubiquitous network society we can exchange information and communicate with other remote people and machines untroubled by and sometimes even unaware of the networks or devices allowing such communication. Castells theory of the network society is both engaging and innovative which is one of the reasons it has got so much attention. In a time when our society is going through such intense and powerful transformations, potentially moving beyond an industrial era altogether, it is crucial to have the work of Castells who documents and analyses this important transition though such work as his theory of the network society. His observations on the social and economic dynamics of this information age not only help us better understand contemporary society but will be looked to as a key reference source in the constantly changing years ahead.

Bibliography.
Castells, M. (1989) “The Informational City: Information Technology, Economic Restructuring, and the Urban Regional Process” Wiley Blackwell Publishing
Castells, M. (1996) “The Power of Identity: The Information Age, Economy, Society and Culture” Wiley Blackwell Publishing
Castells, M. (2000) “Materials for an Exploratory Theory of the Network Society” British Journal of Sociology, Volume 51, Tavistock Publications
Castells, M. (2000) “The Rise of the Network Society: Economy, Society and Culture v.1: The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture” Wiley Blackwell Publishing
Castells, M. (2002) “The Internet Galaxy: Reflections on the Internet, Business, and Society” OUP Oxford Press
Castells, M. (2003) “The Power of Identity: v. 2: The Information Age – Economy, Society and Culture” Wiley Blackwell Publishing
Castells, M. (2009) “Mobile Communication and Society (Information Revolution and Global Politics Series)” MIT Press
Garnham, N. (1990) “Capitalism and Communication” SAGE Publications
Mackay, H. (2002) “Investigating Information Society” Routledge
Monge, P and Contractor, N. (2003) “Theories of Communication Networks” OUP USA
NyA­ri, P. (2004) “Cultural Mobility: A Manifesto” Cambridge University Press
Schiller, D. (2000) “Digital Capitalism: Networking the Global Market System” University of Illinois Press
Stalder, F. (2006) “Manuel Castells: The Theory of the Network Society (Key Contemporary Thinkers)” Polity Press
Weber, B. (2002) “Advances in Research on Information Technologies in the Financial Service Industry: A Special Issue of the “Journal of Organizational Computing” Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc
Webster, F. (2003) “The Information Society Reader” Routledge
Wellman, B. (2002) “The Internet in Everyday Life” Wiley Blackwell Publishing
Kapor and Kenney, (2008) “Internet Galaxy” http://johnmill.wordpress.com/internet-galaxy-1-network-society/ Accessed on October 31, 2009
Fisher, (1999) “Manuel Castells Brave New World” http://www.acturban.org/biennial/DOC_planners/castells_article9904.pdf/ Accessed on November 2, 2009
http://www.manuelcastells.info/en/index.htm/ Accessed on November 2, 2009
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0GBB7U5mv0w/ Accessed on November 5, 2009

Manuel Castells is one of the most widely recognised contributors to contemporary debates about globalisation. Indeed his three volume trilogy The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture published from 1996 to 2000 was amongst the earliest, full-scale theories of globalisation. Castells transformed globalisation from a fashionable academic concept into a a whole new phase of human history. More recent contributors such as Hardt and Negri, Held, Bauman and Giddens have arguably been writing within Castells’ legacy. Few since however, have been able to match the boldness of Castells venture which some are already characterising as a work in the tradition of previous grand works of sociology such as Karl Marx and Max Weber. Of course, it is too early to place Castells alongside Marx and Weber but the central thesis of his trilogy is certainly all-encompassing. It is nothing less than the claim that new information technologies have not only transformed the technology of communication, they have not merely had a globalising impact but have brought about a new age, within which these technologies are the organising logic and principles. Very little of human life escapes this new age for Castells, from state structures and national sovereignty to the everyday individual reckoning with our own identity.

In the first volume of his trilogy, The Network Society, Castells explains how the new age can be characterised as an age of informationalism. The world has shifted from industrialism to post-industrialism to informationalism (Castells, 1996). In other words the determining technology of our age is not mechanical but informational. This has brought about a whole new way in which economic activity and production is conducted, through networking. This takes place within companies, between companies and between regions. Networking is the new means for ensuring productivity, as opposed to old-fashioned heirarchical managerial strcutures which relied on the controllable logic of mechanical operations. Rather networking is informational and its technological medium is the internet. The networking society has important consequences not only for economic progress but for human relationships and the future of the nation-stae. In economic terms it means that progress is tied inextricably to information technology. If technology is responsible for transferring labor and matter into consumable goods and the production of consumable goods determines economic progress then such progress is determined by information technology, and particular the manipulation of the internet. Furthermore, if human culture is significantly determined by the forms of economic activity that permeate it then the rise of the new information technologies is bound to have a rapid and dramatic impact on everyday human relationships. Perhaps the most significant of these is the impact on our conception of time. The world has become a much smaller place with the onset of information technology as we can interact and respond to each other in real time – about matters of great significance.

This theme is further developed in the second volume of the trilogy The Power of Identity. Here, Castells explains how the new social movements are posing a formidable challenge to the old nation-state system (Castells, 1998). These new social movements are the product of the new global economic order – because this is new order is ruthless, perhaps more ruthless and brutal than previous economic orders. Whole communities and forms of life can simply by cut out or switched of. Individuals are likely to feel that their traditional roots have no value and at the same time there is very little security provided by this new order. In the End of Millenium, the third volume of his trilogy, Castells paints a gloomy picture of the trends that have been set in place by globalisation (Castells, 2000). On the one hand many will feel increasingly lost in the information age – further removed from the forces that are shaping their lives. On the other hand many of those that embrace the new world order will do so at the expense of the moral grounding that upheld previous social orders.

Castells’ trilogy has been both widely discussed and heavily criticised. Much of this criticism has been concerned with the presentation of his ideas, that Castells covers too much ground and is uneccessarily verbose. There are more serious criticisms that can be made however. These criticisms are perhaps best highlighted by contrasting Castells’ work with other theorists of globalisation. Saskia Sassen provides one such contrast. For Sassen departs significantly in her account of globalisation from Castells’ economic and technological determinism. Whereas Castells argues that the new world order is fundamentally a new economic order and that this new economic order is founded on progress in information technology, Sassen argues that there are two main trends that have driven globalisation (Sassen, 1996). According to Sassen these two main trends are both economic and political. And it is the development of political globalisation that tells most significantly against Castells’ thesis. New forms of transnational political association such as the European Union are acquiring a significant measure of political authority over process of global economic and social activities. They must therefore be understood as part of the driving force of globalisation. But political globalisation does not simply entail the transfer of power from national to international institutions. It also includes new human rights regimes. These rights have been centred around the protection, or at least the recognition, of peoples from the abuse of state power by international. Whilst human rights protection is patchy and far from universal it is one aspect of a way of avoiding the pessimistic conclusions made by Castells. Perhaps, even, a new form of global citizenship is possible through both global political institutions and the remaining and still vital democratic institutions of nation-states, which are far from disappearing as one might believe after reading Castells.

But how will this be possible if, as Robertson explains, there is no prospect of any kind of unified global culture that could underpinn it. Well, perhaps it is if we follow Robertson’s definition of globalisation as opposed to Castells. According to Robertson globalisation ‘refers both to the compression of the world and the intensification of consciousness of the global whole’. (Robertson, 1992: 8) In contrast to Castells then, who argues that in a globalised world individuals are likely to feel increasingly lost, disconnected from the forces that are shaping their lives, Robertson’s globalisation leads to an increasing interconnectedness between people. This interconnectedness is obviously enabled to a significant degree by the internet. And, to be sure, not everyone is able to access the new communications technologies that are helping to drive globalisation. However, the possibility that those that are excluded from the rights and priviledges enjoyed by citizens of the west might be protected from the consequences of globalisation and might be eventually be included in these privileges is enabled by a key feature of globalisation itself. This is that in a globalised world we are more likely to position our views in relation to a far greater range of human perspectives. In other words, globalisation involves “comparative interaction of different forms of life.’ (Robertson, 1992:27) This process can be called relativisation, which is a process that affects both individuals and states.

A more specific and more detailed exploration of the ways in which the ‘comparative interaction of different forms of life’ may help to transform our world for the better can be found in theories of global civil society. There are many different versions of the theory of global civil society, but at its most optimistic it is envisaged that the key to the democratisation of forces of globalisation lies not in human rights regimes but in the development of networks of cooporation between international actors (NGO’S) who can place pressure on both states and international authorities through the exchange of opinion within a global public sphere (Keane, 2003). Just as national civil societies ensured that national markets were socially embedded with moral and ethical norms, so global civil society may have this impact on the global economic order. The exposure of some of the unsavoury practices of certain global companies, such as Nike and BP, by NGO’S and the paradoxically named anti-globalisation movement, are surely already having such an impact. That said however, if we wanted to understand the forces that might render the prospect of a global civil society unrealized then there are few better theorists to turn to than Castells. That is if we put aside his economic and technological determinism.

References

Zygmunt Bauman (2000) Liquid Modernity Polity Press

Keane, John (2003) Global Civil Society Cambridge University Press

Castells, Manuel , (1996) The Information age: Economy, Society and Culture volume one. The Network Society Blackwell

Castells, Manuel (1998) The Information age: Economy, Society and Culture volume two. The Power of Identity Blackwell

Castells, Manuel (2000) The Information age: Economy, Society and Culture volume three. The End of Millenium Blackwell

Robertson, Ronald (1992) Globalisation Social Theory and Global Culture. London: Sage.

Saskia Sassen (1996) Losing Control? Columbia University Press

Economical status and family are among the most widely used terms in family economic and management, which have always been the focus of study, especially in recent years. However, these terms have been defined differently by different researchers. To define family, one needs to look at families in research-oriented ways; that can see a great deal of variation in how a family works, how they plan, and how they decide. Families today are expected to be more than just a bond between immediate blood relatives. Families are often seen including fictive kin and extended family members (Scott et al., 2003). Society’s current definition of family is completely different from that of the past. Nowadays, the nuclear family is seen as a novel situation that occurs with an ever decreasing frequency. Today’s norms include the single-parent household, the extended family household, and the blended family (Scott et al., 2003). Dealing with all of these new “types” of families brings about many interesting questions about how individuals within the family interact; feel about each other, who are family director, who controlled family and also other questions about the economic and educational situations of a family.

Family Economic Well-being status varies over the life span, from community to community, and within families. In the literature, researchers sometimes use family economic well-being to mean the macro economic situation of all families in the community and other times they use family economic well-being to describe specific micro family situations (Bauer and Braun, 2000). Family economic well-being deals with the ways in which families live and make a living. There are different ways of measuring economic well-being. When researchers use language and statistics to describe conditions such as living below poverty level, minority families, inner-city families, rural poor families, and single parents, they invoke and imply class, race, place, and family structure as the important aspects of living and working in communities. In reality researchers want to increase the stability of all families, over the life span, so that they have the ability to provide economical necessities for themselves and their families (Bauer, et al. 2000). To do this, we as researchers need to think more broadly about the economic well-being of families and what elements affect family economy.

Management practice is viewed as an investment in human capital. Income and earning potential is increased when people are used management and can work to get a result better than the past (Becker and Gary, 1991). On the other hand persons have less knowledge management will have one effect on family economy thus reducing financial resources in compare some body that has knowledge enjoying. More families who budgeted their money, compared to families who did not budget, believed that they could increase their satisfaction with financial management by planning expenditures (Beutler and Mason, 1987).

In addition to the elements which affect economic status, the researchers need to clarify how they measure economic status. There have always been different agreements to measure economic status; some researchers believe that health and economic status are closely related. Moreover, there is a clear agreement that income is related to health. Many researchers prefer to use educational or occupational level, while others use income to measure economic status (“Editorial, 1996; Medical, 1996).

It goes without saying that considering all the above mentioned issues, researchers intend to measure economic status of families related to managerial functions. What is considered very important in family issue in today’s world, apart from traditional issue, is economic dimension of family. In recent decades family traditional tasks such as intercourse, marriage, and childbearing changed and can consider some new patterns that replaced family functions (Lundberg and Pollak, 2007), one of them is family economic dimension.

Looking more attentively to family changes, we realize that other family patterns, including work and education have also changed. These changes, however, are due to the changes in family economic status. Becker (1991) considers the evolution of the family from primitive societies to the late twentieth century and concludes that many of the functions that families performed in traditional societies are now performed by the market or the state. The market has largely displaced the family in some activities, such as food production, and continues to encroach on other activities, such as food preparation (Becker and Gary, 1991). So for family functions can consider other dimensions that one of these dimensions is family economic which in order to achieve to these, researchers need to have some other researches. To cause this reason current study wants to determine, do managerial functions have any effect on family economic status?

1.2 Statement of the problem

There are several issues regarding this study. First and for most, is the separation of poor families from mainstream societies due to economical problem. Many poor families are struggling to survive in communities that often exacerbate rather than mitigate the disadvantages of poverty-communities where a lack of public resources, economic investment, and political power, sometimes serve to separate and isolate families from mainstream society (Holmes, 2000). Successful, happy, healthy children require families that are strong-families that love them, and also provide, nurture, support and teach them. To be a strong family is tough in high-poverty neighborhoods that offer few of the opportunities, networks, and supports that all families need and most families take for granted (Mccoy, 2001)

The insufficiency of wages and salaries and the need to train families to manage their limited sources of income is another issue. Wages and salaries on the average have not kept up with the cost of living, especially for housing (Bauer, 2000). The Increasing gap between the people who earn the most and those who earn the least results in problems for communities (Bauer, 2000). More jobs are available, but without benefits (health insurance, retirement plans, savings plans, etc.) communities are left with issues to solve to support health and daily living for families. Demographics drive the shifts in the population characteristics (Bauer, 2000).

These practical problems require critical thinking, decision making, communication and action related to “what should be done?” in order to enable individuals and families to narrow the difference that exists between the ideal “quality of life” and “the reality of life situation”. The ways individuals and families seek to solve practical problems in their everyday lives are shaped by their values and available resources. There are no exact rules for solving such problems because each individual and family circumstance is different (Engberg, et al. 1996; Fox, 1997).

Another reason which is worth mentioning is the need to improve the economical status of families who fail to manage their budget due to high debts level and lack of personal savings. Inefficacy of family members to manage their budget present is serious economic and societal problems. There is a great need to improve the financial well-being of families. Since the mid-1980s, low rates of saving and high household debt have characterized the American family. Without adequate savings, many families will have too little money to face their current financial needs, as well as maintain their standard of living in retirement (Cruces, 2003).

Many Iranian families face serious financial challenges despite a booming economy for the past years. The personal saving rate has dropped. Spending and borrowing have increased. In case of this study, a mind boggling problem which needs to be solved is that there are many people in Arak city who are occupied in agriculture, services and industry sections. According to reported economic journal of Arak Province (Takalo zadeh, 2006). Rate of occupation in services section has been 28.5 percent in agriculture, 36.5 percent in industry 35 percent in Arak city in 2006. And 30 percent of occupation rate in Arak province is related to the agriculture section (Takalo zadeh, 2006). The problem goes more highlighted in families with a single annual income. These families such as farmers have less knowledge compared with other categories and have to plan for longer time period. These kinds of families gain money during a year after selling their products. But they run out of money before the end of the year. For example they can afford life expenditure just for ten months, so they face economical problems for the other two months. However this research attempts to answer the families about above mentioned issues. There are many families in Arak who have just a limited single monthly salary. For example employees, laborers, drivers, teachers etc. Wages for these categories of jobs are paid once a month. But these types of families have problem with how to spend money. These families are not aware of the strategies of keeping to their budget. They do not have enough knowledge about how to manage their money. And generally families do not know how to manage their money and use it in a better way. Also they do not know how to schedule their payments throughout the month.

However, limited resources and badly-paid jobs have not always been the main problems. Owning money by itself does not support family economic stability. Inability to manage the budget and make long term decisions for the future of the family is what really matters to guarantee stability of family. Despite the economic boom in the recent years for families, many families have not made the decisions necessary to provide for a more stable future (Bauer, 2000). It is obvious that there are financial difficulties in some families with high income. One of the reasons of this phenomenon is to ignore the use of management science in their spending. On the other hand, in Arak city’s families or even in almost all Iranian families little or no attention is paid to family or home management. It will be tried to express the degree of significance of relationship between management functions and family economics status and make justifiable opinions to fasten this relation with respect to the people’s income, culture and religions.

One of the most important reasons to discussed and study about family economics status by researchers on these days is that develop and improvement of countries in all dimensions will start from family. In Iran, at the state and national levels the accomplishment of programs relevant to the family economic and managerial functions education to the families and in the level of family has received little attention.

1.3 Research questions

Current research on base previous researches to want examines the relationship between managerial functions practice and family economic status. Given past research has very generally looked at the family economic status and functions of management, this study seek to answer the research questions:

1-What is the economic status of families’ in Arak?

2-What is the level of managerial functions involved by the families?

3-Are there any relationship between the levels of managerial functions involved by the family and economic status?

4- Which factors are affecting family economic status?

5- What can be done

1.4 Research Objectives

The primary objective of the current research is to determine the relationship between management functions practice and family’s economics status in Arak city. Also current research has several specific objectives:

1- To evaluate the economics status of families.

2- To determine the level of managerial functions practiced by the families.

3- To compare relationship between the level of managerial functions involved by the family and economics status.

4- To determine the factors effecting family economic status?

1.5 Research Hypothesis

As a part of this investigation, several hypotheses were employed to determine relationship between variables in this research.

1-There is a significant relationship between uses of management functions and family economic status.

2-There is significant difference between levels of managerial functions practice by families.

3-There is significant relationship between levels of managerial functions practiced and family economics status.

4-There is significant relationship between factors effecting on family economic status.

1.6 Scope of study

This research focuses on economical status of different types of families in Arak city that contributes towards enhanced management methodologies and how it affects the economy status of families.

This study will address the perceptions of families from economical and managerial dimensions. The information sought includes family manager attributes, family economic status, and level of education, kind of family expenditure, and finally attitude, knowledge of family managers about family economic programs, family administration, and family management toward economic dimension. This research also engages in participation-observation over two year’s period (2007-2009).

1.7Significance of study

Considering the above-mentioned problems, the results of this study will be of great importance to family units who will hopefully apply the managerial strategies to improve economical aspects of the family.

In addition, result of this study will be especially interesting to policy makers and managers at this time in societies because they will understand that improving family economics is a great help to societies economic development. Also, managers will be aware of managerial functions and their basic roles not only in families but also in organizations and societies. These functions can be important and fundamental.

The significant of study also arise from the fact that there has been little research performed on the relationship between managerial functions and family economics status. Empirically the findings product by this study will enlarge the knowledge concerning family economic and management functions

Last but not least, one of the most important implications of this study is that researchers and practitioners will be able to develop effective programs for families especially in economical aspects. It goes without saying that the researcher of this research can increase his knowledge using the results of this study, to maintain a better understanding of the managerial functions, how they work, and family economic status in Arak. The important study highlighted will reveal much about the long term impact of management in terms of economic development of the province. Iran is one of the few countries that have not shared in the global trade expansion. This is partly but significantly responsible for the country’s lackluster economic performance. Therefore, this research will actually dive into more complex issues that can lead to better solution family’s orientation for socio-economy improvement.

Society, families and individuals indeed need the knowledge, skills and attitudes developed in the study of family economics to enable them to cope effectively with unexpected and unfamiliar problems emerging in their everyday lives (Sumonchat, 2000).

One matter raised of this research is that it doesn’t seem logical to compare the effects of management functions on family economic status with different family’s income. The answer is that even poor families can employ the management policies to learn how to better use their budget and it will be useful for the poor family. On the other hand, new families are not even familiar with conventional family economics rules, because there is no close relationship in families in new modern societies. In fact, the family economic rules have been passed to children by parents. So this research also will be useful for new families in societies.

1.8 Literature review
1.1.8 Definition of terms
Economic status

Conceptual definition: The overall all degree of family’s economic situation.

Operational Definition: In this research, economic status of the family is measure by three indicators: family income, ownership or asset and family expenditure or consumption.

Family income

Conceptual Definition: this refers to the total income that earned by family members.

Operational Definition: The respondent was asked about the amount of monetary income in the month that received by each person in the sampled family, 15 years old and over. Total family income is the algebraic sum of amount reported separately for money wages or salary, rent land, rent house, money received from spouse, son, daughter, grandchildren and relatives, agricultural activity, pension, welfare, business, dividend, investment of shares, royalty and other specify income by family members.

Monthly expenditure

Conceptual Definition: This refers to the total amount paid for home expenditure per month.

Operational Definition: In the survey, the respondent was asking about the total amount of money that paid for all family expenditure used during the last months. The respondent was asked include food and materials, house rental, utilities, education and training, health care, clothing, travel, transportation, leisure, taxes, saving and other specify item that should spend during month in the family.

Ownership

Conceptual Definition: Refer to the total family asset, such as home, land, garden, factory, buildings and other financial valuable things that are immovable and transferred through generations.

Operational Definition: In the survey, the respondent was asked about owner of, house factory, private company and private garden for vacation home.

Age

Conceptual Definition: this refers to the respondent’s age.

Operational Definition: the respondent’s age was obtained through completion of the roster section of the questionnaire.

Educational level

Conceptual Definition: this refers to the level of education achieved by individual.

Operational Definition: the respondent was asked to indicate the highest grade, level of schooling completed. Allowable values include, (0) unread (1) No formal education, (2) Primary school, (3) Secondary school, (4) High school, (5) Diploma graduate, (6) Associate’s degree, (7) Bachelor degree, (8) Master’s degree, (9) PhD or professional degree, (10) Islamic school.

Economic well-being (subjective)

Conceptual Definition: The overall all degree of family’s economic situation.

Operational Definition: in the survey, economic well-being of the family is measured by these indicators: family income, household expenditure in food materials, clothes, transportation, and non food materials.

Management functions

Conceptual Definition: The functions that make up management are planning, organization, direction, coordination, controlling (supervision and evaluation). (Hurst K. and S, 1991; Lauri and Salantera, 1995; Marquis, 1998; Marquis and Huston, 1996).

Operational Definition: in this research, management functions of the family supervisor (householder) are measured by five indicators (functions): planning, coordinating, organizing, directing and control.

Family

Conceptual Definition: There are many definitions of the family in the literature. But one of the reasons to chosen these definition is that the below definition is clear, complete and deep, so researcher chosen from the Vanier institution to the family (Pauline Vanier, 2005).

Any combination of two or more persons who are bound together over time by ties of mutual consent, birth and/or adoption or placement and who, together, assume responsibilities for variant combinations of some of the following:

Physical maintenance and care of group members

Addition of new members through procreation or adoption

Socialization of children

Social control of members

Production, consumption, distribution of goods and services, and

Affective nurturance-love. (Pauline Vanier, 2005)

Family size

Conceptual definition: Refer to the number of people live at home.

Operational Definition: in the survey, family size was ask from respondents and it included, husband, wife, children, and another relative that live with family members at one home.

The economic family

Concept is use to describe a census family. An economic family consists of all persons in a household who are related to each other by blood, marriage, common-law or adoption.

Family Economics

It is concerned with the determinants of levels of living for families and individuals and with the possibilities for changing these levels to better meet personal resources in productive activity and end uses by families and individuals as they interact with other social and economic systems to achieve their standards of living. (Reynolds and Abdel-Ghany, 2001).

Household Management

It has been defined by Berger as an applied field aimed at helping individuals and families improve their quality of life through effective decision making and resource use(Berger, 1994).

Family financial planning and counseling

It is defined by the Financial Planning Association as the process of establishing personal and financial goals and creating a way to reach them. A plan must be implemented, monitored, and reviewed periodically so that adjustments can be made, if necessary, to assure that it continues to move one toward his or her financial goals.

1.9 Limitation of research

Two or the three fields together are linked to one another, namely economics, sociology and the management fields. The most important problem in this research is that two big fields in science must be combined and put together. This research will be joint management, economic and sociology. So the research is a new one in this regard, and moreover, it is very difficult to conduct.

The other limited in this research is that there are several economic different observations (point of view) in one side and then there are several kinds of families and these are very broad, such as, connected family (continually), broken family (torn family) divorced family and etc, from another side. So, different kinds of families must be distinguished and this is an important and required part of this research.

Cultural variation in different families such as rules and customs, values, norms, religious beliefs, economical, political, and social approaches, their accents and clothing are very different from one another.

The other limited in current research is that researcher use a variety of families to do a comparative research and compare families’ income dimensions.

Another limited is that, there is a variety of families in rural and urban area. Researcher must first distinguish what kind of families will be investigated? (Urban or rural families). Because of the role of men in two kinds of families is very different. For example in rural families, the role of men is more important than women.

The last limited in this research is enlargement (development) of restricted areas. That must be limited and distinguished in the future. Getting the information about economic status of families is not an easy job and cannot be clearly represented, especially when they are asked to tell about their real income and quality of their life.

So it is important to ensure the unawareness of families about the research.

The Arab World refers to the 22 Arabic speaking countries located between the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Arabian Sea in the east, and the Mediterranean Sea and Turkey in the north to the Indian Ocean and mid-Africa in the south. It consists of an area of around 14 million square kilometres, most of which is desert except for the coastal areas. There are approximately 250 million people living in the Arab World, with the majority being Muslims, although there are many from other religions too. Historically, the Arab World was not divided into states, but now it is, and its 22 countries form many popular regions such as the Gulf area, the Middle East, North Africa and the Sahara. History, language, religion are some of the many unifying factors that exist in the consciousness of every Arab man. After gaining independence, some Arab states and some memorable Arab leaders tried their best to reunify the Arab World, but their efforts were in vain, especially after many failed attempts such as the rise of the United Arab Republic between Syria and Egypt in 1985. From then on, all Arab states set off on the journey of improving and developing themselves depending on their potential power. Although the Arab World is experiencing a state of stability, there are still many social and economical problems threatening the development of many of the Arab states.

The first problem to discuss here is unemployment in Arab countries, which is the highest in the world and threatens to spread poverty in the Arab World; “the increase in the number of workers was not matched by an equal increase in employment in the Arab World and with the collapse of the oil revenues and the implementation of stabilization and structural adjustment program, employment growth slowed or became negative; as a result unemployment increased” (1). According to the annual report of the Arab Labor Organization, 14% of the population are unemployed, which means that there are more than 17 million Arab people without work. There are many reasons for this: first, the failure of development due to the political situation in the Arab World. Civil wars and conflicts are considered the main obstacles that hinder development. Second, the poor economic performance of the Arab governments due to poor administrative tools and corruption. Third, the failure of education to meet the requirements of the job market and the neglect of technical and applied education, which is important to widen the labour market. Finally, the failure of the governments to create attractive investment opportunities that could increase the number of jobs that are available, and the weak laws that, if strengthened, could encourage investments. This dangerous problem has devastating effects, and so Arab states should do their best to encourage the private sector to increase the number of job opportunities for unemployed people. This can be achieved through issuing a number of laws to urge businessmen and companies to get involved in the national market. In addition to encouraging investment within the Arab World, investment in the Western countries should be encouraged, as well as opening the national market to foreign firms and companies to set up effective projects, which could help the national economy improve.

Another social problem in the Arab World is that women do not have access to all of the rights stated in the Islam religion, despite the fact that the majority of Arabs are Muslims. In Islam, women have the right to learn, to live a good life, to agree or refuse marriage, to work, and many others, and it is totally forbidden to deny them of any of these. In the Arab World, many women are not given these rights, and in some Arab countries, girls under the age of 15 are forced to get married to older men without their consent. One example is a 12-year-old Yemeni girl, who was forced into marriage and then died during painful childbirth, which also killed her baby. Moreover, according to UN data, the proportion of women’s representation in Arab parliaments is only 3.4% (as opposed to 11.4% in the rest of the world). In addition, 55% of Arab women are illiterate (2), and in many parts of the Arab World they are not allowed to continue their learning, despite this being a fundamental right in Islam that considers the education of women in particular as essential for the construction of society. Furthermore, women do not enjoy the right to vote in many Arab countries. For example in Kuwait, they do not have the right to elect until two years. This bad situation for women in the Arab World should be considered and analysed as soon as possible, because women’s role in society cannot be denied, otherwise the whole of society will be threatened. Therefore, the improvement of education for women and the elimination of high female illiteracy rates in the Arab World is an urgent necessity, and can be achieved by making primary school education both free and compulsory.

The most dangerous problem in the Arab World is the widespread illiteracy, which is threatening future development. The UN report found that one third of Arabs are illiterate and only $10 per person is spent on scientific research (3). The report also found that almost nine million children of primary school age are not attending school in the Arab World. Based on the general census of the population for the year 2004, the illiteracy rate among those aged 10 years and over was 45.7%, with a significant disparity between male and female – males had an illiteracy rate of 29.8% as opposed to females at 62.1% (4). No one can deny how serious this problem is, since it is the cause of many other problems such as poverty, disease and death. The highest rate of illiteracy recorded is among women, since the female education in the Arab World is seen as less important, especially in rural areas. The Arabic governments, organisations and international organisations must cooperate and work together to reduce this high rate of illiteracy, and an enlightenment campaign must be held in the rural areas to let people know the importance of the education of women in society. Arab governments have to make education more accessible and increase the number of schools, especially in rural areas and deserts, where the rate of illiteracy among nomads is very high. They must also reward those who become literate. However, these plans are in vain if there is no money available, so a respectable amount of money should be specified for the purpose of fighting illiteracy among Arabic people. This money can support all efforts to improve education and be spent on helping poor people to continue learning, especially if we take into consideration that poverty is one of the main causes of illiteracy.

In conclusion, unemployment, illiteracy and the neglect of women are just some of the social and economic problems of the Arab World. Unemployment is a serious challenge because it is the cause of many social and economic problems, and can lead to an increase in crime, poverty, illiteracy and humiliation, as people who do not work do not have enough money to live a respectable life. Women in the Arab World should enjoy their rights that are stated in Islam because if they are educated, they can play an essential role in life, which benefits the whole of society. In Islam it is said that if you teach a male, you teach an individual, but if you teach a female, you teach a whole nation. The last problem that we discussed was the problem of illiteracy in the Arab World and how this hinders progress and development, and causes many social and economic problems such as poverty and a high rate of fertility, which in turn is another serious problem. It is clear that all of these problems are related to each other in one way or another, so Arab governments must be aware of how to face these through working hard and planning to prevent them from worsening. Furthermore, rich Arab states such as Qatar and UAE can participate in the efforts to reduce the suffering in poor areas. For example, the campaign led by Dubai to help blind people get their sight back was a great success all over the world.

REFERENCES
Rivlin, P. Economic policy and performance in the Arab World. p.36.
Al-Quds Al-Arabi (London), December 4, 1999.
http://www.menassat.com/?q=en/news-articles/7272-un-arab-world-rife-illiteracy-lacks-innovation
http://www.yementimes.com/DefaultDET.aspx?i=1226&p=front&a=2

Nowadays, the world population just over 6 billion and consistently estimate to increase to 9 billion in the next 50 years. The growth rate is mostly come from those developing countries, especially from Africa. Nevertheless, the birth rate which we would call it as population growth rate is decreasing in Hong Kong. The local birth rate reached the lowest level in the world. According to the report from the Census and Statistics Department, around 30,000 babies will be generated by mainland couples while 69,000 will be born in Hong Kong each year. In 2006, 984 babies were produced each 1000 expectant mothers. The estimation of the following 30 years, the birth rate will be lower than 900 babies would be born with each 1000 expectant mothers.

We can use the graph from Census and Statistics Department to indicate the change by birth rate. In the fig. 1.1, the lines are representing the population in 1996 while bars are representing the 2006s. We would see that the population in Hong Kong is going to form a reverse triangle as fewer are born in the base. Moreover, we would see that the birth rate was continuing decrease from 1981 to 2006. Basically, the government has been put aware on the issue. In one of a meeting of legislative council, the councilors have put out this as one the items of agenda.

The decrease in birth rate may help to save the sustainable resources in the world, but it would cause out many society problems as well. Actually, aging problem is a serious issue happening in the society. And, this would cause out many consequences to make the society become poor. Aging problem will lead the tax payer having a heavy tax. As the decreasing birth rate cause out, fewer tax payers will need to fall into the tax system. While the number of elderly would increase to form an unhealthy population, the Government would have a financial problem on subsiding them. The government need to bear heavy costs on medical services, elderly health care and retirement such as social security allowance.

On the other hand, the education system may need a reform. The demand would decrease as fewer children entering the education system. Those schools will be terminated by a low birth rate, and employers like teachers will be being unemployed. This is already happened in the society in 2006. Many schools are warned to shut down by insufficient students. As a result, encouraging the birth rate is a must. Recently, the government noticed that the importance of having a good birth rate and formed a committee to put concern and finding out solutions in low birth rate issue. The effective way is the government encourage the citizens to improve the birth rate.

1.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVE

In this study, we would like to help to find out the reason of causing low birth rate.

Besides, we would not only want to know the causes but also want to find out solutions and the ways of government would able to give a hand. Therefore, our research objectives will be set as the followings:

Understand the reason of low birth rate occur
Evaluate the effectiveness of various methods to increase birth rate
Understand the value of having baby (promotion purpose)
Evaluate the impact of various media on the decision to have a child
Obtain the demographic of response
1.3 CONTRIBUTION

Through this marketing research, we would define clear why the low birth rate was caused out. Afterwards, we can find out the most effective solution to improve the birth rate, in order to prevent the next generation to pay the heavy tax to the government which is our generation and beyond. On the other hand, we would the report will be indicated out that the effective way of promotion by the government which he citizens would thinks it does work. It is beneficial to the government whether the aging problem is solved, the financial burden will reform. The government is able to put the subsidies on the other ways that make Hong Kong becoming a most successful city that people would like to live.

2.1 EXPLORARATY RESEARCH

To begin our research, we may need to use exploratory research to provide the insights of the low birth rate problems. From the various types of exploratory research technique, we have used secondary data analysis and focus group when doing this project.

Secondary data

Low birth rate which is a big issue for the Hong Kong government, so there are plenty of data about this issue on the website of the Census and Statistics Department and also the newspaper. The reasons why we are using the secondary data are because they are low cost and useful as background information. Also, some of the data are realistic as those data are collected from the official department of Hong Kong Government. As the government highly concern about the low birth rate, there are policies and promotions about how to improve low birth rate, which helps us on creating the questions for our questionnaire.

Focus Group

Focus group is a form of qualitative research in which a group of people are asked about their attitude towards a product, service, concept, advertisement or idea. And there will be a moderator to introduce the topic of discussion and to encourage the group to discuss. Using focus group can allow the participants to discuss their true feeling and convictions, fast to collect data, easy to execute and flexible with low cost.

Forming this focus group, our purpose is to understand the reason of low birth rate, evaluate the effectiveness of various methods to increase the birth rate, understand more the value of having a baby, evaluate the impact of various media on the decision to have a child, obtaining the demographic of response. After doing the focus group, we can combine the observations to understand the culture, the social group, sampling the sites to study, and creating news issues or topics we didn’t think of.

We would form 2 focus groups which consist of 6 respondents each. Besides, we need to hire a professional analyst to lead the focus group on the discussing track. Then, we need to book a one-way mirror room to observe the progress of the focus group. The most important is we should jot down the discussion by notes as an alternative way if the video recording devices does not work. The topic of discussion was focus on five main issues we focused on reasons affecting the birth rate, methods to improve birth rate, value on birth rate, ways to promote generation, demographic. To acquire the information we need, an analyst is needed to lead the focus group to discuss on the aspects. We did set the suggest questions:

How do you think to generate a child?
What are the costs to generate a child?
What do you think the consequence to generate a child?
Which ways do you suggest to encourage generation?
How do you think the policies of government promotion?
Summary of Findings Section

We have been held focus groups in the March. After the focus group, we were given out some ideas of the low birth rate issue.

In the focus groups people are all agree the late marriage is the trend in Hong Kong, many ladies are become focusing on their work. But they conclude that the cost of having a baby is the main cause of low birth rate. They need to quit their job, after the baby growth, their job opportunities will be probably lower as they disconnected with the society. They discussed that the birth rate from the middle class is important to improved.

Later, they discuss that the method to improve the birth rate. Most of them thought that the government subsidies are the ways to help. Education allowance is the most effective as most of them agreed. It is because they think it is a long-term subsidy that their children need to study nearly 10 years. It is benefit if it would save their cost. However, no one concern on public housing because they thought that it is relate to the marry cost, not related to having a baby. They would think that the value of having a baby is to generate their breed. Most of them think that the TV commercial is the effective way to encouraged by government. It is because animation and sound would give them memorized.

2.2 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

To choose a suitable method to fit with our case, we would like to use the mall intercept personal interviews for collecting primary data. The process involves stopping the targets, screening them for appropriateness, and either administering the survey on the spot or inviting them to a research facility located in the mall to complete the interview. And, we decided to set up in Women Health Centre and the Family Planning Association of Hong Kong etc, therefore we are able to get the result that related to our expectation and purpose.

The characteristic of the method is confined place to conduct the survey but speed of data collecting is fast, and conductors are easier to reach the assigned quantity with a specific time. It will have the highest degree of interviewer influence of answers. Although geographical flexibility is confined in a selection place, we can poll a large number of target respondents with a successful planning. There will have low anonymity of respondents however, the respondents may not actively to cooperate. It is difficult to follow up or call back but it is not an actual problem. Essentially, interviewers can provide clear explanations for the questions asked, respondents will be clearer to answer the questions through face-to-face interview. So, the possibility of respondent misunderstanding will be the lowest.

On the other hand, if the respondent cooperation is not enough to meet the planned quantity, we may also use phone survey to back up mall intercept personal interview. The advantages of using phone survey is competitive reduce cost and the respondent cooperation are good. So, it is a good back-up proposal for anything goes wrong in the mall intercept personal interview.

There are some measurements guiding us in design our questionnaire. We should concern that each questions should have a reason behind asking and the type of answers you would like to receive y open-ended or close-ended. Later, we should concern on the questionnaire wording. In designing our questionnaire, we have avoided long questions that will give people confusing by using short and clear wording. Secondly, we avoid emotional and socially desirability response by loaded and assumption questions. So, the validity will be increased. Be sure all answer choices are mutually exclusive, check for ambiguity in wording the question, and ensure if the respondents can interpret the meaning of words differently. We also put aware on the personal pronouns (gender references) – never use only him (his) or her (her) unless you are referring to a specific gender. Be specific, rather than general questions and word them so that they communicate uniform meaning. Avoid using double negatives, especially possible when using Agree/Disagree.

2.3 RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
Scale

There are several scale in setting questionnaire, interval scale, nominal scale, ordinal scale and ratio scale.

We used Interval Scale in Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4 in our questionnaire. An interval scale is a measurement scale in which a certain distance along the scale means the same thing no matter where on the scale you are, but where “0” on the scale does not represent the absence of the thing being measured. The Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature scales are examples. It is uniquely classifies, in preserves order and equal intervals.

We used Nominal Scale in Q.5B, Q.5C, Q.5D, Q.5E in our questionnaire. A nominal scale is really a list of categories to which objects can be classified. For example, asking the gender and give “Male” and “Female”, for asking status, given “Single” “Married” and “Divorce”. The data so classified are termed categorical data, which are reflecting the classification of objects into different categories.

We used Ordinal Scale in Q.5A, Q.5F and Q.5G in our questionnaire. An ordinal scale is a measurement scale that assigns values to objects based on their ranking with respect to one another. For example, Q.5G, we are asking about the monthly income of each target ordinance, from [1] Less than $5000 to [5] above $30,000. While you know that [5] is having more income than [1], but there is no implication that [5] is twice times more than [1]. All we know is that there are 5 categories, with obviously that [2] are having more income than [1], [3] are having more income than [2], etc. The higher the value assigned, the higher the category.

2.3.2 Pretest Procedure

It is very important for us to do the pretest before the questionnaire being publicized; the aim of pretesting questionnaire is to ensure that it can be clearly understood. Since the questionnaire may have a lot of mistakes, therefore, we need to conduct and find out the information on that issue. Correct all the mistakes in the questionnaire are necessary, if the survey did not properly set, the purpose will not be achieved to conduct the accurate information what we looking for.

For our questionnaire, in order to achieve the effectiveness of pretest, we are going to read the questionnaire for at least 15 times after setting. Besides, we are also going to ask for 15 respondents to test our questionnaire. Finding correct and relevant respondents can help to increase the efficacy of pretest. The varieties respondents would be desire for our Low Birth Rate questionnaires are the professionals, such as English teachers; lecturers, schoolmates from universities, and also our parents. We chose them for the questionnaire pretest procedure, since some of them have sufficient knowledge to state out our problems, for example, English teachers can correct our grammar and spelling mistakes, rectify the question wording into more format type. Lecturers can check the flow of questions and give suggestions on the question, ensure that we are using the multiple-grid format and have been separated them into variety of groups before conducting. And, some of them are easy to reach, like our schoolmates, their feedbacks help us to predict our target ordinance reaction to the questionnaire, they also may help to estimate the time-taking. After all, we can rearrange the follow up and one by one.

Use our questionnaire as an example, after the pretest procedure; we rectify the question wording to make the questionnaire become more clarify. Such as, using “Very Unimportant” and “Very Important” to replace “Most Important” and “Least Important”. Use full sentence, “Are you working now? (If yes, please continue to answer the following questions. Otherwise, jump to i??Hi?z)” instead of a single word “Occupation” etc. (Appendix fig. 2.2, fig. 2.3)

2.4 SAMPLING

Sampling is the simple way to reach out targets with a subset of the population instead of reaching the entire population. Compare with reaching the entire population, sampling will help to save time, cutting cost for budgeting and manpower. Firstly, we should figure the target group out. Our target group is men and women who have visited Women Health Centre and the Family Planning Association. It is because they will have a brief concern and knowledge on the birth rate issue. To reach our target group, we would use the convenience sampling indeed. There is no sampling frame while it is actually a non-probability sampling method. Those respondents are unknown member form our target group because of using the non-probability sampling. Our interviews will select the most available targets arbitrary. However, we would set the 200 respondents as our sample size.

As the mall intercept personal interview is suitable to associate with our research, it has many advantages indeed. First, the mall intercept personal interview can be conducted faster and inexpensive. Also, the mall intercept can poll a large number of respondents and control the speed of the survey. As we want to poll a large number of respondents in target group, we decided to interview in Women Health Centre and the Family Planning Association of Hong Kong within 3 days. As the mall intercept is a face-to-face contact with the interviewees, it will lead us easier follow-up and make corrections of the unclear or misunderstanding answers. These advantages will encourage us to conduct a better survey.

Unfortunately, there is no perfect method existing in the world. We would just choose the method which consist the least disadvantages. In the mall intercept, we would require a lot of labour force to conduct. This will lead the research cost climb higher by hiring cost for interviewers. Furthermore, low accuracy of the survey is also a disadvantage of this method. It is difficult to follow up if we find out any problem while analyzing the answers. Further, the result sampling may not represent the entire population in a place. Therefore, we would find out some solutions to fix them. We would not employ volunteers as our group members can be the volunteers in the research. Perhaps, cost of the employment will be relatively lower. In order to improve the accuracy, setting up more intercept places for interview can enhance the representative level of the results. Also, after conducting the survey, interviewees would politely to ask the respondents to leave their contact information if they are willing to do that. Hopefully, it may improve the disadvantages of the survey method.

We would do the survey over 3 selected places within 3 day. On 28th April, we would conduct in the Family Planning Association at Wan Chai while conducting in the Women Association in Tuen Mun in the following day (29th April). Finally, we would reach the Family Planning Association at Wong Tai Sin in 30th April. These 3 locations will be assigned a team to play the role as interviewers. Each team will consist of 3 member do stay within the place in the operation hours. The selection of those 3 places is due to improving the accuracy of the sampling over territories. In addition, easy to reach who concern birth rate, prepare to have a child or even avoid having child as well.

Despite all the difficulties and hard times in the long distance relationship or a marriage, it is possible to maintain the relationship or the marriage. The couple is capable to survive the separation. It takes dedication and hard work to make the marriage or relationship work.

Introduction

A long distance relationship among couples especially with a spouse who is in the military is sometimes difficult and maintaining the relationship or the marriage can be very straining. There are so many setbacks and hard times that are witnessed in the process of making such relationships work-out. It is not simple to maintain the long relationship. The couple misses the close touch that exists between the partners and sometimes they miss each other extremely. Such partners are obliged to work together and devise techniques and ways that will make the relationship stand the test of time (Bell and Brauer-Bell 62).

Discussion

There are so many ways that the partners would feel close to their spouse despite thousand of miles between them. One of the ways to do so is to talk on the cell phones. Couples ought to take advantage of are plans by the cellular services where there are unlimited talk time especially in the evenings or during the weekends and also during holidays. Alternatively, the opportunity presented by social networks such as Facebook or even Myspace.com, may assisted military couples to maintain productive conversations on regular basis. Long-distance relationships require a bit of creativity as well as a sense of play if couples are to survive unhealthy criticism from friends or even relatives. As such spouses ought to avoid involving skeptic individuals when resolving their marriage issues as such parties will only aggravate the apparent problem for their personal gain.

Another way is by sending gift packages, perhaps more often. It is exciting to receive a specialty-packaged gift from spouses. There is always an attached meaning to a gift that is given by a lover. It helps to portray true love, care, concern and appreciation from such partners. Example of these gifts may include CD bearing a collection of best love songs, or even sending a collection of pictures that you have taken together, teddy bear or even a cute blanket, among others. These gifts help in drawing the memories of the perceived commitments that other partner has towards them. Refreshing such memories help in maintaining the relationship during unanticipated trying and challenging times (Guldner 136)

Long-distance may offer a good opportunity to the partners to develop individual-relationships which are deemed paramount in enhancing love and creativity in marriage-life (Bell and Brauer-Bell 20). For example, several months that an individual spends away from their partners can be more beneficial if the concerned spouses translate this moment into a positive-activity oriented session. It’s only through creativity and positive-self reflection that a long-distance relation works through trials and undying challenges. Such positive activities may involve a search for new hobby, artistic undertakings such as poetry or painting that can be used in communicating love messages to loved ones far away. In fact, such an undertaking offers an opportunity for individual growth in the relationship.

In arguments, the partners should understand that there will be no physical intimacy moment useful in erasing relationships pains. In this case, spouses ought to avoid defensive communication approaches such as being harsh, intimidating and rude as such moves create suspiciousness among partners. Individuals alleged of infidelity are always employ defensive communication skills. This is because the long distance communication is more valued or weighted more heavily than face-to- face communication. The partners should take advantage of the distance in cases where arguments arise and they both need time to think and rethink about the issue, and possibly table the discussion in later times for amicable resolutions. Finally, individuals with spouses working in the military can maintain their relationship by continually sharing basic ideas in loving building. Always sharing ideas and thoughts on how to move the relations ahead, is the key driving force that may see any long-distance relationship succeed. Keeping the signs of devotion and love fresh is a good way to ensure that the relationship is maintained (Tiger 168).

Conclusion

As evidenced by the above discussion, long-distance relationship among spouses can survive where the concerned parties portray concern, continued love/romance and productive sharing on all issues. Long distance relationships with spouses in the military are very manageable and can be maintained. There will be discouragements and hard times but when the two partners agree, and perhaps embrace acceptance on the entire situation love and trust will prevail. The perceived distance between partners only works to separate lover physically, but the enduring love is never changed. Premised on undying trust and love, the relationship is poised to survive hard as well as challenging moments.

Work cited
Bell, Chris and Brauer-Bell, Kate. The long-distance relationship survival guide: secrets and strategies from successful couples who have gone the distance. Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press, 2006.
Guldner, Gregory. Long Distance Relationships: The Complete Guide. Corona, CA: JFMilne Publications, 2004.
Tiger, Caroline. The Long-Distance relationship Guide. Philadelphia, PA: Quirk Books Publishers, 2007.